Mercurial > hg > mpdl-xml-content

comparison texts/XML/archimedes/en/agric_remet_002_en.xml @ 6:22d6a63640c6

Find changesets by keywords (author, files, the commit message), revision number or hash, or revset expression.
moved texts from SVN https://it-dev.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/svn/mpdl-project-content/trunk/texts/eXist/
author casties
date Fri, 07 Dec 2012 17:05:22 +0100
parents
children
comparison
equal deleted inserted replaced
5:0d8b27aa70aa 6:22d6a63640c6
1 <?xml version="1.0"?>
2 <archimedes xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" >
3 <info>
4 <author>Agricola, Georgius</author>
5 <title>De re metallica</title>
6 <date>1912</date>
7
8
9 <place>London</place>
10 <translator></translator>
11 <lang>en</lang>
12 <cvs_file>agric_remet_002_en.xml</cvs_file>
13 <cvs_version></cvs_version>
14 <locator>002.xml</locator>
15 </info>
16 <text>
17 <front> </front>
18 <body>
19 <chap>
20 <pb></pb>
21 <p type="head">
22
23 <s>GEORGIUS AGRICOLA</s>
24 </p>
25 <p type="head">
26
27 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>DE RE METALLICA<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
28 </p>
29 <p type="head">
30
31 <s>TRANSLATED FROM THE FIRST LATIN EDITION OF 1556</s>
32 </p>
33 <p type="head">
34
35 <s>with <lb></lb>Biographical Introduction, Annotations and Appendices upon <lb></lb>the
36 Development of Mining Methods, Metallurgical <lb></lb>Processes, Geology,
37 Mineralogy &amp; Mining Law <lb></lb>from the earliest times to the 16th
38 Century</s>
39 </p>
40 <p type="head">
41
42 <s>BY <lb></lb><emph type="bold"></emph>HERBERT CLARK HOOVER<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
43 </p>
44 <p type="head">
45
46 <s>A. B. Stanford University, Member American Institute of Mining Engineers,
47 <lb></lb>Mining and Metallurgical Society of America, Société des
48 Ingéniéurs <lb></lb>Civils de France, American Institute of Civil
49 Engineers, <lb></lb>Fellow Royal Geographical Society, etc., etc.</s>
50 </p>
51 <p type="head">
52
53 <s>AND</s>
54 </p>
55 <p type="head">
56
57 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>LOU HENRY HOOVER<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
58 </p>
59 <p type="head">
60
61 <s>A. B. </s>
62
63 <s>Stanford University, Member American Association for the <lb></lb>Advancement of
64 Science, The National Geographical Society, <lb></lb>Royal Scottish Geographical
65 Society, etc., etc.</s>
66 </p>
67 <p type="head">
68
69 <s>1950</s>
70 </p>
71 <p type="head">
72
73 <s><emph type="bold"></emph><emph type="italics"></emph>Dover Publications, Inc.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
74 </p>
75 <p type="head">
76
77 <s>NEW YORK</s>
78 </p>
79 <pb></pb>
80 <pb></pb>
81 <p type="head">
82
83 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>TO <lb></lb>JOHN CASPAR BRANNER Ph.D.,<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
84 </p>
85 <p type="head">
86
87 <s><emph type="bold"></emph><emph type="italics"></emph>The inspiration of whose teaching is
88 no less great than his contribution to science.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
89 </p>
90 <p type="head">
91
92 <s>This New 1950 Edition <lb></lb>of DE RE METALLICA is a complete <lb></lb>and
93 unchanged reprint of the transla­<lb></lb>tion published by The Mining
94 Magazine, <lb></lb>London, in 1912. It has been made avail­<lb></lb>able through
95 the kind permission of Honor­<lb></lb>able Herbert C. </s>
96
97 <s>Hoover and Mr. </s>
98
99 <s>Edgar <lb></lb>Rickard, Author and Publisher, respec­<lb></lb>tively, of the
100 original volume.</s>
101 </p>
102 <p type="head">
103
104 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>MAX-PLANCK-INSTITUT <lb></lb>FÜR
105 WISSENSCHAFTSGESCHICHTE<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
106 </p>
107 <p type="head">
108
109 <s>Bibliothek</s>
110 </p>
111 <p type="head">
112
113 <s>PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</s>
114 </p>
115 <pb></pb>
116 <pb></pb>
117 <p type="head">
118
119 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>TRANSLATORS&#039; PREFACE.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
120 </p>
121 <p type="main">
122
123 <s>There are three objectives in translation of works <lb></lb>of this character: to
124 give a faithful, literal trans­<lb></lb>lation of the author&#039;s statements;
125 to give these <lb></lb>in a manner which will interest the reader; and to
126 <lb></lb>preserve, so far as is possible, the style of the <lb></lb>original text. </s>
127
128 <s>The task has been doubly difficult <lb></lb>in this work because, in using Latin,
129 the author <lb></lb>availed himself of a medium which had ceased to <lb></lb>expand
130 a thousand years before his subject had in <lb></lb>many particulars come into
131 being; in consequence he was in difficulties <lb></lb>with a large number of
132 ideas for which there were no corresponding <lb></lb>words in the vocabulary at
133 his command, and instead of adopting into the <lb></lb>text his native German
134 terms, he coined several hundred Latin expressions <lb></lb>to answer his needs. </s>
135
136 <s>It is upon this rock that most former attempts at <lb></lb>translation have been
137 wrecked. </s>
138
139 <s>Except for a very small number, we <lb></lb>believe we have been able to discover
140 the intended meaning of such <lb></lb>expressions from a study of the context,
141 assisted by a very incomplete <lb></lb>glossary prepared by the author himself,
142 and by an exhaustive investigation <lb></lb>into the literature of these
143 subjects during the sixteenth and seventeenth <lb></lb>centuries. </s>
144
145 <s>That discovery in this particular has been only gradual and <lb></lb>obtained
146 after much labour, may be indicated by the fact that the entire <lb></lb>text
147 has been re-typewritten three times since the original, and some <lb></lb>parts
148 more often; and further, that the printer&#039;s proof has been thrice revised.
149 <lb></lb></s>
150
151 <s>We have found some English equivalent, more or less satisfactory, for
152 <lb></lb>practically all such terms, except those of weights, the varieties of
153 veins, <lb></lb>and a few minerals. </s>
154
155 <s>In the matter of weights we have introduced the <lb></lb>original Latin, because
156 it is impossible to give true equivalents and avoid the <lb></lb>fractions of
157 reduction; and further, as explained in the Appendix on Weights it <lb></lb>is
158 impossible to say in many cases what scale the Author had in mind. </s>
159
160 <s>The <lb></lb>English nomenclature to be adopted has given great difficulty, for
161 various <lb></lb>reasons; among them, that many methods and processes described
162 have <lb></lb>never been practised in English-speaking mining communities, and
163 so had no <lb></lb>representatives in our vocabulary, and we considered the
164 introduction of <lb></lb>German terms undesirable; other methods and processes
165 have become <lb></lb>obsolete and their descriptive terms with them, yet we
166 wished to avoid <lb></lb>the introduction of obsolete or unusual English; but of
167 the greatest <lb></lb>importance of all has been the necessity to avoid
168 rigorously such modern <lb></lb>technical terms as would imply a greater
169 scientific understanding than the <lb></lb>period possessed.</s>
170 </p>
171 <p type="main">
172
173 <s>Agricola&#039;s Latin, while mostly free from mediæval corruption, is
174 some­<lb></lb>what tainted with German construction. </s>
175
176 <s>Moreover some portions have not <pb pagenum="ii"></pb>the continuous flow of
177 sustained thought which others display, but the fact <lb></lb>that the writing
178 of the work extended over a period of twenty years, suffic­<lb></lb>iently
179 explains the considerable variation in style. </s>
180
181 <s>The technical descriptions <lb></lb>in the later books often take the form of
182 House-that-Jack-built sentences <lb></lb>which have had to be at least partially
183 broken up and the subject <lb></lb>occasionally re-introduced. </s>
184
185 <s>Ambiguities were also sometimes found which it <lb></lb>was necessary to carry on
186 into the translation. </s>
187
188 <s>Despite these criticisms we <lb></lb>must, however, emphasize that Agricola was
189 infinitely clearer in his style <lb></lb>than his contemporaries upon such
190 subjects, or for that matter than his <lb></lb>successors in almost any language
191 for a couple of centuries. </s>
192
193 <s>All of the <lb></lb>illustrations and display letters of the original have been
194 reproduced and <lb></lb>the type as closely approximates to the original as the
195 printers have been <lb></lb>able to find in a modern font.</s>
196 </p>
197 <p type="main">
198
199 <s>There are no footnotes in the original text, and Mr. </s>
200
201 <s>Hoover is responsible <lb></lb>for them all. </s>
202
203 <s>He has attempted in them to give not only such comment <lb></lb>as would tend to
204 clarify the text, but also such information as we have <lb></lb>been able to
205 discover with regard to the previous history of the subjects <lb></lb>mentioned. </s>
206
207 <s>We have confined the historical notes to the time prior to <lb></lb>Agricola,
208 because to have carried them down to date in the briefest manner <lb></lb>would
209 have demanded very much more space than could be allowed. </s>
210
211 <s>In the <lb></lb>examination of such technical and historical material one is
212 appalled at the <lb></lb>flood of mis-information with regard to ancient arts
213 and sciences which has <lb></lb>been let loose upon the world by the hands of
214 non-technical translators and <lb></lb>commentators. </s>
215
216 <s>At an early stage we considered that we must justify any <lb></lb>divergence of
217 view from such authorities, but to limit the already alarming <lb></lb>volume of
218 this work, we later felt compelled to eliminate most of such
219 dis­<lb></lb>cussion. </s>
220
221 <s>When the half-dozen most important of the ancient works bearing <lb></lb>upon
222 science have been translated by those of some scientific experience,
223 <lb></lb>such questions will, no doubt, be properly settled.</s>
224 </p>
225 <p type="main">
226
227 <s>We need make no apologies for <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re
228 Metallíca.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
229 <s> During 180 years <lb></lb>it was not superseded as the text-book and guide to
230 miners and metallurgists, <lb></lb>for until Schlüter&#039;s great work on
231 metallurgy in 1738 it had no equal. </s>
232
233 <s>That <lb></lb>it passed through some ten editions in three languages at a period
234 when the <lb></lb>printing of such a volume was no ordinary undertaking, is in
235 itself sufficient <lb></lb>evidence of the importance in which it was held, and
236 is a record that no other <lb></lb>volume upon the same subjects has equalled
237 since. </s>
238
239 <s>A large proportion of the <lb></lb>technical data given by Agricola was either
240 entirely new, or had not been <lb></lb>given previously with sufficient detail
241 and explanation to have enabled a <lb></lb>worker in these arts himself to
242 perform the operations without further guid­<lb></lb>ance. </s>
243
244 <s>Practically the whole of it must have been given from personal
245 ex­<lb></lb>perience and observation, for the scant library at his service
246 can be appreci­<lb></lb>ated from his own Preface. </s>
247
248 <s>Considering the part which the metallic arts <lb></lb>have played in human
249 history, the paucity of their literature down to <lb></lb>Agricola&#039;s time is
250 amazing. </s>
251
252 <s>No doubt the arts were jealously guarded by <lb></lb>their practitioners as a
253 sort of stock-in-trade, and it is also probable that <lb></lb>those who had
254 knowledge were not usually of a literary turn of mind; and, <pb pagenum="iii"></pb>on the other hand, the small army of writers prior to his
255 time were not much <lb></lb>interested in the description of industrial
256 pursuits. </s>
257
258 <s>Moreover, in those <lb></lb>thousands of years prior to printing, the tedious and
259 expensive transcription of <lb></lb>manuscripts by hand was mostly applied to
260 matters of more general interest, <lb></lb>and therefore many writings may have
261 been lost in consequence. </s>
262
263 <s>In fact, <lb></lb>such was the fate of the works of Theophrastus and Strato on
264 these subjects.</s>
265 </p>
266 <p type="main">
267
268 <s>We have prepared a short sketch of Agricola&#039;s life and times, not only
269 <lb></lb>to give some indication of his learning and character, but also of his
270 <lb></lb>considerable position in the community in which he lived. </s>
271
272 <s>As no appreciation <lb></lb>of Agricola&#039;s stature among the founders of science
273 can be gained without <lb></lb>consideration of the advance which his works
274 display over those of his <lb></lb>predecessors, we therefore devote some
275 attention to the state of knowledge <lb></lb>of these subjects at the time by
276 giving in the Appendix a short review of the <lb></lb>literature then extant and
277 a summary of Agricola&#039;s other writings. </s>
278
279 <s>To serve the <lb></lb>bibliophile we present such data as we have been able to
280 collect it with regard <lb></lb>to the various editions of his works. </s>
281
282 <s>The full titles of the works quoted in <lb></lb>the footnotes under simply
283 authors&#039; names will be found in this Appendix.</s>
284 </p>
285 <p type="main">
286
287 <s>We feel that it is scarcely doing Agricola justice to publish <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re <lb></lb>Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
288 only. </s>
289
290 <s>While it is of the most general interest of all of his works, <lb></lb>yet, from
291 the point of view of pure science, <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura
292 Fossílíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>De <lb></lb>Ortu et Causís<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
293 are works which deserve an equally important place. </s>
294
295 <s>It is <lb></lb>unfortunate that Agricola&#039;s own countrymen have not given to the
296 world <lb></lb>competent translations into German, as his work has too often
297 been judged <lb></lb>by the German translations, the infidelity of which appears
298 in nearly every <lb></lb>paragraph.</s>
299 </p>
300 <p type="main">
301
302 <s>We do not present <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> as a work of “practical” value. <lb></lb></s>
303
304 <s>The methods and processes have long since been superseded; yet surely such
305 <lb></lb>a milestone on the road of development of one of the two most basic of
306 human <lb></lb>industrial activities is more worthy of preservation than the
307 thousands of <lb></lb>volumes devoted to records of human destruction. </s>
308
309 <s>To those interested in <lb></lb>the history of their own profession we need make
310 no apologies, except <lb></lb>for the long delay in publication. </s>
311
312 <s>For this we put forward the necessity of <lb></lb>active endeavour in many
313 directions; as this book could be but a labour of <lb></lb>love, it has had to
314 find the moments for its execution in night hours, week­<lb></lb>ends, and
315 holidays, in all extending over a period of about five years. </s>
316
317 <s>If the <lb></lb>work serves to strengthen the traditions of one of the most
318 important and <lb></lb>least recognized of the world&#039;s professions we shall be
319 amply repaid.</s>
320 </p>
321 <p type="main">
322
323 <s>It is our pleasure to acknowledge our obligations to Professor H. R.
324 <lb></lb>Fairclough, of Stanford University, for perusal of and suggestions upon
325 the first <lb></lb>chapter; and to those whom we have engaged from time to time
326 for one service <lb></lb>or another, chiefly bibliographical work and collateral
327 translation. </s>
328
329 <s>We are <lb></lb>also sensibly obligated to the printers, Messrs. </s>
330
331 <s>Frost &amp; Sons, for their patience <lb></lb>and interest, and for their
332 willingness to bend some of the canons of modern <lb></lb>printing, to meet the
333 demands of the 16th Century.</s>
334 </p>
335 <p type="main">
336
337 <s>THE RED HOUSE,</s>
338 </p>
339 <p type="main">
340
341 <s>HORNTON STREET, LONDON.</s>
342 </p>
343 <p type="main">
344
345 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>July<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1, 1912.</s>
346 </p>
347 <pb></pb>
348 <pb></pb>
349 <p type="head">
350
351 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>INTRODUCTION.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
352 </p>
353 <p type="head">
354
355 <s>BIOGRAPHY.</s>
356 </p>
357 <p type="main">
358
359 <s>Georgius Agricola was born at Glauchau, in <lb></lb>Saxony, on March 24th, 1494,
360 and therefore entered <lb></lb>the world when it was still upon the threshold of
361 the <lb></lb>Renaissance; Gutenberg&#039;s first book had been print­<lb></lb>ed but
362 forty years before; the Humanists had but <lb></lb>begun that stimulating
363 criticism which awoke the <lb></lb>Reformation; Erasmus, of Rotterdam, who was
364 sub­<lb></lb>sequently to become Agricola&#039;s friend and patron, <lb></lb>was just
365 completing his student days. </s>
366
367 <s>The Refor­<lb></lb>mation itself was yet to come, but it was not long
368 delayed, for Luther <lb></lb>was born the year before Agricola, and through him
369 Agricola&#039;s home­<lb></lb>land became the cradle of the great movement; nor
370 did Agricola escape being <lb></lb>drawn into the conflict. </s>
371
372 <s>Italy, already awake with the new classical revival, was <lb></lb>still a busy
373 workshop of antiquarian research, translation, study, and <lb></lb>publication,
374 and through her the Greek and Latin Classics were only <lb></lb>now available
375 for wide distribution. </s>
376
377 <s>Students from the rest of Europe, <lb></lb>among them at a later time Agricola
378 himself, flocked to the Italian <lb></lb>Universities, and on their return
379 infected their native cities with the newly­<lb></lb>awakened learning. </s>
380
381 <s>At Agricola&#039;s birth Columbus had just returned from his <lb></lb>great discovery,
382 and it was only three years later that Vasco Da Gama rounded <lb></lb>Cape Good
383 Hope. </s>
384
385 <s>Thus these two foremost explorers had only initiated <lb></lb>that greatest
386 period of geographical expansion in the world&#039;s history. </s>
387
388 <s>A few <lb></lb>dates will recall how far this exploration extended during
389 Agricola&#039;s lifetime. <lb></lb></s>
390
391 <s>Balboa first saw the Pacific in 1513; Cortes entered the City of Mexico in
392 <lb></lb>1520; Magellan entered the Pacific in the same year; Pizarro penetrated
393 <lb></lb>into Peru in 1528; De Soto landed in Florida in 1539, and Potosi was
394 dis­<lb></lb>covered in 1546. Omitting the sporadic settlement on the St. </s>
395
396 <s>Lawrence by <lb></lb>Cartier in 1541, the settlement of North America did not
397 begin for a quarter <lb></lb>of a century after Agricola&#039;s death. </s>
398
399 <s>Thus the revival of learning, with its <lb></lb>train of Humanism, the
400 Reformation, its stimulation of exploration and the <lb></lb>re-awakening of the
401 arts and sciences, was still in its infancy with Agricola.</s>
402 </p>
403 <p type="main">
404
405 <s>We know practically nothing of Agricola&#039;s antecedents or his youth. </s>
406
407 <s>His <lb></lb>real name was Georg Bauer (“peasant”), and it was
408 probably Latinized by <lb></lb>his teachers, as was the custom of the time. </s>
409
410 <s>His own brother, in receipts <pb pagenum="vi"></pb>preserved in the archives of
411 the Zwickau Town Council, calls himself “Bauer,” <lb></lb>and in
412 them refers to his brother “Agricola.” He entered the University
413 of <lb></lb>Leipsic at the age of twenty, and after about three and one-half
414 years&#039; attendance <lb></lb>there gained the degree of <emph type="italics"></emph>Baccalaureus Artíum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
415 <s> In 1518 he became Vice­<lb></lb>Principal of the Municipal School at
416 Zwickau, where he taught Greek and Latin. <lb></lb></s>
417
418 <s>In 1520 he became Principal, and among his assistants was Johannes
419 Förster, <lb></lb>better known as Luther&#039;s collaborator in the translation
420 of the Bible. </s>
421
422 <s>During <lb></lb>this time our author prepared and published a small Latin
423 Grammar<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
424
425 <s>In <lb></lb>1522 he removed to Leipsic to become a lecturer in the University
426 under his <lb></lb>friend, Petrus Mosellanus, at whose death in 1524 he went to
427 Italy for the <lb></lb>further study of Philosophy, Medicine, and the Natural
428 Sciences. </s>
429
430 <s>Here he <lb></lb>remained for nearly three years, from 1524 to 1526. He visited
431 the Universities <lb></lb>of Bologna, Venice, and probably Padua, and at these
432 institutions received <lb></lb>his first inspiration to work in the sciences,
433 for in a letter<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> from Leonardus
434 <lb></lb>Casibrotius to Erasmus we learn that he was engaged upon a revision of
435 Galen. <lb></lb></s>
436
437 <s>It was about this time that he made the acquaintance of Erasmus, who had
438 <lb></lb>settled at Basel as Editor for Froben&#039;s press.</s>
439 </p>
440 <p type="main">
441
442 <s>In 1526 Agricola returned to Zwickau, and in 1527 he was chosen town
443 <lb></lb>physician at Joachimsthal. </s>
444
445 <s>This little city in Bohemia is located on the <lb></lb>eastern slope of the
446 Erzgebirge, in the midst of the then most prolific metal­<lb></lb>mining
447 district of Central Europe. </s>
448
449 <s>Thence to Freiberg is but fifty miles, <lb></lb>and the same radius from that
450 city would include most of the mining towns <lb></lb>so frequently mentioned in
451 <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>—Schneeberg, Geyer, Annaberg <lb></lb>and Altenberg—and not far
452 away were Marienberg, Gottesgab, and Platten. <lb></lb></s>
453
454 <s>Joachimsthal was a booming mining camp, founded but eleven years before
455 <lb></lb>Agricola&#039;s arrival, and already having several thousand inhabitants. </s>
456
457 <s>Accord­<lb></lb>ing to Agricola&#039;s own statement<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, he spent all the time not required for his <lb></lb>medical
458 duties in visiting the mines and smelters, in reading up in the Greek and
459 <lb></lb>Latin authors all references to mining, and in association with the
460 most learned <lb></lb>among the mining folk. </s>
461
462 <s>Among these was one Lorenz Berman, whom Agricola <lb></lb>afterward set up as the
463 “learned miner” in his dialogue <emph type="italics"></emph>Bermannus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
464 <s> This <lb></lb>book was first published by Froben at Basel in 1530, and was a
465 sort of <lb></lb>catechism on mineralogy, mining terms, and mining lore. </s>
466
467 <s>The book was <lb></lb>apparently first submitted to the great Erasmus, and the
468 publication arranged <lb></lb>by him, a warm letter of approval by him appearing
469 at the beginning of the <lb></lb>book<emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
470
471 <s>In 1533 he published <emph type="italics"></emph>De Mensuris et
472 Ponderibus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> through Froben, <lb></lb>this being a
473 discussion of Roman and Greek weights and measures. </s>
474
475 <s>At <lb></lb>about this time he began <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re
476 Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>—not to be published for
477 <lb></lb>twenty-five years.<lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
478 </p>
479 <pb pagenum="vii"></pb>
480 <p type="main">
481
482 <s>Agricola did not confine his interest entirely to medicine and mining,
483 <lb></lb>for during this period he composed a pamphlet upon the Turks, urging
484 their <lb></lb>extermination by the European powers. </s>
485
486 <s>This work was no doubt inspired by <lb></lb>the Turkish siege of Vienna in 1529.
487 It appeared first in German in 1531, <lb></lb>and in Latin—in which it was
488 originally written—in 1538, and passed through <lb></lb>many subsequent
489 editions.</s>
490 </p>
491 <p type="main">
492
493 <s>At this time, too, he became interested in the God&#039;s Gift mine at
494 <lb></lb>Albertham, which was discovered in 1530. Writing in 1545, he says<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>: <lb></lb>“We, as a shareholder,
495 through the goodness of God, have enjoyed the <lb></lb>proceeds of this God&#039;s
496 Gift since the very time when the mine began first <lb></lb>to bestow such
497 riches.”</s>
498 </p>
499 <p type="main">
500
501 <s>Agricola seems to have resigned his position at Joachimsthal in about
502 <lb></lb>1530, and to have devoted the next two or three years to travel and
503 study <lb></lb>among the mines. </s>
504
505 <s>About 1533 he became city physician of Chemnitz, in <lb></lb>Saxony, and here he
506 resided until his death in 1555. There is but little <lb></lb>record of his
507 activities during the first eight or nine years of his residence in
508 <lb></lb>this city. </s>
509
510 <s>He must have been engaged upon the study of his subjects and <lb></lb>the
511 preparation of his books, for they came on with great rapidity soon after.
512 <lb></lb></s>
513
514 <s>He was frequently consulted on matters of mining engineering, as, for
515 instance, <lb></lb>we learn, from a letter written by a certain Johannes
516 Hordeborch<emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, that <lb></lb>Duke
517 Henry of Brunswick applied to him with regard to the method for <lb></lb>working
518 mines in the Upper Harz.</s>
519 </p>
520 <p type="main">
521
522 <s>In 1543 he married Anna, widow of Matthias Meyner, a petty tithe
523 <lb></lb>official; there is some reason to believe from a letter published by
524 Schmid,<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>that Anna was his
525 second wife, and that he was married the first time at <lb></lb>Joachimsthal. </s>
526
527 <s>He seems to have had several children, for he commends his <lb></lb>young
528 children to the care of the Town Council during his absence at the <lb></lb>war
529 in 1547. In addition to these, we know that a son, Theodor, was born <lb></lb>in
530 1550; a daughter, Anna, in 1552; another daughter, Irene, was buried at
531 <lb></lb>Chemnitz in 1555; and in 1580 his widow and three children—Anna,
532 <lb></lb>Valerius, and Lucretia—were still living.</s>
533 </p>
534 <p type="main">
535
536 <s>In 1544 began the publication of the series of books to which Agricola
537 <lb></lb>owes his position. </s>
538
539 <s>The first volume comprised five works and was finally <lb></lb>issued in 1546; it
540 was subsequently considerably revised, and re-issued in 1558. <lb></lb>These
541 works were: <emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu et Causís
542 Subterraneorum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in five “books,”
543 the <lb></lb>first work on physical geology; <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura
544 Eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in <lb></lb>four
545 “books,” on subterranean waters and gases; <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura Fossílíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in <lb></lb>ten
546 “books,” the first systematic mineralogy; <emph type="italics"></emph>De Veteribus et Novís Metallís,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>in two “books,” devoted largely to the history of metals
547 and topographical <lb></lb>mineralogy; a new edition of <emph type="italics"></emph>Bermannus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> was included; and finally <emph type="italics"></emph>Rerum <lb></lb>Metallícarum Interpretatio,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> a glossary of Latin and German mineralogical <lb></lb>and
548 metallurgical terms. </s>
549
550 <s>Another work, <emph type="italics"></emph>De Animantíbus
551 Subterraneis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>usually published with <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is dated 1548
552 in the preface. </s>
553
554 <s>It <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="viii"></pb>is devoted to animals which live
555 underground, at least part of the time, but <lb></lb>is not a very effective
556 basis of either geologic or zoologic classi­<lb></lb>fication. </s>
557
558 <s>Despite many public activities, Agricola apparently completed <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in
559 1550, but did not send it to the press until 1553; nor <lb></lb>did it appear
560 until a year after his death in 1555. But we give further details <lb></lb>on
561 the preparation of this work on p. </s>
562
563 <s>xv. </s>
564
565 <s>During this period he found time <lb></lb>to prepare a small medical work, <emph type="italics"></emph>De Peste,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and certain
566 historical studies, <lb></lb>details of which appear in the Appendix. </s>
567
568 <s>There are other works by Agricola re­<lb></lb>ferred to by sixteenth century
569 writers, but so far we have not been able to find <lb></lb>them although they
570 may exist. </s>
571
572 <s>Such data as we have, is given in the appendix.</s>
573 </p>
574 <p type="main">
575
576 <s>As a young man, Agricola seems to have had some tendencies toward
577 <lb></lb>liberalism in religious matters, for while at Zwickau he composed some
578 anti­<lb></lb>Popish Epigrams; but after his return to Leipsic he apparently
579 never wavered, <lb></lb>and steadily refused to accept the Lutheran Reformation. </s>
580
581 <s>To many even <lb></lb>liberal scholars of the day, Luther&#039;s doctrines appeared
582 wild and demagogic. <lb></lb></s>
583
584 <s>Luther was not a scholarly man; his addresses were to the masses; his Latin
585 <lb></lb>was execrable. </s>
586
587 <s>Nor did the bitter dissensions over hair-splitting theology in <lb></lb>the
588 Lutheran Church after Luther&#039;s death tend to increase respect for the
589 <lb></lb>movement among the learned. </s>
590
591 <s>Agricola was a scholar of wide attainments, <lb></lb>a deep-thinking, religious
592 man, and he remained to the end a staunch Catholic, <lb></lb>despite the general
593 change of sentiment among his countrymen. </s>
594
595 <s>His leanings <lb></lb>were toward such men as his friend the humanist, Erasmus. </s>
596
597 <s>That he had <lb></lb>the courage of his convictions is shown in the dedication of
598 <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura Eorum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>where he addresses to his friend, Duke Maurice, the pious advice that
599 the <lb></lb>dissensions of the Germans should be composed, and that the Duke
600 should return <lb></lb>to the bosom of the Church those who had been torn from
601 her, and adds: “Yet <lb></lb>I do not wish to become confused by these
602 turbulent waters, and be led to <lb></lb>offend anyone. </s>
603
604 <s>It is more advisable to check my utterances.” As he <lb></lb>became older
605 he may have become less tolerant in religious matters, for he <lb></lb>did not
606 seem to show as much patience in the discussion of ecclesiastical topics
607 <lb></lb>as he must have possessed earlier, yet he maintained to the end the
608 respect <lb></lb>and friendship of such great Protestants as Melanchthon,
609 Camerarius, Fabricius, <lb></lb>and many others.</s>
610 </p>
611 <p type="main">
612
613 <s>In 1546, when he was at the age of 52, began Agricola&#039;s activity in
614 <lb></lb>public life, for in that year he was elected a Burgher of Chemnitz; and
615 in the <lb></lb>same year Duke Maurice appointed him Burgomaster—an office
616 which <lb></lb>he held for four terms. </s>
617
618 <s>Before one can gain an insight into his political <lb></lb>services, and
619 incidentally into the character of the man, it is necessary to
620 <lb></lb>understand the politics of the time and his part therein, and to bear
621 in mind <lb></lb>always that he was a staunch Catholic under a Protestant
622 Sovereign in a <lb></lb>State seething with militant Protestantism.</s>
623 </p>
624 <p type="main">
625
626 <s>Saxony had been divided in 1485 between the Princes Ernest and Albert,
627 <lb></lb>the former taking the Electoral dignity and the major portion of the
628 Princi­<lb></lb>pality. </s>
629
630 <s>Albert the Brave, the younger brother and Duke of Saxony, obtained <lb></lb>the
631 subordinate portion, embracing Meissen, but subject to the Elector.
632 <lb></lb></s>
633
634 <s>The Elector Ernest was succeeded in 1486 by Frederick the Wise, and under <pb pagenum="ix"></pb>his support Luther made Saxony the cradle of the
635 Reformation. </s>
636
637 <s>This <lb></lb>Elector was succeeded in 1525 by his brother John, who was in turn
638 succeeded <lb></lb>by his son John Frederick in 1532. Of more immediate interest
639 to this subject <lb></lb>is the Albertian line of Saxon Dukes who ruled Meissen,
640 for in that Princi­<lb></lb>pality Agricola was born and lived, and his
641 political fortunes were associated <lb></lb>with this branch of the Saxon House. </s>
642
643 <s>Albert was succeeded in 1505 by his <lb></lb>son George, “The
644 Bearded,” and he in turn by his brother Henry, the last <lb></lb>of the
645 Catholics, in 1539, who ruled until 1541. Henry was succeeded in 1541
646 <lb></lb>by his Protestant son Maurice, who was the Patron of Agricola.</s>
647 </p>
648 <p type="main">
649
650 <s>At about this time Saxony was drawn into the storms which rose from <lb></lb>the
651 long-standing rivalry between Francis I., King of France, and Charles V.
652 <lb></lb>of Spain. </s>
653
654 <s>These two potentates came to the throne in the same year (1515), <lb></lb>and
655 both were candidates for Emperor of that loose Confederation known <lb></lb>as
656 the Holy Roman Empire. </s>
657
658 <s>Charles was elected, and intermittent wars <lb></lb>between these two Princes
659 arose—first in one part of Europe, and then in <lb></lb>another. </s>
660
661 <s>Francis finally formed an alliance with the Schmalkalden League <lb></lb>of
662 German Protestant Princes, and with the Sultan of Turkey, against Charles.
663 <lb></lb></s>
664
665 <s>In 1546 Maurice of Meissen, although a Protestant, saw his best interest in
666 <lb></lb>a secret league with Charles against the other Protestant Princes, and
667 pro­<lb></lb>ceeded (the Schmalkalden War) to invade the domains of his
668 superior and <lb></lb>cousin, the Elector Frederick. </s>
669
670 <s>The Emperor Charles proved successful in <lb></lb>this war, and Maurice was
671 rewarded, at the Capitulation of Wittenberg in 1547, <lb></lb>by being made
672 Elector of Saxony in the place of his cousin. </s>
673
674 <s>Later on, the <lb></lb>Elector Maurice found the association with Catholic
675 Charles unpalatable, and <lb></lb>joined in leading the other Protestant princes
676 in war upon him, and on the <lb></lb>defeat of the Catholic party and the peace
677 of Passau, Maurice became <lb></lb>acknowledged as the champion of German
678 national and religious freedom. <lb></lb></s>
679
680 <s>He was succeeded by his brother Augustus in 1553.</s>
681 </p>
682 <p type="main">
683
684 <s>Agricola was much favoured by the Saxon Electors, Maurice and <lb></lb>Augustus. </s>
685
686 <s>He dedicates most of his works to them, and shows much gratitude <lb></lb>for
687 many favours conferred upon him. </s>
688
689 <s>Duke Maurice presented to him a <lb></lb>house and plot in Chemnitz, and in a
690 letter dated June 14th, 1543,<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> in
691 con­<lb></lb>nection therewith, says: “ . . . . that he may enjoy his
692 life-long a <lb></lb>freehold house unburdened by all burgher rights and other
693 municipal ser­<lb></lb>vice, to be used by him and inhabited as a free
694 dwelling, and that he may <lb></lb>also, for the necessities of his household
695 and of his wife and servants, brew <lb></lb>his own beer free, and that he may
696 likewise purvey for himself and his <lb></lb>household foreign beer and also
697 wine for use, and yet he shall not sell any <lb></lb>such beer. . . . We have
698 taken the said Doctor under our especial <lb></lb>protection and care for our
699 life-long, and he shall not be summoned before <lb></lb>any Court of Justice,
700 but only before us and our Councillor. . . .”</s>
701 </p>
702 <p type="main">
703
704 <s>Agricola was made Burgomaster of Chemnitz in 1546. A letter<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> from <lb></lb>Fabricius to Meurer, dated May
705 19th, 1546, says that Agricola had been <lb></lb><pb pagenum="x"></pb>made
706 Burgomaster by the command of the Prince. </s>
707
708 <s>This would be Maurice, <lb></lb>and it is all the more a tribute to the high
709 respect with which Agricola was <lb></lb>held, for, as said before, he was a
710 consistent Catholic, and Maurice a Protestant <lb></lb>Prince. </s>
711
712 <s>In this same year the Schmalkalden War broke out, and Agricola <lb></lb>was
713 called to personal attendance upon the Duke Maurice in a diplomatic <lb></lb>and
714 advisory capacity. </s>
715
716 <s>In 1546 also he was a member of the Diet of Freiberg, <lb></lb>and was summoned
717 to Council in Dresden. </s>
718
719 <s>The next year he continued, by <lb></lb>the Duke&#039;s command, Burgomaster at
720 Chemnitz, although he seems to have <lb></lb>been away upon Ducal matters most
721 of the time. </s>
722
723 <s>The Duke addresses<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>the Chemnitz
724 Council in March, 1547: “We hereby make known to you <lb></lb>that we are
725 in urgent need of your Burgomaster, Dr. </s>
726
727 <s>Georgius Agricola, <lb></lb>with us. </s>
728
729 <s>It is, therefore, our will that you should yield him up and forward <lb></lb>him
730 that he should with the utmost haste set forth to us here near
731 Freiberg.” <lb></lb>He was sent on various missions from the Duke to the
732 Emperor Charles, to <lb></lb>King Ferdinand of Austria, and to other Princes in
733 matters connected with the <lb></lb>war—the fact that he was a Catholic
734 probably entering into his appointment <lb></lb>to such missions. </s>
735
736 <s>Chemnitz was occupied by the troops of first one side, then <lb></lb>the other,
737 despite the great efforts of Agricola to have his own town specially
738 <lb></lb>defended. </s>
739
740 <s>In April, 1547, the war came to an end in the Battle of Mühlberg,
741 <lb></lb>but Agricola was apparently not relieved of his Burgomastership until
742 the <lb></lb>succeeding year, for he wrote his friend Wolfgang Meurer, in April,
743 1548,<emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>that he “was
744 now relieved.” His public duties did not end, however, for he
745 <lb></lb>attended the Diet of Leipzig in 1547 and in 1549, and was at the Diet
746 <lb></lb>at Torgau in 1550. In 1551 he was again installed as Burgomaster; and
747 in <lb></lb>1553, for the fourth time, he became head of the Municipality, and
748 during <lb></lb>this year had again to attend the Diets at Leipzig and Dresden,
749 representing <lb></lb>his city. </s>
750
751 <s>He apparently now had a short relief from public duties, for it is <lb></lb>not
752 until 1555, shortly before his death, that we find him again attending a
753 <lb></lb>Diet at Torgau.</s>
754 </p>
755 <p type="main">
756
757 <s>Agricola died on November 21st, 1555. A letter<emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> from his life-long friend, <lb></lb>Fabricius, to Melanchthon,
758 announcing this event, states: “We lost, on <lb></lb>November 21st, that
759 distinguished ornament of our Fatherland, Georgius <lb></lb>Agricola, a man of
760 eminent intellect, of culture and of judgment. </s>
761
762 <s>He <lb></lb>attained the age of 62. He who since the days of childhood had
763 enjoyed <lb></lb>robust health was carried off by a four-days&#039; fever. </s>
764
765 <s>He had previously <lb></lb>suffered from no disease except inflammation of the
766 eyes, which he brought <lb></lb>upon himself by untiring study and insatiable
767 reading. . . I know that <lb></lb>you loved the soul of this man, although in
768 many of his opinions, more <lb></lb>especially in religious and spiritual
769 welfare, he differed in many points from <lb></lb>our own. </s>
770
771 <s>For he despised our Churches, and would not be with us in the <lb></lb>Communion
772 of the Blood of Christ. </s>
773
774 <s>Therefore, after his death, at the <lb></lb>command of the Prince, which was
775 given to the Church inspectors and <lb></lb>carried out by Tettelbach as a loyal
776 servant, burial was refused him, and not <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="xi"></pb>until
777 the fourth day was he borne away to Zeitz and interred in the Cathedral.
778 <lb></lb>. . . . I have always admired the genius of this man, so distinguished
779 <lb></lb>in our sciences and in the whole realm of Philosophy—yet I wonder
780 at his <lb></lb>religious views, which were compatible with reason, it is true,
781 and were <lb></lb>dazzling, but were by no means compatible with truth. . . . He
782 <lb></lb>would not tolerate with patience that anyone should discuss
783 ecclesiastical <lb></lb>matters with him.” This action of the authorities
784 in denying burial to one <lb></lb>of their most honored citizens, who had been
785 ever assiduous in furthering <lb></lb>the welfare of the community, seems
786 strangely out of joint. </s>
787
788 <s>Further, the <lb></lb>Elector Augustus, although a Protestant Prince, was
789 Agricola&#039;s warm friend, <lb></lb>as evidenced by his letter of but a few months
790 before (see p. </s>
791
792 <s>xv). However, <lb></lb>Catholics were then few in number at Chemnitz, and the
793 feeling ran high at the <lb></lb>time, so possibly the Prince was afraid of
794 public disturbances. </s>
795
796 <s>Hofmann<emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>explains this
797 occurrence in the following words:—“The feelings of Chemnitz
798 <lb></lb>citizens, who were almost exclusively Protestant, must certainly be
799 taken <lb></lb>into account. </s>
800
801 <s>They may have raised objections to the solemn interment of <lb></lb>a Catholic in
802 the Protestant Cathedral Church of St. </s>
803
804 <s>Jacob, which had, <lb></lb>perhaps, been demanded by his relatives, and to which,
805 according to the <lb></lb>custom of the time, he would have been entitled as
806 Burgomaster. </s>
807
808 <s>The <lb></lb>refusal to sanction the interment aroused, more especially in the
809 Catholic <lb></lb>world, a painful sensation.”</s>
810 </p>
811 <p type="main">
812
813 <s>A brass memorial plate hung in the Cathedral at Zeitz had already
814 <lb></lb>disappeared in 1686, nor have the cities of his birth or residence ever
815 shown <lb></lb>any appreciation of this man, whose work more deserves their
816 gratitude <lb></lb>than does that of the multitude of soldiers whose monuments
817 decorate every <lb></lb>village and city square. </s>
818
819 <s>It is true that in 1822 a marble tablet was <lb></lb>placed behind the altar in
820 the Church of St. </s>
821
822 <s>Jacob in Chemnitz, but even <lb></lb>this was removed to the Historical Museum
823 later on.</s>
824 </p>
825 <p type="main">
826
827 <s>He left a modest estate, which was the subject of considerable litigation by
828 <lb></lb>his descendants, due to the mismanagement of the guardian. </s>
829
830 <s>Hofmann has <lb></lb>succeeded in tracing the descendants for two generations,
831 down to 1609, but <lb></lb>the line is finally lost among the multitude of other
832 Agricolas.</s>
833 </p>
834 <p type="main">
835
836 <s>To deduce Georgius Agricola&#039;s character we need not search beyond the
837 <lb></lb>discovery of his steadfast adherence to the religion of his fathers
838 amid the <lb></lb>bitter storm of Protestantism around him, and need but to
839 remember at the <lb></lb>same time that for twenty-five years he was entrusted
840 with elective positions <lb></lb>of an increasingly important character in this
841 same community. </s>
842
843 <s>No man <lb></lb>could have thus held the respect of his countrymen unless he were
844 devoid of <lb></lb>bigotry and possessed of the highest sense of integrity,
845 justice, humanity, <lb></lb>and patriotism.</s>
846 </p>
847 <pb pagenum="xii"></pb>
848 <p type="head">
849
850 <s>AGRICOLA&#039;S INTELLECTUAL ATTAINMENTS AND <lb></lb>POSITION IN SCIENCE.</s>
851 </p>
852 <p type="main">
853
854 <s>Agricola&#039;s education was the most thorough that his times afforded in
855 <lb></lb>the classics, philosophy, medicine, and sciences generally. </s>
856
857 <s>Further, his writings <lb></lb>disclose a most exhaustive knowledge not only of
858 an extraordinary range of <lb></lb>classical literature, but also of obscure
859 manuscripts buried in the public libraries <lb></lb>of Europe. </s>
860
861 <s>That his general learning was held to be of a high order is amply
862 <lb></lb>evidenced from the correspondence of the other scholars of his
863 time—Erasmus, <lb></lb>Melanchthon, Meurer, Fabricius, and others.</s>
864 </p>
865 <p type="main">
866
867 <s>Our more immediate concern, however, is with the advances which were due
868 <lb></lb>to him in the sciences of Geology, Mineralogy, and Mining Engineering. </s>
869
870 <s>No <lb></lb>appreciation of these attainments can be conveyed to the reader
871 unless he <lb></lb>has some understanding of the dearth of knowledge in these
872 sciences prior <lb></lb>to Agricola&#039;s time. </s>
873
874 <s>We have in Appendix B given a brief review of the <lb></lb>literature extant at
875 this period on these subjects. </s>
876
877 <s>Furthermore, no appreciation <lb></lb>of Agricola&#039;s contribution to science can
878 be gained without a study of <emph type="italics"></emph>De <lb></lb>Ortu et
879 Causís<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>De
880 Natura Fossílíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> for while <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is of
881 much <lb></lb>more general interest, it contains but incidental reference to
882 Geology and <lb></lb>Mineralogy. </s>
883
884 <s>Apart from the book of Genesis, the only attempts at funda­<lb></lb>mental
885 explanation of natural phenomena were those of the Greek Philosophers
886 <lb></lb>and the Alchemists. </s>
887
888 <s>Orthodox beliefs Agricola scarcely mentions; with the <lb></lb>Alchemists he had
889 no patience. </s>
890
891 <s>There can be no doubt, however, that his <lb></lb>views are greatly coloured by
892 his deep classical learning. </s>
893
894 <s>He was in fine to a <lb></lb>certain distance a follower of Aristotle,
895 Theophrastus, Strato, and other leaders <lb></lb>of the Peripatetic school. </s>
896
897 <s>For that matter, except for the muddy current <lb></lb>which the alchemists had
898 introduced into this already troubled stream, <lb></lb>the whole thought of the
899 learned world still flowed from the Greeks. </s>
900
901 <s>Had he <lb></lb>not, however, radically departed from the teachings of the
902 Peripatetic school, <lb></lb>his work would have been no contribution to the
903 development of science. <lb></lb></s>
904
905 <s>Certain of their teachings he repudiated with great vigour, and his
906 <lb></lb>laboured and detailed arguments in their refutation form the first
907 battle in <lb></lb>science over the results of observation <emph type="italics"></emph>versus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> inductive speculation. </s>
908
909 <s>To use <lb></lb>his own words: “Those things which we see with our eyes and
910 understand <lb></lb>by means of our senses are more clearly to be demonstrated
911 than if learned <lb></lb>by means of reasoning.”<emph type="sup"></emph>15<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> The bigoted scholasticism of his times
912 necessi­<lb></lb>tated as much care and detail in refutation of such
913 deep-rooted beliefs, as would <lb></lb>be demanded to-day by an attempt at a
914 refutation of the theory of evolution, <lb></lb>and in consequence his works are
915 often but dry reading to any but those <lb></lb>interested in the development of
916 fundamental scientific theory.</s>
917 </p>
918 <p type="main">
919
920 <s>In giving an appreciation of Agricola&#039;s views here and throughout the
921 <lb></lb>footnotes, we do not wish to convey to the reader that he was in all
922 things <lb></lb>free from error and from the spirit of his times, or that his
923 theories, constructed <lb></lb>long before the atomic theory, are of the
924 clear-cut order which that <lb></lb>basic hypothesis has rendered possible to
925 later scientific speculation in these <lb></lb>branches. </s>
926
927 <s>His statements are sometimes much confused, but we reiterate that <pb pagenum="xiii"></pb>their clarity is as crystal to mud in comparison with
928 those of his predecessors— <lb></lb>and of most of his successors for over
929 two hundred years. </s>
930
931 <s>As an indication of <lb></lb>his grasp of some of the wider aspects of geological
932 phenomena we reproduce, <lb></lb>in Appendix A, a passage from <emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu et Causís,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
933 which we believe to be the <lb></lb>first adequate declaration of the part
934 played by erosion in mountain sculpture. <lb></lb></s>
935
936 <s>But of all of Agricola&#039;s theoretical views those are of the greatest interest
937 which <lb></lb>relate to the origin of ore deposits, for in these matters he had
938 the greatest <lb></lb>opportunities of observation and the most experience. </s>
939
940 <s>We have on page 108 <lb></lb>reproduced and discussed his theory at considerable
941 length, but we may repeat <lb></lb>here, that in his propositions as to the
942 circulation of ground waters, that ore <lb></lb>channels are a subsequent
943 creation to the contained rocks, and that they <lb></lb>were filled by
944 deposition from circulating solutions, he enunciated the
945 founda­<lb></lb>tions of our modern theory, and in so doing took a step in
946 advance greater than <lb></lb>that of any single subsequent authority. </s>
947
948 <s>In his contention that ore channels <lb></lb>were created by erosion of
949 subterranean waters he was wrong, except for <lb></lb>special cases, and it was
950 not until two centuries later that a further step in <lb></lb>advance was taken
951 by the recognition by Van Oppel of the part played by <lb></lb>fissuring in
952 these phenomena. </s>
953
954 <s>Nor was it until about the same time that the <lb></lb>filling of ore channels in
955 the main by deposition from solutions was generally <lb></lb>accepted. </s>
956
957 <s>While Werner, two hundred and fifty years after Agricola, is <lb></lb>generally
958 revered as the inspirer of the modern theory by those whose reading <lb></lb>has
959 taken them no farther back, we have no hesitation in asserting that of the
960 <lb></lb>propositions of each author, Agricola&#039;s were very much more nearly in
961 <lb></lb>accord with modern views. </s>
962
963 <s>Moreover, the main result of the new ideas <lb></lb>brought forward by Werner was
964 to stop the march of progress for half a <lb></lb>century, instead of speeding
965 it forward as did those of Agricola.</s>
966 </p>
967 <p type="main">
968
969 <s>In mineralogy Agricola made the first attempt at systematic treatment <lb></lb>of
970 the subject. </s>
971
972 <s>His system could not be otherwise than wrongly based, <lb></lb>as he could
973 scarcely see forward two or three centuries to the atomic theory <lb></lb>and
974 our vast fund of chemical knowledge. </s>
975
976 <s>However, based as it is upon <lb></lb>such properties as solubility and
977 homogeneity, and upon external character­<lb></lb>istics such as colour,
978 hardness, &amp;c., it makes a most creditable advance <lb></lb>upon
979 Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Albertus Magnus—his only predecessors.
980 <lb></lb></s>
981
982 <s>He is the first to assert that bismuth and antimony are true primary metals;
983 <lb></lb>and to some sixty actual mineral species described previous to his time
984 he <lb></lb>added some twenty more, and laments that there are scores
985 unnamed.</s>
986 </p>
987 <p type="main">
988
989 <s>As to Agricola&#039;s contribution to the sciences of mining and
990 metal­<lb></lb>lurgy, <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> speaks for itself. </s>
991
992 <s>While he describes, for the first <lb></lb>time, scores of methods and processes,
993 no one would contend that they <lb></lb>were discoveries or inventions of his
994 own. </s>
995
996 <s>They represent the accumulation <lb></lb>of generations of experience and
997 knowledge; but by him they were, for the <lb></lb>first time, to receive
998 detailed and intelligent exposition. </s>
999
1000 <s>Until Schlüter&#039;s <lb></lb>work nearly two centuries later, it was not
1001 excelled. </s>
1002
1003 <s>There is no measure by <lb></lb>which we may gauge the value of such a work to
1004 the men who followed in <lb></lb>this profession during centuries, nor the
1005 benefits enjoyed by humanity <lb></lb>through them.</s>
1006 </p>
1007 <pb pagenum="xiv"></pb>
1008 <p type="main">
1009
1010 <s>That Agricola occupied a very considerable place in the great awakening of
1011 <lb></lb>learning will be disputed by none except by those who place the
1012 development <lb></lb>of science in rank far below religion, politics,
1013 literature, and art. </s>
1014
1015 <s>Of wider <lb></lb>importance than the details of his achievements in the mere
1016 confines of the <lb></lb>particular science to which he applied himself, is the
1017 fact that he was the first <lb></lb>to found any of the natural sciences upon
1018 research and observation, as opposed <lb></lb>to previous fruitless speculation. </s>
1019
1020 <s>The wider interest of the members of the <lb></lb>medical profession in the
1021 development of their science than that of geologists <lb></lb>in theirs, has led
1022 to the aggrandizement of Paracelsus, a contem­<lb></lb>porary of Agricola,
1023 as the first in deductive science. </s>
1024
1025 <s>Yet no comparative <lb></lb>study of the unparalleled egotistical ravings of this
1026 half-genius, half-alchemist, <lb></lb>with the modest sober logic and real
1027 research and observation of Agricola, <lb></lb>can leave a moment&#039;s doubt as to
1028 the incomparably greater position which <lb></lb>should be attributed to the
1029 latter as the pioneer in building the foundation <lb></lb>of science by
1030 deduction from observed phenomena. </s>
1031
1032 <s>Science is the base upon <lb></lb>which is reared the civilization of to-day, and
1033 while we give daily credit to all <lb></lb>those who toil in the superstructure,
1034 let none forget those men who laid its <lb></lb>first foundation stones. </s>
1035
1036 <s>One of the greatest of these was Georgius Agricola.</s>
1037 </p>
1038 <figure></figure>
1039 <pb></pb>
1040 <p type="main">
1041
1042 <s>Agricola seems to have been engaged in the preparation of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re <lb></lb>Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> for a
1043 period of over twenty years, for we first hear of the book in a <lb></lb>letter
1044 from Petrus Plateanus, a schoolmaster at Joachimsthal, to the great
1045 <lb></lb>humanist, Erasmus,<emph type="sup"></emph>16<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> in
1046 September, 1529. He says: “The scientific world <lb></lb>will be still
1047 more indebted to Agricola when he brings to light the books <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and other
1048 matters which he has on hand.” In the dedication <lb></lb>of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Mensuris et Ponderibus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (in
1049 1533) Agricola states that he means to <lb></lb>publish twelve books <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> if he lives. </s>
1050
1051 <s>That the appearance of this <lb></lb>work was eagerly anticipated is evidenced by
1052 a letter from George Fabricius <lb></lb>to Valentine Hertel:<emph type="sup"></emph>17<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> “With great excitement the books <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>are
1053 being awaited. </s>
1054
1055 <s>If he treats the material at hand with his usual zeal, <lb></lb>he will win for
1056 himself glory such as no one in any of the fields of literature <lb></lb>has
1057 attained for the last thousand years.” According to the dedication of
1058 <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>De Veteríbus et Novis
1059 Metallís,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Agricola in 1546 already
1060 looked forward to <lb></lb>its early publication. </s>
1061
1062 <s>The work was apparently finished in 1550, for the <lb></lb>dedication to the
1063 Dukes Maurice and August of Saxony is dated in December of <lb></lb>that year. </s>
1064
1065 <s>The eulogistic poem by his friend, George Fabricius, is dated in
1066 <lb></lb>1551.</s>
1067 </p>
1068 <p type="main">
1069
1070 <s>The publication was apparently long delayed by the preparation of the
1071 <lb></lb>woodcuts; and, according to Mathesius,<emph type="sup"></emph>18<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> many sketches for them were <lb></lb>prepared by Basilius
1072 Wefring. </s>
1073
1074 <s>In the preface of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Agricola <lb></lb>does not mention who prepared the
1075 sketches, but does say: “I have hired <lb></lb>illustrators to delineate
1076 their forms, lest descriptions which are conveyed <lb></lb>by words should
1077 either not be understood by men of our own times, or <lb></lb>should cause
1078 difficulty to posterity.” In 1553 the completed book was <lb></lb>sent to
1079 Froben for publication, for a letter<emph type="sup"></emph>19<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> from Fabricius to Meurer in <lb></lb>March, 1553, announces its dispatch to
1080 the printer. </s>
1081
1082 <s>An interesting letter<emph type="sup"></emph>20<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>from the
1083 Elector Augustus to Agricola, dated January 18, 1555, reads:
1084 <lb></lb>“Most learned, dear and faithful subject, whereas you have sent
1085 to the Press <lb></lb>a Latin book of which the title is said to be <emph type="italics"></emph>De Rebus Metallícis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
1086 which has <lb></lb>been praised to us and we should like to know the contents,
1087 it is our gracious <lb></lb>command that you should get the book translated when
1088 you have the <lb></lb>opportunity into German, and not let it be copied more
1089 than once or be <lb></lb>printed, but keep it by you and send us a copy. </s>
1090
1091 <s>If you should need a <lb></lb>writer for this purpose, we will provide one. </s>
1092
1093 <s>Thus you will fulfil our <lb></lb>gracious behest.” The German translation
1094 was prepared by Philip Bechius, <lb></lb>a Basel University Professor of
1095 Medicine and Philosophy. </s>
1096
1097 <s>It is a wretched <lb></lb>work, by one who knew nothing of the science, and who
1098 more especially had no <lb></lb>appreciation of the peculiar Latin terms coined
1099 by Agricola, most of which<lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
1100 </p>
1101
1102 <pb pagenum="xvi"></pb>
1103 <p type="main">
1104
1105 <s>he rendered literally. </s>
1106
1107 <s>It is a sad commentary on his countrymen that no <lb></lb>correct German
1108 translation exists. </s>
1109
1110 <s>The Italian translation is by Michelangelo <lb></lb>Florio, and is by him
1111 dedicated to Elizabeth, Queen of England. </s>
1112
1113 <s>The title <lb></lb>page of the first edition is reproduced later on, and the full
1114 titles of other <lb></lb>editions are given in the Appendix, together with the
1115 author&#039;s other works. <lb></lb></s>
1116
1117 <s>The following are the short titles of the various editions of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>together
1118 with the name and place of the publisher:—</s>
1119 </p>
1120 <p type="head">
1121
1122 <s>LATIN EDITIONS.<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table1"></arrow.to.target></s>
1123 </p>
1124 <table>
1125 <table.target id="table1"></table.target>
1126 <row>
1127 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Froben .. ..</cell>
1128 <cell>Basel Folio 1556.</cell>
1129 </row>
1130 <row>
1131 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Froben .. ..</cell>
1132 <cell>Basel Folio 1561.</cell>
1133 </row>
1134 <row>
1135 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Ludwig König</cell>
1136 <cell>Basel Folio 1621.</cell>
1137 </row>
1138 <row>
1139 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Emanuel König</cell>
1140 <cell>Basel Folio 1657.</cell>
1141 </row>
1142 </table>
1143 <p type="main">
1144
1145 <s>In addition to these, Leupold,<emph type="sup"></emph>21<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
1146 Schmid,<emph type="sup"></emph>22<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> and others mention an
1147 octavo <lb></lb>edition, without illustrations, Schweinfurt, 1607. We have not
1148 been able to <lb></lb>find a copy of this edition, and are not certain of its
1149 existence. </s>
1150
1151 <s>The same <lb></lb>catalogues also mention an octavo edition of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Wittenberg,
1152 <lb></lb>1612 or 1614, with notes by Joanne Sigfrido; but we believe this to be
1153 a <lb></lb>confusion with Agricola&#039;s subsidiary works, which were published at
1154 this <lb></lb>time and place, with such notes.</s>
1155 </p>
1156 <p type="head">
1157
1158 <s>GERMAN EDITIONS.</s>
1159 </p>
1160 <p type="main">
1161
1162 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Vom Bergkwerck,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Froben,
1163 Folio, 1557.</s>
1164 </p>
1165 <p type="main">
1166
1167 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Bergwerck Buch,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Sigmundi
1168 Feyrabendt, Frankfort-on-Main, folio, 1580.</s>
1169 </p>
1170 <p type="main">
1171
1172 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Bergwerck Buch,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Ludwig
1173 König, Basel, folio, 1621.</s>
1174 </p>
1175 <p type="main">
1176
1177 <s>There are other editions than these, mentioned by bibliographers, but we
1178 <lb></lb>have been unable to confirm them in any library. </s>
1179
1180 <s>The most reliable <lb></lb>of such bibliographies, that of John Ferguson,<emph type="sup"></emph>23<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> gives in addition to the
1181 <lb></lb>above; <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergwerkbuch,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
1182 Basel, 1657, folio, and Schweinfurt, 1687, octavo.</s>
1183 </p>
1184 <p type="head">
1185
1186 <s>ITALIAN EDITION.</s>
1187 </p>
1188 <p type="head">
1189
1190 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>L&#039;Arte de Metalli,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Froben,
1191 Basel, folio, 1563.</s>
1192 </p>
1193 <p type="head">
1194
1195 <s>OTHER LANGUAGES.</s>
1196 </p>
1197 <p type="main">
1198
1199 <s>So far as we know, <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> was never actually published in other <lb></lb>than Latin,
1200 German, and Italian. </s>
1201
1202 <s>However, a portion of the accounts of <lb></lb>the firm of Froben were published
1203 in 1881<emph type="sup"></emph>24<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, and therein is an entry
1204 under <lb></lb>March, 1560, of a sum to one Leodigaris Grymaldo for some other
1205 work, and <lb></lb>also for “correction of Agricola&#039;s <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in French.” This
1206 may <lb></lb>of course, be an error for the Italian edition, which appeared a
1207 little later. <lb></lb></s>
1208
1209 <s>There is also mention<emph type="sup"></emph>25<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> that a
1210 manuscript of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in Spanish was <lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="xvii"></pb>seen in the
1211 library of the town of Bejar. </s>
1212
1213 <s>An interesting note appears in <lb></lb>the glossary given by Sir John Pettus in
1214 his translation of Lazarus Erckern&#039;s <lb></lb>work on assaying. </s>
1215
1216 <s>He says<emph type="sup"></emph>26<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> “but I cannot enlarge
1217 my observations upon <lb></lb>any more words, because the printer calls for what
1218 I did write of a metallick <lb></lb>dictionary, after I first proposed the
1219 printing of Erckern, but intending <lb></lb>within the compass of a year to
1220 publish Georgius Agricola, <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>(being fully translated) in English, and also to
1221 add a dictionary to it, I <lb></lb>shall reserve my remaining essays (if what I
1222 have done hitherto be approved) <lb></lb>till then, and so I proceed in the
1223 dictionary.” The translation was never <lb></lb>published and extensive
1224 inquiry in various libraries and among the family <lb></lb>of Pettus has failed
1225 to yield any trace of the manuscript.<lb></lb></s>
1226 </p>
1227 <figure></figure>
1228 <pb></pb>
1229 <figure></figure>
1230 <pb></pb>
1231 <p type="head">
1232
1233 <s>GEORGII AGRICOLAE</s>
1234 </p>
1235 <p type="head">
1236
1237 <s>DE RE METALLICA LIBRI XII&lt;28&gt; QVI-</s>
1238 </p>
1239 <p type="main">
1240
1241 <s>bus Officia, Inſtrumenta, Machinæ, acomnia denique ad
1242 Metalli­<lb></lb>tam ſpectantia, non modo
1243 luculentiſſimè deſcribuntur, ſed &amp; per
1244 <lb></lb>effigies, ſuis locis inſertas, adiunctis Latinis,
1245 Germanicis〈qué〉 appel­<lb></lb>lationibus ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut
1246 clarius tradi non poſſint.</s>
1247 </p>
1248 <p type="head">
1249
1250 <s>BIVSDEM</s>
1251 </p>
1252 <p type="main">
1253
1254 <s>DE ANIMANTIBVS SVBTERRANEIS Liber, ab Autore re­<lb></lb>cognitus:cum
1255 Indicibus diuerſis, quicquid in opere tractatum eſt,
1256 <lb></lb>pulchrè demonſtrantibus.</s>
1257 </p>
1258 <figure></figure>
1259 <p type="head">
1260
1261 <s>BASILEAE M&lt;28&gt; D&lt;28&gt; LVI&lt;28&gt;</s>
1262 </p>
1263 <p type="head">
1264
1265 <s>Cum Priuilegio Imperatoris in annos v. <lb></lb></s>
1266
1267 <s>&amp; Galliarum Regis ad Sexennium.</s>
1268 </p>
1269 <pb></pb>
1270 <pb pagenum="xxi"></pb>
1271 <p type="head">
1272
1273 <s>GEORGIVS FABRICIVS IN LI-</s>
1274 </p>
1275 <p type="head">
1276
1277 <s>bros Metallicos GEORGII AGRICOL AE phi<gap></gap><lb></lb>loſophi
1278 præſtantiſſimi.</s>
1279 </p>
1280 <p type="head">
1281
1282 <s>AD LECTOREM.</s>
1283 </p>
1284 <p type="main">
1285
1286 <s>Siiuuat ignita cognoſcere fronte Chimæram, <lb></lb>Semicanem
1287 nympham, ſemibouem〈qué〉 uirum:</s>
1288 </p>
1289 <p type="main">
1290
1291 <s>Sicentum capitum Titanem, tot〈qué〉 ferentem <lb></lb>Sublimem manibus tela
1292 cruenta Gygen:</s>
1293 </p>
1294 <p type="main">
1295
1296 <s>Siiuuat Ætneum penetrare Cyclopis in antrum, <lb></lb>Atque alios, Vates
1297 quos peperere, metus:</s>
1298 </p>
1299 <p type="main">
1300
1301 <s>Nunc placeat mecum doctos euoluere libros, <lb></lb>Ingenium AGRICOLAE quos dedit
1302 acre tibi.</s>
1303 </p>
1304 <p type="main">
1305
1306 <s>Non hic uana tenet ſuſpenſam fabula mentem: <lb></lb>Sed
1307 precium, utilitas multa, legentis erit.</s>
1308 </p>
1309 <p type="main">
1310
1311 <s>Quidquid terra ſinu, gremio〈qué〉 recondiditimo, <lb></lb>Omne tibi
1312 multis eruit ante libris:</s>
1313 </p>
1314 <p type="main">
1315
1316 <s>Siue fluens ſuperas ultro nitatur in oras, <lb></lb>Inueniat facilem
1317 ſeu magis arte uiam.</s>
1318 </p>
1319 <p type="main">
1320
1321 <s>Perpetui proprns manant de fontibus amnes, <lb></lb>Eſt grauis
1322 Albuneæ ſponte Mephitis odor.</s>
1323 </p>
1324 <p type="main">
1325
1326 <s>Lethales ſunt ſponte ſcrobes Dicæarchidis oræ,
1327 <lb></lb>Et micat è media conditus ignis humo.</s>
1328 </p>
1329 <p type="main">
1330
1331 <s>Plana Nariſcorum cùm tellus arſitin agro, <lb></lb>Ter curua
1332 nondum falce reſecta Ceres.</s>
1333 </p>
1334 <p type="main">
1335
1336 <s>Nec dedit hoc damnum paſtor, riec Iuppiterigne: <lb></lb>Vulcani per
1337 ſeruperat ira ſolum.</s>
1338 </p>
1339 <p type="main">
1340
1341 <s>Terrifico aura foras erumpens, incita motu, <lb></lb>Sæpefacit montes,
1342 antè ubi plana uia eſt.</s>
1343 </p>
1344 <p type="main">
1345
1346 <s>Hæcabſtruſa cauis, imo〈qué〉 incognita fundo,
1347 <lb></lb>Cognita natura ſæpe fuere duce.</s>
1348 </p>
1349 <p type="main">
1350
1351 <s>Arte hominum, in lucem ueniunt quoque multa, manu〈qué〉 <lb></lb>Terræ
1352 multiplices effodiuntur opes.</s>
1353 </p>
1354 <p type="main">
1355
1356 <s>Lydia ſicnitrum profert, Islandia ſulfur, <lb></lb>Acmodò
1357 Tyrrhenus mittit alumen ager.</s>
1358 </p>
1359 <p type="main">
1360
1361 <s>Succina, quâ trifi do ſubit æquor Viſtula cornu,
1362 <lb></lb>Piſcantur Codano corpora ſerua ſinu.</s>
1363 </p>
1364 <p type="main">
1365
1366 <s>Quid memorem regum precioſa inſignia gemmas,
1367 <lb></lb>Marmora〈qué〉 excelſis ſtructa ſub aſtra
1368 iugis?</s>
1369 </p>
1370 <p type="main">
1371
1372 <s>Nil lapides, nil ſaxa moror: ſunt pulchra metalia,
1373 <lb></lb>Crœfetuis opibus clara, Myda〈qué〉 tuis,</s>
1374 </p>
1375 <p type="main">
1376
1377 <s>Quæ〈qué〉 acer Macedo terra Creneide fodit, <lb></lb>Nomine permutans
1378 nomina priſca ſuo.</s>
1379 </p>
1380 <p type="main">
1381
1382 <s>Atnuncnon ullis cedit GERMANIA terris, <pb pagenum="xxii"></pb>Terra ferax
1383 hominum, terra〈qué〉 diues opum.</s>
1384 </p>
1385 <p type="main">
1386
1387 <s>Hic auri in uenis locupletibus aura refulget, <lb></lb>Non alio
1388 meſſis carior ulla loco.</s>
1389 </p>
1390 <p type="main">
1391
1392 <s>Auricomum extulerit felix Campania ramum, <lb></lb>Nec fructu nobis
1393 deſiciente cadit.</s>
1394 </p>
1395 <p type="main">
1396
1397 <s>Eruit argenti ſolidas hoc tempore maſſas
1398 <lb></lb>Foſſor, dc proprijs arma〈qué〉 miles agris.</s>
1399 </p>
1400 <p type="main">
1401
1402 <s>Ignotum Graijs eſt Heſperijs〈qué〉 metallum, <lb></lb>Quod
1403 Biſemutum lingua paterna uocat.</s>
1404 </p>
1405 <p type="main">
1406
1407 <s>Candidius nigro, ſed plumbo nigrius albo, <lb></lb>Noſtra quoque hoc
1408 uena diuite fundit humus.</s>
1409 </p>
1410 <p type="main">
1411
1412 <s>Funditur in tormenta, corus cum imitantia fulmen, <lb></lb>Æs, in〈qué〉
1413 hoſtiles ferrea maſſa domos.</s>
1414 </p>
1415 <p type="main">
1416
1417 <s>Scribuntur plumbo libri: quis credidit antè <lb></lb>Quàm mirandam
1418 artem Teutonis ora dedit?</s>
1419 </p>
1420 <p type="main">
1421
1422 <s>Nec tamen hoc alijs, aut illa petuntur ab oris, <lb></lb>Eruta Germano cuncta
1423 metalla ſolo.</s>
1424 </p>
1425 <p type="main">
1426
1427 <s>Sed quid ego hæc repeto, monumentis tradita claris <lb></lb>AGRICOLAE,
1428 quæ nunc docta per ora uolant?</s>
1429 </p>
1430 <p type="main">
1431
1432 <s>Hic cauſſis ortus, &amp; formas uiribus addit, <lb></lb>Et
1433 quærenda quibus ſint meliora locis.</s>
1434 </p>
1435 <p type="main">
1436
1437 <s>Quæ ſi mente prius legiſti candidus æqua: <lb></lb>Da
1438 reliquis quoque nunc tempora pauca libris.</s>
1439 </p>
1440 <p type="main">
1441
1442 <s>Vtilitas ſequitur cultorem: crede, uoluptas <lb></lb>Non iucunda minor,
1443 rara legentis, erit.</s>
1444 </p>
1445 <p type="main">
1446
1447 <s>Iudicio〈qué〉 prius ne quis malè damnet iniquo, <lb></lb>Quæ
1448 ſunt auctoris munera mira Dei:</s>
1449 </p>
1450 <p type="main">
1451
1452 <s>Eripit ipſe ſuis primùm tela hoſtibus, in〈qué〉
1453 <lb></lb>Mittentis torquet ſpicula rapta caput.</s>
1454 </p>
1455 <p type="main">
1456
1457 <s>Fertur equo latro, uehitur pirata triremi: <lb></lb>Ergo necandus equus, nec
1458 fabricanda ratis?</s>
1459 </p>
1460 <p type="main">
1461
1462 <s>Viſceribus terræ lateant abſtruſa metalla, <lb></lb>Vti
1463 opibus neſcit quòd mala turba ſuis?</s>
1464 </p>
1465 <p type="main">
1466
1467 <s>Quiſquis es, aut doctis pareto monentïbus, aut te <lb></lb>Inter
1468 habere bonos ne fateare locum.</s>
1469 </p>
1470 <p type="main">
1471
1472 <s>Se non in prærupta metallicus abijcit audax, <lb></lb>Vt quondam
1473 immiſſo Curtius acer equo:</s>
1474 </p>
1475 <p type="main">
1476
1477 <s>Sed prius ediſcit, quæ ſunt noſcenda perito,
1478 <lb></lb>Quod〈qué〉 facit, multa doctus ab arte facit.</s>
1479 </p>
1480 <p type="main">
1481
1482 <s>Vt〈qué〉 gubernator ſeruat cum ſidere uentos: <lb></lb>Sic
1483 minimè dubijs utitur ille notis.</s>
1484 </p>
1485 <p type="main">
1486
1487 <s>Iaſides nauim, currus regit arte Metiſcus:
1488 <lb></lb>Foſſor opus peragit nec minus arte ſuum.</s>
1489 </p>
1490 <p type="main">
1491
1492 <s>Indagat uenæ ſpacium, numerum〈qué〉, modum〈qué〉,
1493 <lb></lb>Siue obliqua ſuum, rectaúe tendatiter.</s>
1494 </p>
1495 <pb pagenum="xxiii"></pb>
1496 <p type="main">
1497
1498 <s>Paſtor ut explorat quæ terra ſit apta colenti,
1499 <lb></lb>Quæ bene lanigeras, quæ malè paſcat oucs.</s>
1500 </p>
1501 <p type="main">
1502
1503 <s>En terræ intentus, quid uincula linea tendit? <lb></lb></s>
1504
1505 <s>Fungitur officio iam Ptolemæe tuo.</s>
1506 </p>
1507 <p type="main">
1508
1509 <s>Vt〈qué〉 ſuæ inuenit menſuram iura〈qué〉
1510 uenæ, <lb></lb>In uarios operas diuidit ind e uiros.</s>
1511 </p>
1512 <p type="main">
1513
1514 <s>Iam〈qué〉 aggreſſus opus, uiden&#039; ut mouet omne quod
1515 obſtat, <lb></lb>Aſſidua ut uerſat ſtrenuus arma
1516 manu?</s>
1517 </p>
1518 <p type="main">
1519
1520 <s>Ne tibi ſurdeſcant ferri tinnitibus aures, <lb></lb>Ad grauiora ideo
1521 conſpicienda ueni.</s>
1522 </p>
1523 <p type="main">
1524
1525 <s>Inſtruit ecce ſuis nunc artibus ille minores: <lb></lb>Sedulitas
1526 nulli non operoſa loco.</s>
1527 </p>
1528 <p type="main">
1529
1530 <s>Metiri docet hic uenæ ſpacium〈qué〉 modum〈qué〉,
1531 <lb></lb>Vt〈qué〉 regat poſitis ſinibus arua lapis,</s>
1532 </p>
1533 <p type="main">
1534
1535 <s>Ne quis transmiſſo uiolentus limite pergens, <lb></lb>Non ſibi
1536 conceſſas, in ſua uertat, opes.</s>
1537 </p>
1538 <p type="main">
1539
1540 <s>Hic docet inſtrumenta, quibus Piutonia regna <lb></lb>Tutus adit,
1541 ſaxi permeat atque uias.</s>
1542 </p>
1543 <p type="main">
1544
1545 <s>Quanta (uides) ſolidas expugnet machina terras: <lb></lb>Machina non ullo
1546 tempore uiſa prius.</s>
1547 </p>
1548 <p type="main">
1549
1550 <s>Cede nouis, nulla non inclyta laude uetuſtas, <lb></lb>Poſteritas
1551 meritis eſt quoque grata tuis.</s>
1552 </p>
1553 <p type="main">
1554
1555 <s>Tum quia Germano ſunt hæc inuenta ſub axe, <lb></lb>Si quis es,
1556 inuidiæ contrahe uela tuæ.</s>
1557 </p>
1558 <p type="main">
1559
1560 <s>Auſonis ora tumct bellis, terra Attica cultu, <lb></lb>Germanum
1561 inſractus tollit ad aſtra labor.</s>
1562 </p>
1563 <p type="main">
1564
1565 <s>Nec tamen ingenio ſolet infeliciter uti, <lb></lb>Mite gerát
1566 Phœbi, ſeu graue Martis opus.</s>
1567 </p>
1568 <p type="main">
1569
1570 <s>Tempus adeſt, ſtructis uenarum montibus, igne <lb></lb>Explorare,
1571 uſum quem ſibi uena ferat.</s>
1572 </p>
1573 <p type="main">
1574
1575 <s>Non labor ingenio caret hic, non copia fructu, <lb></lb>Eſt adaperta
1576 bonæ prima feneſtra ſpei.</s>
1577 </p>
1578 <p type="main">
1579
1580 <s>Ergo inſtat porrò grauiores ferre labores, <lb></lb>Intentas operi
1581 nec remouere manus.</s>
1582 </p>
1583 <p type="main">
1584
1585 <s>Vrere ſiue locus poſcat, ſeu tundere uenas, <lb></lb>Siue
1586 lauare lacu præter euntis aquæ.</s>
1587 </p>
1588 <p type="main">
1589
1590 <s>Seu flammis iterum modicis torrere neceſſe eſt,
1591 <lb></lb>Excoquere aut faſtis ignibus omne malum,</s>
1592 </p>
1593 <p type="main">
1594
1595 <s>Cùm fluit æs riuis, auri argenti〈qué〉 metallum, <lb></lb>Spes
1596 animo foſſor uix capit ipſe ſuas.</s>
1597 </p>
1598 <p type="main">
1599
1600 <s>Argentum cupidus fuluo ſecernit ab auro, <lb></lb>Et plumbi lentam demit
1601 utrique moram.</s>
1602 </p>
1603 <p type="main">
1604
1605 <s>Separat argentum, lucri ſtudioſus, ab ære, <lb></lb>Seruatis,
1606 linquens deteriora, bonis.</s>
1607 </p>
1608 <pb pagenum="xxiv"></pb>
1609 <p type="main">
1610
1611 <s>Quæ ſi cuncta uelim tenui percurrere uerſu, <lb></lb>Ante alium
1612 reuehat Memnonis o<gap></gap>ra diem.</s>
1613 </p>
1614 <p type="main">
1615
1616 <s>Poſtremus labor eſt, concretos diſcereſuccos,
1617 <lb></lb>Quos fert innumeris Teutona terra locis.</s>
1618 </p>
1619 <p type="main">
1620
1621 <s>Quo ſal, quo nitrum, quo pacto fiat alumen, <lb></lb>Vſibus
1622 artiſicis cùm parat illa manus:</s>
1623 </p>
1624 <p type="main">
1625
1626 <s>Necnon chalcantum, ſulfur, fluidumque bitumen,
1627 <lb></lb>Maſſa〈qué〉 quo uitri lenta dolanda modo.</s>
1628 </p>
1629 <p type="main">
1630
1631 <s>Suſcipit hæc hominum mirandos cura labores, <lb></lb>Pauperiem
1632 uſqueadeo ferre famem〈qué〉 graue eſt,</s>
1633 </p>
1634 <p type="main">
1635
1636 <s>Tantus amor uictum paruis extundere natis, <lb></lb>Et patriæ ciuem non
1637 dare uelle malum.</s>
1638 </p>
1639 <p type="main">
1640
1641 <s>Nec manet in terræ foſſoris merſa latebris <lb></lb>Mens,
1642 ſed fert domino uota preces〈qué〉 Deo.</s>
1643 </p>
1644 <p type="main">
1645
1646 <s>Munificæ expectat, ſpe plenus, munera dextræ,
1647 <lb></lb>Extollens animum lætus ad aſtra ſuum.</s>
1648 </p>
1649 <p type="main">
1650
1651 <s>Diuitias CHRISTVS dat noticiam〈qué〉 fruendi, <lb></lb>Cui memori grates
1652 pectore ſemper agit.</s>
1653 </p>
1654 <p type="main">
1655
1656 <s>Hoc quoque laudati quondam fecere Philippi, <lb></lb>Qui uirtutis habent cum
1657 pietate decus.</s>
1658 </p>
1659 <p type="main">
1660
1661 <s>Huc oculos, huc flecte animum, ſuauiſſime Lector,
1662 <lb></lb>Auctorem〈qué〉 pia noſcito mente Deum.</s>
1663 </p>
1664 <p type="main">
1665
1666 <s>AGRICOLAE hinc optans operoſo fauſta labori, <lb></lb>Laudibus eximij
1667 candidus eſto uiri.</s>
1668 </p>
1669 <p type="main">
1670
1671 <s>Ille ſuum extollit patriæ cum nomine nomen, <lb></lb>Et uir in ore
1672 frequens poſteritatis erit.</s>
1673 </p>
1674 <p type="main">
1675
1676 <s>Cuncta cadunt letho, ſtudij monumenta uigebunt, <lb></lb>Purpurei
1677 doneclumina ſolis erunt.</s>
1678 </p>
1679 <p type="main">
1680
1681 <s>Miſenæ M. D. LI.</s>
1682 </p>
1683 <p type="main">
1684
1685 <s>èludo illuſtri.</s>
1686 </p>
1687 <p type="main">
1688
1689 <s>For completeness&#039; sake we reproduce in the original Latin the laudation of
1690 Agricola <lb></lb>by his friend, Georgius Fabricius, a leading scholar of his
1691 time. </s>
1692
1693 <s>It has but little intrinsic <lb></lb>value for it is not poetry of a very high
1694 order, and to make it acceptable English would require <lb></lb>certain
1695 improvements, for which only poets have license. </s>
1696
1697 <s>A “free” translation of the last <lb></lb>few lines indicates its
1698 complimentary character:—</s>
1699 </p>
1700 <p type="main">
1701
1702 <s>“He doth raise his country&#039;s fame with his own <lb></lb>And in the mouths
1703 of nations yet unborn <lb></lb>His praises shall be sung; Death comes to all
1704 <lb></lb>But great achievements raise a monument <lb></lb>Which shall endure until
1705 the sun grows cold.”</s>
1706 </p>
1707 <pb></pb>
1708 <p type="head">
1709
1710 <s>TO THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS <lb></lb>AND MOST MIGHTY DUKES OF <lb></lb>Saxony, Landgraves
1711 of Thuringia, Margraves of Meissen, <lb></lb>Imperial Overlords of Saxony,
1712 Burgraves of Altenberg <lb></lb>and Magdeburg, Counts of Brena, Lords of
1713 <lb></lb>Pleissnerland, To MAURICE Grand Marshall <lb></lb>and Elector of the Holy
1714 Roman Empire <lb></lb>and to his brother AUGUSTUS,<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
1715 </p>
1716 <p type="head">
1717
1718 <s>GEORGE AGRICOLA S. D.</s>
1719 </p>
1720 <p type="main">
1721
1722 <s>Most illustrious Princes, often have I considered <lb></lb>the metallic arts as a
1723 whole, as Moderatus Columella<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>considered the agricultural arts, just as if I <lb></lb>had been
1724 considering the whole of the human <lb></lb>body; and when I had perceived the
1725 various parts <lb></lb>of the subject, like so many members of the body, <lb></lb>I
1726 became afraid that I might die before I should <lb></lb>understand its full
1727 extent, much less before I <lb></lb>could immortalise it in writing. </s>
1728
1729 <s>This book <lb></lb>itself indicates the length and breadth of the subject, and
1730 the number <lb></lb>and importance of the sciences of which at least some little
1731 knowledge <lb></lb>is necessary to miners. </s>
1732
1733 <s>Indeed, the subject of mining is a very exten­<lb></lb>sive one, and one very
1734 difficult to explain; no part of it is fully dealt <lb></lb>with by the Greek
1735 and Latin authors whose works survive; and since <lb></lb>the art is one of the
1736 most ancient, the most necessary and the most profitable <lb></lb>to mankind, I
1737 considered that I ought not to neglect it. </s>
1738
1739 <s>Without doubt, <lb></lb>none of the arts is older than agriculture, but that of
1740 the metals is not <lb></lb>less ancient; in fact they are at least equal and
1741 coeval, for no mortal man ever <lb></lb>tilled a field without implements. </s>
1742
1743 <s>In truth, in all the works of agricul­<lb></lb>ture, as in the other arts,
1744 implements are used which are made from metals, <lb></lb>or which could not be
1745 made without the use of metals; for this reason <lb></lb>the metals are of the
1746 greatest necessity to man. </s>
1747
1748 <s>When an art is so poor that <lb></lb>it lacks metals, it is not of much
1749 importance, for nothing is made without <lb></lb>tools. </s>
1750
1751 <s>Besides, of all ways whereby great wealth is acquired by good and <lb></lb>honest
1752 means, none is more advantageous than mining; for although from <lb></lb>fields
1753 which are well tilled (not to mention other things) we derive rich yields,
1754 <lb></lb>yet we obtain richer products from mines; in fact, one mine is often
1755 much <lb></lb>more beneficial to us than many fields. </s>
1756
1757 <s>For this reason we learn from the <lb></lb>history of nearly all ages that very
1758 many men have been made rich by the <lb></lb><pb pagenum="xxvi"></pb>mines, and the
1759 fortunes of many kings have been much amplified there­<lb></lb>by. </s>
1760
1761 <s>But I will not now speak more of these matters, because I have <lb></lb>dealt
1762 with these subjects partly in the first book of this work, and partly in
1763 <lb></lb>the other work entitled <emph type="italics"></emph>De Veteribus et Novis
1764 Metallis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> where I have refuted <lb></lb>the
1765 charges which have been made against metals and against miners. <lb></lb></s>
1766
1767 <s>Now, though the art of husbandry, which I willingly rank with the art of
1768 <lb></lb>mining, appears to be divided into many branches, yet it is not
1769 separated <lb></lb>into so many as this art of ours, nor can I teach the
1770 principles of this as <lb></lb>easily as Columella did of that. </s>
1771
1772 <s>He had at hand many writers upon hus­<lb></lb>bandry whom he could
1773 follow,—in fact, there are more than fifty Greek <lb></lb>authors whom
1774 Marcus Varro enumerates, and more than ten Latin ones, <lb></lb>whom Columella
1775 himself mentions. </s>
1776
1777 <s>I have only one whom I can follow; <lb></lb>that is C. </s>
1778
1779 <s>Plinius Secundus,<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> and he expounds
1780 only a very few methods of <lb></lb>digging ores and of making metals. </s>
1781
1782 <s>Far from the whole of the art having <lb></lb>been treated by any one writer,
1783 those who have written occasionally on any <lb></lb>one or another of its
1784 branches have not even dealt completely with a single <lb></lb>one of them. </s>
1785
1786 <s>Moreover, there is a great scarcity even of these, since alone of <lb></lb>all
1787 the Greeks, Strato of Lampsacus,<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
1788 the successor of Theophrastus,<emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
1789 wrote <lb></lb>a book on the subject, <emph type="italics"></emph>De Machinis
1790 Metallicis;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> except, perhaps a work by the
1791 <lb></lb>poet Philo, a small part of which embraced to some degree the
1792 occupation <lb></lb>of mining.<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
1793 Pherecrates seems to have introduced into his comedy, which <lb></lb>was similar
1794 in title, miners as slaves or as persons condemned to serve in the
1795 <lb></lb>mines. </s>
1796
1797 <s>Of the Latin writers, Pliny, as I have already said, has described <lb></lb>a few
1798 methods of working. </s>
1799
1800 <s>Also among the authors I must include the modern <lb></lb>writers, whosoever they
1801 are, for no one should escape just condemnation <lb></lb>who fails to award due
1802 recognition to persons whose writings he uses, even <lb></lb>very slightly. </s>
1803
1804 <s>Two books have been written in our tongue; the one on the <lb></lb>assaying of
1805 mineral substances and metals, somewhat confused, whose author <lb></lb>is
1806 unknown<emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; the other “On
1807 Veins,” of which Pandulfus Anglus<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> is also <lb></lb>said to have written, although the German book
1808 was written by Calbus of <lb></lb>Freiberg, a well-known doctor; but neither of
1809 them accomplished the task <lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="xxvii"></pb>he
1810 had begun.<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> Recently Vannucci
1811 Biringuccio, of Sienna, a wise man <lb></lb>experienced in many matters, wrote
1812 in vernacular Italian on the <lb></lb>subject of the melting, separating, and
1813 alloying of metals.<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> He
1814 <lb></lb>touched briefly on the methods of smelting certain ores, and explained
1815 <lb></lb>more fully the methods of making certain juices; by reading his
1816 <lb></lb>directions, I have refreshed my memory of those things which I myself
1817 <lb></lb>saw in Italy; as for many matters on which I write, he did not touch
1818 upon <lb></lb>them at all, or touched but lightly. </s>
1819
1820 <s>This book was given me by Franciscus <lb></lb>Badoarius, a Patrician of Venice,
1821 and a man of wisdom and of repute; this <lb></lb>he had promised that he would
1822 do, when in the previous year he was at <lb></lb>Marienberg, having been sent by
1823 the Venetians as an Ambassador to King <lb></lb>Ferdinand. </s>
1824
1825 <s>Beyond these books I do not find any writings on the metallic <lb></lb>arts. </s>
1826
1827 <s>For that reason, even if the book of Strato existed, from all these
1828 <lb></lb>sources not one-half of the whole body of the science of mining could
1829 be <lb></lb>pieced together.</s>
1830 </p>
1831 <p type="main">
1832
1833 <s>Seeing that there have been so few who have written on the subject of the
1834 <lb></lb>metals, it appears to me all the more wonderful that so many alchemists
1835 have <lb></lb>arisen who would compound metals artificially, and who would
1836 change one <lb></lb>into another. </s>
1837
1838 <s>Hermolaus Barbarus,<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> a man of high
1839 rank and station, and <lb></lb>distinguished in all kinds of learning, has
1840 mentioned the names of many in <lb></lb>his writings; and I will proffer more,
1841 but only famous ones, for I will limit myself <lb></lb>to a few. </s>
1842
1843 <s>Thus Osthanes has written on <foreign lang="grc">χυμευτικά;</foreign> and
1844 there are Hermes; <lb></lb>Chanes; Zosimus, the Alexandrian, to his sister
1845 Theosebia; Olympiodorus, <lb></lb>also an Alexandrian; Agathodæmon;
1846 Democritus, not the one of Abdera, <lb></lb>but some other whom I know not; Orus
1847 Chrysorichites, Pebichius, Comerius, <lb></lb>Joannes, Apulejus, Petasius,
1848 Pelagius, Africanus, Theophilus, Synesius, <lb></lb>Stephanus to Heracleus
1849 Cæsar, Heliodorus to Theodosius, Geber, Callides <lb></lb>Rachaidibus,
1850 Veradianus, Rodianus, Canides, Merlin, Raymond Lully, <lb></lb>Arnold de Villa
1851 Nova, and Augustinus Pantheus of Venice; and three women, <lb></lb>Cleopatra,
1852 the maiden Taphnutia, and Maria the Jewess.<emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> All these alchemists <lb></lb>employ obscure language, and
1853 Johanes Aurelius Augurellus of Rimini, <lb></lb>alone has used the language of
1854 poetry. </s>
1855
1856 <s>There are many other books on <lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="xxviii"></pb>this
1857 subject, but all are difficult to follow, because the writers upon these
1858 <lb></lb>things use strange names, which do not properly belong to the metals,
1859 and <lb></lb>because some of them employ now one name and now another, invented
1860 by <lb></lb>themselves, though the thing itself changes not. </s>
1861
1862 <s>These masters teach their <lb></lb>disciples that the base metals, when smelted,
1863 are broken up; also they teach <lb></lb>the methods by which they reduce them to
1864 the primary parts and <lb></lb>remove whatever is superfluous in them, and by
1865 supplying what is <lb></lb>wanted make out of them the precious
1866 metals—that is, gold and silver,— <lb></lb>all of which they carry
1867 out in a crucible. </s>
1868
1869 <s>Whether they can do these things <lb></lb>or not I cannot decide; but, seeing
1870 that so many writers assure us with all <lb></lb>earnestness that they have
1871 reached that goal for which they aimed, it would <lb></lb>seem that faith might
1872 be placed in them; yet also seeing that we do not <lb></lb>read of any of them
1873 ever having become rich by this art, nor do we now see <lb></lb>them growing
1874 rich, although so many nations everywhere have produced, and <lb></lb>are
1875 producing, alchemists, and all of them are straining every nerve night and
1876 <lb></lb>day to the end that they may heap a great quantity of gold and silver,
1877 I should <lb></lb>say the matter is dubious. </s>
1878
1879 <s>But although it may be due to the carelessness <lb></lb>of the writers that they
1880 have not transmitted to us the names of the masters <lb></lb>who acquired great
1881 wealth through this occupation, certainly it is clear that <lb></lb>their
1882 disciples either do not understand their precepts or, if they do
1883 under­<lb></lb>stand them, do not follow them; for if they do comprehend
1884 them, seeing that <lb></lb>these disciples have been and are so numerous, they
1885 would have by to-day filled <pb pagenum="xxix"></pb>whole towns with gold and
1886 silver. </s>
1887
1888 <s>Even their books proclaim their vanity, for <lb></lb>they inscribe in them the
1889 names of Plato and Aristotle and other philosophers, <lb></lb>in order that such
1890 high-sounding inscriptions may impose upon simple people <lb></lb>and pass for
1891 learning. </s>
1892
1893 <s>There is another class of alchemists who do not <lb></lb>change the substance of
1894 base metals, but colour them to represent gold or silver, <lb></lb>so that they
1895 appear to be that which they are not, and when this appearance <lb></lb>is taken
1896 from them by the fire, as if it were a garment foreign to them, they
1897 <lb></lb>return to their own character. </s>
1898
1899 <s>These alchemists, since they deceive people, <lb></lb>are not only held in the
1900 greatest odium, but their frauds are a capital offence. <lb></lb></s>
1901
1902 <s>No less a fraud, warranting capital punishment, is committed by a third sort
1903 <lb></lb>of alchemists; these throw into a crucible a small piece of gold or
1904 silver <lb></lb>hidden in a coal, and after mixing therewith fluxes which have
1905 the power of <lb></lb>extracting it, pretend to be making gold from orpiment, or
1906 silver from tin and <lb></lb>like substances. </s>
1907
1908 <s>But concerning the art of alchemy, if it be an art, I will <lb></lb>speak further
1909 elsewhere. </s>
1910
1911 <s>I will now return to the art of mining.</s>
1912 </p>
1913 <p type="main">
1914
1915 <s>Since no authors have written of this art in its entirety, and since
1916 <lb></lb>foreign nations and races do not understand our tongue, and, if they
1917 did <lb></lb>understand it, would be able to learn only a small part of the art
1918 through the <lb></lb>works of those authors whom we do possess, I have written
1919 these twelve books <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
1920 <s> Of these, the first book contains the arguments which may <lb></lb>be used
1921 against this art, and against metals and the mines, and what can be
1922 <lb></lb>said in their favour. </s>
1923
1924 <s>The second book describes the miner, and branches into <pb pagenum="xxx"></pb>a
1925 discourse on the finding of veins. </s>
1926
1927 <s>The third book deals with veins and <lb></lb>stringers, and seams in the rocks. </s>
1928
1929 <s>The fourth book explains the method of <lb></lb>delimiting veins, and also
1930 describes the functions of the mining officials. <lb></lb></s>
1931
1932 <s>The fifth book describes the digging of ore and the surveyor&#039;s art. </s>
1933
1934 <s>The <lb></lb>sixth book describes the miners&#039; tools and machines. </s>
1935
1936 <s>The seventh book is <lb></lb>on the assaying of ore. </s>
1937
1938 <s>The eighth book lays down the rules for the work of <lb></lb>roasting, crushing,
1939 and washing the ore. </s>
1940
1941 <s>The ninth book explains the <lb></lb>methods of smelting ores. </s>
1942
1943 <s>The tenth book instructs those who are studious <lb></lb>of the metallic arts in
1944 the work of separating silver from gold, and lead from <lb></lb>gold and silver. </s>
1945
1946 <s>The eleventh book shows the way of separating silver from <lb></lb>copper. </s>
1947
1948 <s>The twelfth book gives us rules for manufacturing salt, soda, alum,
1949 <lb></lb>vitriol, sulphur, bitumen, and glass.</s>
1950 </p>
1951 <p type="main">
1952
1953 <s>Although I have not fulfilled the task which I have undertaken, on account
1954 <lb></lb>of the great magnitude of the subject, I have, at all events,
1955 endeavoured to fulfil <lb></lb>it, for I have devoted much labour and care, and
1956 have even gone to some <lb></lb>expense upon it; for with regard to the veins,
1957 tools, vessels, sluices, machines, <lb></lb>and furnaces, I have not only
1958 described them, but have also hired illustrators <lb></lb>to delineate their
1959 forms, lest descriptions which are conveyed by words <lb></lb>should either not
1960 be understood by men of our own times, or should cause <lb></lb>difficulty to
1961 posterity, in the same way as to us difficulty is often caused by <lb></lb>many
1962 names which the Ancients (because such words were familiar to all of
1963 <lb></lb>them) have handed down to us without any explanation.</s>
1964 </p>
1965 <p type="main">
1966
1967 <s>I have omitted all those things which I have not myself seen, or have <pb pagenum="xxxi"></pb>not read or heard of from persons upon whom I can rely. </s>
1968
1969 <s>That which I have <lb></lb>neither seen, nor carefully considered after reading
1970 or hearing of, I have not <lb></lb>written about. </s>
1971
1972 <s>The same rule must be understood with regard to all my in­<lb></lb>struction,
1973 whether I enjoin things which ought to be done, or describe things
1974 <lb></lb>which are usual, or condemn things which are done. </s>
1975
1976 <s>Since the art of mining <lb></lb>does not lend itself to elegant language, these
1977 books of mine are correspond­<lb></lb>ingly lacking in refinement of style. </s>
1978
1979 <s>The things dealt with in this art of <lb></lb>metals sometimes lack names, either
1980 because they are new, or because, even <lb></lb>if they are old, the record of
1981 the names by which they were formerly known <lb></lb>has been lost. </s>
1982
1983 <s>For this reason I have been forced by a necessity, for which I <lb></lb>must be
1984 pardoned, to describe some of them by a number of words combined, <lb></lb>and
1985 to distinguish others by new names,—to which latter class belong <emph type="italics"></emph>Ingestor, <lb></lb>Discretor, Lotor,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>Excoctor.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> Other things, again, I have alluded
1986 to by old <lb></lb>names, such as the <emph type="italics"></emph>Cisium;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> for when Nonius Marcellus wrote,<emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> this was <lb></lb>the name of a two-wheeled
1987 vehicle, but I have adopted it for a small vehicle <lb></lb>which has only one
1988 wheel; and if anyone does not approve of these names, <lb></lb>let him either
1989 find more appropriate ones for these things, or discover the <lb></lb>words used
1990 in the writings of the Ancients.</s>
1991 </p>
1992 <p type="main">
1993
1994 <s>These books, most illustrious Princes, are dedicated to you for many
1995 <lb></lb>reasons, and, above all others, because metals have proved of the
1996 greatest <lb></lb>value to you; for though your ancestors drew rich profits from
1997 the revenues <lb></lb>of their vast and wealthy territories, and likewise from
1998 the taxes which were <lb></lb>paid by the foreigners by way of toll and by the
1999 natives by way of tithes, yet <lb></lb>they drew far richer profits from the
2000 mines. </s>
2001
2002 <s>Because of the mines not a few <lb></lb>towns have risen into eminence, such as
2003 Freiberg, Annaberg, Marienberg, <lb></lb>Schneeberg, Geyer, and Altenberg, not
2004 to mention others. </s>
2005
2006 <s>Nay, if I under­<lb></lb>stand anything, greater wealth now lies hidden
2007 beneath the ground in the <lb></lb>mountainous parts of your territory than is
2008 visible and apparent above <lb></lb>ground. </s>
2009
2010 <s>Farewell.</s>
2011 </p>
2012 <p type="main">
2013
2014 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Chemnitz, Saxony,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
2015 </p>
2016 <p type="main">
2017
2018 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>December First,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
2019 1550.<lb></lb></s>
2020 </p>
2021 <pb></pb>
2022 <figure></figure>
2023 <pb></pb>
2024 <p type="head">
2025
2026 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>BOOK I.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
2027 </p>
2028 <p type="main">
2029
2030 <s>Many persons hold the opinion that the metal indus­<lb></lb>tries are
2031 fortuitous and that the occupation is one <lb></lb>of sordid toil, and
2032 altogether a kind of business <lb></lb>requiring not so much skill as labour. </s>
2033
2034 <s>But as for <lb></lb>myself, when I reflect carefully upon its special <lb></lb>points
2035 one by one, it appears to be far otherwise. <lb></lb></s>
2036
2037 <s>For a miner must have the greatest skill in his <lb></lb>work, that he may know
2038 first of all what mountain <lb></lb>or hill, what valley or plain, can be
2039 prospected most <lb></lb>profitably, or what he should leave alone; moreover, he
2040 must understand the <lb></lb>veins, stringers<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> and seams in the rocks<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
2041
2042 <s>Then he must be thoroughly <lb></lb>familiar with the many and varied species of
2043 earths, juices<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, gems, <lb></lb>stones,
2044 marbles, rocks, metals, and compounds<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
2045
2046 <s>He must also have a <lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="2"></pb>complete knowledge of the
2047 method of making all underground works<gap></gap><lb></lb>Lastly, there are the
2048 various systems of assaying<emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
2049 substances and o<gap></gap><lb></lb>preparing them for smelting; and here again there
2050 are many altogether<gap></gap><lb></lb>diverse methods. </s>
2051
2052 <s>For there is one method for gold and silver, another<gap></gap><lb></lb>for copper,
2053 another for quicksilver, another for iron, another for lead, and<gap></gap><pb pagenum="3"></pb>even tin and bismuth<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> are treated differently from lead. </s>
2054
2055 <s>Although the <lb></lb>evaporation of juices is an art apparently quite distinct
2056 from metallurgy, <lb></lb>yet they ought not to be considered separately,
2057 inasmuch as these juices <lb></lb>are also often dug out of the ground
2058 solidified, or they are produced from <lb></lb>certain kinds of earth and stones
2059 which the miners dig up, and some of the <lb></lb>juices are not themselves
2060 devoid of metals. </s>
2061
2062 <s>Again, their treatment is not <lb></lb>simple, since there is one method for
2063 common salt, another for soda<emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>,
2064 <lb></lb>another for alum, another for vitriol<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, another for sulphur, and another <lb></lb>for bitumen.</s>
2065 </p>
2066 <p type="main">
2067
2068 <s>Furthermore, there are many arts and sciences of which a miner should
2069 <lb></lb>not be ignorant. </s>
2070
2071 <s>First there is Philosophy, that he may discern the origin, <lb></lb>cause, and
2072 nature of subterranean things; for then he will be able to dig <lb></lb>out the
2073 veins easily and advantageously, and to obtain more abundant results
2074 <lb></lb>from his mining. </s>
2075
2076 <s>Secondly, there is Medicine, that he may be able to look <lb></lb>after his
2077 diggers and other workmen, that they do not meet with those <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="4"></pb>diseases to which they are more liable than workmen in
2078 other occupations, <lb></lb>or if they do meet with them, that he himself may be
2079 able to heal them or <lb></lb>may see that the doctors do so. </s>
2080
2081 <s>Thirdly follows Astronomy, that he may <lb></lb>know the divisions of the heavens
2082 and from them judge the direction of <lb></lb>the veins. </s>
2083
2084 <s>Fourthly, there is the science of Surveying that he may be able <lb></lb>to
2085 estimate how deep a shaft should be sunk to reach the tunnel which is
2086 <lb></lb>being driven to it, and to determine the limits and boundaries in these
2087 <lb></lb>workings, especially in depth. </s>
2088
2089 <s>Fifthly, his knowledge of Arithmetical Science <lb></lb>should be such that he
2090 may calculate the cost to be incurred in the <lb></lb>machinery and the working
2091 of the mine. </s>
2092
2093 <s>Sixthly, his learning must comprise <lb></lb>Architecture, that he himself may
2094 construct the various machines and timber <lb></lb>work required underground, or
2095 that he may be able to explain the method <lb></lb>of the construction to
2096 others. </s>
2097
2098 <s>Next, he must have knowledge of Drawing, <lb></lb>that he can draw plans of his
2099 machinery. </s>
2100
2101 <s>Lastly, there is the Law, especially <lb></lb>that dealing with metals, that he
2102 may claim his own rights, that he may <lb></lb>undertake the duty of giving
2103 others his opinion on legal matters, that he <lb></lb>may not take another man&#039;s
2104 property and so make trouble for himself, and <lb></lb>that he may fulfil his
2105 obligations to others according to the law.</s>
2106 </p>
2107 <p type="main">
2108
2109 <s>It is therefore necessary that those who take an interest in the methods
2110 <lb></lb>and precepts of mining and metallurgy should read these and others of
2111 our <lb></lb>books studiously and diligently; or on every point they should
2112 consult <lb></lb>expert mining people, though they will discover few who are
2113 skilled in the <lb></lb>whole art. </s>
2114
2115 <s>As a rule one man understands only the methods of mining, <lb></lb>another
2116 possesses the knowledge of washing<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>,
2117 another is experienced in the <lb></lb>art of smelting, another has a knowledge
2118 of measuring the hidden parts of <lb></lb>the earth, another is skilful in the
2119 art of making machines, and finally, <lb></lb>another is learned in mining law. </s>
2120
2121 <s>But as for us, though we may not have <lb></lb>perfected the whole art of the
2122 discovery and preparation of metals, at least <lb></lb>we can be of great
2123 assistance to persons studious in its acquisition.</s>
2124 </p>
2125 <p type="main">
2126
2127 <s>But let us now approach the subject we have undertaken. </s>
2128
2129 <s>Since there <lb></lb>has always been the greatest disagreement amongst men
2130 concerning metals <lb></lb>and mining, some praising, others utterly condemning
2131 them, therefore I have <lb></lb>decided that before imparting my instruction, I
2132 should carefully weigh <lb></lb>the facts with a view to discovering the truth
2133 in this matter.</s>
2134 </p>
2135 <p type="main">
2136
2137 <s>So I may begin with the question of utility, which is a two-fold one,
2138 <lb></lb>for either it may be asked whether the art of mining is really
2139 profitable or <lb></lb>not to those who are engaged in it, or whether it is
2140 useful or not to the rest <lb></lb>of mankind. </s>
2141
2142 <s>Those who think mining of no advantage to the men who follow <lb></lb>the
2143 occupation assert, first, that scarcely one in a hundred who dig metals or
2144 <lb></lb>other such things derive profit therefrom; and again, that miners,
2145 because they <lb></lb>entrust their certain and well-established wealth to
2146 dubious and slippery <lb></lb>fortune, generally deceive themselves, and as a
2147 result, impoverished by <pb pagenum="5"></pb>expenses and losses, in the end
2148 spend the most bitter and most miserable of <lb></lb>lives. </s>
2149
2150 <s>But persons who hold these views do not perceive how much a learned <lb></lb>and
2151 experienced miner differs from one ignorant and unskilled in the art.
2152 <lb></lb></s>
2153
2154 <s>The latter digs out the ore without any careful discrimination, while the
2155 <lb></lb>former first assays and proves it, and when he finds the veins either
2156 too <lb></lb>narrow and hard, or too wide and soft, he infers therefrom that
2157 these cannot <lb></lb>be mined profitably, and so works only the approved ones. </s>
2158
2159 <s>What wonder <lb></lb>then if we find the incompetent miner suffers loss, while
2160 the competent one <lb></lb>is rewarded by an abundant return from his mining? </s>
2161
2162 <s>The same thing <lb></lb>applies to husbandmen. </s>
2163
2164 <s>For those who cultivate land which is alike arid, <lb></lb>heavy, and barren, and
2165 in which they sow seeds, do not make so great a <lb></lb>harvest as those who
2166 cultivate a fertile and mellow soil and sow their grain <lb></lb>in that. </s>
2167
2168 <s>And since by far the greater number of miners are unskilled rather <lb></lb>than
2169 skilled in the art, it follows that mining is a profitable occupation to
2170 <lb></lb>very few men, and a source of loss to many more. </s>
2171
2172 <s>Therefore the mass of <lb></lb>miners who are quite unskilled and ignorant in the
2173 knowledge of veins not <lb></lb>infrequently lose both time and trouble<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
2174
2175 <s>Such men are accustomed for the <lb></lb>most part to take to mining, either when
2176 through being weighted with the <lb></lb>fetters of large and heavy debts, they
2177 have abandoned a business, or desiring to <lb></lb>change their occupation, have
2178 left the reaping-hook and plough; and so <lb></lb>if at any time such a man
2179 discovers rich veins or other abounding mining <lb></lb>produce, this occurs
2180 more by good luck than through any knowledge on his <lb></lb>part. </s>
2181
2182 <s>We learn from history that mining has brought wealth to many, for <lb></lb>from
2183 old writings it is well known that prosperous Republics, not a few kings,
2184 <lb></lb>and many private persons, have made fortunes through mines and their
2185 <lb></lb>produce. </s>
2186
2187 <s>This subject, by the use of many clear and illustrious examples, I <lb></lb>have
2188 dilated upon and explained in the first Book of my work entitled
2189 “<emph type="italics"></emph>De <lb></lb>Veteribus et Novis
2190 Metallis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>” from which it is evident that
2191 mining is very <lb></lb>profitable to those who give it care and attention.</s>
2192 </p>
2193 <p type="main">
2194
2195 <s>Again, those who condemn the mining industry say that it is not in the
2196 <lb></lb>least stable, and they glorify agriculture beyond measure. </s>
2197
2198 <s>But I do not see <lb></lb>how they can say this with truth, for the silver-mines
2199 at Freiberg in Meissen <lb></lb>remain still unexhausted after 400 years, and
2200 the lead mines of Goslar after 600 <lb></lb>years. </s>
2201
2202 <s>The proof of this can be found in the monuments of history. </s>
2203
2204 <s>The <lb></lb>gold and silver mines belonging to the communities of Schemnitz and
2205 <lb></lb>Cremnitz have been worked for 800 years, and these latter are said to
2206 be <lb></lb>the most ancient privileges of the inhabitants. </s>
2207
2208 <s>Some then say the profit <lb></lb>from an individual mine is unstable, as if
2209 forsooth, the miner is, or ought to <lb></lb>be dependent on only one mine, and
2210 as if many men do not bear in common <lb></lb>their expenses in mining, or as if
2211 one experienced in his art does not dig <lb></lb>another vein, if fortune does
2212 not amply respond to his prayers in the first <lb></lb>case. </s>
2213
2214 <s>The New Schönberg at Freiberg has remained stable beyond the <lb></lb>memory
2215 of man<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.<lb></lb></s>
2216 </p>
2217 <pb pagenum="6"></pb>
2218 <p type="main">
2219
2220 <s>It is not my intention to detract anything from the dignity of
2221 agri­<lb></lb>culture, and that the profits of mining are less stable I will
2222 always and readly <lb></lb>admit, for the veins do in time cease to yield
2223 metals, whereas the fields bring <lb></lb>lorth fruits every year. </s>
2224
2225 <s>But though the business of mining may be loss <lb></lb>reliable it is more
2226 productive, so that in reckoning up, what is wanting in <lb></lb>stability is
2227 found to be made up by productiveness. </s>
2228
2229 <s>Indeed, the yearly <lb></lb>profit of a lead mine in comparison with the
2230 fruitfulness of the best fields, <lb></lb>is three times or at least twice as
2231 great. </s>
2232
2233 <s>How much does the profit from <lb></lb>gold or silver mines exceed that earned
2234 from agriculture? </s>
2235
2236 <s>Wherefore truly <lb></lb>and shrewdly does Xenophon<emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> write about the Athenian silver mines: <lb></lb>“There is
2237 land of such a nature that if you sow, it does not yield crops, <lb></lb>but if
2238 you dig, it nourishes many more than if it had borne fruit.” So let
2239 <lb></lb>the farmers have for themselves the fruitful fields and cultivate the
2240 fertile <lb></lb>hills for the sake of their produce; but let them leave to
2241 miners the gloomy <lb></lb>valleys and sterile mountains, that they may draw
2242 forth from these, gens <lb></lb>and metals which can buy, not only the crops,
2243 but all things that are sold.</s>
2244 </p>
2245 <p type="main">
2246
2247 <s>The critics say further that mining is a perilous occupation to pursue,
2248 <lb></lb>because the miners are sometimes killed by the pestilential air which
2249 they <lb></lb>breathe; sometimes their lungs rot away; sometimes the men perish
2250 by being <lb></lb>crushed in masses of rock; sometimes, falling from the ladders
2251 into the <lb></lb>shafts, they break their arms, legs, or necks; and it is added
2252 there is no com­<lb></lb>pensation which should be thought great enough to
2253 equalize the extreme <lb></lb>dangers to safety and life. </s>
2254
2255 <s>These occurrences, I confess, are of exceeding <lb></lb>gravity, and moreover,
2256 fraught with terror and peril, so that I should con­<lb></lb>sider that the
2257 metals should not be dug up at all, if such things were to happen <lb></lb>very
2258 frequently to the miners, or if they could not safely guard against such
2259 <lb></lb>risks by any means. </s>
2260
2261 <s>Who would not prefer to live rather than to possess <lb></lb>all things, even the
2262 metals? </s>
2263
2264 <s>For he who thus perishes possesses nothing, <lb></lb>but relinquishes all to his
2265 heirs. </s>
2266
2267 <s>But since things like this rarely happen, <lb></lb>and only in so far as workmen
2268 are careless, they do not deter miners from <lb></lb>carrying on their trade any
2269 more than it would deter a carpenter from his, <lb></lb>because one of his mates
2270 has acted incautiously and lost his life by falling <lb></lb>from a high
2271 building. </s>
2272
2273 <s>I have thus answered each argument which critics are <lb></lb>wont to put before
2274 me when they assert that mining is an undesirable occuppa­<lb></lb>tion,
2275 because it involves expense with uncertainty of return, because it is
2276 <lb></lb>changeable, and because it is dangerous to those engaged in it.</s>
2277 </p>
2278 <p type="main">
2279
2280 <s>Now I come to those critics who say that mining is not useful to the
2281 <lb></lb>rest of mankind because forsooth, gems, metals, and other mineral
2282 products <lb></lb>are worthless in themselves. </s>
2283
2284 <s>This admission they try to extort from us, <lb></lb>partly by arguments and
2285 examples, partly by misrepresentations and abuse of <lb></lb>us. </s>
2286
2287 <s>First, they make use of this argument: “The earth does not conceal
2288 <lb></lb>and remove from our eyes those things which are useful and necessary to
2289 <pb pagenum="7"></pb>mankind, but on the contrary, like a beneficent and
2290 kindly mother she yields <lb></lb>in large abundance from her bounty and brings
2291 into the light of day the <lb></lb>herbs, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and
2292 the trees. </s>
2293
2294 <s>The minerals on the <lb></lb>other hand she buries far beneath in the depth of
2295 the ground; therefore, <lb></lb>they should not be sought. </s>
2296
2297 <s>But they are dug out by wicked men who, as <lb></lb>the poets say, are the
2298 products of the Iron Age.” Ovid censures their <lb></lb>audacity in the
2299 following lines:—</s>
2300 </p>
2301 <p type="main">
2302
2303 <s>“And not only was the rich soil required to furnish corn and due
2304 <lb></lb>sustenance, but men even descended into the entrails of the earth, and
2305 <lb></lb>they dug up riches, those incentives to vice, which the earth had
2306 hidden <lb></lb>and had removed to the Stygian shades. </s>
2307
2308 <s>Then destructive iron came <lb></lb>forth, and gold, more destructive than iron;
2309 then war came forth.”<emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
2310 </p>
2311 <p type="main">
2312
2313 <s>Another of their arguments is this: Metals offer to men no advantages,
2314 <lb></lb>therefore we ought not to search them out. </s>
2315
2316 <s>For whereas man is composed <lb></lb>of soul and body, neither is in want of
2317 minerals. </s>
2318
2319 <s>The sweetest food of the <lb></lb>soul is the contemplation of nature, a
2320 knowledge of the finest arts and sciences, <lb></lb>an understanding of virtue;
2321 and if he interests his mind in excellent things, <lb></lb>if he exercise his
2322 body, he will be satisfied with this feast of noble thoughts and
2323 <lb></lb>knowledge, and have no desire for other things. </s>
2324
2325 <s>Now although the human <lb></lb>body may be content with necessary food and
2326 clothing, yet the fruits of the <lb></lb>earth and the animals of different
2327 kinds supply him in wonderful abundance <lb></lb>with food and drink, from which
2328 the body may be suitably nourished and <lb></lb>strengthened and life prolonged
2329 to old age. </s>
2330
2331 <s>Flax, wool, and the skins of <lb></lb>many animals provide plentiful clothing low
2332 in price; while a luxurious kind, <lb></lb>not hard to procure—that is the
2333 so called <emph type="italics"></emph>seric<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> material, is
2334 furnished by the <lb></lb>down of trees and the webs of the silk worm. </s>
2335
2336 <s>So that the body has absolutely <lb></lb>no need of the metals, so hidden in the
2337 depths of the earth and for the greater <lb></lb>part very expensive. </s>
2338
2339 <s>Wherefore it is said that this maxim of Euripides is <lb></lb>approved in
2340 assemblies of learned men, and with good reason was always on <lb></lb>the lips
2341 of Socrates:</s>
2342 </p>
2343 <p type="main">
2344
2345 <s>“Works of silver and purple are of use, not for human life, but
2346 <lb></lb>rather for Tragedians.”<emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
2347 </p>
2348 <p type="main">
2349
2350 <s>These critics praise also this saying from Timocreon of Rhodes:</s>
2351 </p>
2352 <p type="main">
2353
2354 <s>“O Unseeing Plutus, would that thou hadst never appeared in the
2355 <lb></lb>earth or in the sea or on the land, but that thou didst have thy
2356 habita­<lb></lb>tion in Tartarus and Acheron, for out of thee arise all evil
2357 things which <lb></lb>overtake mankind”<emph type="sup"></emph>15<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
2358 </p>
2359 <p type="main">
2360
2361 <s>They greatly extol these lines from Phocylides:</s>
2362 </p>
2363 <p type="main">
2364
2365 <s>“Gold and silver are injurious to mortals; gold is the source of
2366 <lb></lb>crime, the plague of life, and the ruin of all things. </s>
2367
2368 <s>Would that thou <lb></lb>were not such an attractive scourge! because of thee
2369 arise robberies, <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="8"></pb>homicides, warfare, brothers are
2370 maddened against brothers, a<gap></gap><lb></lb>children against parents.”</s>
2371 </p>
2372 <p type="main">
2373
2374 <s>This from Naumachius also pleases them:</s>
2375 </p>
2376 <p type="main">
2377
2378 <s>“Gold and silver are but dust, like the stones that lie
2379 scattered<gap></gap><lb></lb>the pebbly beach, or on the margins of the
2380 rivers.”</s>
2381 </p>
2382 <p type="main">
2383
2384 <s>On the other hand, they censure these verses of Euripides:</s>
2385 </p>
2386 <p type="main">
2387
2388 <s>“Plutus is the god for wise men: all else is mere folly and at
2389 t<gap></gap><lb></lb>same time a deception in words.”</s>
2390 </p>
2391 <p type="main">
2392
2393 <s>So in like manner these lines from Theognis:</s>
2394 </p>
2395 <p type="main">
2396
2397 <s>“O Plutus, thou most beautiful and placid god! whilst I have
2398 th<gap></gap><lb></lb>however bad I am, I can be regarded as good.”</s>
2399 </p>
2400 <p type="main">
2401
2402 <s>They also blame Aristodemus, the Spartan, for these words:</s>
2403 </p>
2404 <p type="main">
2405
2406 <s>“Money makes the man; no one who is poor is either
2407 good<gap></gap><lb></lb>honoured.”</s>
2408 </p>
2409 <p type="main">
2410
2411 <s>And they rebuke these songs of Timocles:</s>
2412 </p>
2413 <p type="main">
2414
2415 <s>“Money is the life and soul of mortal men. </s>
2416
2417 <s>He who has n<gap></gap><lb></lb>heaped up riches for himself wanders like a dead man
2418 amongst t<gap></gap><lb></lb>living.”</s>
2419 </p>
2420 <p type="main">
2421
2422 <s>Finally, they blame Menander when he wrote:</s>
2423 </p>
2424 <p type="main">
2425
2426 <s>“Epicharmus asserts that the gods are water, wind, fire, earth,
2427 su<gap></gap><lb></lb>and stars. </s>
2428
2429 <s>But I am of opinion that the gods of any use to us are silv<gap></gap><lb></lb>and
2430 gold; for if thou wilt set these up in thy house thou mayest
2431 se<gap></gap><lb></lb>whatever thou wilt. </s>
2432
2433 <s>All things will fall to thy lot; land, houses, slav<gap></gap><lb></lb>silver-work;
2434 moreover friends, judges, and witnesses. </s>
2435
2436 <s>Only give free<gap></gap><lb></lb>for thus thou hast the gods to serve
2437 thee.”</s>
2438 </p>
2439 <p type="main">
2440
2441 <s>But besides this, the strongest argument of the detractors is that
2442 t<gap></gap><lb></lb>fields are devastated by mining operations, for which reason
2443 forme<gap></gap><lb></lb>Italians were warned by law that no one should dig the earth
2444 for metals a<gap></gap><lb></lb>so injure their very fertile fields, their vineyards,
2445 and their olive grov<gap></gap><lb></lb>Also they argue that the woods and groves are
2446 cut down, for there is need<gap></gap><lb></lb>an endless amount of wood for timbers,
2447 machines, and the smelting of meta<gap></gap><lb></lb>And when the woods and groves
2448 are felled, then are exterminated the bea<gap></gap><lb></lb>and birds, very many of
2449 which furnish a pleasant and agreeable food for ma<gap></gap><lb></lb>Further, when
2450 the ores are washed, the water which has been used pois<gap></gap><lb></lb>the brooks
2451 and streams, and either destroys the fish or drives them
2452 awa<gap></gap><lb></lb>Therefore the inhabitants of these regions, on account of the
2453 devastation<gap></gap><lb></lb>their fields, woods, groves, brooks and rivers, find
2454 great difficulty in procur<gap></gap><lb></lb>the necessaries of life, and by reason
2455 of the destruction of the timber th<gap></gap><lb></lb>are forced to greater expense
2456 in erecting buildings. </s>
2457
2458 <s>Thus it is said, it<gap></gap><lb></lb>clear to all that there is greater detriment
2459 from mining than the value<gap></gap><lb></lb>the metals which the mining
2460 produces.</s>
2461 </p>
2462 <p type="main">
2463
2464 <s>So in fierce contention they clamour, showing by such
2465 examples<gap></gap><lb></lb>follow that every great man has been content with virtue,
2466 and despis<gap></gap><lb></lb>metals. </s>
2467
2468 <s>They praise Bias because he esteemed the metals mer<gap></gap><lb></lb>as fortune&#039;s
2469 playthings, not as his real wealth. </s>
2470
2471 <s>When his enemies h<gap></gap><lb></lb>captured his native Priene, and his
2472 fellow-citizens laden with precious thin<gap></gap><pb pagenum="9"></pb>had betaken
2473 themselves to flight, he was asked by one, why he carried <lb></lb>away none of
2474 his goods with him, and he replied, “I carry all my possessions
2475 <lb></lb>with me.” And it is said that Socrates, having received twenty
2476 minae sent <lb></lb>to him by Aristippus, a grateful disciple, refused them and
2477 sent them back to <lb></lb>him by the command of his conscience. </s>
2478
2479 <s>Aristippus, following his example <lb></lb>in this matter, despised gold and
2480 regarded it as of no value. </s>
2481
2482 <s>And once <lb></lb>when he was making a journey with his slaves, and they, laden
2483 with the <lb></lb>gold, went too slowly, he ordered them to keep only as much of
2484 it as they <lb></lb>could carry without distress and to throw away the
2485 remainder<emph type="sup"></emph>16<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
2486
2487 <s>Moreover, <lb></lb>Anacreon of Teos, an ancient and noble poet, because he had
2488 been troubled <lb></lb>about them for two nights, returned five talents which
2489 had been given him <lb></lb>by Polycrates, saying that they were not worth the
2490 anxiety which he had <lb></lb>gone through on their account. </s>
2491
2492 <s>In like manner celebrated and exceedingly <lb></lb>powerful princes have imitated
2493 the philosophers in their scorn and contempt <lb></lb>for gold and silver. </s>
2494
2495 <s>There was for example, Phocion, the Athenian, who was <lb></lb>appointed general
2496 of the army so many times, and who, when a large sum of gold <lb></lb>was sent
2497 to him as a gift by Alexander, King of Macedon, deemed it trifling and
2498 <lb></lb>scorned it. </s>
2499
2500 <s>And Marcus Curius ordered the gold to be carried back to the <lb></lb>Samnites,
2501 as did also Fabricius Luscinus with regard to the silver and <lb></lb>copper. </s>
2502
2503 <s>And certain Republics have forbidden their citizens the use and
2504 <lb></lb>employment of gold and silver by law and ordinance; the Lacedaemonians,
2505 <lb></lb>by the decrees and ordinances of Lycurgus, used diligently to enquire
2506 among <lb></lb>their citizens whether they possessed any of these things or not,
2507 and the <lb></lb>possessor, when he was caught, was punished according to law
2508 and justice. <lb></lb></s>
2509
2510 <s>The inhabitants of a town on the Tigris, called Babytace, buried their gold
2511 <lb></lb>in the ground so that no one should use it. </s>
2512
2513 <s>The Scythians condemned the <lb></lb>use of gold and silver so that they might
2514 not become avaricious.</s>
2515 </p>
2516 <p type="main">
2517
2518 <s>Further are the metals reviled; in the first place people wantonly <lb></lb>abuse
2519 gold and silver and call them deadly and nefarious pests of the human
2520 <lb></lb>race, because those who possess them are in the greatest peril, for
2521 those who <lb></lb>have none lay snares for the possessors of wealth, and thus
2522 again and again <lb></lb>the metals have been the cause of destruction and ruin. </s>
2523
2524 <s>For example, <lb></lb>Polymnestor, King of Thrace, to obtain possession of his
2525 gold, killed Polydorus, <lb></lb>his noble guest and the son of Priam, his
2526 father-in-law, and old friend. <lb></lb></s>
2527
2528 <s>Pygmalion, the King of Tyre, in order that he might seize treasures of gold
2529 <lb></lb>and silver, killed his sister&#039;s husband, a priest, taking no account of
2530 either <lb></lb>kinship or religion. </s>
2531
2532 <s>For love of gold Eriphyle betrayed her husband <lb></lb>Amphiaraus to his enemy. </s>
2533
2534 <s>Likewise Lasthenes betrayed the city of <lb></lb>Olynthus to Philip of Macedon. </s>
2535
2536 <s>The daughter of Spurius Tarpeius, having <lb></lb>been bribed with gold, admitted
2537 the Sabines into the citadel of Rome. <lb></lb></s>
2538
2539 <s>Claudius Curio sold his country for gold to Cæsar, the Dictator. </s>
2540
2541 <s>Gold, too, <lb></lb>was the cause of the downfall of Aesculapius, the great
2542 physician, who it was <lb></lb>believed was the son of Apollo. </s>
2543
2544 <s>Similarly Marcus Crassus, through his <lb></lb>eager desire for the gold of the
2545 Parthians, was completely overcome together <lb></lb>with his son and eleven
2546 legions, and became the jest of his enemies; for they <pb pagenum="10"></pb>poured liquid gold into the gaping mouth of the slain Crassus, saying:
2547 <lb></lb>“Thou hast thirsted for gold, therefore drink gold.”</s>
2548 </p>
2549 <p type="main">
2550
2551 <s>But why need I cite here these many examples from history?<emph type="sup"></emph>17<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> It is <lb></lb>almost our daily experience to
2552 learn that, for the sake of obtaining gold and <lb></lb>silver, doors are burst
2553 open, walls are pierced, wretched travellers are struck <lb></lb>down by
2554 rapacious and cruel men born to theft, sacrilege, invasion, and
2555 <lb></lb>robbery. </s>
2556
2557 <s>We see thieves seized and strung up before us, sacrilegious persons
2558 <lb></lb>burnt alive, the limbs of robbers broken on the wheel, wars waged for
2559 the <lb></lb>same reason, which are not only destructive to those against whom
2560 they are <lb></lb>waged, but to those also who carry them on. </s>
2561
2562 <s>Nay, but they say that the <lb></lb>precious metals foster all manner of vice,
2563 such as the seduction of women, <lb></lb>adultery, and unchastity, in short,
2564 crimes of violence against the person. <lb></lb></s>
2565
2566 <s>Therefore the Poets, when they represent Jove transformed into a golden
2567 <lb></lb>shower and falling into the lap of Danae, merely mean that he had found
2568 <lb></lb>for himself a safe road by the use of gold, by which he might enter the
2569 tower <lb></lb>for the purpose of violating the maiden. </s>
2570
2571 <s>Moreover, the fidelity of many <lb></lb>men is overthrown by the love of gold and
2572 silver, judicial sentences are <lb></lb>bought, and innumerable crimes are
2573 perpetrated. </s>
2574
2575 <s>For truly, as Propertius <lb></lb>says:</s>
2576 </p>
2577 <p type="main">
2578
2579 <s>“This is indeed the Golden Age. </s>
2580
2581 <s>The greatest rewards come from <lb></lb>gold; by gold love is won; by gold is
2582 faith destroyed; by gold is justice <lb></lb>bought; the law follows the track
2583 of gold, while modesty will soon <lb></lb>follow it when law is gone.”</s>
2584 </p>
2585 <p type="main">
2586
2587 <s>Diphilus says:</s>
2588 </p>
2589 <p type="main">
2590
2591 <s>“I consider that nothing is more powerful than gold. </s>
2592
2593 <s>By it all <lb></lb>things are torn asunder; all things are
2594 accomplished.”</s>
2595 </p>
2596 <p type="main">
2597
2598 <s>Therefore, all the noblest and best despise these riches, deservedly and
2599 <lb></lb>with justice, and esteem them as nothing. </s>
2600
2601 <s>And this is said by the old man <lb></lb>in Plautus:</s>
2602 </p>
2603 <p type="main">
2604
2605 <s>“I hate gold. </s>
2606
2607 <s>It has often impelled many people to many wrong <lb></lb>acts.”</s>
2608 </p>
2609 <p type="main">
2610
2611 <s>In this country too, the poets inveigh with stinging reproaches against money
2612 <lb></lb>coined from gold and silver. </s>
2613
2614 <s>And especially did Juvenal:</s>
2615 </p>
2616 <p type="main">
2617
2618 <s>“Since the majesty of wealth is the most sacred thing among us;
2619 <lb></lb>although, O pernicious money, thou dost not yet inhabit a temple, nor
2620 <lb></lb>have we erected altars to money.”</s>
2621 </p>
2622 <p type="main">
2623
2624 <s>And in another place:</s>
2625 </p>
2626 <p type="main">
2627
2628 <s>“Demoralising money first introduced foreign customs, and
2629 <lb></lb>voluptuous wealth weakened our race with disgraceful
2630 luxury.”<emph type="sup"></emph>18<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
2631 </p>
2632 <p type="main">
2633
2634 <s>And very many vehemently praise the barter system which men used before
2635 <lb></lb>money was devised, and which even now obtains among certain simple
2636 <lb></lb>peoples.</s>
2637 </p>
2638 <p type="main">
2639
2640 <s>And next they raise a great outcry against other metals, as iron, than
2641 <lb></lb><pb pagenum="11"></pb>which they say nothing more pernicious could have
2642 been brought into the <lb></lb>life of man. </s>
2643
2644 <s>For it is employed in making swords, javelins, spears, pikes,
2645 <lb></lb>arrows—weapons by which men are wounded, and which cause
2646 slaughter, <lb></lb>robbery, and wars. </s>
2647
2648 <s>These things so moved the wrath of Pliny that he wrote: <lb></lb>“Iron is
2649 used not only in hand to hand fighting, but also to form the winged
2650 <lb></lb>missiles of war, sometimes for hurling engines, sometimes for lances,
2651 some­<lb></lb>times even for arrows. </s>
2652
2653 <s>I look upon it as the most deadly fruit of human <lb></lb>ingenuity. </s>
2654
2655 <s>For to bring Death to men more quickly we have given wings to <lb></lb>iron and
2656 taught it to fly.”<emph type="sup"></emph>19<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> The
2657 spear, the arrow from the bow, or the bolt <lb></lb>from the catapult and other
2658 engines can be driven into the body of only one <lb></lb>man, while the iron
2659 cannon-ball fired through the air, can go through the <lb></lb>bodies of many
2660 men, and there is no marble or stone object so hard that it <lb></lb>cannot be
2661 shattered by the force and shock. </s>
2662
2663 <s>Therefore it levels the highest <lb></lb>towers to the ground, shatters and
2664 destroys the strongest walls. </s>
2665
2666 <s>Certainly <lb></lb>the ballistas which throw stones, the battering rams and other
2667 ancient war <lb></lb>engines for making breaches in walls of fortresses and
2668 hurling down strong­<lb></lb>holds, seem to have little power in comparison
2669 with our present cannon. <lb></lb></s>
2670
2671 <s>These emit horrible sounds and noises, not less than thunder, flashes <lb></lb>of
2672 fire burst from them like the lightning, striking, crushing, and
2673 shatter­<lb></lb>ing buildings, belching forth flames and kindling fires
2674 even as lightning <lb></lb>flashes. </s>
2675
2676 <s>So that with more justice could it be said of the impious men of <lb></lb>our age
2677 than of Salmoneus of ancient days, that they had snatched lightning
2678 <lb></lb>from Jupiter and wrested it from his hands. </s>
2679
2680 <s>Nay, rather there has been <lb></lb>sent from the infernal regions to the earth
2681 this force for the destruction of <lb></lb>men, so that Death may snatch to
2682 himself as many as possible by one stroke.</s>
2683 </p>
2684 <p type="main">
2685
2686 <s>But because muskets are nowadays rarely made of iron, and the large <lb></lb>ones
2687 never, but of a certain mixture of copper and tin, they confer more
2688 <lb></lb>maledictions on copper and tin than on iron. </s>
2689
2690 <s>In this connection too, they <lb></lb>mention the brazen bull of Phalaris, the
2691 brazen ox of the people of Per­<lb></lb>gamus, racks in the shape of an iron
2692 dog or a horse, manacles, shackles, <lb></lb>wedges, hooks, and red-hot plates. </s>
2693
2694 <s>Cruelly racked by such instruments, <lb></lb>people are driven to confess crimes
2695 and misdeeds which they have never <lb></lb>committed, and innocent men are
2696 miserably tortured to death by every <lb></lb>conceivable kind of torment.</s>
2697 </p>
2698 <p type="main">
2699
2700 <s>It is claimed too, that lead is a pestilential and noxious metal, for men
2701 <lb></lb>are punished by means of molten lead, as Horace describes in the ode
2702 <lb></lb>addressed to the Goddess Fortune: “Cruel Necessity ever goes
2703 before thee <lb></lb>bearing in her brazen hand the spikes and wedges, while the
2704 awful hook and <lb></lb>molten lead are also not lacking.”<emph type="sup"></emph>20<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> In their desire to excite greater odium
2705 <lb></lb>for this metal, they are not silent about the leaden balls of muskets,
2706 and they <lb></lb>find in it the cause of wounds and death.</s>
2707 </p>
2708 <p type="main">
2709
2710 <s>They contend that, inasmuch as Nature has concealed metals far within
2711 <lb></lb>the depths of the earth, and because they are not necessary to human
2712 life, <lb></lb>they are therefore despised and repudiated by the noblest, and
2713 should not be <lb></lb><pb pagenum="12"></pb>mined, and seeing that when brought to
2714 light they have always proved the <lb></lb>cause of very great evils, it follows
2715 that mining is not useful to mankind <lb></lb>but on the contrary harmful and
2716 destructive. </s>
2717
2718 <s>Several good men have <lb></lb>been so perturbed by these tragedies that they
2719 conceive an intensely bitter <lb></lb>hatred toward metals, and they wish
2720 absolutely that metals had never been <lb></lb>created, or being created, that
2721 no one had ever dug them out. </s>
2722
2723 <s>The more I <lb></lb>commend the singular honesty, innocence, and goodness of such
2724 men, the <lb></lb>more anxious shall I be to remove utterly and eradicate all
2725 error from their <lb></lb>minds and to reveal the sound view, which is that the
2726 metals are most useful <lb></lb>to mankind.</s>
2727 </p>
2728 <p type="main">
2729
2730 <s>In the first place then, those who speak ill of the metals and refuse to
2731 <lb></lb>make use of them, do not see that they accuse and condemn as wicked the
2732 <lb></lb>Creator Himself, when they assert that He fashioned some things vainly
2733 <lb></lb>and without good cause, and thus they regard Him as the Author of evils
2734 <lb></lb>which opinion is certainly not worthy of pious and sensible men.</s>
2735 </p>
2736 <p type="main">
2737
2738 <s>In the next place, the earth does not conceal metals in her depths
2739 <lb></lb>because she does not wish that men should dig them out, but because
2740 <lb></lb>provident and sagacious Nature has appointed for each thing its place. </s>
2741
2742 <s>She <lb></lb>generates them in the veins, stringers, and seams in the rocks, as
2743 though <lb></lb>in special vessels and receptacles for such material. </s>
2744
2745 <s>The metals cannot be <lb></lb>produced in the other elements because the
2746 materials for their formation <lb></lb>are wanting. </s>
2747
2748 <s>For if they were generated in the air, a thing that rarely <lb></lb>happens, they
2749 could not find a firm resting-place, but by their own force and <lb></lb>weight
2750 would settle down on to the ground. </s>
2751
2752 <s>Seeing then that metals have <lb></lb>their proper abiding place in the bowels of
2753 the earth, who does not see that <lb></lb>these men do not reach their
2754 conclusions by good logic?</s>
2755 </p>
2756 <p type="main">
2757
2758 <s>They say, “Although metals are in the earth, each located in its own
2759 <lb></lb>proper place where it originated, yet because they lie thus enclosed
2760 and <lb></lb>hidden from sight, they should not be taken out.” But, in
2761 refutation of these <lb></lb>attacks, which are so annoying, I will on behalf of
2762 the metals instance the <lb></lb>fish, which we catch, hidden and concealed
2763 though they be in the water, even <lb></lb>in the sea. </s>
2764
2765 <s>Indeed, it is far stranger that man, a terrestrial animal, should <lb></lb>search
2766 the interior of the sea than the bowels of the earth. </s>
2767
2768 <s>For as birds are <lb></lb>born to fly freely through the air, so are fishes born
2769 to swim through the <lb></lb>waters, while to other creatures Nature has given
2770 the earth that they might <lb></lb>live in it, and particularly to man that he
2771 might cultivate it and draw out <lb></lb>of its caverns metals and other mineral
2772 products. </s>
2773
2774 <s>On the other hand, they <lb></lb>say that we eat fish, but neither hunger nor
2775 thirst is dispelled by minerals, <lb></lb>nor are they useful in clothing the
2776 body, which is another argument by <lb></lb>which these people strive to prove
2777 that metals should not be taken out. </s>
2778
2779 <s>But <lb></lb>man without metals cannot provide those things which he needs for
2780 food and <lb></lb>clothing. </s>
2781
2782 <s>For, though the produce of the land furnishes the greatest <lb></lb>abundance of
2783 food for the nourishment of our bodies, no labour can be <lb></lb>carried on and
2784 completed without tools. </s>
2785
2786 <s>The ground itself is turned up <lb></lb>with ploughshares and harrows, tough
2787 stalks and the tops of the roots are <lb></lb>broken off and dug up with a
2788 mattock, the sown seed is harrowed, the corn <pb pagenum="13"></pb>field is hoed
2789 and weeded; the ripe grain with part of the stalk is cut down <lb></lb>by
2790 scythes and threshed on the floor, or its ears are cut off and stored in the
2791 <lb></lb>barn and later beaten with flails and winnowed with fans, until finally
2792 the <lb></lb>pure grain is stored in the granary, whence it is brought forth
2793 again when <lb></lb>occasion demands or necessity arises. </s>
2794
2795 <s>Again, if we wish to procure better <lb></lb>and more productive fruits from
2796 trees and bushes, we must resort to <lb></lb>cultivating, pruning, and grafting,
2797 which cannot be done without tools. <lb></lb></s>
2798
2799 <s>Even as without vessels we cannot keep or hold liquids, such as milk, honey,
2800 <lb></lb>wine, or oil, neither could so many living things be cared for without
2801 <lb></lb>buildings to protect them from long-continued rain and intolerable
2802 cold. <lb></lb></s>
2803
2804 <s>Most of the rustic instruments are made of iron, as ploughshares,
2805 share­<lb></lb>beams, mattocks, the prongs of harrows, hoes, planes,
2806 hay-forks, straw <lb></lb>cutters, pruning shears, pruning hooks, spades,
2807 lances, forks, and weed <lb></lb>cutters. </s>
2808
2809 <s>Vessels are also made of copper or lead. </s>
2810
2811 <s>Neither are wooden <lb></lb>instruments or vessels made without iron. </s>
2812
2813 <s>Wine cellars, oil-mills, stables, <lb></lb>or any other part of a farm building
2814 could not be built without iron tools. <lb></lb></s>
2815
2816 <s>Then if the bull, the wether, the goat, or any other domestic animal is led
2817 <lb></lb>away from the pasture to the butcher, or if the poulterer brings from
2818 the farm <lb></lb>a chicken, a hen, or a capon for the cook, could any of these
2819 animals be cut <lb></lb>up and divided without axes and knives? </s>
2820
2821 <s>I need say nothing here about <lb></lb>bronze and copper pots for cooking,
2822 because for these purposes one could <lb></lb>make use of earthen vessels, but
2823 even these in turn could not be made and <lb></lb>fashioned by the potter
2824 without tools, for no instruments can be made out <lb></lb>of wood alone,
2825 without the use of iron. </s>
2826
2827 <s>Furthermore, hunting, fowling, and <lb></lb>fishing supply man with food, but
2828 when the stag has been ensnared does not <lb></lb>the hunter transfix him with
2829 his spear? </s>
2830
2831 <s>As he stands or runs, does he not <lb></lb>pierce him with an arrow? </s>
2832
2833 <s>Or pierce him with a bullet? </s>
2834
2835 <s>Does not the <lb></lb>fowler in the same way kill the moor-fowl or pheasant with
2836 an arrow? </s>
2837
2838 <s>Or <lb></lb>does he not discharge into its body the ball from the musket? </s>
2839
2840 <s>I will not <lb></lb>speak of the snares and other instruments with which the
2841 woodcock, wood­<lb></lb>pecker, and other wild birds are caught, lest I
2842 pursue unseasonably and too <lb></lb>minutely single instances. </s>
2843
2844 <s>Lastly, with his fish-hook and net does not the <lb></lb>fisherman catch the fish
2845 in the sea, in the lakes, in fish-ponds, or in rivers? <lb></lb></s>
2846
2847 <s>But the hook is of iron, and sometimes we see lead or iron weights attached
2848 <lb></lb>to the net. </s>
2849
2850 <s>And most fish that are caught are afterward cut up and
2851 dis­<lb></lb>embowelled with knives and axes. </s>
2852
2853 <s>But, more than enough has been said on <lb></lb>the matter of food.</s>
2854 </p>
2855 <p type="main">
2856
2857 <s>Now I will speak of clothing, which is made out of wool, flax, feathers,
2858 <lb></lb>hair, fur, or leather. </s>
2859
2860 <s>First the sheep are sheared, then the wool is combed. <lb></lb></s>
2861
2862 <s>Next the threads are drawn out, while later the warp is suspended in the
2863 <lb></lb>shuttle under which passes the wool. </s>
2864
2865 <s>This being struck by the comb, at length <lb></lb>cloth is formed either from
2866 threads alone or from threads and hair. </s>
2867
2868 <s>Flax, <lb></lb>when gathered, is first pulled by hooks. </s>
2869
2870 <s>Then it is dipped in water and <lb></lb>afterward dried, beaten into tow with a
2871 heavy mallet, and carded, then <lb></lb>drawn out into threads, and finally
2872 woven into cloth. </s>
2873
2874 <s>But has the artisan <lb></lb>or weaver of the cloth any instrument not made of
2875 iron? </s>
2876
2877 <s>Can one be made <pb pagenum="14"></pb>of wood without the aid of iron? </s>
2878
2879 <s>The cloth or web must be cut into lengths <lb></lb>for the tailor. </s>
2880
2881 <s>Can this be done without knife or scissors? </s>
2882
2883 <s>Can the tailor <lb></lb>sew together any garments without a needle? </s>
2884
2885 <s>Even peoples dwelling beyond <lb></lb>the seas cannot make a covering for their
2886 bodies, fashioned of feathers, <lb></lb>without these same implements. </s>
2887
2888 <s>Neither can the furriers do without them <lb></lb>in sewing together the pelts of
2889 any kind of animals. </s>
2890
2891 <s>The shoemaker needs <lb></lb>a knife to cut the leather, another to scrape it,
2892 and an awl to perforate it <lb></lb>before he can make shoes. </s>
2893
2894 <s>These coverings for the body are either woven <lb></lb>or stitched. </s>
2895
2896 <s>Buildings too, which protect the same body from rain, wind, <lb></lb>cold, and
2897 heat, are not constructed without axes, saws, and augers.</s>
2898 </p>
2899 <p type="main">
2900
2901 <s>But what need of more words? </s>
2902
2903 <s>If we remove metals from the service <lb></lb>of man, all methods of protecting
2904 and sustaining health and more care­<lb></lb>fully preserving the course of
2905 life are done away with. </s>
2906
2907 <s>If there were no <lb></lb>metals, men would pass a horrible and wretched
2908 existence in the midst of <lb></lb>wild beasts; they would return to the acorns
2909 and fruits and berries of the <lb></lb>forest. </s>
2910
2911 <s>They would feed upon the herbs and roots which they plucked up <lb></lb>with
2912 their nails. </s>
2913
2914 <s>They would dig out caves in which to lie down at night, <lb></lb>and by day they
2915 would rove in the woods and plains at random like beasts, <lb></lb>and inasmuch
2916 as this condition is utterly unworthy of humanity, with its <lb></lb>splendid
2917 and glorious natural endowment, will anyone be so foolish or <lb></lb>obstinate
2918 as not to allow that metals are necessary for food and clothing and
2919 <lb></lb>that they tend to preserve life?</s>
2920 </p>
2921 <p type="main">
2922
2923 <s>Moreover, as the miners dig almost exclusively in mountains otherwise
2924 <lb></lb>unproductive, and in valleys invested in gloom, they do either slight
2925 damage <lb></lb>to the fields or none at all. </s>
2926
2927 <s>Lastly, where woods and glades are cut down, <lb></lb>they may be sown with grain
2928 after they have been cleared from the roots of <lb></lb>shrubs and trees. </s>
2929
2930 <s>These new fields soon produce rich crops, so that they repair <lb></lb>the losses
2931 which the inhabitants suffer from increased cost of timber. </s>
2932
2933 <s>More­<lb></lb>over, with the metals which are melted from the ore, birds
2934 without number, <lb></lb>edible beasts and fish can be purchased elsewhere and
2935 brought to these <lb></lb>mountainous regions.</s>
2936 </p>
2937 <p type="main">
2938
2939 <s>I will pass to the illustrations I have mentioned. </s>
2940
2941 <s>Bias of Priene, when his <lb></lb>country was taken, carried away out of the city
2942 none of his valuables. </s>
2943
2944 <s>So <lb></lb>strong a man with such a reputation for wisdom had no need to fear
2945 personal <lb></lb>danger from the enemy, but this in truth cannot be said of him
2946 because he <lb></lb>hastily took to flight; the throwing away of his goods does
2947 not seem to me <lb></lb>so great a matter, for he had lost his house, his
2948 estates, and even his country, <lb></lb>than which nothing is more precious. </s>
2949
2950 <s>Nay, I should be convinced of Bias&#039;s <lb></lb>contempt and scorn for possessions
2951 of this kind, if before his country was <lb></lb>captured he had bestowed them
2952 freely on relations and friends, or had <lb></lb>distributed them to the very
2953 poor, for this he could have done freely and <lb></lb>without question. </s>
2954
2955 <s>Whereas his conduct, which the Greeks admire so <lb></lb>greatly, was due, it
2956 would seem, to his being driven out by the enemy and <lb></lb>stricken with
2957 fear. </s>
2958
2959 <s>Socrates in truth did not despise gold, but would not <lb></lb>accept money for
2960 his teaching. </s>
2961
2962 <s>As for Aristippus of Cyrene, if he had gath­<lb></lb>ered and saved the gold
2963 which he ordered his slaves to throw away, he might <pb pagenum="15"></pb>have
2964 bought the things which he needed for the necessaries of life, and he
2965 <lb></lb>would not. </s>
2966
2967 <s>by reason of his poverty, have then been obliged to flatter the <lb></lb>tyrant
2968 Dionysius, nor would he ever have been called by him a King&#039;s dog. <lb></lb></s>
2969
2970 <s>For this reason Horace, speaking of Damasippus when reviling Staberus for
2971 <lb></lb>valuing riches very highly, says:</s>
2972 </p>
2973 <p type="main">
2974
2975 <s>“What resemblance has the Grecian Aristippus to this fellow? <lb></lb></s>
2976
2977 <s>He who commanded his slaves to throw away the gold in the midst of <lb></lb>Libya
2978 because they went too slowly, impeded by the weight of their
2979 <lb></lb>burden—which of these two men is the more insane?”<emph type="sup"></emph>21<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
2980 </p>
2981 <p type="main">
2982
2983 <s>Insane indeed is he who makes more of riches than of virtue. </s>
2984
2985 <s>Insane <lb></lb>also is he who rejects them and considers them as worth nothing,
2986 instead of <lb></lb>using them with reason. </s>
2987
2988 <s>Yet as to the gold which Aristippus on another <lb></lb>occasion flung into the
2989 sea from a boat, this he did with a wise and prudent <lb></lb>mind. </s>
2990
2991 <s>For learning that it was a pirate boat in which he was sailing, and
2992 <lb></lb>fearing for his life, he counted his gold and then throwing it of his
2993 own will <lb></lb>into the sea, he groaned as if he had done it unwillingly. </s>
2994
2995 <s>But afterward, <lb></lb>when he escaped the peril, he said: “It is better
2996 that this gold itself should <lb></lb>be lost than that I should have perished
2997 because of it.” Let it be granted <lb></lb>that some philosophers, as well
2998 as Anacreon of Teos, despised gold and <lb></lb>silver. </s>
2999
3000 <s>Anaxagoras of Clazomenae also gave up his sheep-farms and <lb></lb>became a
3001 shepherd. </s>
3002
3003 <s>Crates the Theban too, being annoyed that his <lb></lb>estate and other kinds of
3004 wealth caused him worry, and that in his con­<lb></lb>templations his mind
3005 was thereby distracted, resigned a property valued at <lb></lb>ten talents, and
3006 taking a cloak and wallet, in poverty devoted all his <lb></lb>thought and
3007 efforts to philosophy. </s>
3008
3009 <s>Is it true that because these philo­<lb></lb>sophers despised money, all
3010 others declined wealth in cattle? </s>
3011
3012 <s>Did they <lb></lb>refuse to cultivate lands or to dwell in houses? </s>
3013
3014 <s>There were certainly many, <lb></lb>on the other hand, who, though affluent,
3015 became famous in the pursuit of <lb></lb>learning and in the knowledge of divine
3016 and human laws, such as Aristotle, <lb></lb>Cicero, and Seneca. </s>
3017
3018 <s>As for Phocion, he did not deem it honest to accept the <lb></lb>gold sent to him
3019 by Alexander. </s>
3020
3021 <s>For if he had consented to use it, the <lb></lb>king as much as himself would
3022 have incurred the hatred and aversion of <lb></lb>the Athenians, and these very
3023 people were afterward so ungrateful toward <lb></lb>this excellent man that they
3024 compelled him to drink hemlock. </s>
3025
3026 <s>For what <lb></lb>would have been less becoming to Marcus Curius and Fabricius
3027 Luscinus <lb></lb>than to accept gold from their enemies, who hoped that by
3028 these means <lb></lb>those leaders could be corrupted or would become odious to
3029 their fellow <lb></lb>citizens, their purpose being to cause dissentions among
3030 the Romans and <lb></lb>destroy the Republic utterly. </s>
3031
3032 <s>Lycurgus, however, ought to have given <lb></lb>instructions to the Spartans as
3033 to the use of gold and silver, instead of <lb></lb>abolishing things good in
3034 themselves. </s>
3035
3036 <s>As to the Babytacenses, who does <lb></lb>not see that they were senseless and
3037 envious? </s>
3038
3039 <s>For with their gold they might <lb></lb>have bought things of which they were in
3040 need, or even given it to neigh­<lb></lb>bouring peoples to bind them more
3041 closely to themselves with gifts and <lb></lb>favours. </s>
3042
3043 <s>Finally, the Scythians, by condemning the use of gold and silver <pb pagenum="16"></pb>alone, did not free themselves utterly from avarice,
3044 because although he is not <lb></lb>enjoying them, one who can possess other
3045 forms of property may also <lb></lb>become avaricious.</s>
3046 </p>
3047 <p type="main">
3048
3049 <s>Now let us reply to the attacks hurled against the products of mines.
3050 <lb></lb></s>
3051
3052 <s>In the first place, they call gold and silver the scourge of mankind because
3053 <lb></lb>they are the cause of destruction and ruin to their possessors. </s>
3054
3055 <s>But in this <lb></lb>manner, might not anything that we possess be called a
3056 scourge to <lb></lb>human kind,—whether it be a horse, or a garment, or
3057 anything else? <lb></lb></s>
3058
3059 <s>For, whether one rides a splendid horse, or journeys well clad, he would
3060 <lb></lb>give occasion to a robber to kill him. </s>
3061
3062 <s>Are we then not to ride on horses, <lb></lb>but to journey on foot, because a
3063 robber has once committed a murder in <lb></lb>order that he may steal a horse? </s>
3064
3065 <s>Or are we not to possess clothing, because <lb></lb>a vagabond with a sword has
3066 taken a traveller&#039;s life that he may rob him <lb></lb>of his garment? </s>
3067
3068 <s>The possession of gold and silver is similar. </s>
3069
3070 <s>Seeing <lb></lb>then that men cannot conveniently do all these things, we should
3071 be on our <lb></lb>guard against robbers, and because we cannot always protect
3072 ourselves <lb></lb>from their hands, it is the special duty of the magistrate to
3073 seize wicked and <lb></lb>villainous men for torture, and, if need be, for
3074 execution.</s>
3075 </p>
3076 <p type="main">
3077
3078 <s>Again, the products of the mines are not themselves the cause of war.
3079 <lb></lb></s>
3080
3081 <s>Thus, for example, when a tyrant, inflamed with passion for a woman of
3082 <lb></lb>great beauty, makes war on the inhabitants of her city, the fault lies
3083 in the <lb></lb>unbridled lust of the tyrant and not in the beauty of the woman. </s>
3084
3085 <s>Likewise, <lb></lb>when another man, blinded by a passion for gold and silver,
3086 makes war <lb></lb>upon a wealthy people, we ought not to blame the metals but
3087 transfer all <lb></lb>blame to avarice. </s>
3088
3089 <s>For frenzied deeds and disgraceful actions, which are <lb></lb>wont to weaken and
3090 dishonour natural and civil laws, originate from our <lb></lb>own vices. </s>
3091
3092 <s>Wherefore Tibullus is wrong in laying the blame for war on <lb></lb>gold, when he
3093 says: “This is the fault of a rich man&#039;s gold; there were <lb></lb>no wars
3094 when beech goblets were used at banquets.” But Virgil, speaking of
3095 <lb></lb>Polymnestor, says that the crime of the murderer rests on avarice:</s>
3096 </p>
3097 <p type="main">
3098
3099 <s>“He breaks all law; he murders Polydorus, and obtains gold by
3100 <lb></lb>violence. </s>
3101
3102 <s>To what wilt thou not drive mortal hearts, thou accursed <lb></lb>hunger for
3103 gold?”</s>
3104 </p>
3105 <p type="main">
3106
3107 <s>And again, justly, he says, speaking of Pygmalion, who killed Sichaeus:</s>
3108 </p>
3109 <p type="main">
3110
3111 <s>“And blinded with the love of gold, he slew him unawares with
3112 <lb></lb>stealthy sword.”<emph type="sup"></emph>22<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
3113 </p>
3114 <p type="main">
3115
3116 <s>For lust and eagerness after gold and other things make men blind, and
3117 <lb></lb>this wicked greed for money, all men in all times and places have
3118 considered <lb></lb>dishonourable and criminal. </s>
3119
3120 <s>Moreover, those who have been so addicted to <lb></lb>avarice as to be its slaves
3121 have always been regarded as mean and sordid. <lb></lb></s>
3122
3123 <s>Similarly, too, if by means of gold and silver and gems men can overcome
3124 <lb></lb>the chastity of women, corrupt the honour of many people, bribe the
3125 course <lb></lb>of justice and commit innumerable wickednesses, it is not the
3126 metals which <lb></lb>are to be blamed, but the evil passions of men which
3127 become inflamed and <lb></lb>ignited; or it is due to the blind and impious
3128 desires of their minds. </s>
3129
3130 <s>But <pb pagenum="17"></pb>although these attacks against gold and silver may be
3131 directed especially <lb></lb>against money, yet inasmuch as the Poets one after
3132 another condemn it, <lb></lb>their criticism must be met, and this can be done
3133 by one argument alone. <lb></lb></s>
3134
3135 <s>Money is good for those who use it well; it brings loss and evil to those who
3136 <lb></lb>use it ill. </s>
3137
3138 <s>Hence, very rightly, Horace says:</s>
3139 </p>
3140 <p type="main">
3141
3142 <s>“Dost thou not know the value of money; and what uses it serves?</s>
3143 </p>
3144 <p type="main">
3145
3146 <s>It buys bread, vegetables, and a pint of wine.”</s>
3147 </p>
3148 <p type="main">
3149
3150 <s>And again in another place:</s>
3151 </p>
3152 <p type="main">
3153
3154 <s>“Wealth hoarded up is the master or slave of each possessor; it
3155 <lb></lb>should follow rather than lead, the ‘twisted rope.’
3156 ”<emph type="sup"></emph>23<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
3157 </p>
3158 <p type="main">
3159
3160 <s>When ingenious and clever men considered carefully the system of barter,
3161 <lb></lb>which ignorant men of old employed and which even to-day is used by
3162 <lb></lb>certain uncivilised and barbarous races, it appeared to them so
3163 troublesome <lb></lb>and laborious that they invented money. </s>
3164
3165 <s>Indeed, nothing more useful <lb></lb>could have been devised, because a small
3166 amount of gold and silver is of as <lb></lb>great value as things cumbrous and
3167 heavy; and so peoples far distant from one <lb></lb>another can, by the use of
3168 money, trade very easily in those things which <lb></lb>civilised life can
3169 scarcely do without.</s>
3170 </p>
3171 <p type="main">
3172
3173 <s>The curses which are uttered against iron, copper, and lead have no
3174 <lb></lb>weight with prudent and sensible men, because if these metals were done
3175 <lb></lb>away with, men, as their anger swelled and their fury became unbridled,
3176 <lb></lb>would assuredly fight like wild beasts with fists, heels, nails, and
3177 teeth. <lb></lb></s>
3178
3179 <s>They would strike each other with sticks, hit one another with stones, or
3180 <lb></lb>dash their foes to the ground. </s>
3181
3182 <s>Moreover, a man does not kill another with <lb></lb>iron alone, but slays by
3183 means of poison, starvation, or thirst. </s>
3184
3185 <s>He may <lb></lb>seize him by the throat and strangle him; he may bury him alive
3186 in the <lb></lb>ground; he may immerse him in water and suffocate him; he may
3187 burn <lb></lb>or hang him; so that he can make every element a participant in
3188 the death <lb></lb>of men. </s>
3189
3190 <s>Or, finally, a man may be thrown to the wild beasts. </s>
3191
3192 <s>Another <lb></lb>may be sewn up wholly except his head in a sack, and thus be
3193 left to be <lb></lb>devoured by worms; or he may be immersed in water until he
3194 is torn to <lb></lb>pieces by sea-serpents. </s>
3195
3196 <s>A man may be boiled in oil; he may be greased, <lb></lb>tied with ropes, and left
3197 exposed to be stung by flies and hornets; he may <lb></lb>be put to death by
3198 scourging with rods or beating with cudgels, or struck <lb></lb>down by stoning,
3199 or flung from a high place. </s>
3200
3201 <s>Furthermore, a man <lb></lb>may be tortured in more ways than one without the use
3202 of metals; as when <lb></lb>the executioner burns the groins and armpits of his
3203 victim with hot wax; <lb></lb>or places a cloth in his mouth gradually, so that
3204 when in breathing he <lb></lb>draws it slowly into his gullet, the executioner
3205 draws it back suddenly and <lb></lb>violently; or the victim&#039;s hands are
3206 fastened behind his back, and he is <lb></lb>drawn up little by little with a
3207 rope and then let down suddenly. </s>
3208
3209 <s>Or <lb></lb>similarly, he may be tied to a beam and a heavy stone fastened by a
3210 <lb></lb>cord to his feet, or finally his limbs may be torn asunder. </s>
3211
3212 <s>From these <lb></lb>examples we see that it is not metals that are to be
3213 condemned, but our <lb></lb>vices, such as anger, cruelty, discord, passion for
3214 power, avarice, and lust.</s>
3215 </p>
3216 <pb pagenum="18"></pb>
3217 <p type="main">
3218
3219 <s>The question next arises, whether we ought to count metals amongst <lb></lb>the
3220 number of good things or class them amongst the bad. </s>
3221
3222 <s>The Peripatetics <lb></lb>regarded all wealth as a good thing, and merely spoke
3223 of externals as having <lb></lb>to do with neither the mind nor the body. </s>
3224
3225 <s>Well, let riches be an external <lb></lb>thing. </s>
3226
3227 <s>And, as they said, many other things may be classed as good if it is <lb></lb>in
3228 one&#039;s power to use them either well or ill. </s>
3229
3230 <s>For good men employ them for <lb></lb>good, and to them they are useful. </s>
3231
3232 <s>The wicked use them badly, and to <lb></lb>them they are harmful. </s>
3233
3234 <s>There is a saying of Socrates, that just as wine <lb></lb>is influenced by the
3235 cask, so the character of riches is like their possessors. <lb></lb></s>
3236
3237 <s>The Stoics, whose custom it is to argue subtly and acutely, though they did
3238 <lb></lb>not put wealth in the category of good things, they did not count it
3239 amongst <lb></lb>the evil ones, but placed it in that class which they term
3240 neutral. </s>
3241
3242 <s>For to <lb></lb>them virtue alone is good, and vice alone evil. </s>
3243
3244 <s>The whole of what remains <lb></lb>is indifferent. </s>
3245
3246 <s>Thus, in their conviction, it matters not whether one be in <lb></lb>good health
3247 or seriously ill; whether one be handsome or deformed. </s>
3248
3249 <s>In <lb></lb>short:</s>
3250 </p>
3251 <p type="main">
3252
3253 <s>“Whether, sprung from Inachus of old, and thus hast lived <lb></lb>beneath
3254 the sun in wealth, or hast been poor and despised among men, <lb></lb>it matters
3255 not.”</s>
3256 </p>
3257 <p type="main">
3258
3259 <s>For my part, I see no reason why anything that is in itself of use should
3260 <lb></lb>not be placed in the class of good things. </s>
3261
3262 <s>At all events, metals are a <lb></lb>creation of Nature, and they supply many
3263 varied and necessary needs of the <lb></lb>human race, to say nothing about
3264 their uses in adornment, which are so <lb></lb>wonderfully blended with utility. </s>
3265
3266 <s>Therefore, it is not right to degrade them <lb></lb>from the place they hold
3267 among the good things. </s>
3268
3269 <s>In truth, if there is a <lb></lb>bad use made of them, should they on that
3270 account be rightly called evils? <lb></lb></s>
3271
3272 <s>For of what good things can we not make an equally bad or good use? </s>
3273
3274 <s>Let <lb></lb>me give examples from both classes of what we term good. </s>
3275
3276 <s>Wine, by far <lb></lb>the best drink, if drunk in moderation, aids the digestion
3277 of food, helps to <lb></lb>produce blood, and promotes the juices in all parts
3278 of the body. </s>
3279
3280 <s>It is of use <lb></lb>in nourishing not only the body but the mind as well, for
3281 it disperses our <lb></lb>dark and gloomy thoughts, frees us from cares and
3282 anxiety, and restores <lb></lb>our confidence. </s>
3283
3284 <s>If drunk in excess, however, it injures and prostrates the <lb></lb>body with
3285 serious disease. </s>
3286
3287 <s>An intoxicated man keeps nothing to himself; <lb></lb>he raves and rants, and
3288 commits many wicked and infamous acts. </s>
3289
3290 <s>On <lb></lb>this subject Theognis wrote some very clever lines, which we may
3291 render <lb></lb>thus:</s>
3292 </p>
3293 <p type="main">
3294
3295 <s>“Wine is harmful if taken with greedy lips, but if drunk in
3296 <lb></lb>moderation it is wholesome.”<emph type="sup"></emph>25<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
3297 </p>
3298 <p type="main">
3299
3300 <s>But I linger too long over extraneous matters. </s>
3301
3302 <s>I must pass on to the <lb></lb>gifts of body and mind, amongst which strength,
3303 beauty, and genius <lb></lb>occur to me. </s>
3304
3305 <s>If then a man, relying on his strength, toils hard to maintain <lb></lb>himself
3306 and his family in an honest and respectable manner, he uses the <lb></lb>gift
3307 aright, but if he makes a living out of murder and robbery, he uses it
3308 <lb></lb>wrongly. </s>
3309
3310 <s>Likewise, too, if a lovely woman is anxious to please her husband <pb pagenum="19"></pb>alone she uses her beauty aright, but if she lives
3311 wantonly and is a victim <lb></lb>of passion, she misuses her beauty. </s>
3312
3313 <s>In like manner, a youth who devotes <lb></lb>himself to learning and cultivates
3314 the liberal arts, uses his genius rightly. <lb></lb></s>
3315
3316 <s>But he who dissembles, lies, cheats, and deceives by fraud and dishonesty,
3317 <lb></lb>misuses his abilities. </s>
3318
3319 <s>Now, the man who, because they are abused, denies that <lb></lb>wine, strength,
3320 beauty, or genius are good things, is unjust and blasphemous <lb></lb>towards
3321 the Most High God, Creator of the World; so he who would remove <lb></lb>metals
3322 from the class of blessings also acts unjustly and blasphemously
3323 <lb></lb>against Him. </s>
3324
3325 <s>Very true, therefore, are the words which certain Greek <lb></lb>poets have
3326 written, as Pindar:</s>
3327 </p>
3328 <p type="main">
3329
3330 <s>“Money glistens, adorned with virtue; it supplies the means by
3331 <lb></lb>which thou mayest act well in whatever circumstances fate may <lb></lb>have
3332 in store for thee.”<emph type="sup"></emph>26<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
3333 </p>
3334 <p type="main">
3335
3336 <s>And Sappho:</s>
3337 </p>
3338 <p type="main">
3339
3340 <s>“Without the love of virtue gold is a dangerous and harmful guest,
3341 <lb></lb>but when it is associated with virtue, it becomes the source and height
3342 <lb></lb>of good.”</s>
3343 </p>
3344 <p type="main">
3345
3346 <s>And Callimachus:</s>
3347 </p>
3348 <p type="main">
3349
3350 <s>“Riches do not make men great without virtue; neither do virtues
3351 <lb></lb>themselves make men great without some wealth.”</s>
3352 </p>
3353 <p type="main">
3354
3355 <s>And Antiphanes:</s>
3356 </p>
3357 <p type="main">
3358
3359 <s>“Now, by the gods, why is it necessary for a man to grow rich?
3360 <lb></lb></s>
3361
3362 <s>Why does he desire to possess much money unless that he may, as <lb></lb>much as
3363 possible, help his friends, and sow the seeds of a harvest of
3364 <lb></lb>gratitude, sweetest of the goddesses.”<emph type="sup"></emph>27<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
3365 </p>
3366 <p type="main">
3367
3368 <s>Having thus refuted the arguments and contentions of adversaries, <lb></lb>let us
3369 sum up the advantages of the metals. </s>
3370
3371 <s>In the first place, they are <lb></lb>useful to the physician, for they furnish
3372 liberally the ingredients for medi­<lb></lb>cines, by which wounds and
3373 ulcers are cured, and even plagues; so that <lb></lb>certainly if there were no
3374 other reasons why we should explore the depths of <lb></lb>the earth, we should
3375 for the sake of medicine alone dig in the mines. </s>
3376
3377 <s>Again, <lb></lb>the metals are of use to painters, because they yield certain
3378 pigments which, <lb></lb>when united with the painter&#039;s slip, are injured less
3379 than others by the moisture <lb></lb>from without. </s>
3380
3381 <s>Further, mining is useful to the architects, for thus is found <lb></lb>marble,
3382 which is suitable not only for strengthening large buildings, but <lb></lb>also
3383 for decoration. </s>
3384
3385 <s>It is, moreover, helpful to those whose ambition urges <lb></lb>them toward
3386 immortal glory, because it yields metals from which are made <lb></lb>coins,
3387 statues, and other monuments, which, next to literary records, give men
3388 <lb></lb>in a sense immortality. </s>
3389
3390 <s>The metals are useful to merchants with very great cause, <lb></lb>for, as I have
3391 stated elsewhere, the use of money which is made from metals is <lb></lb>much
3392 more convenient to mankind than the old system of exchange of
3393 commodi­<lb></lb>ties. </s>
3394
3395 <s>In short, to whom are the metals not of use? </s>
3396
3397 <s>In very truth, even the works <lb></lb>of art, elegant, embellished, elaborate,
3398 useful, are fashioned in various shapes by <lb></lb>the artist from the metals
3399 gold, silver, brass, lead, and iron. </s>
3400
3401 <s>How few artists <lb></lb><pb pagenum="20"></pb>could make anything that is beautiful
3402 and perfect without using metals? </s>
3403
3404 <s>Ev<gap></gap><lb></lb>if tools of iron or brass were not used, we could not make tools
3405 of wood a<gap></gap><lb></lb>stone without the help of metal. </s>
3406
3407 <s>From all these examples are evident t<gap></gap><lb></lb>benefits and advantages
3408 derived from metals. </s>
3409
3410 <s>We should not have ha<gap></gap><lb></lb>these at all unless the science of mining and
3411 metallurgy had been discovere<gap></gap><lb></lb>and handed down to us. </s>
3412
3413 <s>Who then does not understand how highly usef<gap></gap><lb></lb>they are, nay rather,
3414 how necessary to the human race? </s>
3415
3416 <s>In a word, ma<gap></gap><lb></lb>could not do without the mining industry, nor did
3417 Divine Providence wi<gap></gap><lb></lb>that he should.</s>
3418 </p>
3419 <p type="main">
3420
3421 <s>Further, it has been asked whether to work in metals is
3422 honourab<gap></gap><lb></lb>employment for respectable people or whether it is not
3423 degrading an<gap></gap><lb></lb>dishonourable. </s>
3424
3425 <s>We ourselves count it amongst the honourable arts. </s>
3426
3427 <s>Fo<gap></gap><lb></lb>that art, the pursuit of which is unquestionably not impious,
3428 nor offensive<gap></gap><lb></lb>nor mean, we may esteem honourable. </s>
3429
3430 <s>That this is the nature of th<gap></gap><lb></lb>mining profession, inasmuch as it
3431 promotes wealth by good and hones<gap></gap><lb></lb>methods, we shall show
3432 presently. </s>
3433
3434 <s>With justice, therefore, we may clas<gap></gap><lb></lb>it amongst honourable
3435 employments. </s>
3436
3437 <s>In the first place, the occupatio<gap></gap><lb></lb>of the miner, which I must be
3438 allowed to compare with other methods o<gap></gap><lb></lb>acquiring great wealth, is
3439 just as noble as that of agriculture; for, as th<gap></gap><lb></lb>farmer, sowing
3440 his seed in his fields injures no one, however profitable they<gap></gap><lb></lb>may
3441 prove to him, so the miner digging for his metals, albeit he draws
3442 forth<gap></gap><lb></lb>great heaps of gold or silver, hurts thereby no mortal man. </s>
3443
3444 <s>Certainly these<gap></gap><lb></lb>two modes of increasing wealth are in the highest
3445 degree both noble and<gap></gap><lb></lb>honourable. </s>
3446
3447 <s>The booty of the soldier, however, is frequently impious,<gap></gap><lb></lb>because
3448 in the fury of the fighting he seizes all goods, sacred as well
3449 as<gap></gap><lb></lb>profane. </s>
3450
3451 <s>The most just king may have to declare war on cruel tyrants, <lb></lb>but in the
3452 course of it wicked men cannot lose their wealth and possessions
3453 <lb></lb>without dragging into the same calamity innocent and poor people, old
3454 <lb></lb>men, matrons, maidens, and orphans. </s>
3455
3456 <s>But the miner is able to accumu­<lb></lb>late great riches in a short time,
3457 without using any violence, fraud, o<gap></gap><lb></lb>malice. </s>
3458
3459 <s>That old saying is, therefore, not always true that “Every rich
3460 <lb></lb>man is either wicked himself, or is the heir to wickedness.”</s>
3461 </p>
3462 <p type="main">
3463
3464 <s>Some, however, who contend against us, censure and attack miners by
3465 <lb></lb>saying that they and their children must needs fall into penury after a
3466 short <lb></lb>time, because they have heaped up riches by improper means. </s>
3467
3468 <s>According <lb></lb>to them nothing is truer than the saying of the poet
3469 Naevius:</s>
3470 </p>
3471 <p type="main">
3472
3473 <s>“Ill gotten gains in ill fashion slip away.”</s>
3474 </p>
3475 <p type="main">
3476
3477 <s>The following are some of the wicked and sinful methods by which <lb></lb>they
3478 say men obtain riches from mining. </s>
3479
3480 <s>When a prospect of obtaining <lb></lb>metals shows itself in a mine, either the
3481 ruler or magistrate drives out the <lb></lb>rightful owners of the mines from
3482 possession, or a shrewd and cunning <lb></lb>neighbour perhaps brings a law-suit
3483 against the old possessors in order to <lb></lb>rob them of some part of their
3484 property. </s>
3485
3486 <s>Or the mine superintendent imposes<gap></gap><lb></lb>on the owners such a heavy
3487 contribution on shares, that if they cannot pay, <lb></lb>or will not, they lose
3488 their rights of possession; while the superintendent, <lb></lb>contrary to all
3489 that is right, seizes upon all that they have lost. </s>
3490
3491 <s>Or, <pb pagenum="21"></pb>finally, the mine foreman may conceal the vein by
3492 plastering over with <lb></lb>clay that part where the metal abounds, or by
3493 covering it with earth, <lb></lb>stones, stakes, or poles, in the hope that
3494 after several years the pro­<lb></lb>prietors, thinking the mine exhausted,
3495 will abandon it, and the foreman <lb></lb>can then excavate that remainder of
3496 the ore and keep it for himself. <lb></lb></s>
3497
3498 <s>They even state that the scum of the miners exist wholly by fraud,
3499 <lb></lb>deceit, and lying. </s>
3500
3501 <s>For to speak of nothing else, but only of those <lb></lb>deceits which are
3502 practised in buying and selling, it is said they either <lb></lb>advertise the
3503 veins with false and imaginary praises, so that they can <lb></lb>sell the
3504 shares in the mines at one-half more than they are worth, or <lb></lb>on the
3505 contrary, they sometimes detract from the estimate of them so <lb></lb>that they
3506 can buy shares for a small price. </s>
3507
3508 <s>By exposing such frauds our <lb></lb>critics suppose all good opinion of miners
3509 is lost. </s>
3510
3511 <s>Now, all wealth, <lb></lb>whether it has been gained by good or evil means, is
3512 liable by some adverse <lb></lb>chance to vanish away. </s>
3513
3514 <s>It decays and is dissipated by the fault and care­<lb></lb>lessness of the
3515 owner, since he loses it through laziness and neglect, or <lb></lb>wastes and
3516 squanders it in luxuries, or he consumes and exhausts it in gifts, <lb></lb>or
3517 he dissipates and throws it away in gambling:</s>
3518 </p>
3519 <p type="main">
3520
3521 <s>“Just as though money sprouted up again, renewed from an exhausted
3522 <lb></lb>coffer, and was always to be obtained from a full heap.”</s>
3523 </p>
3524 <p type="main">
3525
3526 <s>It is therefore not to be wondered at if miners do not keep in mind the
3527 <lb></lb>counsel given by King Agathocles: “Unexpected fortune should be
3528 held <lb></lb>in reverence,” for by not doing so they fall into penury;
3529 and particularly <lb></lb>when the miners are not content with moderate riches,
3530 they not rarely spend <lb></lb>on new mines what they have accumulated from
3531 others. </s>
3532
3533 <s>But no just ruler <lb></lb>or magistrate deprives owners of their possessions;
3534 that, however, may be <lb></lb>done by a tyrant, who may cruelly rob his
3535 subjects not only of their goods <lb></lb>honestly obtained, but even of life
3536 itself. </s>
3537
3538 <s>And yet whenever I have inquired <lb></lb>into the complaints which are in common
3539 vogue, I always find that the <lb></lb>owners who are abused have the best of
3540 reasons for driving the men from <lb></lb>the mines; while those who abuse the
3541 owners have no reason to complain <lb></lb>about them. </s>
3542
3543 <s>Take the case of those who, not having paid their contributions, <lb></lb>have
3544 lost the right of possession, or those who have been expelled by the
3545 magis­<lb></lb>trate out of another man&#039;s mine: for some wicked men, mining
3546 the small <lb></lb>veins branching from the veins rich in metal, are wont to
3547 invade the property <lb></lb>of another person. </s>
3548
3549 <s>So the magistrate expels these men accused of wrong, <lb></lb>and drives them
3550 from the mine. </s>
3551
3552 <s>They then very frequently spread <lb></lb>unpleasant rumours concerning this
3553 amongst the populace. </s>
3554
3555 <s>Or, to take <lb></lb>another case: when, as often happens, a dispute arises
3556 between neighbours, <lb></lb>arbitrators appointed by the magistrate settle it,
3557 or the regular judges <lb></lb>investigate and give judgment. </s>
3558
3559 <s>Consequently, when the judgment is given, <lb></lb>inasmuch as each party has
3560 consented to submit to it, neither side should <lb></lb>complain of injustice;
3561 and when the controversy is adjudged, inasmuch as <lb></lb>the decision is in
3562 accordance with the laws concerning mining, one of the <lb></lb>parties cannot
3563 be injured by the law. </s>
3564
3565 <s>I do not vigorously contest the point, <lb></lb>that at times a mine
3566 superintendent may exact a larger contribution <pb pagenum="22"></pb>from the
3567 owners than necessity demands. </s>
3568
3569 <s>Nay, I will admit that a for<gap></gap><lb></lb>man may plaster over, or hide with a
3570 structure, a vein where it is rich i<gap></gap><lb></lb>metals. </s>
3571
3572 <s>Is the wickedness of one or two to brand the many honest wit<gap></gap><lb></lb>fraud
3573 and trickery? </s>
3574
3575 <s>What body is supposed to be more pious and virtuou<gap></gap><lb></lb>in the Republic
3576 than the Senate? </s>
3577
3578 <s>Yet some Senators have been detecte<gap></gap><lb></lb>in peculations, and have been
3579 punished. </s>
3580
3581 <s>Is this any reason that so honour<gap></gap><lb></lb>able a house should lose its good
3582 name and fame? </s>
3583
3584 <s>The superintenden<gap></gap><lb></lb>cannot exact contributions from the owners
3585 without the knowledge an<gap></gap><lb></lb>permission of the Bergmeister or the
3586 deputies; for this reason decep<gap></gap><lb></lb>tion of this kind is impossible. </s>
3587
3588 <s>Should the foremen be convicted o<gap></gap><lb></lb>fraud, they are beaten with rods;
3589 or of theft, they are hanged. </s>
3590
3591 <s>I<gap></gap><lb></lb>is complained that some sellers and buyers of the shares in mines
3592 ar<gap></gap><lb></lb>fraudulent. </s>
3593
3594 <s>I concede it. </s>
3595
3596 <s>But can they deceive anyone except a stupid<gap></gap><lb></lb>careless man, unskilled
3597 in mining matters? </s>
3598
3599 <s>Indeed, a wise and pruden<gap></gap><lb></lb>man, skilled in this art, if he doubts
3600 the trustworthiness of a seller o<gap></gap><lb></lb>buyer, goes at once to the mine
3601 that he may for himself examine the vei<gap></gap><lb></lb>which has been so greatly
3602 praised or disparaged, and may consider whethe<gap></gap><lb></lb>he will buy or sell
3603 the shares or not. </s>
3604
3605 <s>But people say, though such an on<gap></gap><lb></lb>can be on his guard against
3606 fraud, yet a simple man and one who is easil<gap></gap><lb></lb>credulous, is
3607 deceived. </s>
3608
3609 <s>But we frequently see a man who is trying to mislea<gap></gap><lb></lb>another in this
3610 way deceive himself, and deservedly become a laughing<gap></gap><lb></lb>stock for
3611 everyone; or very often the defrauder as well as the dupe
3612 i<gap></gap><lb></lb>entirely ignorant of mining. </s>
3613
3614 <s>If, for instance, a vein has been found to b<gap></gap><lb></lb>abundant in ore,
3615 contrary to the idea of the would-be deceiver, then he wh<gap></gap><lb></lb>was to
3616 have been cheated gets a profit, and he who has been the
3617 deceive<gap></gap><lb></lb>loses. </s>
3618
3619 <s>Nevertheless, the miners themselves rarely buy or sell shares,
3620 bu<gap></gap><lb></lb>generally they have <emph type="italics"></emph>jurati
3621 venditores<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>28<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> who buy and sell at such prices as the<gap></gap><lb></lb>have been
3622 instructed to give or accept. </s>
3623
3624 <s>Seeing therefore, that magistrate<gap></gap><lb></lb>decide disputes on fair and just
3625 principles, that honest men deceive nobody<gap></gap><lb></lb>while a dishonest one
3626 cannot deceive easily, or if he does he cannot do s<gap></gap><lb></lb>with impunity,
3627 the criticism of those who wish to disparage the honesty <gap></gap><lb></lb>miners
3628 has therefore no force or weight.</s>
3629 </p>
3630 <p type="main">
3631
3632 <s>In the next place, the occupation of the miner is objectionable
3633 t<gap></gap><lb></lb>nobody. </s>
3634
3635 <s>For who, unless he be naturally malevolent and envious, wi<gap></gap><lb></lb>hate the
3636 man who gains wealth as it were from heaven? </s>
3637
3638 <s>Or who will hat<gap></gap><lb></lb>a man who to amplify his fortune, adopts a method
3639 which is free fro<gap></gap><lb></lb>reproach? </s>
3640
3641 <s>A moneylender, if he demands an excessive interest, incurs
3642 th<gap></gap><lb></lb>hatred of men. </s>
3643
3644 <s>If he demands a moderate and lawful rate, so that he is n<gap></gap><lb></lb>injurious
3645 to the public generally and does not impoverish them, he fails
3646 t<gap></gap><lb></lb>become very rich from his business. </s>
3647
3648 <s>Further, the gain derived from minin<gap></gap><lb></lb>is not sordid, for how can it
3649 be such, seeing that it is so great, so plentifu<gap></gap><lb></lb>and of so
3650 innocent a nature. </s>
3651
3652 <s>A merchant&#039;s profits are mean and base whe<gap></gap><lb></lb>he sells counterfeit and
3653 spurious merchandise, or puts far too high a pri<gap></gap><lb></lb>on goods that he
3654 has purchased for little; for this reason the mercha<gap></gap><pb pagenum="23"></pb>would be held in no less odium amongst good men than is the usurer, did
3655 <lb></lb>they not take account of the risk he runs to secure his merchandise. </s>
3656
3657 <s>In <lb></lb>truth, those who on this point speak abusively of mining for the sake
3658 of <lb></lb>detracting from its merits, say that in former days men convicted of
3659 crimes <lb></lb>and misdeeds were sentenced to the mines and were worked as
3660 slaves. </s>
3661
3662 <s>But <lb></lb>to-day the miners receive pay, and are engaged like other workmen in
3663 the <lb></lb>common trades.</s>
3664 </p>
3665 <p type="main">
3666
3667 <s>Certainly, if mining is a shameful and discreditable employment for a
3668 <lb></lb>gentleman because slaves once worked mines, then agriculture also will
3669 not be <lb></lb>a very creditable employment, because slaves once cultivated the
3670 fields, and <lb></lb>even to-day do so among the Turks; nor will architecture be
3671 considered <lb></lb>honest, because some slaves have been found skilful in that
3672 profession; <lb></lb>nor medicine, because not a few doctors have been slaves;
3673 nor will any other <lb></lb>worthy craft, because men captured by force of arms
3674 have practised it. <lb></lb></s>
3675
3676 <s>Yet agriculture, architecture, and medicine are none the less counted
3677 <lb></lb>amongst the number of honourable professions; therefore, mining
3678 <lb></lb>ought not for this reason to be excluded from them. </s>
3679
3680 <s>But suppose we <lb></lb>grant that the hired miners have a sordid employment. </s>
3681
3682 <s>We do not mean <lb></lb>by miners only the diggers and other workmen, but also
3683 those skilled in the <lb></lb>mining arts, and those who invest money in mines. </s>
3684
3685 <s>Amongst them can be <lb></lb>counted kings, princes, republics, and from these
3686 last the most esteemed <lb></lb>citizens. </s>
3687
3688 <s>And finally, we include amongst the overseers of mines the noble
3689 <lb></lb>Thucydides, the historian, whom the Athenians placed in charge of the
3690 <lb></lb>mines of Thasos.<emph type="sup"></emph>29<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> And it would
3691 not be unseemly for the owners themselves <lb></lb>to work with their own hands
3692 on the works or ore, especially if they them­<lb></lb>selves have
3693 contributed to the cost of the mines. </s>
3694
3695 <s>Just as it is not undignified <lb></lb>for great men to cultivate their own land. </s>
3696
3697 <s>Otherwise the Roman Senate <lb></lb>would not have created Dictator L. </s>
3698
3699 <s>Quintius Cincinnatus, as he was at <lb></lb>work in the fields, nor would it have
3700 summoned to the Senate House the <lb></lb>chief men of the State from their
3701 country villas. </s>
3702
3703 <s>Similarly, in our day, <lb></lb>Maximilian Cæsar would not have enrolled
3704 Conrad in the ranks of the nobles <lb></lb>known as Counts; Conrad was really
3705 very poor when he served in the mines <lb></lb>of Schneeberg, and for that
3706 reason he was nicknamed the “poor man”; but <pb pagenum="24"></pb>not many years after, he attained wealth from the mines of Fürst,
3707 which <lb></lb>is a city in Lorraine, and took his name from
3708 “Luck.”<emph type="sup"></emph>30<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> Nor would
3709 <lb></lb>King Vladislaus have restored to the Assembly of Barons, Tursius, a
3710 <lb></lb>citizen of Cracow, who became rich through the mines in that part of
3711 the <lb></lb>kingdom of Hungary which was formerly called Dacia.<emph type="sup"></emph>31<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> Nay, not even the <lb></lb>common worker in the
3712 mines is vile and abject. </s>
3713
3714 <s>For, trained to vigilance <lb></lb>and work by night and day, he has great powers
3715 of endurance when occasion <lb></lb>demands, and easily sustains the fatigues
3716 and duties of a soldier, for he is <lb></lb>accustomed to keep long vigils at
3717 night, to wield iron tools, to dig trenches, <lb></lb>to drive tunnels, to make
3718 machines, and to carry burdens. </s>
3719
3720 <s>Therefore, experts <lb></lb>in military affairs prefer the miner, not only to a
3721 commoner from the town, <lb></lb>but even to the rustic.</s>
3722 </p>
3723 <p type="main">
3724
3725 <s>But to bring this discussion to an end, inasmuch as the chief callings
3726 <lb></lb>are those of the moneylender, the soldier, the merchant, the farmer,
3727 and the <lb></lb>miner, I say, inasmuch as usury is odious, while the spoil
3728 cruelly captured <lb></lb>from the possessions of the people innocent of wrong
3729 is wicked in the sight <lb></lb>of God and man, and inasmuch as the calling of
3730 the miner excels in honour <lb></lb>and dignity that of the merchant trading for
3731 lucre, while it is not less noble <lb></lb>though far more profitable than
3732 agriculture, who can fail to realize that <lb></lb>mining is a calling of
3733 peculiar dignity? </s>
3734
3735 <s>Certainly, though it is but one of <lb></lb>ten important and excellent methods
3736 of acquiring wealth in an honourable <lb></lb>way, a careful and diligent man
3737 can attain this result in no easier way <lb></lb>than by mining.<lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
3738 </p>
3739 <p type="head">
3740
3741 <s>END OF BOOK I.</s>
3742 </p>
3743 <pb></pb>
3744 <p type="head">
3745
3746 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>BOOK II.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
3747 </p>
3748 <p type="main">
3749
3750 <s>Qualities which the perfect miner should possess <lb></lb>and the arguments which
3751 are urged for and against <lb></lb>the arts of mining and metallurgy, as well
3752 <lb></lb>as the people occupied in the industry, I <lb></lb>have sufficiently
3753 discussed in the first Book. </s>
3754
3755 <s>Now <lb></lb>I have determined to give more ample information <lb></lb>concerning the
3756 miners.</s>
3757 </p>
3758 <p type="main">
3759
3760 <s>In the first place, it is indispensable that they <lb></lb>should worship God
3761 with reverence, and that they <lb></lb>understand the matters of which I am
3762 going to speak, and that they <lb></lb>take good care that each individual
3763 performs his duties efficiently and <lb></lb>diligently. </s>
3764
3765 <s>It is decreed by Divine Providence that those who know <lb></lb>what they ought
3766 to do and then take care to do it properly, for the <lb></lb>most part meet with
3767 good fortune in all they undertake; on the other <lb></lb>hand, misfortune
3768 overtakes the indolent and those who are careless in <lb></lb>their work. </s>
3769
3770 <s>No person indeed can, without great and sustained effort and <lb></lb>labour,
3771 store in his mind the knowledge of every portion of the metallic <lb></lb>arts
3772 which are involved in operating mines. </s>
3773
3774 <s>If a man has the means <lb></lb>of paying the necessary expense, he hires as many
3775 men as he needs, and <lb></lb>sends them to the various works. </s>
3776
3777 <s>Thus formerly Sosias, the Thracian, sent <lb></lb>into the silver mines a
3778 thousand slaves whom he had hired from the Athenian <lb></lb>Nicias, the son of
3779 Niceratus<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
3780
3781 <s>But if a man cannot afford the expenditure <lb></lb>he chooses of the various
3782 kinds of mining that work which he himself can <lb></lb>most easily and
3783 efficiently do. </s>
3784
3785 <s>Of these kinds, the two most important <lb></lb>are the making prospect trenches
3786 and the washing of the sands of rivers, for <lb></lb>out of these sands are
3787 often collected gold dust, or certain black stones <lb></lb>from which tin is
3788 smelted, or even gems are sometimes found in them; the <lb></lb>trenching
3789 occasionally lays bare at the grass-roots veins which are found rich <lb></lb>in
3790 metals. </s>
3791
3792 <s>If therefore by skill or by luck, such sands or veins shall fall <lb></lb>into
3793 his hands, he will be able to establish his fortune without expenditure,
3794 <lb></lb>and from poverty rise to wealth. </s>
3795
3796 <s>If on the contrary, his hopes are not realised, <lb></lb>then he can desist from
3797 washing or digging.</s>
3798 </p>
3799 <p type="main">
3800
3801 <s>When anyone, in an endeavour to increase his fortune, meets the
3802 <lb></lb>expenditure of a mine alone, it is of great importance that he should
3803 attend <lb></lb>to his works and personally superintend everything that he has
3804 ordered to <lb></lb>be done. </s>
3805
3806 <s>For this reason, he should either have his dwelling at the mine, <pb pagenum="26"></pb>where he may always be in sight of the workmen and always
3807 take care that <lb></lb>none neglect their duties, or else he should live in the
3808 neighbourhood, so <lb></lb>that he may frequently inspect his mining works. </s>
3809
3810 <s>Then he may send word <lb></lb>by a messenger to the workmen that he is coming
3811 more frequently than <lb></lb>he really intends to come, and so either by his
3812 arrival or by the intimation <lb></lb>of it, he so frightens the workmen that
3813 none of them perform their duties <lb></lb>otherwise than diligently. </s>
3814
3815 <s>When he inspects the mines he should praise the <lb></lb>diligent workmen and
3816 occasionally give them rewards, that they and the <lb></lb>others may become
3817 more zealous in their duties; on the other hand, he <lb></lb>should rebuke the
3818 idle and discharge some of them from the mines and <lb></lb>substitute
3819 industrious men in their places. </s>
3820
3821 <s>Indeed, the owner should <lb></lb>frequently remain for days and nights in the
3822 mine, which, in truth, is no <lb></lb>habitation for the idle and luxurious; it
3823 is important that the owner who <lb></lb>is diligent in increasing his wealth,
3824 should frequently himself descend into <lb></lb>the mine, and devote some time
3825 to the study of the nature of the veins and <lb></lb>stringers, and should
3826 observe and consider all the methods of working, both <lb></lb>inside and
3827 outside the mine. </s>
3828
3829 <s>Nor is this all he ought to do, for sometimes <lb></lb>he should undertake actual
3830 labour, not thereby demeaning himself, but in <lb></lb>order to encourage his
3831 workmen by his own diligence, and to teach <lb></lb>them their art; for that
3832 mine is well conducted in which not only the <lb></lb>foreman, but also the
3833 owner himself, gives instruction as to what ought to <lb></lb>be done. </s>
3834
3835 <s>A certain barbarian, according to Xenophon, rightly remarked <lb></lb>to the King
3836 of Persia that “the eye of the master feeds the horse,”<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> for the <lb></lb>master&#039;s watchfulness
3837 in all things is of the utmost importance.</s>
3838 </p>
3839 <p type="main">
3840
3841 <s>When several share together the expenditure on a mine, it is convenient
3842 <lb></lb>and useful to elect from amongst their own number a mine captain, and
3843 <lb></lb>also a foreman. </s>
3844
3845 <s>For, since men often look after their own interests but <lb></lb>neglect those of
3846 others, they cannot in this case take care of their own without <lb></lb>at the
3847 same time looking after the interests of the others, neither can they
3848 <lb></lb>neglect the interests of the others without neglecting their own. </s>
3849
3850 <s>But if <lb></lb>no man amongst them be willing or able to undertake and sustain
3851 the bur­<lb></lb>dens of these offices, it will be to the common interest to
3852 place them in the <lb></lb>hands of most diligent men. </s>
3853
3854 <s>Formerly indeed, these things were looked <lb></lb>after by the mining
3855 prefect<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, because the owners
3856 were kings, as Priam, who <lb></lb>owned the gold mines round Abydos, or as
3857 Midas, who was the owner of <lb></lb>those situated in Mount Bermius, or as
3858 Gyges, or as Alyattes, or as Croesus, <lb></lb>who was the owner of those mines
3859 near a deserted town between Atarnea <lb></lb>and Pergamum<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; sometimes the mines belonged to a Republic,
3860 as, for <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="27"></pb>instance, the prosperous silver mines in
3861 Spain which belonged to Carthage<emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>;
3862 <lb></lb>sometimes they were the property of great and illustrious families, as
3863 were <lb></lb>the Athenian mines in Mount Laurion<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
3864 </p>
3865 <p type="main">
3866
3867 <s>When a man owns mines but is ignorant of the art of mining, then <lb></lb>it is
3868 advisable that he should share in common with others the expenses, <lb></lb>not
3869 of one only, but of several mines. </s>
3870
3871 <s>When one man alone meets the <lb></lb>expense for a long time of a whole mine, if
3872 good fortune bestows on him a <lb></lb>vein abundant in metals, or in other
3873 products, he becomes very wealthy; if, <lb></lb>on the contrary, the mine is
3874 poor and barren, in time he will lose everything <lb></lb>which he has expended
3875 on it. </s>
3876
3877 <s>But the man who, in common with others, <lb></lb>has laid out his money on
3878 several mines in a region renowned for its wealth <lb></lb>of metals, rarely
3879 spends it in vain, for fortune usually responds to his <lb></lb>hopes in part. </s>
3880
3881 <s>For when out of twelve veins in which he has a joint interest <lb></lb><pb pagenum="28"></pb>one yields an abundance of metals, it not only gives back
3882 to the owner the <lb></lb>money he has spent, but also gives a profit besides;
3883 certainly there will <lb></lb>be for him rich and profitable mining, if of the
3884 whole number, three, or four, <lb></lb>or more veins should yield metal. </s>
3885
3886 <s>Very similar to this is the advice which <lb></lb>Xenophon gave to the Athenians
3887 when they wished to prospect for new <lb></lb>veins of silver without suffering
3888 loss. </s>
3889
3890 <s>“There are,” he said, “ten tribes <lb></lb>of Athenians; if,
3891 therefore, the State assigned an equal number of <lb></lb>slaves to each tribe,
3892 and the tribes participated equally in all the new veins, <lb></lb>undoubtedly
3893 by this method, if a rich vein of silver were found by one tribe,
3894 <lb></lb>whatever profit were made from it would assuredly be shared by the
3895 whole <lb></lb>number. </s>
3896
3897 <s>And if two, three, or four tribes, or even half the whole number <lb></lb>find
3898 veins, their works would then become more profitable; and it is not
3899 <lb></lb>“probable that the work of all the tribes will be
3900 disappointing”<emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> Although
3901 <lb></lb>this advice of Xenophon is full of prudence, there is no opportunity
3902 for it <lb></lb>except in free and wealthy States; for those people who are
3903 under the <lb></lb>authority of kings and princes, or are kept in subjection by
3904 tyranny, do not <lb></lb>dare, without permission, to incur such expenditure;
3905 those who are endowed <lb></lb>with little wealth and resources cannot do so on
3906 account of insufficient funds. <lb></lb></s>
3907
3908 <s>Moreover, amongst our race it is not customary for Republics to have slaves
3909 <lb></lb>whom they can hire out for the benefit of the people<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; but, instead, now­<lb></lb>adays those who
3910 are in authority administer the funds for mining in the name <lb></lb>of the
3911 State, not unlike private individuals.</s>
3912 </p>
3913 <pb pagenum="29"></pb>
3914 <p type="main">
3915
3916 <s>Some owners prefer to buy shares<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> in
3917 mines abounding in metals, <lb></lb>rather than to be troubled themselves to
3918 search for the veins; these men <lb></lb>employ an easier and less uncertain
3919 method of increasing their property. <lb></lb></s>
3920
3921 <s>Although their hopes in the shares of one or another mine may be frustrated,
3922 <lb></lb>the buyers of shares should not abandon the rest of the mines, for all
3923 the <lb></lb>money expended will be recovered with interest from some other
3924 mine. <lb></lb></s>
3925
3926 <s>They should not buy only high priced shares in those mines producing metals,
3927 <lb></lb>nor should they buy too many in neighbouring mines where metal has not
3928 <lb></lb>yet been found, lest, should fortune not respond, they may be exhausted
3929 by <lb></lb>their losses and have nothing with which they may meet their
3930 expenses <lb></lb>or buy other shares which may replace their losses. </s>
3931
3932 <s>This calamity over­<lb></lb>takes those who wish to grow suddenly rich from
3933 mines, and instead, they <lb></lb>become very much poorer than before. </s>
3934
3935 <s>So then, in the buying of shares, <lb></lb>as in other matters, there should be a
3936 certain limit of expenditure which <lb></lb>miners should set themselves, lest
3937 blinded by the desire for excessive wealth, <lb></lb>they throw all their money
3938 away. </s>
3939
3940 <s>Moreover, a prudent owner, before he <lb></lb>buys shares, ought to go to the
3941 mine and carefully examine the nature of the <lb></lb>vein, for it is very
3942 important that he should be on his guard lest fraudulent <lb></lb>sellers of
3943 shares should deceive him. </s>
3944
3945 <s>Investors in shares may perhaps <lb></lb>become less wealthy, but they are more
3946 certain of some gain than those who <lb></lb>mine for metals at their own
3947 expense, as they are more cautious in trusting <lb></lb>to fortune. </s>
3948
3949 <s>Neither ought miners to be altogether distrustful of fortune, as <lb></lb>we see
3950 some are, who as soon as the shares of any mine begin to go up in
3951 <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="30"></pb>value, sell them, on which account they
3952 seldom obtain even moderate wealth. <lb></lb></s>
3953
3954 <s>There are some people who wash over the dumps from exhausted and
3955 <lb></lb>abandoned mines, and those dumps which are derived from the drains of
3956 <lb></lb>tunnels; and others who smelt the old slags; from all of which they
3957 make an <lb></lb>ample return.</s>
3958 </p>
3959 <p type="main">
3960
3961 <s>Now a miner, before he begins to mine the veins, must consider seven
3962 <lb></lb>things, namely:—the situation, the conditions, the water, the
3963 roads, the <lb></lb>climate, the right of ownership, and the neighbours. </s>
3964
3965 <s>There are four kinds <lb></lb>of situations—mountain, hill, valley, and
3966 plain. </s>
3967
3968 <s>Of these four, the <lb></lb>first two are the most easily mined, because in them
3969 tunnels can be <lb></lb>driven to drain off the water, which often makes mining
3970 operations very <lb></lb>laborious, if it does not stop them altogether. </s>
3971
3972 <s>The last two kinds of <lb></lb>ground are more troublesome, especially because
3973 tunnels cannot be driven <lb></lb>in such places. </s>
3974
3975 <s>Nevertheless, a prudent miner considers all these four <lb></lb>sorts of
3976 localities in the region in which he happens to be, and he searches for
3977 <lb></lb>veins in those places where some torrent or other agency has removed
3978 and <lb></lb>swept the soil away; yet he need not prospect everywhere, but since
3979 there <lb></lb>is a great variety, both in mountains and in the three other
3980 kinds of <lb></lb>localities, he always selects from them those which will give
3981 him the best <lb></lb>chance of obtaining wealth.</s>
3982 </p>
3983 <p type="main">
3984
3985 <s>In the first place, mountains differ greatly in position, some being
3986 <lb></lb>situated in even and level plains, while others are found in broken and
3987 <lb></lb>elevated regions, and others again seem to be piled up, one mountain
3988 upon <lb></lb>another. </s>
3989
3990 <s>The wise miner does not mine in mountains which are situated on <lb></lb>open
3991 plains, neither does he dig in those which are placed on the summits of
3992 <lb></lb>mountainous regions, unless by some chance the veins in those mountains
3993 <lb></lb>have been denuded of their surface covering, and abounding in metals
3994 and <lb></lb>other products, are exposed plainly to his notice,—for with
3995 regard to what <lb></lb>I have already said more than once, and though I never
3996 repeat it again, <lb></lb>I wish to emphasize this exception as to the
3997 localities which should <lb></lb>not be selected. </s>
3998
3999 <s>All districts do not possess a great number of mountains <lb></lb>crowded
4000 together; some have but one, others two, others three, or perhaps <lb></lb>a few
4001 more. </s>
4002
4003 <s>In some places there are plains lying between them; in others <lb></lb>the
4004 mountains are joined together or separated only by narrow valleys. <lb></lb></s>
4005
4006 <s>The miner should not dig in those solitary mountains, dispersed through
4007 <lb></lb>the plains and open regions, but only in those which are connected and
4008 <lb></lb>joined with others. </s>
4009
4010 <s>Then again, since mountains differ in size, some being <lb></lb>very large,
4011 others of medium height, and others more like hills than <lb></lb>mountains, the
4012 miner rarely digs in the largest or the smallest of them, <lb></lb>but generally
4013 only in those of medium size. </s>
4014
4015 <s>Moreover, mountains have a <lb></lb>great variety of shapes; for with some the
4016 slopes rise gradually, while <lb></lb>others, on the contrary, are all
4017 precipitous; in some others the slopes are <lb></lb>gradual on one side, and on
4018 the other sides precipitous; some are drawn <lb></lb>out in length; some are
4019 gently curved; others assume different <lb></lb>shapes. </s>
4020
4021 <s>But the miner may dig in all parts of them, except where there <lb></lb>are
4022 precipices, and he should not neglect even these latter if metallic veins
4023 <pb pagenum="31"></pb>are exposed before his eyes. </s>
4024
4025 <s>There are just as great differences in hills as <lb></lb>there are in mountains,
4026 yet the miner does not dig except in those situated <lb></lb>in mountainous
4027 districts, and even very rarely in those. </s>
4028
4029 <s>It is however very <lb></lb>little to be wondered at that the hill in the Island
4030 of Lemnos was excavated, <lb></lb>for the whole is of a reddish-yellow colour,
4031 which furnishes for the inhabit­<lb></lb>ants that valuable clay so
4032 especially beneficial to mankind<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
4033
4034 <s>In like <lb></lb>manner, other hills are excavated if chalk or other varieties of
4035 earth are <lb></lb>exposed, but these are not prospected for.</s>
4036 </p>
4037 <p type="main">
4038
4039 <s>There are likewise many varieties of valleys and plains. </s>
4040
4041 <s>One kind is <lb></lb>enclosed on the sides with its outlet and entrance open;
4042 another has either <lb></lb>its entrance or its outlet open and the rest of it
4043 is closed in; both of these are <lb></lb>properly called valleys. </s>
4044
4045 <s>There is a third variety which is surrounded on all <lb></lb>sides by mountains,
4046 and these are called <emph type="italics"></emph>convalles.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4047 <s> Some valleys again, <lb></lb>have recesses, and others have none; one is wide,
4048 another narrow; one <lb></lb>is long, another short; yet another kind is not
4049 higher than the neighbouring <lb></lb>plain, and others are lower than the
4050 surrounding flat country. </s>
4051
4052 <s>But the <lb></lb>miner does not dig in those surrounded on all sides by
4053 mountains, nor in those <lb></lb>that are open, unless there be a low plain
4054 close at hand, or unless a vein <lb></lb>of metal descending from the mountains
4055 should extend into the valley. <lb></lb></s>
4056
4057 <s>Plains differ from one another, one being situated at low elevation, <lb></lb>and
4058 others higher, one being level and another with a slight incline. </s>
4059
4060 <s>The <lb></lb>miner should never excavate the low-lying plain, nor one which is
4061 perfectly <lb></lb>level, unless it be in some mountain, and rarely should he
4062 mine in the other <lb></lb>kinds of plains.</s>
4063 </p>
4064 <p type="main">
4065
4066 <s>With regard to the conditions of the locality the miner should <lb></lb>not
4067 contemplate mining without considering whether the place be <lb></lb>covered
4068 with trees or is bare. </s>
4069
4070 <s>If it be a wooded place, he who digs there <lb></lb>has this advantage, besides
4071 others, that there will be an abundant supply of <lb></lb>wood for his
4072 underground timbering, his machinery, buildings, smelting, <lb></lb>and other
4073 necessities. </s>
4074
4075 <s>If there is no forest he should not mine there unless <lb></lb>there is a river
4076 near, by which he can carry down the timber. </s>
4077
4078 <s>Yet wherever <lb></lb>there is a hope that pure gold or gems may be found, the
4079 ground can <lb></lb>be turned up, even though there is no forest, because the
4080 gems need only <lb></lb>to be polished and the gold to be purified. </s>
4081
4082 <s>Therefore the inhabitants of <lb></lb>hot regions obtain these substances from
4083 rough and sandy places, where <lb></lb>sometimes there are not even shrubs, much
4084 less woods.</s>
4085 </p>
4086 <p type="main">
4087
4088 <s>The miner should next consider the locality, as to whether it has a
4089 <lb></lb>perpetual supply of running water, or whether it is always devoid of
4090 water <lb></lb>except when a torrent supplied by rains flows down from the
4091 summits of the <lb></lb>mountains. </s>
4092
4093 <s>The place that Nature has provided with a river or stream can <pb pagenum="32"></pb>be made serviceable for many things; for water will never
4094 be wanting and <lb></lb>can be carried through wooden pipes to baths in
4095 dwelling-houses; it may <lb></lb>be carried to the works, where the metals are
4096 smelted; and finally, if the <lb></lb>conditions of the place will allow it, the
4097 water can be diverted into the <lb></lb>tunnels, so that it may turn the
4098 underground machinery. </s>
4099
4100 <s>Yet on the other <lb></lb>hand, to convey a constant supply of water by
4101 artificial means to mines <lb></lb>where Nature has denied it access, or to
4102 convey the ore to the stream, <lb></lb>increases the expense greatly, in
4103 proportion to the distance the mines are <lb></lb>away from the river.</s>
4104 </p>
4105 <p type="main">
4106
4107 <s>The miner also should consider whether the roads from the neighbouring
4108 <lb></lb>regions to the mines are good or bad, short or long. </s>
4109
4110 <s>For since a region <lb></lb>which is abundant in mining products very often
4111 yields no agricultural <lb></lb>produce, and the necessaries of life for the
4112 workmen and others must all be <lb></lb>imported, a bad and long road occasions
4113 much loss and trouble with <lb></lb>porters and carriers, and this increases the
4114 cost of goods brought in, which, <lb></lb>therefore, must be sold at high
4115 prices. </s>
4116
4117 <s>This injures not so much the work­<lb></lb>men as the masters; since on
4118 account of the high price of goods, the work­<lb></lb>men are not content
4119 with the wages customary for their labour, nor can <lb></lb>they be, and they
4120 ask higher pay from the owners. </s>
4121
4122 <s>And if the owners <lb></lb>refuse, the men will not work any longer in the mines
4123 but will go elsewhere. <lb></lb></s>
4124
4125 <s>Although districts which yield metals and other mineral products are
4126 <lb></lb>generally healthy, because, being often situated on high and lofty
4127 ground, <lb></lb>they are fanned by every wind, yet sometimes they are
4128 unhealthy, as has <lb></lb>been related in my other book, which is called
4129 “<emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura Eorum Quae <lb></lb>Effluunt ex
4130 Terra.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>” Therefore, a wise miner does not
4131 mine in such places, <lb></lb>even if they are very productive, when he
4132 perceives unmistakable signs <lb></lb>of pestilence. </s>
4133
4134 <s>For if a man mines in an unhealthy region he may be alive <lb></lb>one hour and
4135 dead the next.</s>
4136 </p>
4137 <p type="main">
4138
4139 <s>Then, the miner should make careful and thorough investigation
4140 con­<lb></lb>cerning the lord of the locality, whether he be a just and good
4141 man or a <lb></lb>tyrant, for the latter oppresses men by force of his
4142 authority, and seizes <lb></lb>their possessions for himself; but the former
4143 governs justly and lawfully <lb></lb>and serves the common good. </s>
4144
4145 <s>The miner should not start mining opera­<lb></lb>tions in a district which is
4146 oppressed by a tyrant, but should carefully <lb></lb>consider if in the vicinity
4147 there is any other locality suitable for mining and <lb></lb>make up his mind if
4148 the overlord there be friendly or inimical. </s>
4149
4150 <s>If he be <lb></lb>inimical the mine will be rendered unsafe through hostile
4151 attacks, in one of <lb></lb>which all of the gold or silver, or other mineral
4152 products, laboriously col­<lb></lb>lected with much cost, will be taken away
4153 from the owner and his workmen <lb></lb>will be struck with terror; overcome by
4154 fear, they will hastily fly, to free <lb></lb>themselves from the danger to
4155 which they are exposed. </s>
4156
4157 <s>In this case, not <lb></lb>only are the fortunes of the miner in the greatest
4158 peril but his very life is <lb></lb>in jeopardy, for which reason he should not
4159 mine in such places.</s>
4160 </p>
4161 <p type="main">
4162
4163 <s>Since several miners usually come to mine the veins in one locality, a
4164 <lb></lb>settlement generally springs up, for the miner who began first cannot
4165 keep <lb></lb>it exclusively for himself. </s>
4166
4167 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> gives permits
4168 to some to mine <pb pagenum="33"></pb>the superior and some the inferior parts
4169 of the veins; to some he gives <lb></lb>the cross veins, to others the inclined
4170 veins. </s>
4171
4172 <s>If the man who first starts <lb></lb>work finds the vein to be metal-bearing or
4173 yielding other mining products, <lb></lb>it will not be to his advantage to
4174 cease work because the neighbourhood may <lb></lb>be evil, but he will guard and
4175 defend his rights both by arms and by the law. <lb></lb></s>
4176
4177 <s>When the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> delimits the boundaries of each
4178 owner, it is the duty <lb></lb>of a good miner to keep within his bounds, and of
4179 a prudent one to repel <lb></lb>encroachments of his neighbours by the help of
4180 the law. </s>
4181
4182 <s>But this is enough <lb></lb>about the neighbourhood.</s>
4183 </p>
4184 <p type="main">
4185
4186 <s>The miner should try to obtain a mine, to which access is not difficult,
4187 <lb></lb>in a mountainous region, gently sloping, wooded, healthy, safe, and not
4188 far <lb></lb>distant from a river or stream by means of which he may convey his
4189 <lb></lb>mining products to be washed and smelted. </s>
4190
4191 <s>This indeed, is the best <lb></lb>position. </s>
4192
4193 <s>As for the others, the nearer they approximate to this position the
4194 <lb></lb>better they are; the further removed, the worse.</s>
4195 </p>
4196 <p type="main">
4197
4198 <s>Now I will discuss that kind of minerals for which it is not necessary
4199 <lb></lb>to dig, because the force of water carries them out of the veins. </s>
4200
4201 <s>Of these <lb></lb>there are two kinds, minerals—and their fragments<emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>—and juices. </s>
4202
4203 <s>When <lb></lb>there are springs at the outcrop of the veins from which, as I have
4204 already said, <lb></lb>the above-mentioned products are emitted, the miner
4205 should consider these <lb></lb>first, to see whether there are metals or gems
4206 mixed with the sand, or whether <lb></lb>the waters discharged are filled with
4207 juices. </s>
4208
4209 <s>In case metals or gems have <lb></lb>settled in the pool of the spring, not only
4210 should the sand from it be <lb></lb>washed, but also that from the streams which
4211 flow from these springs, and <lb></lb>even from the river itself into which they
4212 again discharge. </s>
4213
4214 <s>If the springs dis­<lb></lb>charge water containing some juice, this also
4215 should be collected; the further <lb></lb>such a stream has flowed from the
4216 source, the more it receives plain water and <lb></lb>the more diluted does it
4217 become, and so much the more deficient in strength. <lb></lb></s>
4218
4219 <s>If the stream receives no water of another kind, or scarcely any, not only
4220 <lb></lb>the rivers, but likewise the lakes which receive these waters, are of
4221 the same <lb></lb>nature as the springs, and serve the same uses; of this kind
4222 is the lake <lb></lb>which the Hebrews call the Dead Sea, and which is quite
4223 full of bituminous <lb></lb>fluids<emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
4224
4225 <s>But I must return to the subject of the sands.</s>
4226 </p>
4227 <p type="main">
4228
4229 <s>Springs may discharge their waters into a sea, a lake, a marsh, a river,
4230 <lb></lb>or a stream; but the sand of the sea-shore is rarely washed, for
4231 although the <lb></lb>water flowing down from the springs into the sea carries
4232 some metals or <lb></lb>gems with it, yet these substances can scarcely ever be
4233 reclaimed, because <lb></lb>they are dispersed through the immense body of
4234 waters and mixed up with <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="34"></pb>other sand, and
4235 scattered far and wide in different directions, or they <lb></lb>sink down into
4236 the depths of the sea. </s>
4237
4238 <s>For the same reasons, the sands of <lb></lb>lakes can very rarely be washed
4239 successfully, even though the streams rising <lb></lb>from the mountains pour
4240 their whole volume of water into them. </s>
4241
4242 <s>The <lb></lb>particles of metals and gems from the springs are very rarely
4243 carried into the <lb></lb>marshes, which are generally in level and open places. </s>
4244
4245 <s>Therefore, the <lb></lb>miner, in the first place, washes the sand of the spring,
4246 then of the stream <lb></lb>which flows from it, then finally, that of the river
4247 into which the stream <lb></lb>discharges. </s>
4248
4249 <s>It is not worth the trouble to wash the sands of a large <lb></lb>river which is
4250 on a level plain at a distance from the mountains. </s>
4251
4252 <s>Where <lb></lb>several springs carrying metals discharge their waters into one
4253 river, there <lb></lb>is more hope of productive results from washing. </s>
4254
4255 <s>The miner does not <lb></lb>neglect even the sands of the streams in which
4256 excavated ores have been <lb></lb>washed.</s>
4257 </p>
4258 <p type="main">
4259
4260 <s>The waters of springs taste according to the juice they contain, and
4261 <lb></lb>they differ greatly in this respect. </s>
4262
4263 <s>There are six kinds of these tastes which <lb></lb>the worker<emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> especially observes and examines; there is
4264 the salty kind, <lb></lb>which shows that salt may be obtained by evaporation;
4265 the nitrous, which <lb></lb>indicates soda; the aluminous kind, which indicates
4266 alum; the vitrioline, <lb></lb>which indicates vitriol; the sulphurous kind,
4267 which indicates sulphur; <lb></lb>and as for the bituminous juice, out of which
4268 bitumen is melted down, the <lb></lb>colour itself proclaims it to the worker
4269 who is evaporating it. </s>
4270
4271 <s>The sea­<lb></lb>water however, is similar to that of salt springs, and may
4272 be drawn into <lb></lb>low-lying pits, and, evaporated by the heat of the sun,
4273 changes of <lb></lb>itself into salt; similarly the water of some salt-lakes
4274 turns to salt when dried <lb></lb>by the heat of summer. </s>
4275
4276 <s>Therefore an industrious and diligent man observes <lb></lb>and makes use of
4277 these things and thus contributes something to the <lb></lb>common welfare.</s>
4278 </p>
4279 <p type="main">
4280
4281 <s>The strength of the sea condenses the liquid bitumen which flows into <lb></lb>it
4282 from hidden springs, into amber and jet, as I have described already in
4283 <lb></lb>my books “<emph type="italics"></emph>De Subterraneorum Ortu et
4284 Causis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>”<emph type="sup"></emph>15<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
4285
4286 <s>The sea, with certain <lb></lb><pb pagenum="35"></pb>directions of the wind, throws
4287 both these substances on shore, and for this <lb></lb>reason the search for
4288 amber demands as much care as does that for coral.</s>
4289 </p>
4290 <p type="main">
4291
4292 <s>Moreover, it is necessary that those who wash the sand or evaporate <lb></lb>the
4293 water from the springs, should be careful to learn the nature of the
4294 <lb></lb>locality, its roads, its salubrity, its overlord, and the neighbours,
4295 lest on <lb></lb>account of difficulties in the conduct of their business they
4296 become either <lb></lb>impoverished by exhaustive expenditure, or their goods
4297 and lives are <lb></lb>imperilled. </s>
4298
4299 <s>But enough about this.</s>
4300 </p>
4301 <p type="main">
4302
4303 <s>The miner, after he has selected out of many places one particular spot
4304 <lb></lb>adapted by Nature for mining, bestows much labour and attention on the
4305 <lb></lb>veins. </s>
4306
4307 <s>These have either been stripped bare of their covering by chance <lb></lb>and
4308 thus lie exposed to our view, or lying deeply hidden and concealed they
4309 <lb></lb>are found after close search; the latter is more usual, the former more
4310 <lb></lb>rarely happens, and both of these occurrences must be explained. </s>
4311
4312 <s>There <lb></lb>is more than one force which can lay bare the veins unaided by the
4313 industry <lb></lb>or toil of man; since either a torrent might strip off the
4314 surface, which hap­<lb></lb>pened in the case of the silver mines of
4315 Freiberg (concerning which I have <pb pagenum="36"></pb>written in Book I. of my
4316 work “<emph type="italics"></emph>De Veteribus et Novís
4317 Metallís<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>”)<emph type="sup"></emph>16<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; or they <lb></lb>may be exposed through the
4318 force of the wind, when it uproots and destroys <lb></lb>the trees which have
4319 grown over the veins; or by the breaking away of the <lb></lb>rocks; or by
4320 long-continued heavy rains tearing away the mountain; or by <lb></lb>an
4321 earthquake; or by a lightning flash; or by a snowslide; or by the
4322 <lb></lb>violence of the winds: “Of such a nature are the rocks hurled
4323 down from <lb></lb>the mountains by the force of the winds aided by the ravages
4324 of time.” Or <lb></lb>the plough may uncover the veins, for Justin relates
4325 in his history that <lb></lb>nuggets of gold had been turned up in Galicia by
4326 the plough; or this may <lb></lb>occur through a fire in the forest, as Diodorus
4327 Siculus tells us happened in the <lb></lb>silver mines in Spain; and that saying
4328 of Posidonius is appropriate enough: <lb></lb>“The earth violently moved
4329 by the fires consuming the forest sends forth new <lb></lb>products, namely,
4330 gold and silver.”<emph type="sup"></emph>17<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
4331
4332 <s>And indeed, Lucretius has ex­<lb></lb>plained the same thing more fully in
4333 the following lines: “Copper and gold <lb></lb>and iron were discovered,
4334 and at the same time weighty silver and the sub­<lb></lb>stance of lead,
4335 when fire had burned up vast forests on the great hills, either <lb></lb>by a
4336 discharge of heaven&#039;s lightning, or else because, when men were waging
4337 <lb></lb>war with one another, forest fires had carried fire among the enemy in
4338 order to <lb></lb>strike terror to them, or because, attracted by the goodness
4339 of the soil, they <lb></lb>wished to clear rich fields and bring the country
4340 into pasture, or else to destroy <lb></lb>wild beasts and enrich themselves with
4341 the game; for hunting with pitfalls <lb></lb>and with fire came into use before
4342 the practice of enclosing the wood with <lb></lb>toils and rousing the game with
4343 dogs. </s>
4344
4345 <s>Whatever the fact is, from <lb></lb><pb pagenum="37"></pb>whatever cause the heat of
4346 flame had swallowed up the forests with a frightful <lb></lb>crackling from
4347 their very roots, and had thoroughly baked the earth with <lb></lb>fire, there
4348 would run from the boiling veins and collect into the hollows of the
4349 <lb></lb>grounds a stream of silver and gold, as well as of copper and
4350 lead.”<emph type="sup"></emph>18<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> But <lb></lb>yet the
4351 poet considers that the veins are not laid bare in the first instance
4352 <lb></lb>so much by this kind of fire, but rather that all mining had its
4353 <lb></lb>origin in this. </s>
4354
4355 <s>And lastly, some other force may by chance disclose the <lb></lb>veins, for a
4356 horse, if this tale can be believed, disclosed the lead veins at <lb></lb>Goslar
4357 by a blow from his hoof<emph type="sup"></emph>19<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
4358
4359 <s>By such methods as these does fortune <lb></lb>disclose the veins to us.</s>
4360 </p>
4361 <p type="main">
4362
4363 <s>But by skill we can also investigate hidden and concealed veins, by
4364 <lb></lb>observing in the first place the bubbling waters of springs, which
4365 cannot be <lb></lb>very far distant from the veins because the source of the
4366 water is from <lb></lb>them; secondly, by examining the fragments of the veins
4367 which the torrents <lb></lb>break off from the earth, for after a long time some
4368 of these fragments are <lb></lb>again buried in the ground. </s>
4369
4370 <s>Fragments of this kind lying about on the <lb></lb>ground, if they are rubbed
4371 smooth, are a long distance from the veins, <lb></lb>because the torrent, which
4372 broke them from the vein, polished them while <lb></lb>it rolled them a long
4373 distance; but if they are fixed in the ground, or if <lb></lb>they are rough,
4374 they are nearer to the veins. </s>
4375
4376 <s>The soil also should be con­<lb></lb>sidered, for this is often the cause of
4377 veins being buried more or less deeply <lb></lb>under the earth; in this case
4378 the fragments protrude more or less widely <lb></lb>apart, and miners are wont
4379 to call the veins discovered in this manner <lb></lb>“<emph type="italics"></emph>fragmenta.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>”<emph type="sup"></emph>20<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
4380 </p>
4381 <p type="main">
4382
4383 <s>Further, we search for the veins by observing the hoar-frosts, <lb></lb>which
4384 whiten all herbage except that growing over the veins, because the
4385 <lb></lb>veins emit a warm and dry exhalation which hinders the freezing of the
4386 <lb></lb>moisture, for which reason such plants appear rather wet than whitened
4387 by <lb></lb>the frost. </s>
4388
4389 <s>This may be observed in all cold places before the grass has grown <lb></lb>to
4390 its full size, as in the months of April and May; or when the late crop of
4391 <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="38"></pb>hay, which is called the <emph type="italics"></emph>cordum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is cut with scythes in
4392 the month of <lb></lb>September. </s>
4393
4394 <s>Therefore in places where the grass has a dampness that is not
4395 con­<lb></lb>gealed into frost, there is a vein beneath: also if the
4396 exhalation be excessively <lb></lb>hot, the soil will produce only small and
4397 pale-coloured plants. </s>
4398
4399 <s>Lastly, there <lb></lb>are trees whose foliage in spring time has a bluish or
4400 leaden tint, the upper <lb></lb>branches more especially being tinged with black
4401 or with any other unnatural <lb></lb>colour, the trunks cleft in two, and the
4402 branches black or discoloured. <lb></lb></s>
4403
4404 <s>These phenomena are caused by the intensely hot and dry exhalations
4405 <lb></lb>which do not spare even the roots, but scorching them, render the trees
4406 <lb></lb>sickly; wherefore the wind will more frequently uproot trees of this
4407 kind <lb></lb>than any others. </s>
4408
4409 <s>Verily the veins do emit this exhalation. </s>
4410
4411 <s>Therefore, in a <lb></lb>place where there is a multitude of trees, if a long row
4412 of them at an unusual <lb></lb>time lose their verdure and become black or
4413 discoloured, and frequently fall <lb></lb>by the violence of the wind, beneath
4414 this spot there is a vein. </s>
4415
4416 <s>Likewise <lb></lb>along a course where a vein extends, there grows a certain herb
4417 or fungus <lb></lb>which is absent from the adjacent space, or sometimes even
4418 from the neigh­<lb></lb>bourhood of the veins. </s>
4419
4420 <s>By these signs of Nature a vein can be discovered.</s>
4421 </p>
4422 <p type="main">
4423
4424 <s>There are many great contentions between miners concerning the forked
4425 <lb></lb>twig<emph type="sup"></emph>21<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, for some say that
4426 it is of the greatest use in discovering veins, and <lb></lb>others deny it. </s>
4427
4428 <s>Some of those who manipulate and use the twig, first cut <lb></lb>a fork from a
4429 hazel bush with a knife, for this bush they consider more <lb></lb>efficacious
4430 than any other for revealing the veins, especially if the hazel <pb pagenum="39"></pb>bush grows above a vein. </s>
4431
4432 <s>Others use a different kind of twig for each metal, <lb></lb>when they are
4433 seeking to discover the veins, for they employ hazel twigs <lb></lb>for veins of
4434 silver; ash twigs for copper; pitch pine for lead and especially <lb></lb>tin,
4435 and rods made of iron and steel for gold. </s>
4436
4437 <s>All alike grasp the forks of <lb></lb>the twig with their hands, clenching their
4438 fists, it being necessary that the <lb></lb>clenched fingers should be held
4439 toward the sky in order that the twig should <lb></lb>be raised at that end
4440 where the two branches meet. </s>
4441
4442 <s>Then they wander <lb></lb>hither and thither at random through mountainous
4443 regions. </s>
4444
4445 <s>It is said <lb></lb>that the moment they place their feet on a vein the twig
4446 immediately turns <lb></lb>and twists, and so by its action discloses the vein;
4447 when they move <lb></lb>their feet again and go away from that spot the twig
4448 becomes once more <lb></lb>immobile.</s>
4449 </p>
4450 <p type="main">
4451
4452 <s>The truth is, they assert, the movement of the twig is caused by the
4453 <lb></lb>power of the veins, and sometimes this is so great that the branches of
4454 trees <lb></lb>growing near a vein are deflected toward it. </s>
4455
4456 <s>On the other hand, those <lb></lb>who say that the twig is of no use to good and
4457 serious men, also deny that <lb></lb>the motion is due to the power of the
4458 veins, because the twigs will not move <lb></lb>for everybody, but only for
4459 those who employ incantations and craft. </s>
4460
4461 <s>More­<lb></lb>over, they deny the power of a vein to draw to itself the
4462 branches of trees, <lb></lb>but they say that the warm and dry exhalations cause
4463 these contortions. <lb></lb></s>
4464
4465 <s>Those who advocate the use of the twig make this reply to these objections:
4466 <lb></lb>when one of the miners or some other person holds the twig in his
4467 hands, <lb></lb>and it is not turned by the force of a vein, this is due to some
4468 peculiarity <lb></lb>of the individual, which hinders and impedes the power of
4469 the vein, for since <lb></lb>the power of the vein in turning and twisting the
4470 twig may be not unlike <lb></lb>that of a magnet attracting and drawing iron
4471 toward itself, this hidden <lb></lb>quality of a man weakens and breaks the
4472 force, just the same as garlic <lb></lb>weakens and overcomes the strength of a
4473 magnet. </s>
4474
4475 <s>For a magnet smeared <lb></lb>with garlic juice cannot attract iron; nor does it
4476 attract the latter when <lb></lb>rusty. </s>
4477
4478 <s>Further, concerning the handling of the twig, they warn us that <lb></lb>we
4479 should not press the fingers together too lightly, nor clench them too
4480 <lb></lb>firmly, for if the twig is held lightly they say that it will fall
4481 before the force <lb></lb>of the vein can turn it; if however, it is grasped too
4482 firmly the force of the <lb></lb>hands resists the force of the veins and
4483 counteracts it. </s>
4484
4485 <s>Therefore, they <lb></lb>consider that five things are necessary to insure that
4486 the twig shall serve <lb></lb>its purpose: of these the first is the size of the
4487 twig, for the force of the <lb></lb>veins cannot turn too large a stick;
4488 secondly, there is the shape of the twig, <lb></lb>which must be forked or the
4489 vein cannot turn it; thirdly, the power of the <lb></lb>vein which has the
4490 nature to turn it; fourthly, the manipulation of the twig; <lb></lb>fifthly, the
4491 absence of impeding peculiarities. </s>
4492
4493 <s>These advocates of the twig <lb></lb>sum up their conclusions as follows: if the
4494 rod does not move for every­<lb></lb>body, it is due to unskilled
4495 manipulation or to the impeding peculiarities <lb></lb>of the man which oppose
4496 and resist the force of the veins, as we said above, <lb></lb>and those who
4497 search for veins by means of the twig need not necessarily make
4498 <lb></lb>incantations, but it is sufficient that they handle it suitably and are
4499 devoid <lb></lb>of impeding power; therefore, the twig may be of use to good and
4500 serious </s>
4501 </p>
4502 <pb pagenum="40"></pb>
4503 <figure></figure>
4504 <p type="caption">
4505
4506 <s>A—TWIG. B—TRENCH.<lb></lb>men in discovering veins. </s>
4507
4508 <s>With regard to deflection of branches of trees <lb></lb>they say nothing and
4509 adhere to their opinion.</s>
4510 </p>
4511 <p type="main">
4512
4513 <s>Since this matter remains in dispute and causes much dissention <lb></lb>amongst
4514 miners, I consider it ought to be examined on its own merits. </s>
4515
4516 <s>The <lb></lb>wizards, who also make use of rings, mirrors and crystals, seek for
4517 veins <lb></lb>with a divining rod shaped like a fork; but its shape makes no
4518 difference <lb></lb>in the matter,—it might be straight or of some other
4519 form—for it is not <lb></lb>the form of the twig that matters, but the
4520 wizard&#039;s incantations <lb></lb>which it would not become me to repeat, neither
4521 do I wish to do so. </s>
4522
4523 <s>The <lb></lb>Ancients, by means of the divining rod, not only procured those
4524 things neces­<lb></lb>sary for a livelihood or for luxury, but they were
4525 also able to alter the forms <lb></lb>of things by it; as when the magicians
4526 changed the rods of the Egyptians <lb></lb>into serpents, as the writings of the
4527 Hebrews relate<emph type="sup"></emph>22<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; and as in Homer,
4528 <lb></lb>Minerva with a divining rod turned the aged Ulysses suddenly into a
4529 youth, <lb></lb>and then restored him back again to old age; Circe also changed
4530 Ulysses&#039; <lb></lb>companions into beasts, but afterward gave them back again
4531 their human <lb></lb>form<emph type="sup"></emph>23<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; moreover by
4532 his rod, which was called “Caduceus,” Mercury gave <lb></lb><pb pagenum="41"></pb>sleep to watchmen and awoke slumberers<emph type="sup"></emph>24<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
4533
4534 <s>Therefore it seems that the <lb></lb>divining rod passed to the mines from its
4535 impure origin with the magicians. <lb></lb></s>
4536
4537 <s>Then when good men shrank with horror from the incantations and rejected
4538 <lb></lb>them, the twig was retained by the unsophisticated common miners, and
4539 <lb></lb>in searching for new veins some traces of these ancient usages
4540 remain.</s>
4541 </p>
4542 <p type="main">
4543
4544 <s>But since truly the twigs of the miners do move, albeit they do not
4545 <lb></lb>generally use incantations, some say this movement is caused by the
4546 <lb></lb>power of the veins, others say that it depends on the manipulation, and
4547 <lb></lb>still others think that the movement is due to both these causes. </s>
4548
4549 <s>But, in <lb></lb>truth, all those objects which are endowed with the power of
4550 attraction <lb></lb>do not twist things in circles, but attract them directly to
4551 themselves; for <lb></lb>instance, the magnet does not turn the iron, but draws
4552 it directly to itself, <lb></lb>and amber rubbed until it is warm does not bend
4553 straws about, but simply <lb></lb>draws them to itself. </s>
4554
4555 <s>If the power of the veins were of a similar nature to <lb></lb>that of the magnet
4556 and the amber, the twig would not so much twist as <lb></lb>move once only, in a
4557 semi-circle, and be drawn directly to the vein, and unless <lb></lb>the strength
4558 of the man who holds the twig were to resist and oppose the <lb></lb>force of
4559 the vein, the twig would be brought to the ground; wherefore, <lb></lb>since
4560 this is not the case, it must necessarily follow that the manipulation
4561 <lb></lb>is the cause of the twig&#039;s twisting motion. </s>
4562
4563 <s>It is a conspicuous fact that <lb></lb>these cunning manipulators do not use a
4564 straight twig, but a forked one <lb></lb>cut from a hazel bush, or from some
4565 other wood equally flexible, so that if it <lb></lb>be held in the hands, as
4566 they are accustomed to hold it, it turns in a circle <lb></lb>for any man
4567 wherever he stands. </s>
4568
4569 <s>Nor is it strange that the twig does not <lb></lb>turn when held by the
4570 inexperienced, because they either grasp the forks of <lb></lb>the twig too
4571 tightly or hold them too loosely. </s>
4572
4573 <s>Nevertheless, these things <lb></lb>give rise to the faith among common miners
4574 that veins are discovered by <lb></lb>the use of twigs, because whilst using
4575 these they do accidentally discover <lb></lb>some; but it more often happens
4576 that they lose their labour, and although <lb></lb>they might discover a vein,
4577 they become none the less exhausted in <lb></lb>digging useless trenches than do
4578 the miners who prospect in an unfortunate <lb></lb>locality. </s>
4579
4580 <s>Therefore a miner, since we think he ought to be a good and <lb></lb>serious man,
4581 should not make use of an enchanted twig, because if he is <lb></lb>prudent and
4582 skilled in the natural signs, he understands that a forked stick <lb></lb>is of
4583 no use to him, for as I have said before, there are the natural
4584 indica­<lb></lb>tions of the veins which he can see for himself without the
4585 help of twigs. <lb></lb></s>
4586
4587 <s>So if Nature or chance should indicate a locality suitable for mining, the
4588 <lb></lb>miner should dig his trenches there; if no vein appears he must dig
4589 <lb></lb>numerous trenches until he discovers an outcrop of a vein.</s>
4590 </p>
4591 <p type="main">
4592
4593 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>A vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is rarely
4594 discovered by men&#039;s labour, but usually some <lb></lb>force or other reveals it,
4595 or sometimes it is discovered by a shaft or a tunnel <lb></lb>on a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>25<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.<lb></lb></s>
4596 </p>
4597 <pb pagenum="42"></pb>
4598 <p type="main">
4599
4600 <s>The veins after they have been discovered, and likewise the shafts and
4601 <lb></lb>tunnels, have names given them, either from their discoverers, as in
4602 the <lb></lb>case at Annaberg of the vein called “Kölergang,”
4603 because a charcoal <lb></lb>burner discovered it; or from their owners, as the
4604 Geyer, in Joachimstal, <lb></lb>because part of the same belonged to Geyer; or
4605 from their products, <lb></lb>as the “Pleygang” from lead, or the
4606 “Bissmutisch” at Schneeberg from <lb></lb>bismuth<emph type="sup"></emph>26<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; or from some other circumstances, such as
4607 the rich alluvials from <lb></lb>the torrent by which they were laid bare in the
4608 valley of Joachim. </s>
4609
4610 <s>More <lb></lb>often the first discoverers give the names either of persons, as
4611 those of <lb></lb>German Kaiser, Apollo, Janus; or the name of an animal, as
4612 that of lion, <lb></lb>bear, ram, or cow; or of things inanimate, as
4613 “silver chest” or “ox stalls”; <lb></lb>or of something
4614 ridiculous, as “glutton&#039;s nightshade”; or finally, for the sake
4615 <lb></lb>of a good omen, they call it after the Deity. </s>
4616
4617 <s>In ancient times they <lb></lb>followed the same custom and gave names to the
4618 veins, shafts and tunnels, <lb></lb>as we read in Pliny: “It is wonderful
4619 that the shafts begun by Hannibal in <lb></lb>Spain are still worked, their
4620 names being derived from their discoverers. <lb></lb></s>
4621
4622 <s>One of these at the present day, called Baebelo, furnished Hannibal with
4623 <lb></lb>three hundred pounds weight (of silver) per day.”<emph type="sup"></emph>27<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
4624 </p>
4625 <p type="head">
4626
4627 <s>END OF BOOK II.</s>
4628 </p>
4629 <figure></figure>
4630 <pb></pb>
4631 <p type="head">
4632
4633 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>BOOK III.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
4634 </p>
4635 <p type="main">
4636
4637 <s>Previously I have given much information <lb></lb>concerning the miners, also I
4638 have discussed the <lb></lb>choice of localities for mining. </s>
4639
4640 <s>for washing sands, <lb></lb>and for evaporating waters; further, I described
4641 <lb></lb>the method of searching for veins. </s>
4642
4643 <s>With such <lb></lb>matters I was occupied in the second book; now I <lb></lb>come to
4644 the third book, which is about veins and <lb></lb>stringers, and the seams in
4645 the rocks<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
4646
4647 <s>The <lb></lb>term “vein” is sometimes used to indicate <emph type="italics"></emph>canales<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>in the earth, but
4648 very often elsewhere by this name I have described that <lb></lb>which may be
4649 put in vessels<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; I now attach a
4650 second significance to <lb></lb>these words, for by them I mean to designate any
4651 mineral substances which <lb></lb>the earth keeps hidden within her own deep
4652 receptacles.<lb></lb></s>
4653 </p>
4654 <pb pagenum="44"></pb>
4655 <p type="main">
4656
4657 <s>First I will speak of the veins, which, in depth, width, and length, differ
4658 <lb></lb>very much one from another. </s>
4659
4660 <s>Those of one variety descend from the surface <lb></lb>of the earth to its lowest
4661 depths, which on account of this characteristic, <lb></lb>I am accustomed to
4662 call “<emph type="italics"></emph>venae profundae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>”</s>
4663 </p>
4664 <pb pagenum="45"></pb>
4665 <figure></figure>
4666 <p type="caption">
4667
4668 <s>A. C.—THE MOUNTAIN. B—<emph type="italics"></emph>Vena
4669 profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4670 </p>
4671 <p type="main">
4672
4673 <s>Another kind, unlike the <emph type="italics"></emph>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> neither ascend to the surface <lb></lb>of the earth nor
4674 descend, but lying under the ground, expand over a large <lb></lb>area; and on
4675 that account I call them “<emph type="italics"></emph>venae
4676 dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>”</s>
4677 </p>
4678 <figure></figure>
4679 <pb pagenum="46"></pb>
4680 <p type="main">
4681
4682 <s>Another occupies a large extent of space in length and width;
4683 there­<lb></lb>fore I usually call it “<emph type="italics"></emph>vena
4684 cumulata,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>” for it is nothing else than
4685 an accumu­<lb></lb>lation of some certain kind of mineral, as I have
4686 described in the book <pb pagenum="47"></pb>entitled <emph type="italics"></emph>De
4687 Subterraneorum Ortu et Causís.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4688 <s> It occasionally happens, <lb></lb>though it is unusual and rare, that several
4689 accumulations of this kind are <lb></lb>found in one place, each one or more
4690 fathoms in depth and four or five in <pb pagenum="48"></pb>width, and one is
4691 distant from another two, three, or more fathoms. </s>
4692
4693 <s>When <lb></lb>the excavation of these accumulations begins, they at first appear
4694 in the <lb></lb>shape of a disc; then they open out wider; finally from each of
4695 such </s>
4696 </p>
4697 <pb pagenum="49"></pb>
4698 <figure></figure>
4699 <p type="caption">
4700
4701 <s>A, B, C, D—THE MOUNTAIN. E, F, G, H, I, K—<emph type="italics"></emph>Vena cumulata.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>accumulations is usually
4702 formed a “<emph type="italics"></emph>vena cumulata.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>”</s>
4703 </p>
4704 <pb pagenum="50"></pb>
4705 <figure></figure>
4706 <p type="caption">
4707
4708 <s>A—<emph type="italics"></emph>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4709 <s> B—<emph type="italics"></emph>Intervenium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4710 <s> C—ANOTHER <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4711 </p>
4712 <figure></figure>
4713 <p type="caption">
4714
4715 <s>A &amp; B—<emph type="italics"></emph>Venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4716 <s> C—<emph type="italics"></emph>Intervenium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4717 <s> D &amp; E—OTHER <emph type="italics"></emph>venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4718 </p>
4719 <pb pagenum="51"></pb>
4720 <p type="main">
4721
4722 <s>The space between two veins is called an <emph type="italics"></emph>interveníum;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> this interval
4723 <lb></lb>between the veins, if it is between <emph type="italics"></emph>venae
4724 dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is entirely hidden
4725 under­<lb></lb>ground. </s>
4726
4727 <s>If, however, it lies between <emph type="italics"></emph>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then the top is plainly <lb></lb>in sight, and the
4728 remainder is hidden.</s>
4729 </p>
4730 <p type="main">
4731
4732 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> differ
4733 greatly one from another in width, for some of <lb></lb>them are one fathom
4734 wide, some are two cubits, others one cubit; others again <lb></lb>are a foot
4735 wide, and some only half a foot; all of which our miners call wide
4736 <lb></lb>veins. </s>
4737
4738 <s>Others on the contrary, are only a palm wide, others three digits, <pb pagenum="52"></pb>or even two; these they call narrow. </s>
4739
4740 <s>But in other places where there are <lb></lb>very wide veins, the widths of a
4741 cubit, or a foot, or half a foot, are said to be <lb></lb>narrow; at Cremnitz,
4742 for instance, there is a certain vein which measures <lb></lb>in one place
4743 fifteen fathoms in width, in another eighteen, and in another <lb></lb>twenty;
4744 the truth of this statement is vouched for by the inhabitants.</s>
4745 </p>
4746 <pb pagenum="53"></pb>
4747 <figure></figure>
4748 <p type="caption">
4749
4750 <s>A—WIDE <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4751 <s> B—NARROW <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4752 </p>
4753 <p type="main">
4754
4755 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Venae dilatatae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in truth,
4756 differ also in thickness, for some are one fathom <lb></lb>thick, others two, or
4757 even more; some are a cubit thick, some a foot, some <lb></lb>only half a foot;
4758 and all these are usually called thick veins. </s>
4759
4760 <s>Some on the <lb></lb>other hand, are but a palm thick, some three digits, some
4761 two, some one; <lb></lb>these are called thin veins.</s>
4762 </p>
4763 <pb pagenum="54"></pb>
4764 <figure></figure>
4765 <p type="caption">
4766
4767 <s>A—THIN <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4768 <s> B—THICK <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4769 </p>
4770 <p type="caption">
4771
4772 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> vary in
4773 direction; for some run from east to west.</s>
4774 </p>
4775 <figure></figure>
4776 <p type="caption">
4777
4778 <s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—SEAMS IN THE ROCK (<emph type="italics"></emph>Commissurae Saxorum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</s>
4779 </p>
4780 <pb pagenum="55"></pb>
4781 <p type="main">
4782
4783 <s>Others, on the other hand, run from west to east.</s>
4784 </p>
4785 <figure></figure>
4786 <p type="caption">
4787
4788 <s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—<emph type="italics"></emph>Seams in the
4789 Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4790 </p>
4791 <p type="main">
4792
4793 <s>Others run from south to north.</s>
4794 </p>
4795 <figure></figure>
4796 <p type="caption">
4797
4798 <s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—<emph type="italics"></emph>Seams in the
4799 Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4800 </p>
4801 <pb pagenum="56"></pb>
4802 <p type="main">
4803
4804 <s>Others, on the contrary, run from north to south.</s>
4805 </p>
4806 <figure></figure>
4807 <p type="caption">
4808
4809 <s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—<emph type="italics"></emph>Seams in the
4810 Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4811 </p>
4812 <p type="main">
4813
4814 <s>The seams in the rocks indicate to us whether a vein runs from the <lb></lb>east
4815 or from the west. </s>
4816
4817 <s>For instance, if the rock seams incline toward the <lb></lb>westward as they
4818 descend into the earth, the vein is said to run from east <lb></lb>to west; if
4819 they incline toward the east, the vein is said to run from west <lb></lb>to
4820 east; in a similar manner, we determine from the rock seams whether <lb></lb>the
4821 veins run north or south.</s>
4822 </p>
4823 <p type="main">
4824
4825 <s>Now miners divide each quarter of the earth into six divisions; and by
4826 <lb></lb>this method they apportion the earth into twenty-four directions, which
4827 they <lb></lb>divide into two parts of twelve each. </s>
4828
4829 <s>The instrument which indicates these <lb></lb>directions is thus constructed. </s>
4830
4831 <s>First a circle is made; then at equal <lb></lb>intervals on one half portion of
4832 it right through to the other, twelve <lb></lb>straight lines called by the
4833 Greeks <foreign lang="grc">διάμετροι,</foreign> and in the Latin <emph type="italics"></emph>dímetíentes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>are drawn through a central point which the Greeks call <foreign lang="grc">κέντρον,</foreign> so that <lb></lb>the circle is thus divided
4834 into twenty-four divisions, all being of an equal <lb></lb>size. </s>
4835
4836 <s>Then, within the circle are inscribed three other circles, the
4837 outer­<lb></lb>most of which has cross-lines dividing it into twenty-four
4838 equal parts; the <lb></lb>space between it and the next circle contains two sets
4839 of twelve numbers, <lb></lb>inscribed on the lines called
4840 “diameters”; while within the innermost circle <lb></lb>it is
4841 hollowed out to contain a magnetic needle<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
4842
4843 <s>The needle lies directly <pb pagenum="57"></pb>over that one of the twelve lines
4844 called “diameters” on which the number <lb></lb>XII is inscribed at
4845 both ends.</s>
4846 </p>
4847 <figure></figure>
4848 <p type="main">
4849
4850 <s>When the needle which is governed by the magnet points directly <lb></lb>from the
4851 north to the south, the number XII at its tail, which is <lb></lb>forked,
4852 signifies the north, that number XII which is at its point indicates
4853 <lb></lb>the south. </s>
4854
4855 <s>The sign VI superior indicates the east, and VI inferior the <lb></lb>west. </s>
4856
4857 <s>Further, between each two cardinal points there are always <lb></lb>five others
4858 which are not so important. </s>
4859
4860 <s>The first two of these directions <lb></lb>are called the prior directions; the
4861 last two are called the posterior, and <lb></lb>the fifth direction lies
4862 immediately between the former and the latter; it <lb></lb>is halved, and one
4863 half is attributed to one cardinal point and one half to the <lb></lb>other. </s>
4864
4865 <s>For example, between the northern number XII and the eastern <lb></lb>number VI,
4866 are points numbered I, II, III, IV, V, of which I and <pb pagenum="58"></pb>II
4867 are northern directions lying toward the east, IV and V are eastern
4868 <lb></lb>directions lying toward the north, and III is assigned, half to the
4869 north and <lb></lb>half to the east.</s>
4870 </p>
4871 <p type="main">
4872
4873 <s>One who wishes to know the direction of the veins underground, places
4874 <lb></lb>over the vein the instrument just described; and the needle, as soon as
4875 it <lb></lb>becomes quiet, will indicate the course of the vein. </s>
4876
4877 <s>That is, if the vein <lb></lb>proceeds from VI to VI, it either runs from east to
4878 west, or from west to <lb></lb>east; but whether it be the former or the latter,
4879 is clearly shown by the <lb></lb>seams in the rocks. </s>
4880
4881 <s>If the vein proceeds along the line which is between V <lb></lb>and VI toward the
4882 opposite direction, it runs from between the fifth and <lb></lb>sixth divisions
4883 of east to the west, or from between the fifth and sixth <lb></lb>divisions of
4884 west to the east; and again, whether it is the one or the other <lb></lb>is
4885 clearly shown by the seams in the rocks. </s>
4886
4887 <s>In a similar manner we <lb></lb>determine the other directions.</s>
4888 </p>
4889 <p type="main">
4890
4891 <s>Now miners reckon as many points as the sailors do in reckoning up <lb></lb>the
4892 number of the winds. </s>
4893
4894 <s>Not only is this done to-day in this country, but <lb></lb>it was also done by
4895 the Romans who in olden times gave the winds partly <lb></lb>Latin names and
4896 partly names borrowed from the Greeks. </s>
4897
4898 <s>Any miner who <lb></lb>pleases may therefore call the directions of the veins by
4899 the names of the <lb></lb>winds. </s>
4900
4901 <s>There are four principal winds, as there are four cardinal points: <lb></lb>the
4902 <emph type="italics"></emph>Subsolanus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which blows
4903 from the east; and its opposite the <emph type="italics"></emph>Favoníus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>which blows from the
4904 west; the latter is called by the Greeks <foreign lang="grc">Ζέφυρος,</foreign> and <lb></lb>the former <foreign lang="grc">Ἀπηλιώτης.</foreign> There is the <emph type="italics"></emph>Auster,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which blows from the south; <lb></lb>and
4905 opposed to it is the <emph type="italics"></emph>Septentrío,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> from the north; the former the Greeks <lb></lb>called
4906 <foreign lang="grc">Νότος,</foreign> and the latter <foreign lang="grc">Ἀπαρκτίας.</foreign> There are also subordinate winds,
4907 <lb></lb>to the number of twenty, as there are directions, for between each two
4908 <lb></lb>principal winds there are always five subordinate ones. </s>
4909
4910 <s>Between the <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
4911 (east wind) and the <emph type="italics"></emph>Auster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
4912 (south wind) there is the <emph type="italics"></emph>Orníthíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>or the Bird
4913 wind, which has the first place next to the <emph type="italics"></emph>Subsolanus;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then <lb></lb>comes <emph type="italics"></emph>Caecías;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then <emph type="italics"></emph>Eurus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which lies in the
4914 midway of these five; next <lb></lb>comes <emph type="italics"></emph>Vulturnus;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and lastly, <emph type="italics"></emph>Euronotus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> nearest the <emph type="italics"></emph>Auster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (south wind). <lb></lb>The Greeks have
4915 given these names to all of these, with the exception of <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>Vulturnus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> but those who do
4916 not distinguish the winds in so precise a manner <lb></lb>say this is the same
4917 as the Greeks called <foreign lang="grc">Εὐ̄ρος.</foreign> Between the
4918 <emph type="italics"></emph>Auster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (south <lb></lb>wind)
4919 and the <emph type="italics"></emph>Favonius<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (west wind)
4920 is first <emph type="italics"></emph>Altanus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> to the
4921 right of the <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>Auster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
4922 (south wind); then <emph type="italics"></emph>Líbonotus;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then <emph type="italics"></emph>Afrícus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which is the middle <lb></lb>one of these five; after that
4923 comes <emph type="italics"></emph>Subvesperus;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> next
4924 <emph type="italics"></emph>Argestes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> to the left
4925 <lb></lb>of <emph type="italics"></emph>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
4926 (west wind). All these, with the exception of <emph type="italics"></emph>Líbonotus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>Argestes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> have Latin names;
4927 but <emph type="italics"></emph>Afrícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> also is
4928 called by the Greeks <foreign lang="grc">Αίψ.</foreign><lb></lb>In a similar
4929 manner, between <emph type="italics"></emph>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (west wind) and <emph type="italics"></emph>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (north <lb></lb>wind), first to the
4930 right of <emph type="italics"></emph>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
4931 (west wind), is the <emph type="italics"></emph>Etesíae;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>Círcíus;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then <emph type="italics"></emph>Caurus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which is in the middle
4932 of these five; then <emph type="italics"></emph>Corus;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and lastly <emph type="italics"></emph>Thrascias<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
4933 to the left of <emph type="italics"></emph>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
4934 (north wind). To all of <lb></lb>these, except that of <emph type="italics"></emph>Caurus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> the Greeks gave the names, and those
4935 <lb></lb>who do not distinguish the winds by so exact a plan, assert that the
4936 wind <lb></lb>which the Greeks called <foreign lang="grc">Κόρος</foreign>
4937 and the Latins <emph type="italics"></emph>Caurus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is one
4938 and the same. <pb pagenum="59"></pb>Again, between <emph type="italics"></emph>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (north wind) and the <emph type="italics"></emph>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (east wind), the
4939 <lb></lb>first to the right of <emph type="italics"></emph>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (north wind) is <emph type="italics"></emph>Gallicus;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then <emph type="italics"></emph>Supernas;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>Aquilo,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which is the middle one of these
4940 five; next comes <emph type="italics"></emph>Boreas;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and
4941 <lb></lb>lastly <emph type="italics"></emph>Carbas,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> to the
4942 left of <emph type="italics"></emph>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (east
4943 wind). Here again, those who <lb></lb>do not consider the winds to be in so
4944 great a multitude, but say there are <lb></lb>but twelve winds in all, or at the
4945 most fourteen, assert that the wind called <lb></lb><figure id="fig1"></figure><lb></lb>by
4946 the Greeks <foreign lang="grc">Βορέας</foreign> and the Latins <emph type="italics"></emph>Aquílo<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is one and the
4947 same. </s>
4948
4949 <s>For our <lb></lb>purpose it is not only useful to adopt this large number of
4950 winds, but even <lb></lb>to double it, as the German sailors do. </s>
4951
4952 <s>They always reckon that between <lb></lb>each two there is one in the centre
4953 taken from both. </s>
4954
4955 <s>By this method we <pb pagenum="60"></pb>also are able to signify the intermediate
4956 directions by means of the names of <lb></lb>the winds. </s>
4957
4958 <s>For instance, if a vein runs from VI east to VI west, it is said <lb></lb>to
4959 proceed from <emph type="italics"></emph>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
4960 (east wind) to <emph type="italics"></emph>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (west wind); but one <lb></lb>which proceeds from between V and VI of the
4961 east to between V and VI <lb></lb>west is said to proceed out of the middle of
4962 <emph type="italics"></emph>Carbas<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> to between
4963 <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>Argestes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>Favoníus;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> the remaining
4964 directions, and their intermediates <lb></lb>are similarly designated. </s>
4965
4966 <s>The miner, on account of the natural properties <lb></lb>of a magnet, by which
4967 the needle points to the south, must fix the instru­<lb></lb>ment already
4968 described so that east is to the left and west to the right.</s>
4969 </p>
4970 <p type="main">
4971
4972 <s>In a similar way to <emph type="italics"></emph>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> the <emph type="italics"></emph>venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> vary in their <lb></lb>lateral directions, and we are able
4973 to understand from the seams in the <lb></lb>rocks in which direction they
4974 extend into the ground. </s>
4975
4976 <s>For if these incline <lb></lb>toward the west in depth, the vein is said to
4977 extend from east to west; <lb></lb>if on the contrary, they incline toward the
4978 east, the vein is said to go from <lb></lb>west to east. </s>
4979
4980 <s>In the same way, from the rock seams we can determine <lb></lb>veins running
4981 south and north, or the reverse, and likewise to the <lb></lb>subordinate
4982 directions and their intermediates.</s>
4983 </p>
4984 <figure></figure>
4985 <p type="caption">
4986
4987 <s>A, B—<emph type="italics"></emph>Venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4988 <s> C—<emph type="italics"></emph>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
4989 </p>
4990 <p type="main">
4991
4992 <s>Further, as regards the question of direction of a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena
4993 profunda,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> one <lb></lb>runs straight from one
4994 quarter of the earth to that quarter which is opposite, <lb></lb>while another
4995 one runs in a curve, in which case it may happen that a vein <lb></lb>proceeding
4996 from the east does not turn to the quarter opposite, which is the <lb></lb>west,
4997 but twists itself and turns to the south or the north.</s>
4998 </p>
4999 <pb pagenum="61"></pb>
5000 <figure></figure>
5001 <p type="caption">
5002
5003 <s>A—STRAIGHT <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5004 <s> B—CURVED <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
5005 [should be <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>(?)].</s>
5006 </p>
5007 <p type="main">
5008
5009 <s>Similarly some <emph type="italics"></emph>venae dílatatae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> are horizontal, some are inclined, and <lb></lb>some are
5010 curved.</s>
5011 </p>
5012 <figure></figure>
5013 <p type="caption">
5014
5015 <s>A—HORIZONTAL <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5016 <s> B—INCLINED <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5017 <s> C—CURVED <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5018 </p>
5019 <pb pagenum="62"></pb>
5020 <p type="main">
5021
5022 <s>Also the veins which we call <emph type="italics"></emph>profundae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> differ in the manner in which <lb></lb>they descend into
5023 the depths of the earth; for some are vertical (A), some are <lb></lb>inclined
5024 and sloping (B), others crooked<gap></gap> (C).</s>
5025 </p>
5026 <figure></figure>
5027 <p type="main">
5028
5029 <s>Moreover, <emph type="italics"></emph>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (B)
5030 differ much among themselves regarding <lb></lb>the kind of locality through
5031 which they pass, for some extend along the <lb></lb>slopes of mountains or hills
5032 (A-C) and do not descend down the sides.</s>
5033 </p>
5034 <figure></figure>
5035 <pb pagenum="63"></pb>
5036 <p type="main">
5037
5038 <s>Other <emph type="italics"></emph>Venae Profundae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (D, E,
5039 F) from the very summit of the mountain <lb></lb>or hill descend the slope (A)
5040 to the hollow or valley (B), and they again ascend <lb></lb>the slope or the
5041 side of the mountain or hill opposite (C)</s>
5042 </p>
5043 <figure></figure>
5044 <p type="main">
5045
5046 <s>Other <emph type="italics"></emph>Venae Profundae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (C, D)
5047 descend the mountain or hill (A) and <lb></lb>extend out into the plain (B).</s>
5048 </p>
5049 <figure></figure>
5050 <pb pagenum="64"></pb>
5051 <p type="main">
5052
5053 <s>Some veins run straight along on the plateaux, the hills, or plains.</s>
5054 </p>
5055 <figure></figure>
5056 <p type="caption">
5057
5058 <s>A—MOUNTAINOUS PLAIN. B—<emph type="italics"></emph>Vena
5059 profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5060 </p>
5061 <figure></figure>
5062 <p type="caption">
5063
5064 <s>A—PRINCIPAL VEIN. B—TRANSVERSE VEIN. C—VEIN CUTTING
5065 PRINCIPAL ONE <lb></lb>OBLIQUELY.</s>
5066 </p>
5067 <pb pagenum="65"></pb>
5068 <p type="main">
5069
5070 <s>In the next place, <emph type="italics"></emph>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> differ not a little in the manner in <lb></lb>which they
5071 intersect, since one may cross through a second transversely, or <lb></lb>one
5072 may cross another one obliquely as if cutting it in two.</s>
5073 </p>
5074 <p type="main">
5075
5076 <s>If a vein which cuts through another principal one obliquely be the
5077 <lb></lb>harder of the two, it penetrates right through it, just as a wedge of
5078 beech or <lb></lb>iron can be driven through soft wood by means of a tool. </s>
5079
5080 <s>If it be softer, the <lb></lb>principal vein either drags the soft one with it
5081 for a distance of three feet, or <lb></lb>perhaps one, two, three, or several
5082 fathoms, or else throws it forward along <lb></lb>the principal vein; but this
5083 latter happens very rarely. </s>
5084
5085 <s>But that the vein <lb></lb>which cuts the principal one is the same vein on both
5086 sides, is shown by its <lb></lb>having the same character in its foot walls and
5087 hanging walls.</s>
5088 </p>
5089 <figure></figure>
5090 <p type="caption">
5091
5092 <s>A—PRINCIPAL VEIN. B—VEIN WHICH CUTS A OBLIQUELY. C—PART
5093 CARRIED AWAY. <lb></lb>D—THAT PART WHICH HAS BEEN CARRIED FORWARD.</s>
5094 </p>
5095 <p type="main">
5096
5097 <s>Sometimes <emph type="italics"></emph>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
5098 join one with another, and from two or <lb></lb>more outcropping veins<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, one is formed; or from two which do
5099 not outcrop <lb></lb>one is made, if they are not far distant from each other,
5100 and the one dips <lb></lb>into the other, or if each dips toward the other, and
5101 they thus join when they <lb></lb>have descended in depth. </s>
5102
5103 <s>In exactly the same way, out of three or more <lb></lb>veins, one may be formed
5104 in depth.</s>
5105 </p>
5106 <pb pagenum="66"></pb>
5107 <figure></figure>
5108 <p type="caption">
5109
5110 <s>A, B—TWO VEINS DESCEND INCLINED AND DIP TOWARD EACH OTHER.
5111 <lb></lb>C—JUNCTION. LIKEWISE TWO VEINS. D—INDICATES ONE DESCENDING
5112 VERTICALLY. <lb></lb>E—MARKS THE OTHER DESCENDING INCLINED, WHICH DIPS
5113 TOWARD D. F—THEIR JUNCTIO<gap></gap></s>
5114 </p>
5115 <figure></figure>
5116 <pb pagenum="67"></pb>
5117 <p type="main">
5118
5119 <s>However, such a junction of veins sometimes disunites and in this <lb></lb>way it
5120 happens that the vein which was the right-hand vein becomes <lb></lb>the left;
5121 and again, the one which was on the left becomes the right.</s>
5122 </p>
5123 <p type="main">
5124
5125 <s>Furthermore, one vein may be split and divided into parts by some hard
5126 <lb></lb>rock resembling a beak, or stringers in soft rock may sunder the vein
5127 and <lb></lb>make two or more. </s>
5128
5129 <s>These sometimes join together again and sometimes <lb></lb>remain divided.</s>
5130 </p>
5131 <figure></figure>
5132 <p type="caption">
5133
5134 <s>A, B—VEINS DIVIDING. C—THE SAME JOINING.</s>
5135 </p>
5136 <p type="main">
5137
5138 <s>Whether a vein is separating from or uniting with another can be
5139 deter­<lb></lb>mined only from the seams in the rocks. </s>
5140
5141 <s>For example, if a principal <lb></lb>vein runs from the east to the west, the
5142 rock seams descend in depth <lb></lb>likewise from the east toward the west, and
5143 the associated vein which <lb></lb>joins with the principal vein, whether it
5144 runs from the south or the north, <lb></lb>has its rock seams extending in the
5145 same way as its own, and they do not <lb></lb>conform with the seams in the rock
5146 of the principal vein—which remain <lb></lb>the same after the
5147 junction—unless the associated vein proceeds in the same
5148 <lb></lb>direction as the principal vein. </s>
5149
5150 <s>In that case we name the broader vein the <lb></lb>principal one, and the
5151 narrower the associated vein. </s>
5152
5153 <s>But if the principal <lb></lb>vein splits, the rock seams which belong
5154 respectively to the parts, keep <lb></lb>the same course when descending in
5155 depth as those of the principal vein.</s>
5156 </p>
5157 <p type="main">
5158
5159 <s>But enough of <emph type="italics"></emph>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> their junctions and divisions. </s>
5160
5161 <s>Now <lb></lb>we come to <emph type="italics"></emph>venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5162 <s> A <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> may either
5163 cross a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>or join with it, or it may be cut by a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena
5164 profunda,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and be divided into parts.</s>
5165 </p>
5166 <pb pagenum="68"></pb>
5167 <figure></figure>
5168 <p type="caption">
5169
5170 <s>A, C—<emph type="italics"></emph>Vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
5171 CROSSING A <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5172 <s> B—<emph type="italics"></emph>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5173 <s> D, E—<emph type="italics"></emph>Vena <lb></lb>dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> WHICH JUNCTIONS WITH A <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5174 <s> F—<emph type="italics"></emph>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5175 <s> G—<emph type="italics"></emph>Vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>H, I—ITS DIVIDED PARTS. K—<emph type="italics"></emph>Vena
5176 profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> WHICH DIVIDES THE <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5177 </p>
5178 <p type="main">
5179
5180 <s>Finally, a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> has
5181 a “beginning” (<emph type="italics"></emph>origo<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), an “end” (<emph type="italics"></emph>finis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), a <lb></lb>“head” (<emph type="italics"></emph>caput<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), and a
5182 “tail” (<emph type="italics"></emph>cauda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).
5183 That part whence it takes its rise <lb></lb>is said to be its
5184 “beginning,” that in which it terminates the “end.”
5185 Its <lb></lb>“head”<emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> is that
5186 part which emerges into daylight; its “tail” that part
5187 <lb></lb>which is hidden in the earth. </s>
5188
5189 <s>But miners have no need to seek the <lb></lb>“beginning” of veins, as
5190 formerly the kings of Egypt sought for the source <lb></lb>of the Nile, but it
5191 is enough for them to discover some other part of the vein <lb></lb>and to
5192 recognise its direction, for seldom can either the “beginning”
5193 or the <lb></lb>“end” be found. </s>
5194
5195 <s>The direction in which the head of the vein comes into <lb></lb>the light, or the
5196 direction toward which the tail extends, is indicated by its <lb></lb>footwall
5197 and hangingwall. </s>
5198
5199 <s>The latter is said to hang, and the former to lie. <lb></lb></s>
5200
5201 <s>The vein rests on the footwall, and the hangingwall overhangs it; thus,
5202 <lb></lb>when we descend a shaft, the part to which we turn the face is the
5203 foot­<lb></lb>wall and seat of the vein, that to which we turn the back is
5204 the hanging­<lb></lb>wall. </s>
5205
5206 <s>Also in another way, the head accords with the footwall and the tail
5207 <lb></lb>with the hangingwall, for if the footwall is toward the south, the vein
5208 <lb></lb>extends its head into the light toward the south; and the hangingwall,
5209 <lb></lb>because it is always opposite to the footwall, is then toward the
5210 north. <lb></lb></s>
5211
5212 <s>Consequently the vein extends its tail toward the north if it is an inclined
5213 <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5214 <s> Similarly, we can determine with regard to east and west <lb></lb>and the
5215 subordinate and their intermediate directions. </s>
5216
5217 <s>A <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>which
5218 descends into the earth may be either vertical, inclined, or crooked,
5219 <lb></lb>the footwall of an inclined vein is easily distinguished from the
5220 hangingwall, <lb></lb>but it is not so with a vertical vein; and again, the
5221 footwall of a crooked <lb></lb>vein is inverted and changed into the
5222 hangingwall, and contrariwise the <lb></lb>hangingwall is twisted into the
5223 footwall, but very many of these crooked <lb></lb>veins may be turned back to
5224 vertical or inclined ones.</s>
5225 </p>
5226 <pb pagenum="69"></pb>
5227 <figure></figure>
5228 <p type="caption">
5229
5230 <s>A—THE “BEGINNING” (<emph type="italics"></emph>origo<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>). B—THE “END” (<emph type="italics"></emph>finis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>). C—THE “HEAD”
5231 (<emph type="italics"></emph>caput<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).
5232 <lb></lb>D—THE “TAIL” (<emph type="italics"></emph>cauda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</s>
5233 </p>
5234 <p type="main">
5235
5236 <s>A <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> has only a
5237 “beginning” and an “end,” and in the place <lb></lb>of
5238 the “head” and “tail” it has two sides.</s>
5239 </p>
5240 <figure></figure>
5241 <p type="caption">
5242
5243 <s>A—THE “BEGINNING.” B—THE “END.” C,
5244 D—THE “SIDES.”</s>
5245 </p>
5246 <pb pagenum="70"></pb>
5247 <figure></figure>
5248 <p type="caption">
5249
5250 <s>A—THE “BEGINNING.” B—THE “END.”
5251 C—THE “HEAD.” D—THE “TAIL.”
5252 <lb></lb>E—TRANSVERSE VEIN.</s>
5253 </p>
5254 <p type="main">
5255
5256 <s>A <emph type="italics"></emph>vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> has a
5257 “beginning,” an “end,” a “head,” and a
5258 <lb></lb>“tail,” just as a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena
5259 profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5260 <s> Moreover, a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena cumulata,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
5261 and likewise <lb></lb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> are often cut through by a transverse <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5262 </p>
5263 <p type="main">
5264
5265 <s>Stringers (<emph type="italics"></emph>fibrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, which are little veins, are
5266 classified into <emph type="italics"></emph>fibrae trans­<lb></lb>versae, fibrae
5267 obliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which cut the vein obliquely, <emph type="italics"></emph>fibrae sociae, <lb></lb>fibrae dilatatae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>fibrae incumbentes.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5268 <s> The <emph type="italics"></emph>fibra transversa<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> crosses
5269 <lb></lb>the vein; the <emph type="italics"></emph>fibra obliqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> crosses the vein obliquely; the <emph type="italics"></emph>fibra socia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> joins <lb></lb>with the vein itself; the
5270 <emph type="italics"></emph>fibra dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> like the
5271 <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
5272 penetrates <lb></lb>through it; but the <emph type="italics"></emph>fibra
5273 dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> as well as the <emph type="italics"></emph>fibra profunda,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is usually <lb></lb>found associated
5274 with a vein.</s>
5275 </p>
5276 <p type="main">
5277
5278 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>fibra incumbens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> does not
5279 descend as deeply into the earth as the <lb></lb>other stringers, but lies on
5280 the vein, as it were, from the surface to the <lb></lb>hangingwall or footwall,
5281 from which it is named <emph type="italics"></emph>Subdialis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
5282 </p>
5283 <p type="main">
5284
5285 <s>In truth, as to direction, junctions, and divisions, the stringers are not
5286 <lb></lb>different from the veins.<lb></lb></s>
5287 </p>
5288 <pb pagenum="71"></pb>
5289 <figure></figure>
5290 <p type="caption">
5291
5292 <s>A, B—VEINS. C—TRANSVERSE STRINGER. D—OBLIQUE STRINGER.
5293 <lb></lb>E—ASSOCIATED STRINGER. F—<emph type="italics"></emph>Fibra
5294 dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5295 </p>
5296 <figure></figure>
5297 <p type="caption">
5298
5299 <s>A—VEIN. B—<emph type="italics"></emph>Fibra incumbens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> FROM THE SURFACE OF THE HANGINGWALL. C—SAME
5300 <lb></lb>FROM THE FOOTWALL.</s>
5301 </p>
5302 <pb pagenum="72"></pb>
5303 <p type="main">
5304
5305 <s>Lastly, the seams, which are the very finest stringers (<emph type="italics"></emph>fibrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), divide <lb></lb>the rock, and occur
5306 sometimes frequently, sometimes rarely. </s>
5307
5308 <s>From <lb></lb>whatever direction the vein comes, its seams always turn their
5309 heads <lb></lb>toward the light in the same direction. </s>
5310
5311 <s>But, while the seams usually run <lb></lb>from one point of the compass to
5312 another immediately opposite it, as <lb></lb>for instance, from east to west, if
5313 hard stringers divert them, it may <lb></lb>happen that these very seams, which
5314 before were running from east to <lb></lb>west, then contrariwise proceed from
5315 west to east, and the direction of <lb></lb>the rocks is thus inverted. </s>
5316
5317 <s>In such a case, the direction of the veins is <lb></lb>judged, not by the
5318 direction of the seams which occur rarely, but by those <lb></lb>which
5319 constantly recur.</s>
5320 </p>
5321 <figure></figure>
5322 <p type="caption">
5323
5324 <s>A—SEAMS WHICH PROCEED FROM THE EAST. B—THE INVERSE.</s>
5325 </p>
5326 <p type="main">
5327
5328 <s>Both veins or stringers may be solid or drusy, or barren of minerals, <lb></lb>or
5329 pervious to water. </s>
5330
5331 <s>Solid veins contain no water and very little air. </s>
5332
5333 <s>The <lb></lb>drusy veins rarely contain water; they often contain air. </s>
5334
5335 <s>Those which <lb></lb>are barren of minerals often carry water. </s>
5336
5337 <s>Solid veins and stringers con­<lb></lb>sist sometimes of hard materials,
5338 sometimes of soft, and sometimes of a <lb></lb>kind of medium between the
5339 two.</s>
5340 </p>
5341 <pb pagenum="73"></pb>
5342 <figure></figure>
5343 <p type="caption">
5344
5345 <s>A—SOLID VEIN. B—SOLID STRINGER. C—CAVERNOUS VEIN.
5346 D—CAVERNOUS <lb></lb>STRINGER. E—BARREN VEIN. F—BARREN
5347 STRINGER.</s>
5348 </p>
5349 <p type="main">
5350
5351 <s>But to return to veins. </s>
5352
5353 <s>A great number of miners consider<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
5354 that the <lb></lb>best veins in depth are those which run from the VI or VII
5355 direction of the <lb></lb>east to the VI or VII direction of the west, through a
5356 mountain slope which <lb></lb>inclines to the north; and whose hangingwalls are
5357 in the south, and whose <lb></lb>footwalls are in the north, and which have
5358 their heads rising to the north, <lb></lb>as explained before, always like the
5359 footwall, and finally, whose rock <lb></lb>seams turn their heads to the east. </s>
5360
5361 <s>And the veins which are the next <pb pagenum="74"></pb>best are those which, on
5362 the contrary, extend from the VI or VII direction <lb></lb>of the west to the VI
5363 or VII direction of the east, through the slope of a <lb></lb>mountain which
5364 similarly inclines to the north. </s>
5365
5366 <s>whose hangingwalls <lb></lb>are also in the south, whose footwalls are in the
5367 north, and whose <lb></lb>heads rise toward the north; and lastly, whose rock
5368 seams raise <lb></lb>their heads toward the west. </s>
5369
5370 <s>In the third place, they recommend those <lb></lb>veins which extend from XII
5371 north to XII south, through the slope <lb></lb>of a mountain which faces east;
5372 whose hangingwalls are in the <lb></lb>west, whose footwalls are in the east;
5373 whose heads rise toward <lb></lb>the east; and whose rock seams raise their
5374 heads toward the north. <lb></lb></s>
5375
5376 <s>Therefore they devote all their energies to those veins, and give very little
5377 <lb></lb>or nothing to those whose heads, or the heads of whose rock seams rise
5378 <lb></lb>toward the south or west. </s>
5379
5380 <s>For although they say these veins some­<lb></lb>times show bright specks of
5381 pure metal adhering to the stones, or they come <lb></lb>upon lumps of metal,
5382 yet these are so few and far between that despite them <lb></lb>it is not worth
5383 the trouble to excavate such veins; and miners who persevere <lb></lb>in digging
5384 in the hope of coming upon a quantity of metal, always lose their <lb></lb>time
5385 and trouble. </s>
5386
5387 <s>And they say that from veins of this kind, since the sun&#039;s <lb></lb>rays draw out
5388 the metallic material, very little metal is gained. </s>
5389
5390 <s>But in <lb></lb>this matter the actual experience of the miners who thus judge of
5391 the veins <lb></lb>does not always agree with their opinions, nor is their
5392 reasoning sound; <lb></lb>since indeed the veins which run from east to west
5393 through the slope of a <lb></lb>mountain which inclines to the south, whose
5394 heads rise likewise to the <lb></lb>south, are not less charged with metals,
5395 than those to which miners are <lb></lb>wont to accord the first place in
5396 productiveness; as in recent years has been <lb></lb>proved by the St. </s>
5397
5398 <s>Lorentz vein at Abertham, which our countrymen call <lb></lb>Gottsgaab, for they
5399 have dug out of it a large quantity of pure silver; and <lb></lb>lately a vein
5400 in Annaberg, called by the name of Himmelsch hoz<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, has made it <pb pagenum="75"></pb>plain by the production of
5401 much silver that veins which extend from the <lb></lb>north to the south, with
5402 their heads rising toward the west, are no less rich <lb></lb>in metals than
5403 those whose heads rise toward the east.</s>
5404 </p>
5405 <p type="main">
5406
5407 <s>It may be denied that the heat of the sun draws the metallic material
5408 <lb></lb>out of these veins; for though it draws up vapours from the surface of
5409 the <lb></lb>ground, the rays of the sun do not penetrate right down to the
5410 depths; because <lb></lb>the air of a tunnel which is covered and enveloped by
5411 solid earth to the depth of <lb></lb>only two fathoms is cold in summer, for the
5412 intermediate earth holds in check <lb></lb>the force of the sun. </s>
5413
5414 <s>Having observed this fact, the inhabitants and dwellers <lb></lb>of very hot
5415 regions lie down by day in caves which protect them from the <lb></lb>excessive
5416 ardour of the sun. </s>
5417
5418 <s>Therefore it is unlikely that the sun draws <lb></lb>out from within the earth
5419 the metallic bodies. </s>
5420
5421 <s>Indeed, it cannot even dry <lb></lb>the moisture of many places abounding in
5422 veins, because they are pro­<lb></lb>tected and shaded by the trees. </s>
5423
5424 <s>Furthermore, certain miners, out of all <lb></lb>the different kinds of metallic
5425 veins, choose those which I have described, <lb></lb>and others, on the
5426 contrary, reject copper mines which are of this sort, so <lb></lb>that there
5427 seems to be no reason in this. </s>
5428
5429 <s>For what can be the reason if the <lb></lb>sun draws no copper from copper veins,
5430 that it draws silver from silver veins, <lb></lb>and gold from gold veins?</s>
5431 </p>
5432 <p type="main">
5433
5434 <s>Moreover, some miners, of whose number was Calbus<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, distinguish <lb></lb>between the gold-bearing
5435 rivers and streams. </s>
5436
5437 <s>A river, they say, or a stream, <lb></lb>is most productive of fine and coarse
5438 grains of gold when it comes from the <lb></lb>east and flows to the west, and
5439 when it washes against the foot of mountains <lb></lb>which are situated in the
5440 north, and when it has a level plain toward the <lb></lb>south or west. </s>
5441
5442 <s>In the second place, they esteem a river or a stream which <lb></lb>flows in the
5443 opposite course from the west toward the east, and which has <lb></lb>the
5444 mountains to the north and the level plain to the south. </s>
5445
5446 <s>In the third <lb></lb>place, they esteem the river or the stream which flows from
5447 the north to the <lb></lb>south and washes the base of the mountains which are
5448 situated in the east. <lb></lb></s>
5449
5450 <s>But they say that the river or stream is least productive of gold which flows
5451 <lb></lb>in a contrary direction from the south to the north, and washes the
5452 base of <pb pagenum="76"></pb>mountains which are situated in the west. </s>
5453
5454 <s>Lastly, of the streams or rivers <lb></lb>which flow from the rising sun toward
5455 the setting sun, or which flow from <lb></lb>the northern parts to the southern
5456 parts, they favour those which approach <lb></lb>the nearest to the lauded ones,
5457 and say they are more productive of gold, <lb></lb>and the further they depart
5458 from them the less productive they are. </s>
5459
5460 <s>Such <lb></lb>are the opinions held about rivers and streams. </s>
5461
5462 <s>Now, since gold is not <lb></lb>generated in the rivers and streams, as we have
5463 maintained against <lb></lb>Albertus<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
5464 in the book entitled “<emph type="italics"></emph>De Subterraneorum Ortu et
5465 Causís,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>” Book <lb></lb>V, but is torn
5466 away from the veins and stringers and settled in the sands of <lb></lb>torrents
5467 and water-courses, in whatever direction the rivers or streams flow,
5468 <lb></lb>therefore it is reasonable to expect to find gold therein; which is not
5469 <lb></lb>opposed by experience. </s>
5470
5471 <s>Nevertheless, we do not deny that gold is generated <lb></lb>in veins and
5472 stringers which lie under the beds of rivers or streams, as in <lb></lb>other
5473 places.<lb></lb></s>
5474 </p>
5475 <p type="head">
5476
5477 <s>END OF BOOK III.</s>
5478 </p>
5479 <figure></figure>
5480 <pb></pb>
5481 <p type="head">
5482
5483 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>BOOK IV.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
5484 </p>
5485 <p type="main">
5486
5487 <s>The third book has explained the various and <lb></lb>manifold varieties of veins
5488 and stringers. </s>
5489
5490 <s>This <lb></lb>fourth book will deal with mining areas and the <lb></lb>method of
5491 delimiting them, and will then pass on to <lb></lb>the officials who are
5492 connected with mining affairs<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
5493 </p>
5494 <p type="main">
5495
5496 <s>Now the miner, if the vein he has uncovered <lb></lb>is to his liking, first of
5497 all goes to the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>to request to be granted a right to mine, this <lb></lb>official&#039;s
5498 special function and office being to adjudi­<lb></lb>cate in respect of the
5499 mines. </s>
5500
5501 <s>And so to the first man who has discovered <lb></lb>the vein the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> awards the head
5502 meer, and to others the remaining <lb></lb>meers, in the order in which each
5503 makes his application. </s>
5504
5505 <s>The size of <lb></lb>a meer is measured by fathoms, which for miners are reckoned
5506 at six feet <lb></lb>each. </s>
5507
5508 <s>The length, in fact, is that of a man&#039;s extended arms and hands <lb></lb>measured
5509 across his chest; but different peoples assign to it different lengths, <pb pagenum="78"></pb>for among the Greeks, who called it an <foreign lang="grc">όργυιά,</foreign> it was six feet, among the <lb></lb>Romans
5510 five feet. </s>
5511
5512 <s>So this measure which is used by miners seems to <lb></lb>have come down to the
5513 Germans in accordance with the Greek mode of <lb></lb>reckoning. </s>
5514
5515 <s>A miner&#039;s foot approaches very nearly to the length of a Greek <lb></lb>foot, for
5516 it exceeds it by only three-quarters of a Greek digit, but like that <lb></lb>of
5517 the Romans it is divided into twelve <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
5518 </p>
5519 <p type="main">
5520
5521 <s>Now square fathoms are reckoned in units of one, two, three, or more
5522 <lb></lb>“measures”, and a “measure” is seven fathoms
5523 each way. </s>
5524
5525 <s>Mining <lb></lb>meers are for the most part either square or elongated; in square
5526 meers all the <lb></lb>sides are of equal length, therefore the numbers of
5527 fathoms on the two sides <lb></lb>multiplied together produce the total in
5528 square fathoms. </s>
5529
5530 <s>Thus, if the <lb></lb>shape of a “measure” is seven fathoms on every
5531 side, this number multi­<lb></lb>plied by itself makes forty-nine square
5532 fathoms.</s>
5533 </p>
5534 <p type="main">
5535
5536 <s>The sides of a long meer are of equal length, and similarly its ends are
5537 <lb></lb>equal; therefore, if the number of fathoms in one of the long sides be
5538 multi­<lb></lb>plied by the number of fathoms in one of the ends, the total
5539 produced by the </s>
5540 </p>
5541 <pb pagenum="79"></pb>
5542 <figure></figure>
5543 <p type="caption">
5544
5545 <s>SHAPE OF A SQUARE MEER.<lb></lb>multiplication is the total number of square
5546 fathoms in the long meer. </s>
5547
5548 <s>For <lb></lb>example, the double measure is fourteen fathoms long and seven
5549 broad, <lb></lb>which two numbers multiplied together make ninety-eight square
5550 fathoms.</s>
5551 </p>
5552 <figure></figure>
5553 <p type="caption">
5554
5555 <s>SHAPE OF A LONG MEER OR DOUBLE MEASURE.</s>
5556 </p>
5557 <p type="main">
5558
5559 <s>Since meers vary in shape according to the different varieties of veins
5560 <lb></lb>it is necessary for me to go more into detail concerning them and
5561 <lb></lb>their measurements. </s>
5562
5563 <s>If the vein is a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> the head meer is <lb></lb>composed of three double measures, therefore it is
5564 forty-two fathoms in <lb></lb>length and seven in width, which numbers
5565 multiplied together give two <lb></lb>hundred and ninety-four square fathoms,
5566 and by these limits the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>bounds the owner&#039;s rights in a head-meer.</s>
5567 </p>
5568 <figure></figure>
5569 <p type="caption">
5570
5571 <s>SHAPE OF A HEAD MEER.</s>
5572 </p>
5573 <p type="main">
5574
5575 <s>The area of every other meer consists of two double measures, on
5576 which­<lb></lb>ever side of the head meer it lies, or whatever its number in
5577 order may be, <lb></lb>that is to say, whether next to the head meer, or second,
5578 third, or any later <lb></lb>number. </s>
5579
5580 <s>Therefore, it is twenty-eight fathoms long and seven wide, so
5581 <lb></lb>multiplying the length by the width we get one hundred and ninety-six
5582 <lb></lb>square fathoms, which is the extent of the meer, and by these
5583 boundaries <lb></lb>the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> defines the right of the owner or company over each
5584 mine.</s>
5585 </p>
5586 <pb pagenum="80"></pb>
5587 <figure></figure>
5588 <p type="caption">
5589
5590 <s>SHAPE OF A MEER.</s>
5591 </p>
5592 <p type="main">
5593
5594 <s>Now we call that part of the vein which is first discovered and mined,
5595 <lb></lb>the head-meer, because all the other meers run from it, just as the
5596 nerves <lb></lb>from the head. </s>
5597
5598 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> begins
5599 his measurements from it, and the <lb></lb>reason why he apportions a larger
5600 area to the head-meer than to the others, is <lb></lb>that he may give a
5601 suitable reward to the one who first found the vein <lb></lb>and may encourage
5602 others to search for veins. </s>
5603
5604 <s>Since meers often reach <lb></lb>to a torrent, or river, or stream, if the last
5605 meer cannot be completed <lb></lb>it is called a fraction<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
5606
5607 <s>If it is the size of a double measure, the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>grants the right of mining
5608 it to him who makes the first application, but if <lb></lb>it is the size of a
5609 single measure or a little over, he divides it between the <lb></lb>nearest
5610 meers on either side of it. </s>
5611
5612 <s>It is the custom among miners that <lb></lb>the first meer beyond a stream on
5613 that part of the vein on the opposite <lb></lb>side is a new head-meer, and they
5614 call it the “opposite,”<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
5615 while the <lb></lb>other meers beyond are only ordinary meers. </s>
5616
5617 <s>Formerly every head-meer <lb></lb>was composed of three double measures and one
5618 single one, that is, it was <lb></lb>forty-nine fathoms long and seven wide, and
5619 so if we multiply these two <lb></lb>together we have three hundred and
5620 forty-three square fathoms, which <lb></lb>total gives us the area of an ancient
5621 head-meer.</s>
5622 </p>
5623 <figure></figure>
5624 <p type="caption">
5625
5626 <s>SHAPE OF AN ANCIENT HEAD-MEER.</s>
5627 </p>
5628 <p type="main">
5629
5630 <s>Every ancient meer was formed of a single measure, that is to say, it
5631 <lb></lb>was seven fathoms in length and width, and was therefore square. </s>
5632
5633 <s>In <lb></lb>memory of which miners even now call the width of every meer which is
5634 <lb></lb>located on a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> a “square”<emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
5635
5636 <s>The following was formerly the <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="81"></pb>usual method of
5637 delimiting a vein: as soon as the miner found metal, he <lb></lb>gave
5638 information to the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the tithe-gatherer, who either <lb></lb>proceeded personally from the
5639 town to the mountains, or sent thither men <lb></lb>of good repute, at least two
5640 in number, to inspect the metal-bearing vein. <lb></lb></s>
5641
5642 <s>Thereupon, if they thought it of sufficient importance to survey, the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>again having
5643 gone forth on an appointed day, thus questioned him who first <lb></lb>found the
5644 vein, concerning the vein and the diggings: “Which is your
5645 <lb></lb>vein?” “Which digging carried metal?” Then the
5646 discoverer, pointing <lb></lb>his finger to his vein and diggings, indicated
5647 them, and next the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>ordered him to approach the windlass and place two fingers of his
5648 right hand <lb></lb>upon his head, and swear this oath in a clear voice:
5649 “I swear by God and <lb></lb>all the Saints, and I call them all to
5650 witness, that this is my vein; and more­<lb></lb>over if it is not mine, may
5651 neither this my head nor these my hands henceforth <lb></lb>perform their
5652 functions.” Then the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> having started from the <lb></lb>centre of the windlass,
5653 proceeded to measure the vein with a cord, and to <lb></lb>give the measured
5654 portion to the discoverer,—in the first instance a half and <lb></lb>then
5655 three full measures; afterward one to the King or Prince, another to
5656 <lb></lb>his Consort, a third to the Master of the Horse, a fourth to the
5657 Cup-bearer, <lb></lb>a fifth to the Groom of the Chamber, a sixth to himself. </s>
5658
5659 <s>Then, starting <lb></lb>from the other side of the windlass, he proceeded to
5660 measure the vein in a <lb></lb>similar manner. </s>
5661
5662 <s>Thus the discoverer of the vein obtained the head-meer, <lb></lb>that is, seven
5663 single measures; but the King or Ruler, his Consort, the leading
5664 <lb></lb>dignitaries, and lastly, the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> obtained two measures each, or
5665 two <lb></lb>ancient meers. </s>
5666
5667 <s>This is the reason there are to be found at Freiberg in Meissen <lb></lb>so many
5668 shafts with so many intercommunications on a single vein—which are
5669 <lb></lb>to a great extent destroyed by age. </s>
5670
5671 <s>If, however, the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> had already <lb></lb>fixed the boundaries of the meers on
5672 one side of the shaft for the benefit of <lb></lb>some other discoverer, then
5673 for those dignitaries I have just mentioned, <lb></lb>as many meers as he was
5674 unable to award on that side he duplicated <lb></lb>on the other. </s>
5675
5676 <s>But if on both sides of the shaft he had already defined the <lb></lb>boundaries
5677 of meers, he proceeded to measure out only that part of the <lb></lb>vein which
5678 remained free, and thus it sometimes happened that some of <lb></lb>those
5679 persons I have mentioned obtained no meer at all. </s>
5680
5681 <s>To-day, though <lb></lb>that old-established custom is observed, the method of
5682 allotting the vein <lb></lb>and granting title has been changed. </s>
5683
5684 <s>As I have explained above, the head­<lb></lb>meer consists of three double
5685 measures, and each other meer of two <lb></lb>measures, and the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> grants one
5686 each of the meers to him who <lb></lb>makes the first application. </s>
5687
5688 <s>The King or Prince, since all metal is taxed, is <lb></lb>himself content with
5689 that, which is usually one-tenth.</s>
5690 </p>
5691 <p type="main">
5692
5693 <s>Of the width of every meer, whether old or new, one-half lies on the
5694 <lb></lb>footwall side of a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and one half on the hangingwall side. </s>
5695
5696 <s>If <lb></lb>the vein descends vertically into the earth, the boundaries similarly
5697 descend <pb pagenum="82"></pb>vertically; but if the vein inclines, the
5698 boundaries likewise will be inclined. <lb></lb></s>
5699
5700 <s>The owner always holds the mining right for the width of the meer, however
5701 <lb></lb>far the vein descends into the depth of the earth.<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> Further, the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>on application being
5702 made to him, grants to one owner or company a right <pb pagenum="83"></pb>over
5703 not only the head meer, or another meer, but also the head meer and <lb></lb>the
5704 next meer or two adjoining meers. </s>
5705
5706 <s>So much for the shape of meers <lb></lb>and their dimensions in the case of a
5707 <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5708 </p>
5709 <p type="main">
5710
5711 <s>I now come to the case of <emph type="italics"></emph>venae
5712 dílatatae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5713 <s> The boundaries of the areas <pb pagenum="84"></pb>on such veins are not all
5714 measured by one method. </s>
5715
5716 <s>For in some places the <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> gives them shapes similar to the shapes of the meers on
5717 <emph type="italics"></emph>venae <lb></lb>profundae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in
5718 which case the head-meer is composed of three double <lb></lb>measures, and the
5719 area of every other mine of two measures, as I have <pb pagenum="85"></pb>explained more fully above. </s>
5720
5721 <s>In this case, however, he measures the meers <lb></lb>with a cord, not only
5722 forward and backward from the ends of the head­<lb></lb>meer, as he is wont
5723 to do in the case where the owner of a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena
5724 profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> has <lb></lb>a meer granted him, but also
5725 from the sides. </s>
5726
5727 <s>In this way meers are marked <pb pagenum="86"></pb>out when a torrent or some
5728 other force of Nature has laid open a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena
5729 <lb></lb>dílatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in a valley, so that it
5730 appears either on the slope of a mountain <lb></lb>or hill or on a plain. </s>
5731
5732 <s>Elsewhere the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> doubles the width of the <lb></lb>head-meer and it is made
5733 fourteen fathoms wide, while the width of each of <lb></lb>the other meers
5734 remains single, that is seven fathoms, but the length is not <lb></lb>defined by
5735 boundaries. </s>
5736
5737 <s>In some places the head-meer consists of three <lb></lb>double measures, but has
5738 a width of fourteen fathoms and a length of <lb></lb>twenty-one.</s>
5739 </p>
5740 <figure></figure>
5741 <p type="caption">
5742
5743 <s>SHAPE OF A HEAD-MEER.</s>
5744 </p>
5745 <p type="main">
5746
5747 <s>In the same way, every other meer is composed of two measures, <lb></lb>doubled
5748 in the same fashion, so that it is fourteen fathoms in width and <lb></lb>of the
5749 same length.</s>
5750 </p>
5751 <figure></figure>
5752 <p type="caption">
5753
5754 <s>SHAPE OF EVERY OTHER MEER.</s>
5755 </p>
5756 <pb pagenum="87"></pb>
5757 <p type="main">
5758
5759 <s>Elsewhere every meer, whether a head-meer or other meer, comprises
5760 <lb></lb>forty-two fathoms in width and as many in length.</s>
5761 </p>
5762 <p type="main">
5763
5764 <s>In other places the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> gives the owner or company all of some <lb></lb>locality
5765 defined by rivers or little valleys as boundaries. </s>
5766
5767 <s>But the boundaries <lb></lb>of every such area of whatsoever shape it be, descend
5768 vertically into the <lb></lb>earth; so the owner of that area has a right over
5769 that part of any <emph type="italics"></emph>vena <lb></lb>dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which lies beneath the first one, just as the owner of
5770 the meer on <lb></lb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> has a right over so great a part of all other <emph type="italics"></emph>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>as lies
5771 within the boundaries of his meer; for just as wherever one <emph type="italics"></emph>vena <lb></lb>profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is found,
5772 another is found not far away, so wherever one <emph type="italics"></emph>vena
5773 <lb></lb>dílatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is found, others are
5774 found beneath it.</s>
5775 </p>
5776 <p type="main">
5777
5778 <s>Finally, the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> divides <emph type="italics"></emph>vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
5779 areas in different ways, <lb></lb>for in some localities the head-meer is
5780 composed of three measures, doubled <lb></lb>in such a way that it is fourteen
5781 fathoms wide and twenty-one long; and <lb></lb>every other meer consists of two
5782 measures doubled, and is square, that is, <lb></lb>fourteen fathoms wide and as
5783 many long. </s>
5784
5785 <s>In some places the head-meer <lb></lb>is composed of three single measures, and
5786 its width is seven fathoms and <lb></lb>its length twenty-one, which two numbers
5787 multiplied together make one <lb></lb>hundred and forty-seven square
5788 fathoms.</s>
5789 </p>
5790 <figure></figure>
5791 <p type="caption">
5792
5793 <s>SHAPE OF A HEAD-MEER.</s>
5794 </p>
5795 <p type="main">
5796
5797 <s>Each other meer consists of one double measure. </s>
5798
5799 <s>In some places the <lb></lb>head-meer is given the shape of a double measure, and
5800 every other meer that <lb></lb>of a single measure. </s>
5801
5802 <s>Lastly, in other places the owner or a company is given <lb></lb>a right over
5803 some complete specified locality bounded by little streams, <lb></lb>valleys, or
5804 other limits. </s>
5805
5806 <s>Furthermore, all meers on <emph type="italics"></emph>venae cumulatae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> as in <lb></lb>the case of <emph type="italics"></emph>dílatatae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> descend vertically into
5807 the depths of the earth, and <lb></lb>each meer has the boundaries so determined
5808 as to prevent disputes arising <lb></lb>between the owners of neighbouring
5809 mines.</s>
5810 </p>
5811 <p type="main">
5812
5813 <s>The boundary marks in use among miners formerly consisted only of
5814 <lb></lb>stones, and from this their name was derived, for now the marks of a
5815 <lb></lb>boundary are called “boundary stones.” To-day a row of
5816 posts, made either <lb></lb>of oak or pine, and strengthened at the top with
5817 iron rings to prevent them <lb></lb>from being damaged, is fixed beside the
5818 boundary stones to make them <lb></lb>more conspicuous. </s>
5819
5820 <s>By this method in former times the boundaries of the <lb></lb>fields were marked
5821 by stones or posts, not only as written of in the book “<emph type="italics"></emph>De <lb></lb>Limítíbus Agrorum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>”<emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> but
5822 also as testified to by the songs of the poets. </s>
5823
5824 <s>Such <pb pagenum="88"></pb>then is the shape of the meers, varying in accordance
5825 with the different <lb></lb>kinds of veins.</s>
5826 </p>
5827 <p type="main">
5828
5829 <s>Now tunnels are of two sorts, one kind having no right of property, the
5830 <lb></lb>other kind having some limited right. </s>
5831
5832 <s>For when a miner in some particular <lb></lb>locality is unable to open a vein on
5833 account of a great quantity of water, he <lb></lb>runs a wide ditch, open at the
5834 top and three feet deep, starting on the slope <lb></lb>and running up to the
5835 place where the vein is found. </s>
5836
5837 <s>Through it the water <lb></lb>flows off, so that the place is made dry and fit
5838 for digging. </s>
5839
5840 <s>But if it is not <lb></lb>sufficiently dried by this open ditch, or if a shaft
5841 which he has now for <lb></lb>the first time begun to sink is suffering from
5842 overmuch water, he goes to <lb></lb>the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and asks that official to give
5843 him the right for a tunnel. <lb></lb></s>
5844
5845 <s>Having obtained leave, he drives the tunnel, and into its drains all the
5846 <lb></lb>water is diverted, so that the place or shaft is made fit for digging. </s>
5847
5848 <s>If <lb></lb>it is not seven fathoms from the surface of the earth to the bottom
5849 of this <lb></lb>kind of tunnel, the owner possesses no rights except this one:
5850 namely, that <lb></lb>the owners of the mines, from whose leases the owner of
5851 the tunnel extracts <lb></lb>gold or silver, themselves pay him the sum he
5852 expends within their meer in <lb></lb>driving the tunnel through it.</s>
5853 </p>
5854 <p type="main">
5855
5856 <s>To a depth or height of three and a half fathoms above and below the
5857 <lb></lb>mouth of the tunnel, no one is allowed to begin another tunnel. </s>
5858
5859 <s>The reason <lb></lb>for this is that this kind of a tunnel is liable to be
5860 changed into the other <lb></lb>kind which has a complete right of property,
5861 when it drains the meers to a <lb></lb>depth of seven fathoms, or to ten,
5862 according as the old custom in each place <lb></lb>acquires the force of law. </s>
5863
5864 <s>In such case this second kind of tunnel has the <lb></lb>following right; in the
5865 first place, whatever metal the owner, or company <lb></lb>owning it, finds in
5866 any meer through which it is driven, all belongs to the <lb></lb>tunnel owner
5867 within a height or depth of one and a quarter fathoms. </s>
5868
5869 <s>In <lb></lb>the years which are not long passed, the owner of a tunnel possessed
5870 all the <lb></lb>metal which a miner standing at the bottom of the tunnel
5871 touched with <lb></lb>a bar, whose handle did not exceed the customary length;
5872 but nowadays <lb></lb>a certain prescribed height and width is allowed to the
5873 owner of the tunnel, <lb></lb>lest the owners of the mines be damaged, if the
5874 length of the bar be <lb></lb>longer than usual. </s>
5875
5876 <s>Further, every metal-yielding mine which is drained <lb></lb>and supplied with
5877 ventilation by a tunnel, is taxed in the proportion of one­<lb></lb>ninth
5878 for the benefit of the owner of the tunnel. </s>
5879
5880 <s>But if several tunnels of <lb></lb>this kind are driven through one mining area
5881 which is yielding metals, and <lb></lb>all drain it and supply it with
5882 ventilation, then of the metal which is dug <lb></lb>out from above the bottom
5883 of each tunnel, one-ninth is given to the owner of <lb></lb>that tunnel; of that
5884 which is dug out below the bottom of each tunnel, <lb></lb>one-ninth is in each
5885 case given to the owner of the tunnel which follows <lb></lb>next in order
5886 below. </s>
5887
5888 <s>But if the lower tunnel does not yet drain the shaft of <lb></lb>that meer nor
5889 supply it with ventilation, then of the metal which is dug out <lb></lb>below
5890 the bottom of the higher tunnel, one-ninth part is given to the owner
5891 <lb></lb>of such upper tunnel. </s>
5892
5893 <s>Moreover, no one tunnel deprives another of its <lb></lb>right to one-ninth part,
5894 unless it be a lower one, from the bottom of which <lb></lb>to the bottom of the
5895 one above must not be less than seven or ten fathoms, <pb pagenum="89"></pb>according as the king or prince has decreed. </s>
5896
5897 <s>Further, of all the money <lb></lb>which the owner of the tunnel has spent on his
5898 tunnel while driving it <lb></lb>through a meer, the owner of that meer pays
5899 one-fourth part. </s>
5900
5901 <s>If he does <lb></lb>not do so he is not allowed to make use of the drains.</s>
5902 </p>
5903 <p type="main">
5904
5905 <s>Finally, with regard to whatever veins are discovered by the owner <lb></lb>at
5906 whose expense the tunnel is driven, the right of which has not been
5907 <lb></lb>already awarded to anyone, on the application of such owner the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>grants him a
5908 right of a head-meer, or of a head-meer together with the next <lb></lb>meer. </s>
5909
5910 <s>Ancient custom gives the right for a tunnel to be driven in any
5911 <lb></lb>direction for an unlimited length. </s>
5912
5913 <s>Further, to-day he who commences a <lb></lb>tunnel is given, on his application,
5914 not only the right over the tunnel, but <lb></lb>even the head and sometimes the
5915 next meer also. </s>
5916
5917 <s>In former days the owner <lb></lb>of the tunnel obtained only so much ground as
5918 an arrow shot from the bow <lb></lb>might cover, and he was allowed to pasture
5919 cattle therein. </s>
5920
5921 <s>In a case where <lb></lb>the shafts of several meers on some vein could not be
5922 worked on account of <lb></lb>the great quantity of water, ancient custom also
5923 allowed the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> to
5924 <lb></lb>grant the right of a large meer to anyone who would drive a tunnel. </s>
5925
5926 <s>When, <lb></lb>however, he had driven a tunnel as far as the old shafts and had
5927 found <lb></lb>metal, he used to return to the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and request him to bound and
5928 <lb></lb>mark off the extent of his right to a meer. </s>
5929
5930 <s>Thereupon, the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>together with a certain number of citizens of the town—in whose
5931 place <lb></lb>Jurors have now succeeded—used to proceed to the mountain
5932 and mark off <lb></lb>with boundary stones a large meer, which consisted of
5933 seven double <lb></lb>measures, that is to say, it was ninety-eight fathoms long
5934 and seven wide, <lb></lb>which two numbers multiplied together make six hundred
5935 and eighty-six <lb></lb>square fathoms.</s>
5936 </p>
5937 <figure></figure>
5938 <p type="caption">
5939
5940 <s>LARGE AREA.</s>
5941 </p>
5942 <p type="main">
5943
5944 <s>But each of these early customs has been changed, and we now employ <lb></lb>the
5945 new method.</s>
5946 </p>
5947 <p type="main">
5948
5949 <s>I have spoken of tunnels; I will now speak about the division of
5950 owner­<lb></lb>ship in mines and tunnels. </s>
5951
5952 <s>One owner is allowed to possess and to work <lb></lb>one, two, three, or more
5953 whole meers, or similarly one or more separate <lb></lb>tunnels, provided he
5954 conforms to the decrees of the laws relating to <lb></lb>metals, and to the
5955 orders of the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
5956 <s> And because he alone pro­<lb></lb>vides the expenditure of money on the
5957 mines, if they yield metal he alone <lb></lb>obtains the product from them. </s>
5958
5959 <s>But when large and frequent expenditures <lb></lb>are necessary in mining, he to
5960 whom the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
5961 first gave the right <pb pagenum="90"></pb>often admits others to share with
5962 him, and they join with him in forming a <lb></lb>company, and they each lay out
5963 a part of the expense and share with him <lb></lb>the profit or loss of the
5964 mine. </s>
5965
5966 <s>But the title of the mines or tunnels remains <lb></lb>undivided, although for
5967 the purpose of dividing the expense and profit it <lb></lb>may be said each mine
5968 or tunnel is divided into parts<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
5969 </p>
5970 <p type="main">
5971
5972 <s>This division is made in various ways. </s>
5973
5974 <s>A mine, and the same thing <lb></lb>must be understood with regard to a tunnel,
5975 may be divided into two halves, <lb></lb>that is into two similar portions, by
5976 which method two owners spend <lb></lb>an equal amount on it and draw an equal
5977 profit from it, for each possesses <lb></lb>one half. </s>
5978
5979 <s>Sometimes it is divided into four shares, by which compact <lb></lb>four persons
5980 can be owners, so that each possesses one-fourth, or also two <lb></lb>persons,
5981 so that one possesses three-fourths, and the other only
5982 one-fourth<gap></gap><lb></lb>or three owners, so that the first has two-fourths, and
5983 the second and third <lb></lb>one-fourth each. </s>
5984
5985 <s>Sometimes it is divided into eight shares, by which plan <lb></lb>there may be
5986 eight owners, so that each is possessor of one-eighth; some­<lb></lb>times
5987 there are two owners, so that one has five-sixths<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> together with one <lb></lb>twenty-fourth, and the
5988 other one-eighth; or there may be three owners, in <lb></lb>which one has
5989 three-quarters and the second and third each one-eighth; <lb></lb>or it may be
5990 divided so that one owner has seven-twelfths, together with <lb></lb>one
5991 twenty-fourth, a second owner has one-quarter, and a third owner has
5992 <lb></lb>one-eighth; or so that the first has one-half, the second one-third and
5993 one <lb></lb>twenty-fourth, and the third one-eighth; or so that the first has
5994 one-half, <lb></lb>as before, and the second and third each one-quarter; or so
5995 that the first <lb></lb>and second each have one-third and one twenty-fourth,
5996 and the third one­<lb></lb>quarter; and in the same way the divisions may be
5997 adjusted in all the other <lb></lb>proportions. </s>
5998
5999 <s>The different ways of dividing the shares originate from the <lb></lb>different
6000 proportions of ownership. </s>
6001
6002 <s>Sometimes a mine is divided into <lb></lb>sixteen parts, each of which is a
6003 twenty-fourth and a forty-eighth; or it may <lb></lb>be divided into thirty-two
6004 parts, each of which is a forty-eighth and half a <lb></lb>seventy-second and a
6005 two hundred and eighty-eighth; or into sixty-four <lb></lb>parts of which each
6006 share is one seventy-second and one five hundred and <lb></lb>seventy-sixth; or
6007 finally, into one hundred and twenty-eight parts, any one <lb></lb>of which is
6008 half a seventy-second and half of one five hundred and
6009 seventy­<lb></lb>sixth.</s>
6010 </p>
6011 <p type="main">
6012
6013 <s>Now an iron mine either remains undivided or is divided into two, <lb></lb>four,
6014 or occasionally more shares, which depends on the excellence of the
6015 <lb></lb>veins. </s>
6016
6017 <s>But a lead, bismuth, or tin mine, and likewise one of copper or even
6018 <lb></lb>quicksilver, is also divided into eight shares, or into sixteen or
6019 thirty-two, <lb></lb>and less commonly into sixty-four. </s>
6020
6021 <s>The number of the divisions of the silver <lb></lb>mines at Freiberg in Meissen
6022 did not formerly progress beyond this; but <lb></lb><pb pagenum="91"></pb>within the
6023 memory of our fathers, miners have divided a silver mine, and <lb></lb>similarly
6024 the tunnel at Schneeberg, first of all into one hundred and
6025 twenty­<lb></lb>eight shares, of which one hundred and twenty-six are the
6026 property of <lb></lb>private owners in the mines or tunnels, one belongs to the
6027 State and one <lb></lb>to the Church; while in Joachimsthal only one hundred and
6028 twenty-two <lb></lb>shares of the mines or tunnels are the property of private
6029 owners, four <lb></lb>are proprietary shares, and the State and Church each have
6030 one in the <lb></lb>same way. </s>
6031
6032 <s>To these there has lately been added in some places one share <lb></lb>for the
6033 most needy of the population, which makes one hundred and
6034 twenty­<lb></lb>nine shares. </s>
6035
6036 <s>It is only the private owners of mines who pay contributions. <lb></lb></s>
6037
6038 <s>A proprietary holder, though he holds as many as four shares such as I have
6039 <lb></lb>described, does not pay contributions, but gratuitiously supplies the
6040 owners <lb></lb>of the mines with sufficient wood from his forests for
6041 timbering, machinery, <lb></lb>buildings, and smelting; nor do those belonging
6042 to the State, Church, and <lb></lb>the poor pay contributions, but the proceeds
6043 are used to build or repair <lb></lb>public works and sacred buildings, and to
6044 support the most needy with the <lb></lb>profits which they draw from the mines. </s>
6045
6046 <s>Furthermore, in our State, the <lb></lb>one hundred and twenty-eighth share has
6047 begun to be divided into two, <lb></lb>four, or eight parts, or even into three,
6048 six, twelve, or smaller parts. </s>
6049
6050 <s>This <lb></lb>is done when one mine is created out of two, for then the owner who
6051 formerly <lb></lb>possessed one-half becomes owner of one-fourth; he who
6052 possessed one­<lb></lb>fourth, of one-eighth; he who possessed one-third, of
6053 one-sixth; he who <lb></lb>possessed one-sixth, of one-twelfth. </s>
6054
6055 <s>Since our countrymen call a mine a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>symposíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> that is, a drinking bout,
6056 we are accustomed to call the money which <lb></lb>the owners subscribe a <emph type="italics"></emph>symbolum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or a
6057 contribution<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
6058
6059 <s>For, just as those who <lb></lb>go to a banquet (<emph type="italics"></emph>symposíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>) give contributions (<emph type="italics"></emph>symbola<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), so those who purpose
6060 <lb></lb>making large profits from mining are accustomed to contribute toward
6061 the <lb></lb>expenditure. </s>
6062
6063 <s>However, the manager of the mine assesses the contributions <lb></lb>of the
6064 owners annually, or for the most part quarterly, and as often he
6065 <lb></lb>renders an account of receipts and expenses. </s>
6066
6067 <s>At Freiberg in Meissen the <lb></lb>old practice was for the manager to exact a
6068 contribution from the owners <lb></lb>every week, and every week to distribute
6069 among them the profits of the <lb></lb>mines, but this practice during almost
6070 the last fifteen years has been so far <lb></lb>changed that contribution and
6071 distribution are made four<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> times
6072 each <lb></lb>year. </s>
6073
6074 <s>Large or small contributions are imposed according to the number <lb></lb>of
6075 workmen which the mine or tunnel requires; as a result, those who
6076 <lb></lb>possess many shares provide many contributions. </s>
6077
6078 <s>Four times a year the <lb></lb>owners contribute to the cost, and four times
6079 during the year the profits of <lb></lb>the mines are distributed among them;
6080 these are sometimes large, some­<lb></lb>times small, according as there is
6081 more or less gold or silver or other metal <lb></lb>dug out. </s>
6082
6083 <s>Indeed, from the St. </s>
6084
6085 <s>George mine in Schneeberg the miners extracted <lb></lb>so much silver in a
6086 quarter of a year that silver cakes, which were worth <lb></lb><pb pagenum="92"></pb>1,100 Rhenish guldens, were distributed to each one hundred and
6087 twenty-eighth <lb></lb>share. </s>
6088
6089 <s>From the Annaberg mine which is known as the Himmelich Höz, <lb></lb>they
6090 had a dole of eight hundred thaler; from a mine in Joachimsthal <lb></lb>which
6091 is named the Sternen, three hundred thaler; from the head mine at
6092 <lb></lb>Abertham, which is called St. </s>
6093
6094 <s>Lorentz, two hundred and twenty-five thaler<emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. <lb></lb></s>
6095
6096 <s>The more shares of which any individual is owner the more profits he
6097 takes.</s>
6098 </p>
6099 <p type="main">
6100
6101 <s>I will now explain how the owners may lose or obtain the right over a
6102 <lb></lb>mine, or a tunnel, or a share. </s>
6103
6104 <s>Formerly, if anyone was able to prove by <lb></lb>witnesses that the owners had
6105 failed to send miners for three continuous <lb></lb>shifts<emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> deprived them of their
6106 right over the mine, and <lb></lb>gave the right over it to the informer, if he
6107 desired it. </s>
6108
6109 <s>But although miners <lb></lb>preserve this custom to-day, still mining share
6110 owners who have paid <lb></lb>their contributions do not lose their right over
6111 their mines against their will. <lb></lb></s>
6112
6113 <s>Formerly, if water which had not been drawn off from the higher shaft of
6114 <lb></lb>some mine percolated through a vein or stringer into the shaft of
6115 another <lb></lb>mine and impeded their work, then the owners of the mine which
6116 suffered <lb></lb>the damage went to the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and complained of the
6117 loss, and he sent <lb></lb>to the shafts two Jurors. </s>
6118
6119 <s>If they found that matters were as claimed, <lb></lb>the right over the mine
6120 which caused the injury was given to the owners <lb></lb>who suffered the
6121 injury. </s>
6122
6123 <s>But this custom in certain places has been changed, <lb></lb>for the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> if he
6124 finds this condition of things proved in the case <lb></lb>of two shafts, orders
6125 the owners of the shaft which causes the injury to <lb></lb>contribute part of
6126 the expense to the owners of the shaft which receives the <lb></lb>injury; if
6127 they fail to do so, he then deprives them of their right over their
6128 <lb></lb>mine; on the other hand, if the owners send men to the workings to dig
6129 <lb></lb>and draw off the water from the shafts, they keep their right over
6130 their <lb></lb>mine. </s>
6131
6132 <s>Formerly owners used to obtain a right over any tunnel, firstly, if <lb></lb>in
6133 its bottom they made drains and cleansed them of mud and sand so that
6134 <lb></lb>the water might flow out without any hindrance, and restored those
6135 drains <lb></lb>which had been damaged; secondly, if they provided shafts or
6136 openings to <lb></lb>supply the miners with air, and restored those which had
6137 fallen in; and <lb></lb>finally, if three miners were employed continuously in
6138 driving the tunnel. <lb></lb></s>
6139
6140 <s>But the principal reason for losing the title to a tunnel was that for a
6141 period <lb></lb>of eight days no miner was employed upon it; therefore, when
6142 anyone <lb></lb>was able to prove by witnesses that the owners of a tunnel had
6143 not done <lb></lb>these things, he brought his accusation before the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> who, after
6144 <lb></lb>going out from the town to the tunnel and inspecting the drains and the
6145 <lb></lb>ventilating machines and everything else, and finding the charge to be
6146 true, <lb></lb>placed the witness under oath, and asked him: “Whose tunnel
6147 is this at the <lb></lb>present time?” The witness would reply: “The
6148 King&#039;s” or “The <lb></lb><pb pagenum="93"></pb>Prince&#039;s.”
6149 Thereupon the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> gave the right over the tunnel to <lb></lb>the first
6150 applicant. </s>
6151
6152 <s>This was the severe rule under which the owners at one <lb></lb>time lost their
6153 rights over a tunnel; but its severity is now considerably <lb></lb>mitigated,
6154 for the owners do not now forthwith lose their right over a tunnel
6155 <lb></lb>through not having cleaned out the drains and restored the shafts or
6156 <lb></lb>ventilation holes which have suffered damage; but the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> orders <lb></lb>the
6157 tunnel manager to do it, and if he does not obey, the authorities fine
6158 <lb></lb>the tunnel. </s>
6159
6160 <s>Also it is sufficient for one miner to be engaged in driving the <lb></lb>tunnel. </s>
6161
6162 <s>Moreover, if the owner of a tunnel sets boundaries at a fixed spot <lb></lb>in
6163 the rocks and stops driving the tunnel, he may obtain a right over it so
6164 <lb></lb>far as he has gone, provided the drains are cleaned out and ventilation
6165 <lb></lb>holes are kept in repair. </s>
6166
6167 <s>But any other owner is allowed to start from the <lb></lb>established mark and
6168 drive the tunnel further, if he pays the former owners <lb></lb>of the tunnel as
6169 much money every three months as the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> decides <lb></lb>ought to be
6170 paid.</s>
6171 </p>
6172 <p type="main">
6173
6174 <s>There remain for discussion, the shares in the mines and tunnels. <lb></lb></s>
6175
6176 <s>Formerly if anybody conveyed these shares to anyone else, and the latter
6177 <lb></lb>had once paid his contribution, the seller<emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> was bound to stand by his bargain, <lb></lb>and this custom
6178 to-day has the force of law. </s>
6179
6180 <s>But if the seller denied that the <lb></lb>contribution had been paid, while the
6181 buyer of the shares declared that he could <lb></lb>prove by witnesses that he
6182 had paid his contribution to the other proprietors, <lb></lb>and a case arose
6183 for trial, then the evidence of the other proprietors carried <lb></lb>more
6184 weight than the oath of the seller. </s>
6185
6186 <s>To-day the buyer of the shares proves <lb></lb>that he has paid his contribution
6187 by a document which the mine or tunnel <lb></lb>manager always gives each one;
6188 if the buyer has contributed no money <lb></lb>there is no obligation on the
6189 seller to keep his bargain. </s>
6190
6191 <s>Formerly, as I have <lb></lb>said above, the proprietors used to contribute money
6192 weekly, but now con­<lb></lb>tributions are paid four times each year. </s>
6193
6194 <s>To-day, if for the space of a month <lb></lb>anyone does not take proceedings
6195 against the seller of the shares for the con­<lb></lb>tribution, the right
6196 of taking proceedings is lost. </s>
6197
6198 <s>But when the Clerk has <lb></lb>already entered on the register the shares which
6199 had been conveyed or <lb></lb>bought, none of the owners loses his right over
6200 the share unless the money <lb></lb>is not contributed which the manager of the
6201 mine or tunnel has demanded <lb></lb>from the owner or his agent. </s>
6202
6203 <s>Formerly, if on the application of the manager <lb></lb>the owner or his agent
6204 did not pay, the matter was referred to the <emph type="italics"></emph>Berg­<lb></lb>meister,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> who ordered the owner
6205 or his agent to make his contribution; then <lb></lb>if he failed to contribute
6206 for three successive weeks, the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> gave <lb></lb>the right to his shares to the first
6207 applicant. </s>
6208
6209 <s>To-day this custom is un­<lb></lb>changed, for if owners fail for the space
6210 of a month to pay the contribu­<lb></lb>tions which the manager of the mine
6211 has imposed on them, on a stated day <lb></lb>their names are proclaimed aloud
6212 and struck off the list of owners, in <lb></lb>the presence of the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> the
6213 Jurors, the Mining Clerk, and the Share <lb></lb>Clerk, and each of such shares
6214 is entered on the proscribed list. </s>
6215
6216 <s>If, how­<pb pagenum="94"></pb>ever, on the third, or at latest the fourth
6217 day, they pay their contributions <lb></lb>to the manager of the mine or tunnel,
6218 and pay the money which is due from <lb></lb>them to the Share Clerk, he removes
6219 their shares from the proscribed <lb></lb>list. </s>
6220
6221 <s>They are not thereupon restored to their former position unless the
6222 <lb></lb>other owners consent; in which respect the custom now in use differs
6223 from <lb></lb>the old practice, for to-day if the owners of shares constituting
6224 anything <lb></lb>over half the mine consent to the restoration of those who
6225 have been <lb></lb>proscribed, the others are obliged to consent whether they
6226 wish to or not. <lb></lb></s>
6227
6228 <s>Formerly, unless such restoration had been sanctioned by the approval of
6229 <lb></lb>the owners of one hundred shares, those who had been proscribed were
6230 not <lb></lb>restored to their former position.</s>
6231 </p>
6232 <p type="main">
6233
6234 <s>The procedure in suits relating to shares was formerly as follows: he
6235 <lb></lb>who instituted a suit and took legal proceedings against another in
6236 respect <lb></lb>of the shares, used to make a formal charge against the accused
6237 possessor <lb></lb>before the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
6238 <s> This was done either at his house or in some public <lb></lb>place or at the
6239 mines, once each day for three days if the shares belonged to <lb></lb>an old
6240 mine, and three times in eight days if they belonged to a
6241 head­<lb></lb>meer. </s>
6242
6243 <s>But if he could not find the possessor of the shares in these places, it
6244 <lb></lb>was valid and effectual to make the accusation against him at the house
6245 of <lb></lb>the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
6246 <s> When, however, he made the charge for the third time, he <lb></lb>used to bring
6247 with him a notary, whom the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> would interrogate: <lb></lb>“Have I earned the
6248 fee?” and who would respond: “You have earned <lb></lb>it”;
6249 thereupon the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> would give the right over the shares to him <lb></lb>who
6250 made the accusation, and the accuser in turn would pay down the
6251 <lb></lb>customary fee to the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
6252 <s> After these proceedings, if the man whom <lb></lb>the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> had deprived of his
6253 shares dwelt in the city, one of the <lb></lb>proprietors of the mine or of the
6254 head-mine was sent to him to acquaint him <lb></lb>with the facts, but if he
6255 dwelt elsewhere proclamation was made in some <lb></lb>public place, or at the
6256 mine, openly and in a loud voice in the hearing of <lb></lb>numbers of miners. </s>
6257
6258 <s>Nowadays a date is defined for the one who is answer­<lb></lb>able for the
6259 debt of shares or money, and information is given the accused <lb></lb>by an
6260 official if he is near at hand, or if he is absent, a letter is sent him;
6261 <lb></lb>nor is the right over his shares taken from anyone for the space of one
6262 and <lb></lb>a half months. </s>
6263
6264 <s>So much for these matters.</s>
6265 </p>
6266 <p type="main">
6267
6268 <s>Now, before I deal with the methods which must be employed in <lb></lb>working, I
6269 will speak of the duties of the Mining Prefect, the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>the Jurors, the Mining
6270 Clerk, the Share Clerk, the manager of the mine <lb></lb>or tunnel, the foreman
6271 of the mine or tunnel, and the workmen.</s>
6272 </p>
6273 <p type="main">
6274
6275 <s>To the Mining Prefect, whom the King or Prince appoints as his deputy,
6276 <lb></lb>all men of all races, ages, and rank, give obedience and submission. </s>
6277
6278 <s>He <lb></lb>governs and regulates everything at his discretion, ordering those
6279 things <lb></lb>which are useful and advantageous in mining operations, and
6280 prohibiting <lb></lb>those which are to the contrary. </s>
6281
6282 <s>He levies penalties and punishes offenders; <lb></lb>he arranges disputes which
6283 the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> has
6284 been unable to settle, and if <lb></lb>even he cannot arrange them, he allows
6285 the owners who are at variance over <lb></lb>some point to proceed to
6286 litigation; he even lays down the law, gives orders <pb pagenum="95"></pb>as a
6287 magistrate, or bids them leave their rights in abeyance, and he
6288 deter­<lb></lb>mines the pay of persons who hold any post or office. </s>
6289
6290 <s>He is present in <lb></lb>person when the mine managers present their quarterly
6291 accounts of profits <lb></lb>and expenses, and generally represents the King or
6292 Prince and upholds his <lb></lb>dignity. </s>
6293
6294 <s>The Athenians in this way set Thucydides, the famous historian, <lb></lb>over the
6295 mines of Thasos<emph type="sup"></emph>15<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
6296 </p>
6297 <p type="main">
6298
6299 <s>Next in power to the Mining Prefect comes the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> since he <lb></lb>has
6300 jurisdiction over all who are connected with mines, with a few exceptions,
6301 <lb></lb>which are the Tithe Gatherer, the Cashier, the Silver Refiner, the
6302 Master <lb></lb>of the Mint, and the Coiners themselves. </s>
6303
6304 <s>Fraudulent, negligent, or dissolute <lb></lb>men he either throws into prison, or
6305 deprives of promotion, or fines; <lb></lb>of these fines, part is given as a
6306 tribute to those in power. </s>
6307
6308 <s>When the mine <lb></lb>owners have a dispute over boundaries he arbitrates it; or
6309 if he cannot <lb></lb>settle the dispute, he pronounces judgment jointly with
6310 the Jurors; <lb></lb>from them, however, an appeal lies to the Mining Prefect. </s>
6311
6312 <s>He transcribes <lb></lb>his decrees in a book and sets up the records in public. </s>
6313
6314 <s>It is also his duty <lb></lb>to grant the right over the mines to those who
6315 apply, and to confirm their <lb></lb>rights; he also must measure the mines, and
6316 fix their boundaries, and see <lb></lb>that the mine workings are not allowed to
6317 become dangerous. </s>
6318
6319 <s>Some of <lb></lb>these duties he observes on fixed days; for on Wednesday in the
6320 presence <lb></lb>of the Jurors he confirms the rights over the mines which he
6321 has granted, <lb></lb>settles disputes about boundaries, and pronounces
6322 judgments. </s>
6323
6324 <s>On Mondays, <lb></lb>Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, he rides up to the mines,
6325 and dismounting <lb></lb>at some of them explains what is required to be done,
6326 or considers the <lb></lb>boundaries which are under controversy. </s>
6327
6328 <s>On Saturday all the mine managers <lb></lb>and mine foremen render an account of
6329 the money which they have spent <lb></lb>on the mines during the preceding week,
6330 and the Mining Clerk transcribes <lb></lb>this account into the register of
6331 expenses. </s>
6332
6333 <s>Formerly, for one Principality <lb></lb>there was one <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> who used to create all the
6334 judges and exercise <lb></lb>jurisdiction and control over them; for every mine
6335 had its own judge, <lb></lb>just as to-day each locality has a <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in his
6336 place, the name alone <lb></lb>being changed. </s>
6337
6338 <s>To this ancient <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
6339 who used to dwell at Freiberg in <lb></lb>Meissen, disputes were referred; hence
6340 right up to the present time the one <lb></lb>at Freiberg still has the power of
6341 pronouncing judgment when mine owners <lb></lb>who are engaged in disputes among
6342 themselves appeal to him. </s>
6343
6344 <s>The old <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> could try everything which was presented to him in any mine
6345 <lb></lb>whatsoever; whereas the judge could only try the things which were done
6346 <lb></lb>in his own district, in the same way that every modern <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> can.</s>
6347 </p>
6348 <p type="main">
6349
6350 <s>To each <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is
6351 attached a clerk, who writes out a schedule <lb></lb>signifying to the applicant
6352 for a right over a mine, the day and hour on which <lb></lb>the right is
6353 granted, the name of the applicant, and the location of the mine. <lb></lb></s>
6354
6355 <s>He also affixes at the entrance to the mine, quarterly, at the appointed
6356 time, <lb></lb>a sheet of paper on which is shown how much contribution must be
6357 paid to <lb></lb>the manager of the mine. </s>
6358
6359 <s>These notices are prepared jointly with the <pb pagenum="96"></pb>Mining Clerk,
6360 and in common they receive the fee rendered by the foremen <lb></lb>of the
6361 separate mines.</s>
6362 </p>
6363 <p type="main">
6364
6365 <s>I now come to the Jurors, who are men experienced in mining <lb></lb>matters and
6366 of good repute. </s>
6367
6368 <s>Their number is greater or less as there <lb></lb>are few or more mines; thus if
6369 there are ten mines there will be five <lb></lb>pairs of Jurors, like a <emph type="italics"></emph>decemviral college<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>16<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
6370
6371 <s>Into however many <lb></lb>divisions the total number of mines has been divided,
6372 so many divisions <lb></lb>has the body of Jurors; each pair of Jurors usually
6373 visits some of <lb></lb>the mines whose administration is under their
6374 supervision on every <lb></lb>day that workmen are employed; it is usually so
6375 arranged that they <lb></lb>visit all the mines in the space of fourteen days. </s>
6376
6377 <s>They inspect and con­<lb></lb>sider all details, and deliberate and consult
6378 with the mine foreman on <lb></lb>matters relating to the underground workings,
6379 machinery, timbering, and <lb></lb>everything else. </s>
6380
6381 <s>They also jointly with the mine foreman from time to <lb></lb>time make the price
6382 per fathom to the workmen for mining the ore, fixing <lb></lb>it at a high or
6383 low price, according to whether the rock is hard or soft; if, <lb></lb>however,
6384 the contractors find that an unforeseen and unexpected hardness <lb></lb>occurs,
6385 and for that reason have difficulty and delay in carrying out their
6386 <lb></lb>work, the Jurors allow them something in excess of the price fixed;
6387 <lb></lb>while if there is a softness by reason of water, and the work is done
6388 more <lb></lb>easily and quickly, they deduct something from the price. </s>
6389
6390 <s>Further, if the <lb></lb>Jurors discover manifest negligence or fraud on the part
6391 of any foreman <lb></lb>or workman, they first admonish or reprimand him as to
6392 his duties and <lb></lb>obligations, and if he does not become more diligent and
6393 improve, the matter <lb></lb>is reported to the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> who by right of his authority
6394 deprives such <lb></lb>persons of their functions and office, or, if they have
6395 committed a crime, <lb></lb>throws them into prison. </s>
6396
6397 <s>Lastly, because the Jurors have been given <lb></lb>to the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> as councillors and advisors, in
6398 their absence he does not <lb></lb>confirm the right over any mine, nor measure
6399 the mines, nor fix their <lb></lb>boundaries, nor settle disputes about
6400 boundaries, nor pronounce judgment, <lb></lb>nor, finally, does he without them
6401 listen to any account of profits and <lb></lb>expenditure.</s>
6402 </p>
6403 <p type="main">
6404
6405 <s>Now the Mining Clerk enters each mine in his books, the new mines <lb></lb>in one
6406 book, the old mines which have been re-opened in another. </s>
6407
6408 <s>This <lb></lb>is done in the following way: first is written the name of the man
6409 who has <lb></lb>applied for the right over the mine, then the day and hour on
6410 which he <lb></lb>made his application, then the vein and the locality in which
6411 it is situated, <lb></lb>next the conditions on which the right has been given,
6412 and lastly, the day on <lb></lb>which the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> confirmed it. </s>
6413
6414 <s>A document containing all these <lb></lb>particulars is also given to the person
6415 whose right over a mine has been <lb></lb>confirmed. </s>
6416
6417 <s>The Mining Clerk also sets down in another book the names <lb></lb>of the owners
6418 of each mine over which the right has been confirmed; <lb></lb>in another any
6419 intermission of work permitted to any person for cer­<pb pagenum="97"></pb>tain reasons by the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in another the money which one mine <lb></lb>supplies to
6420 another for drawing off water or making machinery; and in <lb></lb>another the
6421 decisions of the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
6422 and the Jurors, and the disputes <lb></lb>settled by them as honorary
6423 arbitrators. </s>
6424
6425 <s>All these matters he enters in the <lb></lb>books on Wednesday of every week; if
6426 holidays fall on that day he does it <lb></lb>on the following Thursday. </s>
6427
6428 <s>Every Saturday he enters in another book the <lb></lb>total expenses of the
6429 preceding week, the account of which the mine manager <lb></lb>has rendered; but
6430 the total quarterly expenses of each mine manager, he <lb></lb>enters in a
6431 special book at his own convenience. </s>
6432
6433 <s>He enters similarly in <lb></lb>another book a list of owners who have been
6434 proscribed. </s>
6435
6436 <s>Lastly, that no one <lb></lb>may be able to bring a charge of falsification
6437 against him, all these books <lb></lb>are enclosed in a chest with two locks,
6438 the key of one of which is kept by the <lb></lb>Mining Clerk, and of the other
6439 by the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
6440 </p>
6441 <p type="main">
6442
6443 <s>The Share Clerk enters in a book the owners of each mine whom <lb></lb>the first
6444 finder of the vein names to him, and from time to time replaces the
6445 <lb></lb>names of the sellers with those of the buyers of the shares. </s>
6446
6447 <s>It sometimes <lb></lb>happens that twenty or more owners come into the possession
6448 of some <lb></lb>particular share. </s>
6449
6450 <s>Unless, however, the seller is present, or has sent a letter <lb></lb>to the
6451 Mining Clerk with his seal, or better still with the seal of the Mayor
6452 <lb></lb>of the town where he dwells, his name is not replaced by that of anyone
6453 else; <lb></lb>for if the Share Clerk is not sufficiently cautious, the law
6454 requires him <lb></lb>to restore the late owner wholly to his former position. </s>
6455
6456 <s>He writes out a <lb></lb>fresh document, and in this way gives proof of
6457 possession. </s>
6458
6459 <s>Four times a <lb></lb>year, when the accounts of the quarterly expenditure are
6460 rendered, he <lb></lb>names the new proprietors to the manager of each mine,
6461 that the manager <lb></lb>may know from whom he should demand contributions and
6462 among whom <lb></lb>to distribute the profits of the mines. </s>
6463
6464 <s>For this work the mine manager pays <lb></lb>the Clerk a fixed fee.</s>
6465 </p>
6466 <p type="main">
6467
6468 <s>I will now speak of the duties of the mine manager. </s>
6469
6470 <s>In the case of the <lb></lb>owners of every mine which is not yielding metal, the
6471 manager announces <lb></lb>to the proprietors their contributions in a document
6472 which is affixed to the <lb></lb>doors of the town hall, such contributions
6473 being large or small, according as <lb></lb>the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and two Jurors determine. </s>
6474
6475 <s>If anyone fails to pay these <lb></lb>contributions for the space of a month, the
6476 manager removes their names <lb></lb>from the list of owners, and makes their
6477 shares the common property of the <lb></lb>other proprietors. </s>
6478
6479 <s>And so, whomsoever the mine manager names as not <lb></lb>having paid his
6480 contribution, that same man the Mining Clerk designates <lb></lb>in writing, and
6481 so also does the Share Clerk. </s>
6482
6483 <s>Of the contribution, the <lb></lb>mine manager applies part to the payment of the
6484 foreman and workmen, <lb></lb>and lays by a part to purchase at the lowest price
6485 the necessary things for <lb></lb>the mine, such as iron tools, nails, firewood,
6486 planks, buckets, drawing-ropes, <lb></lb>or grease. </s>
6487
6488 <s>But in the case of a mine which is yielding metal, the
6489 Tithe­<lb></lb>gatherer pays the mine manager week by week as much money as
6490 suffices <lb></lb>to discharge the workmen&#039;s wages and to provide the necessary
6491 implements <lb></lb>for mining. </s>
6492
6493 <s>The mine manager of each mine also, in the presence of its <lb></lb>foreman, on
6494 Saturday in each week renders an account of his expenses to <pb pagenum="98"></pb>the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the
6495 Jurors, he renders an account of his receipts, <lb></lb>whether the money has
6496 been contributed by the owners or taken from the <lb></lb>Tithe-gatherer; and of
6497 his quarterly expenditure in the same way <lb></lb>to them and to the Mining
6498 Prefect and to the Mining Clerk, four <lb></lb>times a year at the appointed
6499 time; for just as there are four seasons <lb></lb>of the year, namely, Spring,
6500 Summer, Autumn, and Winter, so there are <lb></lb>fourfold accounts of profits
6501 and expenses. </s>
6502
6503 <s>In the beginning of the first <lb></lb>month of each quarter an account is
6504 rendered of the money which the <lb></lb>manager has spent on the mine during
6505 the previous quarter, then of the <lb></lb>profit which he has taken from it
6506 during the same period; for example, <lb></lb>the account which is rendered at
6507 the beginning of spring is an account of all <lb></lb>the profits and expenses
6508 of each separate week of winter, which have been <lb></lb>entered by the Mining
6509 Clerk in the book of accounts. </s>
6510
6511 <s>If the manager <lb></lb>has spent the money of the proprietors advantageously in
6512 the mine and <lb></lb>has faithfully looked after it, everyone praises him as a
6513 diligent and honest <lb></lb>man; if through ignorance in these matters he has
6514 caused loss, he is generally <lb></lb>deprived of his office; if by his
6515 carelessness and negligence the owners have <lb></lb>suffered loss, the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> compels him to
6516 make good the loss; and finally, <lb></lb>if he has been guilty of fraud or
6517 theft, he is punished with fine, prison, or <lb></lb>death. </s>
6518
6519 <s>Further, it is the business of the manager to see that the foreman <lb></lb>of
6520 the mine is present at the beginning and end of the shifts, that he digs
6521 <lb></lb>the ore in an advantageous manner, and makes the required timbering,
6522 <lb></lb>machines, and drains. </s>
6523
6524 <s>The manager also makes the deductions from the <lb></lb>pay of the workmen whom
6525 the foreman has noted as negligent. </s>
6526
6527 <s>Next, <lb></lb>if the mine is rich in metal, the manager must see that its
6528 ore-house is closed <lb></lb>on those days on which no work is performed; and if
6529 it is a rich vein of gold <lb></lb>or silver, he sees that the miners promptly
6530 transfer the output from the shaft <lb></lb>or tunnel into a chest or into the
6531 strong room next to the house where the <lb></lb>foreman dwells, that no
6532 opportunity for theft may be given to dishonest <lb></lb>persons. </s>
6533
6534 <s>This duty he shares in common with the foreman, but the one <lb></lb>which
6535 follows is peculiarly his own. </s>
6536
6537 <s>When ore is smelted he is present in <lb></lb>person, and watches that the
6538 smelting is performed carefully and advan­<lb></lb>tageously. </s>
6539
6540 <s>If from it gold or silver is melted out, when it is melted in the
6541 <lb></lb>cupellation furnace he enters the weight of it in his books and carries
6542 it <lb></lb>to the Tithe-gatherer, who similarly writes a note of its weight in
6543 his books; <lb></lb>it is then conveyed to the refiner. </s>
6544
6545 <s>When it has been brought back, both <lb></lb>the Tithe-gatherer and manager again
6546 enter its weight in their books. </s>
6547
6548 <s>Why <lb></lb>again? </s>
6549
6550 <s>Because he looks after the goods of the owners just as if they were <lb></lb>his
6551 own. </s>
6552
6553 <s>Now the laws which relate to mining permit a manager to have <lb></lb>charge of
6554 more than one mine, but in the case of mines yielding gold or <lb></lb>silver,
6555 to have charge of only two. </s>
6556
6557 <s>If, however, several mines following the <lb></lb>head-mine begin to produce
6558 metal, he remains in charge of these others until <lb></lb>he is freed from the
6559 duty of looking after them by the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
6560 <s> Last of <lb></lb>all, the manager, the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the two Jurors, in
6561 agreement <lb></lb>with the owners, settle the remuneration for the labourers. </s>
6562
6563 <s>Enough of the <lb></lb>duties and occupation of the manager.</s>
6564 </p>
6565 <pb pagenum="99"></pb>
6566 <p type="main">
6567
6568 <s>I will now leave the manager, and discuss him who controls the workmen
6569 <lb></lb>of the mine, who is therefore called the foreman, although some call
6570 him <lb></lb>the watchman. </s>
6571
6572 <s>It is he who distributes the work among the labourers, and <lb></lb>sees
6573 diligently that each faithfully and usefully performs his duties. </s>
6574
6575 <s>He <lb></lb>also discharges workmen on account of incompetence, or negligence,
6576 and <lb></lb>supplies others in their places if the two Jurors and manager give
6577 their <lb></lb>consent. </s>
6578
6579 <s>He must be skilful in working wood, that he may timber shafts, <lb></lb>place
6580 posts, and make underground structures capable of supporting an
6581 under­<lb></lb>mined mountain, lest the rocks from the hangingwall of the
6582 veins, not being <lb></lb>supported, become detached from the mass of the
6583 mountain and over­<lb></lb>whelm the workmen with destruction. </s>
6584
6585 <s>He must be able to make and lay <lb></lb>out the drains in the tunnels, into
6586 which the water from the veins, stringers, <lb></lb>and seams in the rocks may
6587 collect, that it may be properly guided and <lb></lb>can flow away. </s>
6588
6589 <s>Further, he must be able to recognize veins and stringers, <lb></lb>so as to sink
6590 shafts to the best advantage, and must be able to discern one <lb></lb>kind of
6591 material which is mined from another, or to train his subordinates <lb></lb>that
6592 they may separate the materials correctly. </s>
6593
6594 <s>He must also be well <lb></lb>acquainted with all methods of washing, so as to
6595 teach the washers how <lb></lb>the metalliferous earth or sand is washed. </s>
6596
6597 <s>He supplies the miners with iron <lb></lb>tools when they are about to start to
6598 work in the mines, and apportions a <lb></lb>certain weight of oil for their
6599 lamps, and trains them to dig to the best <lb></lb>advantage, and sees that they
6600 work faithfully. </s>
6601
6602 <s>When their shift is finished, <lb></lb>he takes back the oil which has been left. </s>
6603
6604 <s>On account of his numerous and <lb></lb>important duties and labours, only one
6605 mine is entrusted to one foreman, <lb></lb>nay, rather sometimes two or three
6606 foremen are set over one mine.</s>
6607 </p>
6608 <p type="main">
6609
6610 <s>Since I have mentioned the shifts, I will briefly explain how these are
6611 <lb></lb>carried on. </s>
6612
6613 <s>The twenty-four hours of a day and night are divided into three <lb></lb>shifts,
6614 and each shift consists of seven hours. </s>
6615
6616 <s>The three remaining hours are <lb></lb>intermediate between the shifts, and form
6617 an interval during which the <lb></lb>workmen enter and leave the mines. </s>
6618
6619 <s>The first shift begins at the fourth hour <lb></lb>in the morning and lasts till
6620 the eleventh hour; the second begins at the <lb></lb>twelfth and is finished at
6621 the seventh; these two are day shifts in the <lb></lb>morning and afternoon. </s>
6622
6623 <s>The third is the night shift, and commences at the <lb></lb>eighth hour in the
6624 evening and finishes at the third in the morning. </s>
6625
6626 <s>The <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> does not
6627 allow this third shift to be imposed upon the workmen <lb></lb>unless necessity
6628 demands it. </s>
6629
6630 <s>In that case, whether they draw water from <lb></lb>the shafts or mine the ore,
6631 they keep their vigil by the night lamps, and to <lb></lb>prevent themselves
6632 falling asleep from the late hours or from fatigue, they <lb></lb>lighten their
6633 long and arduous labours by singing, which is neither wholly <lb></lb>untrained
6634 nor unpleasing. </s>
6635
6636 <s>In some places one miner is not allowed to <lb></lb>undertake two shifts in
6637 succession, because it often happens that he either <lb></lb>falls asleep in the
6638 mine, overcome by exhaustion from too much labour, or <lb></lb>arrives too late
6639 for his shift, or leaves sooner than he ought. </s>
6640
6641 <s>Elsewhere he <lb></lb>is allowed to do so, because he cannot subsist on the pay
6642 of one shift, <lb></lb>especially if provisions grow dearer. </s>
6643
6644 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> does not,
6645 however, <lb></lb>forbid an extraordinary shift when he concedes only one
6646 ordinary shift. <pb pagenum="100"></pb>When it is time to go to work the sound
6647 of a great bell, which the foreigners <lb></lb>call a “campana,”
6648 gives the workmen warning, and when this is heard they <lb></lb>run hither and
6649 thither through the streets toward the mines. </s>
6650
6651 <s>Similarly, <lb></lb>the same sound of the bell warns the foreman that a shift has
6652 just been <lb></lb>finished; therefore as soon as he hears it, he stamps on the
6653 woodwork of the <lb></lb>shaft and signals the workmen to come out. </s>
6654
6655 <s>Thereupon, the nearest as soon <lb></lb>as they hear the signal, strike the rocks
6656 with their hammers, and the sound <lb></lb>reaches those who are furthest away. </s>
6657
6658 <s>Moreover, the lamps show that the <lb></lb>shift has come to an end when the oil
6659 becomes almost consumed and fails <lb></lb>them. </s>
6660
6661 <s>The labourers do not work on Saturdays, but buy those things which <lb></lb>are
6662 necessary to life, nor do they usually work on Sundays or annual
6663 <lb></lb>festivals, but on these occasions devote the shift to holy things. </s>
6664
6665 <s>However, <lb></lb>the workmen do not rest and do nothing if necessity demands
6666 their labour; <lb></lb>for sometimes a rush of water compels them to work,
6667 sometimes an impending <lb></lb>fall, sometimes something else, and at such
6668 times it is not considered <lb></lb>irreligious to work on holidays. </s>
6669
6670 <s>Moreover, all workmen of this class are <lb></lb>strong and used to toil from
6671 birth.</s>
6672 </p>
6673 <p type="main">
6674
6675 <s>The chief kinds of workmen are miners, shovelers, windlass men, carriers,
6676 <lb></lb>sorters, washers, and smelters, as to whose duties I will speak in the
6677 fol­<lb></lb>lowing books, in their proper place. </s>
6678
6679 <s>At present it is enough to add this one <lb></lb>fact, that if the workmen have
6680 been reported by the foreman for negligence, <lb></lb>the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or even the foreman
6681 himself, jointly with the manager, <lb></lb>dismisses them from their work on
6682 Saturday, or deprives them of part of <lb></lb>their pay; or if for fraud,
6683 throws them into prison. </s>
6684
6685 <s>However, the owners <lb></lb>of works in which the metals are smelted, and the
6686 master of the smelter, look <lb></lb>after their own men. </s>
6687
6688 <s>As to the government and duties of miners, I have <lb></lb>now said enough; I
6689 will explain them more fully in another work entitled <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>De Jure et Legibus Metallícís<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>17<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.<lb></lb></s>
6690 </p>
6691 <p type="head">
6692
6693 <s>END OF BOOK IV.</s>
6694 </p>
6695 <figure></figure>
6696 <pb></pb>
6697 <p type="head">
6698
6699 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>BOOK V.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
6700 </p>
6701 <p type="main">
6702
6703 <s>In the last book I have explained the methods of <lb></lb>delimiting the meers
6704 along each kind of vein, and <lb></lb>the duties of mine officials. </s>
6705
6706 <s>In this book<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> I will <lb></lb>in like
6707 manner explain the principles of under­<lb></lb>ground mining and the art of
6708 surveying. </s>
6709
6710 <s>First <lb></lb>then, I will proceed to deal with those matters <lb></lb>which pertain
6711 to the former heading, since both the <lb></lb>subject and methodical
6712 arrangement require it. <lb></lb></s>
6713
6714 <s>And so I will describe first of all the digging of <lb></lb>shafts, tunnels, and
6715 drifts on <emph type="italics"></emph>venae profundae;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
6716 next I will discuss the good <lb></lb>indications shown by <emph type="italics"></emph>canales<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, by the materials which are dug out, and by <lb></lb>the rocks;
6717 then I will speak of the tools by which veins and rocks are broken <lb></lb>down
6718 and excavated; the method by which fire shatters the hard veins; <lb></lb>and
6719 further, of the machines with which water is drawn from the shafts <lb></lb>and
6720 air is forced into deep shafts and long tunnels, for digging is impeded
6721 <lb></lb>by the inrush of the former or the failure of the latter; next I will
6722 deal <lb></lb>with the two kinds of shafts, and with the making of them and of
6723 tunnels; <lb></lb>and finally, I will describe the method of mining <emph type="italics"></emph>venae dilatatae, venae cumu­<lb></lb>latae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and stringers.<lb></lb></s>
6724 </p>
6725 <pb pagenum="102"></pb>
6726 <p type="main">
6727
6728 <s>Now when a miner discovers a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> he begins sinking a shaft <lb></lb>and above it sets up a
6729 windlass, and builds a shed over the shaft to prevent <lb></lb>the rain from
6730 falling in, lest the men who turn the windlass be numbed <lb></lb>by the cold or
6731 troubled by the rain. </s>
6732
6733 <s>The windlass men also place their <lb></lb>barrows in it, and the miners store
6734 their iron tools and other implements therein. <lb></lb></s>
6735
6736 <s>Next to the shaft-house another house is built, where the mine foreman and
6737 the <lb></lb>other workmen dwell, and in which are stored the ore and other
6738 things which <lb></lb>are dug out. </s>
6739
6740 <s>Although some persons build only one house, yet because <lb></lb>sometimes boys
6741 and other living things fall into the shafts, most miners <lb></lb>deliberately
6742 place one house apart from the other, or at least separate them <lb></lb>by a
6743 wall.</s>
6744 </p>
6745 <p type="main">
6746
6747 <s>Now a shaft is dug, usually two fathoms long, two-thirds of a fathom
6748 <lb></lb>wide, and thirteen fathoms deep; but for the purpose of connecting with
6749 a <lb></lb>tunnel which has already been driven in a hill, a shaft may be sunk
6750 to a <lb></lb>depth of only eight fathoms, at other times to fourteen, more or
6751 less<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
6752
6753 <s>A <lb></lb>shaft may be made vertical or inclined, according as the vein which
6754 the <lb></lb>miners follow in the course of digging is vertical or inclined. </s>
6755
6756 <s>A tunnel is a <lb></lb>subterranean ditch driven lengthwise, and is nearly twice
6757 as high as it is <lb></lb>broad, and wide enough that workmen and others may be
6758 able to pass and <lb></lb>carry their loads. </s>
6759
6760 <s>It is usually one and a quarter fathoms high, while <lb></lb>its width is about
6761 three and three-quarters feet. </s>
6762
6763 <s>Usually two workmen are <lb></lb>required to drive it, one of whom digs out the
6764 upper and the other the lower <lb></lb>part, and the one goes forward, while the
6765 other follows closely after. </s>
6766
6767 <s>Each <lb></lb>sits upon small boards fixed securely from the footwall to the
6768 hangingwall, <lb></lb>or if the vein is a soft one, sometimes on a wedge-shaped
6769 plank fixed on to the <lb></lb>vein itself. </s>
6770
6771 <s>Miners sink more inclined shafts than vertical, and some of each <lb></lb>kind do
6772 not reach to tunnels, while some connect with them. </s>
6773
6774 <s>But as for <lb></lb>some shafts, though they have already been sunk to the
6775 required depth, <lb></lb>the tunnel which is to pierce the mountain may not yet
6776 have been driven <lb></lb>far enough to connect with them.</s>
6777 </p>
6778 <p type="main">
6779
6780 <s>It is advantageous if a shaft connects with a tunnel, for then the miners
6781 <lb></lb>and other workmen carry on more easily the work they have undertaken;
6782 <lb></lb>but if the shaft is not so deep, it is usual to drift from one or both
6783 sides of it. <lb></lb></s>
6784
6785 <s>From these openings the owner or foreman becomes acquainted with the
6786 <lb></lb>veins and stringers that unite with the principal vein, or cut across
6787 it, or <pb pagenum="103"></pb>divide it obliquely; however, my discourse is now
6788 concerned mainly with <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> but most of all with the metallic material which it
6789 contains. </s>
6790 </p>
6791 <figure></figure>
6792 <p type="caption">
6793
6794 <s>THREE VERTICAL SHAFTS, OF WHICH THE FIRST, A, DOES NOT REACH THE TUNNEL; THE
6795 <lb></lb>SECOND, B, REACHES THE TUNNEL; TO THE THIRD, C, THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET
6796 BEEN <lb></lb>DRIVEN. D—TUNNEL.<pb pagenum="104"></pb>Excavations of this kind
6797 were called by the Greeks <foreign lang="grc">κρυπται</foreign> for,
6798 extending <lb></lb>along after the manner of a tunnel, they are entirely hidden
6799 within the </s>
6800 </p>
6801 <figure></figure>
6802 <p type="caption">
6803
6804 <s>THREE INCLINED SHAFTS, OF WHICH A DOES NOT YET REACH THE TUNNEL; B REACHES
6805 THE <lb></lb>TUNNEL; TO THE THIRD, C, THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET BEEN DRIVEN.
6806 D—TUNNEL.<pb pagenum="105"></pb>ground. </s>
6807
6808 <s>This kind of an opening, however, differs from a tunnel in that it <lb></lb>is
6809 dark throughout its length. </s>
6810
6811 <s>whereas a tunnel has a mouth open to daylight.</s>
6812 </p>
6813 <figure></figure>
6814 <p type="caption">
6815
6816 <s>A—SHAFT. B, C—DRIFT. D—ANOTHER SHAFT. E—TUNNEL.
6817 F—MOUTH OF TUNNEL.</s>
6818 </p>
6819 <pb pagenum="106"></pb>
6820 <p type="main">
6821
6822 <s>I have spoken of shafts, tunnels, and drifts. </s>
6823
6824 <s>I will now speak of the <lb></lb>indications given by the <emph type="italics"></emph>canales,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> by the materials which are dug out,
6825 and by <lb></lb>the rocks. </s>
6826
6827 <s>These indications, as also many others which I will explain, are <lb></lb>to a
6828 great extent identical in <emph type="italics"></emph>venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>venae cumulatae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> with <emph type="italics"></emph>venae
6829 <lb></lb>profundae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
6830 </p>
6831 <p type="main">
6832
6833 <s>When a stringer junctions with a main vein and causes a swelling, a
6834 <lb></lb>shaft should be sunk at the junction. </s>
6835
6836 <s>But when we find the stringer inter­<lb></lb>secting the main vein crosswise
6837 or obliquely, if it descends vertically down <lb></lb>to the depths of the
6838 earth, a second shaft should be sunk to the point where <lb></lb>the stringer
6839 cuts the main vein; but if the stringer cuts it obliquely the <lb></lb>shaft
6840 should be two or three fathoms back, in order that the junction may <lb></lb>be
6841 pierced lower down. </s>
6842
6843 <s>At such junctions lies the best hope of finding the <lb></lb>ore for the sake of
6844 which we explore the ground, and if ore has already been <lb></lb>found, it is
6845 usually found in much greater abundance at that spot. </s>
6846
6847 <s>Again, <lb></lb>if several stringers descend into the earth, the miner, in order
6848 to pierce <lb></lb>through the point of contact, should sink the shaft in the
6849 midst of these <lb></lb>stringers, or else calculate on the most prominent
6850 one.</s>
6851 </p>
6852 <p type="main">
6853
6854 <s>Since an inclined vein often lies near a vertical vein, it is advisable
6855 <lb></lb>to sink a shaft at the spot where a stringer or cross-vein cuts them
6856 both; <lb></lb>or where a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or a stringer <emph type="italics"></emph>dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> passes through, for minerals <lb></lb>are usually found
6857 there. </s>
6858
6859 <s>In the same way we have a good prospect of finding <lb></lb>metal at the point
6860 where an inclined vein joins a vertical one; this is why <lb></lb>miners
6861 cross-cut the hangingwall or footwall of a main vein, and in these
6862 <lb></lb>openings seek for a vein which may junction with the principal vein a
6863 few <lb></lb>fathoms below. </s>
6864
6865 <s>Nay, further, these same miners, if no stringer or cross­<lb></lb>vein
6866 intersects the main vein so that they can follow it in their workings,
6867 <lb></lb>even cross-cut through the solid rock of the hangingwall or footwall. </s>
6868
6869 <s>These <lb></lb>cross-cuts are likewise called “<foreign lang="grc">κρυπταί,</foreign>” whether the beginning of the <lb></lb>opening
6870 which has to be undertaken is made from a tunnel or from a drift. <lb></lb></s>
6871
6872 <s>Miners have some hope when only a cross vein cuts a main vein. </s>
6873
6874 <s>Further, <lb></lb>if a vein which cuts the main vein obliquely does not appear
6875 anywhere <lb></lb>beyond it, it is advisable to dig into that side of the main
6876 vein toward which <lb></lb>the oblique vein inclines, whether the right or left
6877 side, that we may ascer­<lb></lb>tain if the main vein has absorbed it; if
6878 after cross-cutting six fathoms it <lb></lb>is not found, it is advisable to dig
6879 on the other side of the main vein, that <lb></lb>we may know for certain
6880 whether it has carried it forward. </s>
6881
6882 <s>The owners <lb></lb>of a main vein can often dig no less profitably on that side
6883 where the vein <lb></lb>which cuts the main vein again appears, than where it
6884 first cuts it; the <lb></lb>owners of the intersecting vein, when that is found
6885 again, recover their title, <lb></lb>which had in a measure been lost.</s>
6886 </p>
6887 <p type="main">
6888
6889 <s>The common miners look favourably upon the stringers which come <lb></lb>from the
6890 north and join the main vein; on the other hand, they look <lb></lb>unfavourably
6891 upon those which come from the south, and say that these do <lb></lb>much harm
6892 to the main vein, while the former improve it. </s>
6893
6894 <s>But I think <lb></lb>that miners should not neglect either of them: as I showed
6895 in Book III, <lb></lb>experience does not confirm those who hold this opinion
6896 about veins, so now <pb pagenum="107"></pb>again I could furnish examples of
6897 each kind of stringers rejected by the <lb></lb>common miners which have proved
6898 good, but I know this could be of little <lb></lb>or no benefit to
6899 posterity.</s>
6900 </p>
6901 <p type="main">
6902
6903 <s>If the miners find no stringers or veins in the hangingwall or footwall of
6904 <lb></lb>the main vein, and if they do not find much ore, it is not worth while
6905 to <lb></lb>undertake the labour of sinking another shaft. </s>
6906
6907 <s>Nor ought a shaft to be sunk <lb></lb>where a vein is divided into two or three
6908 parts, unless the indications are <lb></lb>satisfactory that those parts may be
6909 united and joined together a little later. <lb></lb></s>
6910
6911 <s>Further, it is a bad indication for a vein rich in mineral to bend and turn
6912 <lb></lb>hither and thither, for unless it goes down again into the ground
6913 vertically or <lb></lb>inclined, as it first began, it produces no more metal;
6914 and even though it <lb></lb>does go down again, it often continues barren. </s>
6915
6916 <s>Stringers which in their <lb></lb>outcrops bear metals, often disappoint miners,
6917 no metal being found in depth. <lb></lb></s>
6918
6919 <s>Further, inverted seams in the rocks are counted among the bad
6920 indications.</s>
6921 </p>
6922 <p type="main">
6923
6924 <s>The miners hew out the whole of solid veins when they show clear evidence
6925 <lb></lb>of being of good quality; similarly they hew out the drusy<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> veins, <lb></lb>especially if the
6926 cavities are plainly seen to have formerly borne metal, or <lb></lb>if the
6927 cavities are few and small. </s>
6928
6929 <s>They do not dig barren veins through <lb></lb>which water flows, if there are no
6930 metallic particles showing; occasionally, <lb></lb>however, they dig even barren
6931 veins which are free from water, because <lb></lb>of the pyrites which is devoid
6932 of all metal, or because of a fine black soft <lb></lb>substance which is like
6933 wool. </s>
6934
6935 <s>They dig stringers which are rich in metal, <lb></lb>or sometimes, for the
6936 purpose of searching for the vein, those that are devoid <lb></lb>of ore which
6937 lie near the hangingwall or footwall of the main vein. </s>
6938
6939 <s>This <lb></lb>then, generally speaking, is the mode of dealing with stringers and
6940 veins.</s>
6941 </p>
6942 <p type="main">
6943
6944 <s>Let us now consider the metallic material which is found in the <emph type="italics"></emph>canales<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of <emph type="italics"></emph>venae profundae, venae dilatatae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>venae cumulatae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> being in all these <lb></lb>either cohesive and continuous,
6945 or scattered and dispersed among them, <lb></lb>or swelling out in bellying
6946 shapes, or found in veins or stringers which <lb></lb>originate from the main
6947 vein and ramify like branches; but these latter veins <lb></lb>and stringers are
6948 very short, for after a little space they do not appear again. <lb></lb></s>
6949
6950 <s>If we come across a small quantity of metallic material it is an indication;
6951 <lb></lb>but if a large quantity, it is not an “indication,” but the
6952 very thing for <lb></lb>which we explore the earth. </s>
6953
6954 <s>As soon as a miner who searches for veins <lb></lb>discovers pure metal or
6955 minerals, or rich metallic material, or a great <lb></lb>abundance of material
6956 which is poor in metal, let him sink a shaft on the <lb></lb>spot without any
6957 delay. </s>
6958
6959 <s>If the material appears more abundant or of better <lb></lb>quality on the one
6960 side, he will incline his digging in that direction.</s>
6961 </p>
6962 <p type="main">
6963
6964 <s>Gold, silver, copper, and quicksilver are often found native<emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; less <lb></lb>often iron and bismuth; almost
6965 never tin and lead. </s>
6966
6967 <s>Nevertheless tin-stone <lb></lb>is not far removed from the pure white tin which
6968 is melted out of them, and <lb></lb>galena, from which lead is obtained, differs
6969 little from that metal itself.</s>
6970 </p>
6971 <p type="main">
6972
6973 <s>Now we may classify gold ores. </s>
6974
6975 <s>Next after native gold, we come to the <lb></lb><pb pagenum="108"></pb><emph type="italics"></emph>rudis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, of yellowish green, yellow, purple, black, or
6976 outside red and inside <lb></lb>gold colour. </s>
6977
6978 <s>These must be reckoned as the richest ores, because the gold <lb></lb>exceeds the
6979 stone or earth in weight. </s>
6980
6981 <s>Next come all gold ores of which each. <lb></lb></s>
6982
6983 <s>one hundred <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> contains
6984 more than three <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold<emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; for although but <lb></lb>a
6985 small proportion of gold is found in the earth or stone, yet it equals in
6986 value <lb></lb>other metals of greater weight.<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> All other gold ores are considered poor, because
6987 <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="109"></pb>the earth or stone too far outweighs the
6988 gold. </s>
6989
6990 <s>A vein which contains a <lb></lb>larger proportion of silver than of gold is
6991 rarely found to be a rich one. <lb></lb></s>
6992
6993 <s>Earth, whether it be dry or wet, rarely abounds in gold; but in dry earth
6994 <lb></lb>there is more often found a greater quantity of gold, especially if it
6995 has the <pb pagenum="110"></pb>appearance of having been melted in a furnace,
6996 and if it is not lacking in <lb></lb>scales resembling mica. </s>
6997
6998 <s>The solidified juices, azure, chrysocolla, orpiment, <lb></lb>and realgar, also
6999 frequently contain gold. </s>
7000
7001 <s>Likewise native or <emph type="italics"></emph>rudís<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> gold is <lb></lb>found sometimes in large, and sometimes in small quantities
7002 in quartz, <pb pagenum="111"></pb>schist, marble, and also in stone which easily
7003 melts in fire of the second <lb></lb>degree, and which is sometimes so porous
7004 that it seems completely decom­<lb></lb>posed. </s>
7005
7006 <s>Lastly, gold is found in pyrites, though rarely in large quantities.</s>
7007 </p>
7008 <p type="main">
7009
7010 <s>When considering silver ores other than native silver, those ores are <pb pagenum="112"></pb>classified as rich, of which each one hundred <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> contains more
7011 than three <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
7012 silver. </s>
7013
7014 <s>This quality comprises <emph type="italics"></emph>rudis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
7015 silver, whether silver glance or <lb></lb>ruby silver, or whether white, or
7016 black, or grey, or purple, or yellow, or liver-<pb pagenum="113"></pb>coloured,
7017 or any other. </s>
7018
7019 <s>Sometimes quartz, schist, or marble is of this quality <lb></lb>also, if much
7020 native or <emph type="italics"></emph>rudis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> silver
7021 adheres to it. </s>
7022
7023 <s>But that ore is considered <lb></lb>of poor quality if three <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver at the utmost are found in
7024 each <lb></lb>one hundred <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of it.<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> Silver
7025 ore usually contains a greater quantity <pb pagenum="114"></pb>than this,
7026 because Nature bestows quantity in place of quality; such ore <lb></lb>is mixed
7027 with all kinds of earth and stone compounds, except the various <lb></lb>kinds
7028 of <emph type="italics"></emph>rudís<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> silver;
7029 especially with pyrites, <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia metallíca
7030 fossílís,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> galena, <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>stibíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and
7031 others.</s>
7032 </p>
7033 <pb pagenum="115"></pb>
7034 <p type="main">
7035
7036 <s>As regards other kinds of metal, although some rich ores are found,
7037 <lb></lb>still, unless the veins contain a large quantity of ore, it is very
7038 rarely worth <lb></lb>while to dig them. </s>
7039
7040 <s>The Indians and some other races do search for gems in <lb></lb>veins hidden deep
7041 in the earth, but more often they are noticed from their <lb></lb>clearness, or
7042 rather their brilliancy, when metals are mined. </s>
7043
7044 <s>When they <lb></lb>outcrop, we follow veins of marble by mining in the same way
7045 as is <lb></lb>done with rock or building-stones when we come upon them. </s>
7046
7047 <s>But <lb></lb>gems, properly so called, though they sometimes have veins of their
7048 own, <lb></lb>are still for the most part found in mines and rock quarries, as
7049 the <lb></lb>lodestone in iron mines, the emery in silver mines, the <emph type="italics"></emph>lapís judaícus,
7050 <lb></lb>trochítes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the like in stone
7051 quarries where the diggers, at the bidding <lb></lb>of the owners, usually
7052 collect them from the seams in the rocks.<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> Nor does the <lb></lb>miner neglect the digging of
7053 “extraordinary earths,”<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> whether they are found <lb></lb><pb pagenum="116"></pb>in gold mines, silver
7054 mines, or other mines; nor do other miners neglect them <lb></lb>if they are
7055 found in stone quarries, or in their own veins; their value is usually
7056 <lb></lb>indicated by their taste. </s>
7057
7058 <s>Nor, lastly, does the miner fail to give attention to <lb></lb>the solidified
7059 juices which are found in metallic veins, as well as in their own
7060 <lb></lb>veins, from which he collects and gathers them. </s>
7061
7062 <s>But I will say no more <lb></lb>on these matters, because I have explained more
7063 fully all the metals and <lb></lb>mineral substances in the books “<emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura Fossilium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>”</s>
7064 </p>
7065 <p type="main">
7066
7067 <s>But I will return to the indications. </s>
7068
7069 <s>If we come upon earth which is <lb></lb>like lute, in which there are particles
7070 of any sort of metal, native or <emph type="italics"></emph>rudis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>the best possible indication of a vein is given to
7071 miners, for the metallic <lb></lb>material from which the particles have become
7072 detached is necessarily close <lb></lb>by. </s>
7073
7074 <s>But if this kind of earth is found absolutely devoid of all metallic
7075 <lb></lb>material, but fatty, and of white, green, blue, and similar colours,
7076 they must <lb></lb>not abandon the work that has been started. </s>
7077
7078 <s>Miners have other indications in <lb></lb>the veins and stringers, which I have
7079 described already, and in the rocks, about <lb></lb>which I will speak a little
7080 later. </s>
7081
7082 <s>If the miner comes across other dry earths <lb></lb>which contain native or <emph type="italics"></emph>rudis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> metal, that is a good
7083 indication; if he comes <lb></lb>across yellow, red, black, or some other
7084 “extraordinary” earth, though it is <lb></lb>devoid of mineral, it
7085 is not a bad indication. </s>
7086
7087 <s>Chrysocolla, or azure, or verdigris, <lb></lb>or orpiment, or realgar, when they
7088 are found, are counted among the good <lb></lb>indications. </s>
7089
7090 <s>Further, where underground springs throw up metal we ought <lb></lb>to continue
7091 the digging we have begun, for this points to the particles having <lb></lb>been
7092 detached from the main mass like a fragment from a body. </s>
7093
7094 <s>In the <lb></lb>same way the thin scales of any metal adhering to stone or rock
7095 are counted <lb></lb>among the good indications. </s>
7096
7097 <s>Next, if the veins which are composed partly <lb></lb>of quartz, partly of clayey
7098 or dry earth, descend one and all into the depths <lb></lb>of the earth
7099 together, with their stringers, there is good hope of metal being
7100 <lb></lb>found; but if the stringers afterward do not appear, or little metallic
7101 <lb></lb>material is met with, the digging should not be given up until there is
7102 nothing <lb></lb>remaining. </s>
7103
7104 <s>Dark or black or horn or liver-coloured quartz is usually a good <lb></lb>sign;
7105 white is sometimes good, sometimes no sign at all. </s>
7106
7107 <s>But calc-spar, <lb></lb>showing itself in a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena
7108 profunda,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> if it disappears a little lower down
7109 is not a <lb></lb>good indication; for it did not belong to the vein proper, but
7110 to some stringer. <lb></lb></s>
7111
7112 <s>Those kinds of stone which easily melt in fire, especially if they are
7113 translucent <lb></lb>(fluorspar?), must be counted among the medium indications,
7114 for if other <lb></lb>good indications are present they are good, but if no good
7115 indications are <lb></lb>present, they give no useful significance. </s>
7116
7117 <s>In the same way we ought to form <lb></lb>our judgment with regard to gems. </s>
7118
7119 <s>Veins which at the hangingwall and <lb></lb>footwall have horn-coloured quartz or
7120 marble, but in the middle clayey <lb></lb>earth, give some hope; likewise those
7121 give hope in which the hangingwall <lb></lb>or footwall shows iron-rust coloured
7122 earth, and in the middle greasy and <lb></lb>sticky earth; also there is hope
7123 for those which have at the hanging or footwall <lb></lb>that kind of earth
7124 which we call “soldiers&#039; earth,” and in the middle black
7125 <lb></lb>earth or earth which looks as if burnt. </s>
7126
7127 <s>The special indication of gold is <lb></lb>orpiment; of silver is bismuth and
7128 <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper is
7129 verdigris, <emph type="italics"></emph>melantería, <lb></lb>sory, chalcitis,
7130 misy,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and vitriol; of tin is the large pure
7131 black stones of <pb pagenum="117"></pb>which the tin itself is made, and a
7132 material they dig up resembling litharge; <lb></lb>of iron, iron rust. </s>
7133
7134 <s>Gold and copper are equally indicated by chrysocolla and <lb></lb>azure; silver
7135 and lead, by the lead. </s>
7136
7137 <s>But, though miners rightly <lb></lb>call bismuth “the roof of
7138 silver,” and though copper pyrites is the common <lb></lb>parent of
7139 vitriol and <emph type="italics"></emph>melantería,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> still these sometimes have their own <lb></lb>peculiar minerals, just as have
7140 orpiment and <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
7141 </p>
7142 <p type="main">
7143
7144 <s>Now, just as certain vein materials give miners a favourable indication,
7145 <lb></lb>so also do the rocks through which the <emph type="italics"></emph>canales<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the veins wind their <lb></lb>way,
7146 for sand discovered in a mine is reckoned among the good indications,
7147 <lb></lb>especially if it is very fine. </s>
7148
7149 <s>In the same way schist, when it is of a <lb></lb>bluish or blackish colour, and
7150 also limestone, of whatever colour it may be, is <lb></lb>a good sign for a
7151 silver vein. </s>
7152
7153 <s>There is a rock of another kind that is a good sign; <lb></lb>in it are scattered
7154 tiny black stones from which tin is smelted; especially when <lb></lb>the whole
7155 space between the veins is composed of this kind of rock. <lb></lb></s>
7156
7157 <s>Very often indeed, this good kind of rock in conjunction with valuable
7158 <lb></lb>stringers contains within its folds the <emph type="italics"></emph>canales<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of mineral bearing veins: if <lb></lb>it
7159 descends vertically into the earth, the benefit belongs to that mine in
7160 <lb></lb>which it is seen first of all; if inclined, it benefits the other
7161 neighbouring <lb></lb>mines<emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
7162
7163 <s>As a result the miner who is not ignorant of geometry can calculate <lb></lb>from
7164 the other mines the depth at which the <emph type="italics"></emph>canales<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of a vein bearing rich <lb></lb>metal
7165 will wind its way through the rock into his mine. </s>
7166
7167 <s>So much for these <lb></lb>matters.</s>
7168 </p>
7169 <p type="main">
7170
7171 <s>I now come to the mode of working, which is varied and complex, for in
7172 <lb></lb>some places they dig crumbling ore, in others hard ore, in others a
7173 harder <lb></lb>ore, and in others the hardest kind of ore. </s>
7174
7175 <s>In the same way, in some places <lb></lb>the hangingwall rock is soft and
7176 fragile, in others hard, in others harder, and <lb></lb>in still others of the
7177 hardest sort. </s>
7178
7179 <s>I call that ore “crumbling” which is com­<lb></lb>posed of earth,
7180 and of soft solidified juices; that ore “hard” which is composed
7181 <lb></lb>of metallic minerals and moderately hard stones, such as for the most
7182 part <lb></lb>are those which easily melt in a fire of the first and second
7183 orders, like lead <lb></lb>and similar materials. </s>
7184
7185 <s>I call that ore “harder” when with those I have already
7186 <lb></lb>mentioned are combined various sorts of quartz, or stones which easily
7187 melt <lb></lb>in fire of the third degree, or pyrites, or <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or very hard marble. </s>
7188
7189 <s>I call <lb></lb>that ore hardest, which is composed throughout the whole vein of
7190 these hard <lb></lb>stones and compounds. </s>
7191
7192 <s>The hanging or footwalls of a vein are hard, when <lb></lb>composed of rock in
7193 which there are few stringers or seams; harder, in <lb></lb>which they are
7194 fewer; hardest, in which they are fewest or none at all. <lb></lb></s>
7195
7196 <s>When these are absent, the rock is quite devoid of water which softens
7197 <lb></lb>it. </s>
7198
7199 <s>But the hardest rock of the hanging or footwall, however, is seldom as
7200 <lb></lb>hard as the harder class of ore.</s>
7201 </p>
7202 <p type="main">
7203
7204 <s>Miners dig out crumbling ore with the pick alone. </s>
7205
7206 <s>When the metal <lb></lb>has not yet shown itself, they do not discriminate
7207 between the hangingwall <lb></lb>and the veins; when it has once been found,
7208 they work with the utmost care. <lb></lb></s>
7209
7210 <s>For first of all they tear away the hangingwall rock separately from the
7211 vein, <lb></lb>afterward with a pick they dislodge the crumbling vein from the
7212 footwall <pb pagenum="118"></pb>into a dish placed underneath to prevent any of
7213 the metal from falling to <lb></lb>the ground. </s>
7214
7215 <s>They break a hard vein loose from the footwall by blows with <lb></lb>a hammer
7216 upon the first kind of iron tool<emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>,
7217 all of which are designated by <lb></lb>appropriate names, and with the same
7218 tools they hew away the hard hanging­<lb></lb>wall rock. </s>
7219
7220 <s>They hew out the hangingwall rock in advance more frequently, the <lb></lb>rock
7221 of the footwall more rarely; and indeed, when the rock of the footwall
7222 <lb></lb>resists iron tools, the rock of the hangingwall certainly cannot be
7223 broken unless <lb></lb>it is allowable to shatter it by fire. </s>
7224
7225 <s>With regard to the harder veins which are <lb></lb>tractable to iron tools, and
7226 likewise with regard to the harder and hardest <lb></lb>kind of hangingwall
7227 rock, they generally attack them with more powerful <lb></lb>iron tools, in
7228 fact, with the fourth kind of iron tool, which are called by their
7229 <lb></lb>appropriate names; but if these are not ready to hand, they use two or
7230 <lb></lb>three iron tools of the first kind together. </s>
7231
7232 <s>As for the hardest kind of metal­<lb></lb>bearing vein, which in a measure
7233 resists iron tools, if the owners of the <lb></lb>neighbouring mines give them
7234 permission, they break it with fires. </s>
7235
7236 <s>But if <lb></lb>these owners refuse them permission, then first of all they hew
7237 out the rock of <lb></lb>the hangingwall, or of the footwall if it be less hard;
7238 then they place timbers <lb></lb>set in hitches in the hanging or footwall, a
7239 little above the vein, and from <lb></lb>the front and upper part, where the
7240 vein is seen to be seamed with small <lb></lb>cracks, they drive into one of the
7241 little cracks one of the iron tools which <lb></lb>I have mentioned; then in
7242 each fracture they place four thin iron <lb></lb>blocks, and in order to hold
7243 them more firmly, if necessary, they place <lb></lb>as many thin iron plates
7244 back to back; next they place thinner iron <lb></lb>plates between each two iron
7245 blocks, and strike and drive them by <lb></lb>turns with hammers, whereby the
7246 vein rings with a shrill sound; and the <lb></lb>moment when it begins to be
7247 detached from the hangingwall or footwall <lb></lb>rock, a tearing sound is
7248 heard. </s>
7249
7250 <s>As soon as this grows distinct the miners <lb></lb>hastily flee away; then a
7251 great crash is heard as the vein is broken and torn, <lb></lb>and falls down. </s>
7252
7253 <s>By this method they throw down a portion of a vein weigh­<lb></lb>ing a
7254 hundred pounds more or less. </s>
7255
7256 <s>But if the miners by any other method <lb></lb>hew the hardest kind of vein which
7257 is rich in metal, there remain certain <lb></lb>cone-shaped portions which can
7258 be cut out afterward only with difficulty. </s>
7259
7260 <s>As <lb></lb>for this knob of hard ore, if it is devoid of metal, or if they are
7261 not allowed to <lb></lb>apply fire to it, they proceed round it by digging to
7262 the right or left, because <lb></lb>it cannot be broken into by iron wedges
7263 without great expense. </s>
7264
7265 <s>Meantime, <lb></lb>while the workmen are carrying out the task they have
7266 undertaken, the <lb></lb>depths of the earth often resound with sweet singing,
7267 whereby they lighten a <lb></lb>toil which is of the severest kind and full of
7268 the greatest dangers.</s>
7269 </p>
7270 <p type="main">
7271
7272 <s>As I have just said, fire shatters the hardest rocks, but the method of its
7273 <lb></lb>application is not simple<emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
7274
7275 <s>For if a vein held in the rocks cannot be hewn <lb></lb><pb pagenum="119"></pb>out
7276 because of the hardness or other difficulty, and the drift or tunnel is
7277 <lb></lb>low, a heap of dried logs is placed against the rock and fired; if the
7278 drift or <lb></lb>tunnel is high, two heaps are necessary, of which one is
7279 placed above the <lb></lb>other, and both burn until the fire has consumed them. </s>
7280
7281 <s>This force does not <lb></lb>generally soften a large portion of the vein, but
7282 only some of the surface. <lb></lb></s>
7283
7284 <s>When the rock in the hanging or footwall can be worked by the iron tools
7285 <lb></lb>and the vein is so hard that it is not tractable to the same tools,
7286 then the <lb></lb>walls are hollowed out; if this be in the end of the drift or
7287 tunnel or above <lb></lb>or below, the vein is then broken by fire, but not by
7288 the same method; for <lb></lb>if the hollow is wide, as many logs are piled into
7289 it as possible, but if narrow, <lb></lb>only a few. </s>
7290
7291 <s>By the one method the greater fire separates the vein more <lb></lb>completely
7292 from the footwall or sometimes from the hangingwall, and by the <lb></lb>other,
7293 the smaller fire breaks away less of the vein from the rock, because in
7294 <lb></lb>that case the fire is confined and kept in check by portions of the
7295 rock which <lb></lb>surround the wood held in such a narrow excavation. </s>
7296
7297 <s>Further, if the <lb></lb>excavation is low, only one pile of logs is placed in
7298 it, if high, there are <lb></lb>two, one placed above the other, by which plan
7299 the lower bundle being <lb></lb>kindled sets alight the upper one; and the fire
7300 being driven by the draught <lb></lb>into the vein, separates it from the rock
7301 which, however hard it may be, often <lb></lb>becomes so softened as to be the
7302 most easily breakable of all. </s>
7303
7304 <s>Applying this <lb></lb>principle, Hannibal, the Carthaginian General, imitating
7305 the Spanish miners, <pb pagenum="120"></pb>overcame the hardness of the Alps by
7306 the use of vinegar and fire. </s>
7307
7308 <s>Even <lb></lb>if a vein is a very wide one, as tin veins usually are, miners
7309 excavate into the <lb></lb>small streaks, and into those hollows they put dry
7310 wood and place amongst <lb></lb>them at frequent intervals sticks, all sides of
7311 which are shaved down fan­<lb></lb>shaped, which easily take light, and when
7312 once they have taken fire com­<lb></lb>municate it to the other bundles of
7313 wood, which easily ignite.</s>
7314 </p>
7315 <figure></figure>
7316 <p type="caption">
7317
7318 <s>A—KINDLED LOGS. B—STICKS SHAVED DOWN FAN-SHAPED.
7319 C—TUNNEL.</s>
7320 </p>
7321 <p type="main">
7322
7323 <s>While the heated veins and rock are giving forth a foetid vapour and the
7324 <lb></lb>shafts or tunnels are emitting fumes, the miners and other workmen do
7325 not <lb></lb>go down in the mines lest the stench affect their health or
7326 actually kill them, <lb></lb>as I will explain in greater detail when I come to
7327 speak of the evils which <lb></lb>affect miners. </s>
7328
7329 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in order to
7330 prevent workmen from being <lb></lb>suffocated, gives no one permission to break
7331 veins or rock by fire in shafts or <lb></lb>tunnels where it is possible for the
7332 poisonous vapour and smoke to permeate <lb></lb>the veins or stringers and pass
7333 through into the neighbouring mines, which <lb></lb>have no hard veins or rock. </s>
7334
7335 <s>As for that part of a vein or the surface of the <lb></lb>rock which the fire has
7336 separated from the remaining mass, if it is overhead, <lb></lb>the miners
7337 dislodge it with a crowbar, or if it still has some degree of hardness,
7338 <lb></lb>they thrust a smaller crowbar into the cracks and so break it down, but
7339 if <pb pagenum="121"></pb>it is on the sides they break it with hammers. </s>
7340
7341 <s>Thus broken off, the rock <lb></lb>tumbles down; or if it still remains, they
7342 break it off with picks. </s>
7343
7344 <s>Rock <lb></lb>and earth on the one hand, and metal and ore on the other, are
7345 filled into <lb></lb>buckets separately and drawn up to the open air or to the
7346 nearest tunnel. <lb></lb></s>
7347
7348 <s>If the shaft is not deep, the buckets are drawn up by a machine turned by
7349 <lb></lb>men; if it is deep, they are drawn by machines turned by horses.</s>
7350 </p>
7351 <p type="main">
7352
7353 <s>It often happens that a rush of water or sometimes stagnant air hinders
7354 <lb></lb>the mining; for this reason miners pay the greatest attention to these
7355 <lb></lb>matters, just as much as to digging, or they should do so. </s>
7356
7357 <s>The water of the <lb></lb>veins and stringers and especially of vacant workings,
7358 must be drained out <lb></lb>through the shafts and tunnels. </s>
7359
7360 <s>Air, indeed, becomes stagnant both in <lb></lb>tunnels and in shafts; in a deep
7361 shaft, if it be by itself, this occurs if it is <lb></lb>neither reached by a
7362 tunnel nor connected by a drift with another shaft; <lb></lb>this occurs in a
7363 tunnel if it has been driven too far into a mountain and no <lb></lb>shaft has
7364 yet been sunk deep enough to meet it; in neither case can the <lb></lb>air move
7365 or circulate. </s>
7366
7367 <s>For this reason the vapours become heavy and <lb></lb>resemble mist, and they
7368 smell of mouldiness, like a vault or some under­<lb></lb>ground chamber
7369 which has been completely closed for many years. </s>
7370
7371 <s>This <lb></lb>suffices to prevent miners from continuing their work for long in
7372 these places, <lb></lb>even if the mine is full of silver or gold, or if they do
7373 continue, they cannot <lb></lb>breathe freely and they have headaches; this more
7374 often happens if they <lb></lb>work in these places in great numbers, and bring
7375 many lamps, which then <lb></lb>supply them with a feeble light, because the
7376 foul air from both lamps and <lb></lb>men make the vapours still more heavy.</s>
7377 </p>
7378 <p type="main">
7379
7380 <s>A small quantity of water is drawn from the shafts by machines of
7381 <lb></lb>different kinds which men turn or work. </s>
7382
7383 <s>If so great a quantity has flowed <lb></lb>into one shaft as greatly to impede
7384 mining, another shaft is sunk some <lb></lb>fathoms distant from the first, and
7385 thus in one of them work and labour are <lb></lb>carried on without hindrance,
7386 and the water is drained into the other, which <lb></lb>is sunk lower than the
7387 level of the water in the first one; then by these <lb></lb>machines or by those
7388 worked by horses, the water is drawn up into the drain <lb></lb>and flows out of
7389 the shaft-house or the mouth of the nearest tunnel. </s>
7390
7391 <s>But <lb></lb>when into the shaft of one mine, which is sunk more deeply, there
7392 flows all <lb></lb>the water of all the neighbouring mines, not only from that
7393 vein in which <lb></lb>the shaft is sunk, but also from other veins, then it
7394 becomes necessary for a <lb></lb>large sump to be made to collect the water;
7395 from this sump the water is <lb></lb>drained by machines which draw it through
7396 pipes, or by ox-hides, about <lb></lb>which I will say more in the next book. </s>
7397
7398 <s>The water which pours into the <lb></lb>tunnels from the veins and stringers and
7399 seams in the rocks is carried <lb></lb>away in the drains.</s>
7400 </p>
7401 <p type="main">
7402
7403 <s>Air is driven into the extremities of deep shafts and long tunnels by
7404 <lb></lb>powerful blowing machines, as I will explain in the following book,
7405 which <lb></lb>will deal with these machines also. </s>
7406
7407 <s>The outer air flows spontaneously into <lb></lb>the caverns of the earth, and
7408 when it can pass through them comes out again. <lb></lb></s>
7409
7410 <s>This, however, comes about in different ways, for in spring and summer it
7411 <lb></lb>flows into the deeper shafts, traverses the tunnels or drifts, and
7412 finds its way <pb pagenum="122"></pb>out of the shallower shafts; similarly at
7413 the same season it pours into the <lb></lb>lowest tunnel and, meeting a shaft in
7414 its course, turns aside to a higher tunnel <lb></lb>and passes out therefrom;
7415 but in autumn and winter, on the other hand, it <lb></lb>enters the upper tunnel
7416 or shaft and comes out at the deeper ones. </s>
7417
7418 <s>This <lb></lb>change in the flow of air currents occurs in temperate regions at
7419 the beginning <lb></lb>of spring and the end of autumn, but in cold regions at
7420 the end of spring <lb></lb>and the beginning of autumn. </s>
7421
7422 <s>But at each period, before the air regularly <lb></lb>assumes its own accustomed
7423 course, generally for a space of fourteen days <lb></lb>it undergoes frequent
7424 variations, now blowing into an upper shaft or <lb></lb>tunnel, now into a lower
7425 one. </s>
7426
7427 <s>But enough of this, let us now proceed to <lb></lb>what remains.</s>
7428 </p>
7429 <p type="main">
7430
7431 <s>There are two kinds of shafts, one of the depth already described, of
7432 <lb></lb>which kind there are usually several in one mine; especially if the
7433 mine is <lb></lb>entered by a tunnel and is metal-bearing. </s>
7434
7435 <s>For when the first tunnel is <lb></lb>connected with the first shaft, two new
7436 shafts are sunk; or if the inrush of <lb></lb>water hinders sinking, sometimes
7437 three are sunk; so that one may take <lb></lb>the place of a sump and the work
7438 of sinking which has been begun may be <lb></lb>continued by means of the
7439 remaining two shafts; the same is done in the <lb></lb>case of the second tunnel
7440 and the third, or even the fourth, if so many are <lb></lb>driven into a
7441 mountain. </s>
7442
7443 <s>The second kind of shaft is very deep, sometimes <lb></lb>as much as sixty,
7444 eighty, or one hundred fathoms. </s>
7445
7446 <s>These shafts continue <lb></lb>vertically toward the depths of the earth, and by
7447 means of a hauling-rope <lb></lb>the broken rock and metalliferous ores are
7448 drawn out of the mine; for which <lb></lb>reason miners call them vertical
7449 shafts. </s>
7450
7451 <s>Over these shafts are erected <lb></lb>machines by which water is extracted; when
7452 they are above ground the <lb></lb>machines are usually worked by horses, but
7453 when they are in tunnels, other <lb></lb>kinds are used which are turned by
7454 water-power. </s>
7455
7456 <s>Such are the shafts which <lb></lb>are sunk when a vein is rich in metal.</s>
7457 </p>
7458 <p type="main">
7459
7460 <s>Now shafts, of whatever kind they may be, are supported in various <lb></lb>ways. </s>
7461
7462 <s>If the vein is hard, and also the hanging and footwall rock, the shaft
7463 <lb></lb>does not require much timbering, but timbers are placed at intervals,
7464 one end <lb></lb>of each of which is fixed in a hitch cut into the rock of the
7465 hangingwall and <lb></lb>the other fixed into a hitch cut in the footwall. </s>
7466
7467 <s>To these timbers are fixed <lb></lb>small timbers along the footwall, to which
7468 are fastened the lagging and <lb></lb>ladders. </s>
7469
7470 <s>The lagging is also fixed to the timbers, both to those which screen <lb></lb>off
7471 the shaft on the ends from the vein, and to those which screen off the
7472 <lb></lb>rest of the shaft from that part in which the ladders are placed. </s>
7473
7474 <s>The lagging <lb></lb>on the sides of the shaft confine the vein, so as to prevent
7475 fragments of it <lb></lb>which have become loosened by water from dropping into
7476 the shaft and <lb></lb>terrifying, or injuring, or knocking off the miners and
7477 other workmen who <lb></lb>are going up or down the ladders from one part of the
7478 mine to another. </s>
7479
7480 <s>For <lb></lb>the same reason, the lagging between the ladders and the haulage-way
7481 on <lb></lb>the other hand, confine and shut off from the ladders the fragments
7482 of rock <lb></lb>which fall from the buckets or baskets while they are being
7483 drawn up; <lb></lb>moreover, they make the arduous and difficult descent and
7484 ascent to appear <lb></lb>less terrible, and in fact to be less dangerous.</s>
7485 </p>
7486 <pb pagenum="123"></pb>
7487 <p type="main">
7488
7489 <s>If a vein is soft and the rock of the hanging and footwalls is weak, <lb></lb>a
7490 closer structure is necessary; for this purpose timbers are joined together
7491 <lb></lb>in rectangular shapes and placed one after the other without a break. </s>
7492
7493 <s>These </s>
7494 </p>
7495 <figure></figure>
7496 <p type="caption">
7497
7498 <s>A—WALL PLATES. B—DIVIDERS. C—LONG END POSTS. D—END
7499 PLATES.<pb pagenum="124"></pb>are arranged on two different systems; for
7500 either the square ends of the <lb></lb>timbers, which reach from the hangingwall
7501 to the footwall, are fixed into corres­<lb></lb>ponding square holes in the
7502 timbers which lie along the hanging or footwall, <lb></lb>or the upper part of
7503 the end of one and the lower part of the end of the other <lb></lb>are cut out
7504 and one laid on the other. </s>
7505
7506 <s>The great weight of these joined <lb></lb>timbers is sustained by stout beams
7507 placed at intervals, which are deeply set <lb></lb>into hitches in the footwall
7508 and hangingwall, but are inclined. </s>
7509
7510 <s>In order that <lb></lb>these joined timbers may remain stationary, wooden wedges
7511 or poles cut <lb></lb>from trees are driven in between the timbers and the vein
7512 and the hanging <lb></lb>wall and the footwall; and the space which remains
7513 empty is filled with loose <lb></lb>dirt. </s>
7514
7515 <s>If the hanging and footwall rock is sometimes hard and sometimes soft,
7516 <lb></lb>and the vein likewise, solid joined timbers are not used, but timbers
7517 are <lb></lb>placed at intervals; and where the rock is soft and the vein
7518 crumbling, <lb></lb>carpenters put in lagging between them and the wall rocks,
7519 and behind these <lb></lb>they fill with loose dirt; by this means they fill up
7520 the void.</s>
7521 </p>
7522 <p type="main">
7523
7524 <s>When a very deep shaft, whether vertical or inclined, is supported by
7525 <lb></lb>joined timbers, then, since they are sometimes of bad material and a
7526 fall is <lb></lb>threatened, for the sake of greater firmness three or four
7527 pairs of strong end <lb></lb>posts are placed between these, one pair on the
7528 hangingwall side, the other <lb></lb>on the footwall side. </s>
7529
7530 <s>To prevent them from falling out of position and to <lb></lb>make them firm and
7531 substantial, they are supported by frequent end plates, <lb></lb>and in order
7532 that these may be more securely fixed they are mortised into <lb></lb>the posts. </s>
7533
7534 <s>Further, in whatever way the shaft may be timbered, dividers <lb></lb>are placed
7535 upon the wall plates, and to these is fixed lagging, and this <lb></lb>marks off
7536 and separates the ladder-way from the remaining part of the shaft. <lb></lb></s>
7537
7538 <s>If a vertical shaft is a very deep one, planks are laid upon the timbers by
7539 the <lb></lb>side of the ladders and fixed on to the timbers, in order that the
7540 men who are <lb></lb>going up or down may sit or stand upon them and rest when
7541 they are tired. <lb></lb></s>
7542
7543 <s>To prevent danger to the shovellers from rocks which, after being drawn up
7544 <lb></lb>from so deep a shaft fall down again, a little above the bottom of the
7545 shaft <lb></lb>small rough sticks are placed close together on the timbers, in
7546 such a way as <lb></lb>to cover the whole space of the shaft except the
7547 ladder-way. </s>
7548
7549 <s>A hole, <lb></lb>however, is left in this structure near the footwall, which is
7550 kept open so that <lb></lb>there may be one opening to the shaft from the
7551 bottom, that the buckets <lb></lb>full of the materials which have been dug out
7552 may be drawn from the <lb></lb>shaft through it by machines, and may be returned
7553 to the same place again <lb></lb>empty; and so the shovellers and other workmen,
7554 as it were hiding beneath <lb></lb>this structure, remain perfectly safe in the
7555 shaft.</s>
7556 </p>
7557 <p type="main">
7558
7559 <s>In mines on one vein there are driven one, two, or sometimes three <lb></lb>or
7560 more tunnels, always one above the other. </s>
7561
7562 <s>If the vein is solid and <lb></lb>hard, and likewise the hanging and footwall
7563 rock, no part of the tunnel <lb></lb>needs support, beyond that which is
7564 required at the mouth, because at that <lb></lb>spot there is not yet solid
7565 rock; if the vein is soft, and the hanging and <lb></lb>footwall rock are
7566 likewise soft, the tunnel requires frequent strong timbering, <lb></lb>which is
7567 provided in the following way. </s>
7568
7569 <s>First, two dressed posts are erected <lb></lb>and set into the tunnel floor,
7570 which is dug out a little; these are of medium <pb pagenum="125"></pb>thickness,
7571 and high enough that their ends, which are cut square, almost <lb></lb>touch the
7572 top of the tunnel; then upon them is placed a smaller dressed cap,
7573 <lb></lb>which is mortised into the heads of the posts: at the bottom, other
7574 small <lb></lb>timbers, whose ends are similarly squared, are mortised into the
7575 posts. </s>
7576
7577 <s>At <lb></lb>each interval of one and a half fathoms, one of these sets is
7578 erected; each one <lb></lb>of these the miners call a “little
7579 doorway,” because it opens a certain amount <lb></lb>of passage way; and
7580 indeed, when necessity requires it, doors are fixed to the <lb></lb>timbers of
7581 each little doorway so that it can be closed. </s>
7582
7583 <s>Then lagging of <lb></lb>planks or of poles is placed upon the caps lengthwise,
7584 so as to reach from one <lb></lb>set of timbers to another, and is laid along
7585 the sides, in case some portion of <lb></lb>the body of the mountain may fall,
7586 and by its bulk impede passage or crush <lb></lb>persons coming in or out. </s>
7587
7588 <s>Moreover, to make the timbers remain stationary, <lb></lb>wooden pegs are driven
7589 between them and the sides of the tunnel. </s>
7590
7591 <s>Lastly, <lb></lb>if rock or earth are carried out in wheelbarrows, planks joined
7592 together are <lb></lb>laid upon the sills; if the rock is hauled out in trucks,
7593 then two timbers <lb></lb>three-quarters of a foot thick and wide are laid on
7594 the sills, and, where they <lb></lb>join, these are usually hollowed out so that
7595 in the hollow, as in a road, the iron <lb></lb>pin of the truck may be pushed
7596 along; indeed, because of this pin in the <lb></lb>groove, the truck does not
7597 leave the worn track to the left or right. </s>
7598
7599 <s>Beneath <lb></lb>the sills are the drains through which the water flows away.</s>
7600 </p>
7601 <figure></figure>
7602 <p type="caption">
7603
7604 <s>A—POSTS. B—CAPS. C—SILLS. D—DOORS. E—LAGGING.
7605 F—DRAINS.</s>
7606 </p>
7607 <p type="main">
7608
7609 <s>Miners timber drifts in the same way as tunnels. </s>
7610
7611 <s>These do not, however, <lb></lb>require sill-pieces, or drains; for the broken
7612 rock is not hauled very far, nor does <lb></lb>the water have far to flow. </s>
7613
7614 <s>If the vein above is metal-bearing, as it sometimes is <pb pagenum="126"></pb>for
7615 a distance of several fathoms, then from the upper part of tunnels or even
7616 <lb></lb>drifts that have already been driven, other drifts are driven again
7617 <lb></lb>and again until that part of the vein is reached which does not yield
7618 metal. <lb></lb></s>
7619
7620 <s>The timbering of these openings is done as follows: stulls are set at
7621 <lb></lb>intervals into hitches in the hanging and footwall, and upon them
7622 <lb></lb>smooth poles are laid continuously; and that they may be able to
7623 <lb></lb>bear the weight, the stulls are generally a foot and a half thick. </s>
7624
7625 <s>After the <lb></lb>ore has been taken out and the mining of the vein is being
7626 done elsewhere, <lb></lb>the rock then broken, especially if it cannot be taken
7627 away without great <lb></lb>difficulty, is thrown into these openings among the
7628 timber, and the carriers <lb></lb>of the ore are saved toil, and the owners save
7629 half the expense. </s>
7630
7631 <s>This then, <lb></lb>generally speaking, is the method by which everything
7632 relating to the <lb></lb>timbering of shafts, tunnels, and drifts is carried
7633 out.</s>
7634 </p>
7635 <p type="main">
7636
7637 <s>All that I have hitherto written is in part peculiar to <emph type="italics"></emph>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and in part common to all
7638 kinds of veins; of what follows, part is specially <lb></lb>applicable to <emph type="italics"></emph>venae dilatatae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> part to <emph type="italics"></emph>venae cumulatae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
7639 <s> But first I will <lb></lb>describe how <emph type="italics"></emph>venae
7640 dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> should be mined. </s>
7641
7642 <s>Where torrents, rivers, or <lb></lb>streams have by inundations washed away part
7643 of the slope of a mountain or <lb></lb>a hill, and have disclosed a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> a tunnel should
7644 be driven first straight <lb></lb>and narrow, and then wider, for nearly all the
7645 vein should be hewn away; and <lb></lb>when this tunnel has been driven further,
7646 a shaft which supplies air should be <lb></lb>sunk in the mountain or hill, and
7647 through it from time to time the ore, earth, <lb></lb>and rock can be drawn up
7648 at less expense than if they be drawn out through the <lb></lb>very great length
7649 of the tunnel; and even in those places to which the tunnel <lb></lb>does not
7650 yet reach, miners dig shafts in order to open a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena
7651 dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which <lb></lb>they conjecture must lie
7652 beneath the soil. </s>
7653
7654 <s>In this way, when the upper <lb></lb>layers are removed, they dig through rock
7655 sometimes of one kind and colour, <lb></lb>sometimes of one kind but different
7656 colours, sometimes of different kinds but <lb></lb>of one colour, and, lastly,
7657 of different kinds and different colours. </s>
7658
7659 <s>The thickness <lb></lb>of rock, both of each single stratum and of all combined,
7660 is uncertain, for <lb></lb>the whole of the strata are in some places twenty
7661 fathoms deep, in others <lb></lb>more than fifty; individual strata are in some
7662 places half a foot thick; in others, <lb></lb>one, two, or more feet; in others,
7663 one, two, three, or more fathoms. </s>
7664
7665 <s>For <lb></lb>example, in those districts which lie at the foot of the Harz
7666 mountains, <lb></lb>there are many different coloured strata, covering a copper
7667 <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>When
7668 the soil has been stripped, first of all is disclosed a stratum which
7669 <lb></lb>is red, but of a dull shade and of a thickness of twenty, thirty, or
7670 five and <lb></lb>thirty fathoms. </s>
7671
7672 <s>Then there is another stratum, also red, but of a light <lb></lb>shade, which has
7673 usually a thickness of about two fathoms. </s>
7674
7675 <s>Beneath this is a <lb></lb>stratum of ash-coloured clay nearly a fathom thick,
7676 which, although it is <lb></lb>not metalliferous, is reckoned a vein. </s>
7677
7678 <s>Then follows a third stratum, <lb></lb>which is ashy, and about three fathoms
7679 thick. </s>
7680
7681 <s>Beneath this lies a vein <lb></lb>of ashes to the thickness of five fathoms, and
7682 these ashes are mixed with <lb></lb>rock of the same colour. </s>
7683
7684 <s>Joined to the last, and underneath, comes a <lb></lb>stratum, the fourth in
7685 number, dark in colour and a foot thick. </s>
7686
7687 <s>Under this <lb></lb>comes the fifth stratum, of a pale or yellowish colour, two
7688 feet thick; under-<pb pagenum="127"></pb>neath which is the sixth stratum,
7689 likewise dark, but rough and three feet <lb></lb>thick. </s>
7690
7691 <s>Afterward occurs the seventh stratum, likewise of dark colour, but <lb></lb>still
7692 darker than the last, and two feet thick. </s>
7693
7694 <s>This is followed by an eighth <lb></lb>stratum, ashy, rough, and a foot thick. </s>
7695
7696 <s>This kind, as also the others, <lb></lb>is sometimes distinguished by stringers
7697 of the stone which easily melts in <lb></lb>fire of the second order. </s>
7698
7699 <s>Beneath this is another ashy rock, light in <lb></lb>weight, and five feet thick. </s>
7700
7701 <s>Next to this comes a lighter ash-coloured <lb></lb>one, a foot thick; beneath
7702 this lies the eleventh stratum, which is dark and <lb></lb>very much like the
7703 seventh, and two feet thick. </s>
7704
7705 <s>Below the last is <lb></lb>a twelfth stratum of a whitish colour and soft, also
7706 two feet thick; the <lb></lb>weight of this rests on a thirteenth stratum, ashy
7707 and one foot thick, whose <lb></lb>weight is in turn supported by a fourteenth
7708 stratum, which is blackish and <lb></lb>half a foot thick. </s>
7709
7710 <s>There follows this, another stratum of black colour, <lb></lb>likewise half a
7711 foot thick, which is again followed by a sixteenth stratum <lb></lb>still
7712 blacker in colour, whose thickness is also the same. </s>
7713
7714 <s>Beneath this, and <lb></lb>last of all, lies the cupriferous stratum, black
7715 coloured and schistose, in which <lb></lb>there sometimes glitter scales of
7716 gold-coloured pyrites in the very thin sheets, <lb></lb>which, as I said
7717 elsewhere, often take the forms of various living things.<emph type="sup"></emph>15<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
7718 </p>
7719 <p type="main">
7720
7721 <s>The miners mine out a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dílatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> laterally and longitudinally by <lb></lb>driving a low
7722 tunnel in it, and if the nature of the work and place permit, they <lb></lb>sink
7723 also a shaft in order to discover whether there is a second vein beneath
7724 <lb></lb>the first one; for sometimes beneath it there are two, three, or more
7725 similar <lb></lb>metal-bearing veins, and these are excavated in the same way
7726 laterally and <lb></lb>longitudinally. </s>
7727
7728 <s>They generally mine <emph type="italics"></emph>venæ dilatatæ<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> lying down; and to <pb pagenum="128"></pb>avoid wearing
7729 away their clothes and injuring their left shoulders they <lb></lb>usually bind
7730 on themselves small wooden cradles. </s>
7731
7732 <s>For this reason, this <lb></lb>particular class of miners, in order to use their
7733 iron tools, are obliged to bend <lb></lb>their necks to the left, not
7734 infrequently having them twisted. </s>
7735
7736 <s>Now these <lb></lb>veins also sometimes divide, and where these parts re-unite,
7737 ore of a richer and <lb></lb>a better quality is generally found; the same thing
7738 occurs where the stringers, <lb></lb>of which they are not altogether devoid,
7739 join with them, or cut them crosswise, <lb></lb>or divide them obliquely. </s>
7740
7741 <s>To prevent a mountain or hill, which has in <lb></lb>this way been undermined,
7742 from subsiding by its weight, either some natural <lb></lb>pillars and arches
7743 are left, on which the pressure rests as on a foundation, or <lb></lb>timbering
7744 is done for support. </s>
7745
7746 <s>Moreover, the materials which are dug out <lb></lb>and which are devoid of metal
7747 are removed in bowls, and are thrown back, <lb></lb>thus once more filling the
7748 caverns.</s>
7749 </p>
7750 <p type="main">
7751
7752 <s>Next, as to <emph type="italics"></emph>venæ cumulatæ.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
7753 <s> These are dug by a somewhat different <lb></lb>method, for when one of these
7754 shows some metal at the top of the ground, <lb></lb>first of all one shaft is
7755 sunk; then, if it is worth while, around this one many <lb></lb>shafts are sunk
7756 and tunnels are driven into the mountain. </s>
7757
7758 <s>If a torrent or <lb></lb>spring has torn fragments of metal from such a vein, a
7759 tunnel is first driven <lb></lb>into the mountain or hill for the purpose of
7760 searching for the ore; then <lb></lb>when it is found, a vertical shaft is sunk
7761 in it. </s>
7762
7763 <s>Since the whole mountain, or <lb></lb>more especially the whole hill, is
7764 undermined, seeing that the whole of it is <lb></lb>composed of ore, it is
7765 necessary to leave the natural pillars and arches, or the <lb></lb>place is
7766 timbered. </s>
7767
7768 <s>But sometimes when a vein is very hard it is broken by <lb></lb>fire, whereby it
7769 happens that the soft pillars break up, or the timbers are <lb></lb>burnt away,
7770 and the mountain by its great weight sinks into itself, and then <lb></lb>the
7771 shaft buildings are swallowed up in the great subsidence. </s>
7772
7773 <s>Therefore, <lb></lb>about a <emph type="italics"></emph>vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> it is advisable to sink some shafts which are not
7774 sub­<lb></lb>ject to this kind of ruin, through which the materials that are
7775 excavated may <lb></lb>be carried out, not only while the pillars and
7776 underpinnings still remain whole <lb></lb>and solid, but also after the supports
7777 have been destroyed by fire and have <lb></lb>fallen. </s>
7778
7779 <s>Since ore which has thus fallen must necessarily be broken by fire, <lb></lb>new
7780 shafts through which the smoke can escape must be sunk in the abyss.
7781 <lb></lb></s>
7782
7783 <s>At those places where stringers intersect, richer ore is generally obtained
7784 <lb></lb>from the mine; these stringers, in the case of tin mines, sometimes
7785 have in <lb></lb>them black stones the size of a walnut. </s>
7786
7787 <s>If such a vein is found in a plain, <lb></lb>as not infrequently happens in the
7788 case of iron, many shafts are sunk, because <lb></lb>they cannot be sunk very
7789 deep. </s>
7790
7791 <s>The work is carried on by this method <lb></lb>because the miners cannot drive a
7792 tunnel into a level plain of this kind.</s>
7793 </p>
7794 <p type="main">
7795
7796 <s>There remain the stringers in which gold alone is sometimes found, <lb></lb>in
7797 the vicinity of rivers and streams, or in swamps. </s>
7798
7799 <s>If upon the soil being <lb></lb>removed, many of these are found, composed of
7800 earth somewhat baked and <lb></lb>burnt, as may sometimes be seen in clay pits,
7801 there is some hope that gold <lb></lb>may be obtained from them, especially if
7802 several join together. </s>
7803
7804 <s>But the <lb></lb>very point of junction must be pierced, and the length and width
7805 searched <lb></lb>for ore, and in these places very deep shafts cannot be
7806 sunk.</s>
7807 </p>
7808 <p type="main">
7809
7810 <s>I have completed one part of this book, and now come to the other, in
7811 <lb></lb>which I will deal with the art of surveying. </s>
7812
7813 <s>Miners measure the solid <pb pagenum="129"></pb>mass of the mountains in order
7814 that the owners may lay out their plans, and <lb></lb>that their workmen may not
7815 encroach on other people&#039;s possessions. </s>
7816
7817 <s>The <lb></lb>surveyor either measures the interval not yet wholly dug through,
7818 which <lb></lb>lies between the mouth of a tunnel and a shaft to be sunk to that
7819 depth, or <lb></lb>between the mouth of a shaft and the tunnel to be driven to
7820 that spot which <lb></lb>lies under the shaft, or between both, if the tunnel is
7821 neither so long as to <lb></lb>reach to the shaft, nor the shaft so deep as to
7822 reach to the tunnel; and thus <lb></lb>on both sides work is still to be done. </s>
7823
7824 <s>Or in some cases, within the tunnels <lb></lb>and drifts, are to be fixed the
7825 boundaries of the meers, just as the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>has determined the
7826 boundaries of the same meers above ground.<emph type="sup"></emph>16<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
7827 </p>
7828 <p type="main">
7829
7830 <s>Each method of surveying depends on the measuring of triangles. </s>
7831
7832 <s>A <lb></lb>small triangle should be laid out, and from it calculations must be
7833 made <lb></lb>regarding a larger one. </s>
7834
7835 <s>Most particular care must be taken that we do not <lb></lb>deviate at all from a
7836 correct measuring; for if, at the beginning, we are drawn <pb pagenum="130"></pb>by carelessness into a slight error, this at the end will produce great
7837 errors. <lb></lb></s>
7838
7839 <s>Now these triangles are of many shapes, since shafts differ among themselves
7840 <lb></lb>and are not all sunk by one and the same method into the depths of the
7841 <lb></lb>earth, nor do the slopes of all mountains come down to the valley or
7842 plain in <lb></lb>the same manner. </s>
7843
7844 <s>For if a shaft is vertical, there is a triangle with a right <lb></lb>angle,
7845 which the Greeks call <foreign lang="grc">ὀρθογώνιον</foreign> and this,
7846 according to the <lb></lb>inequalities of the mountain slope, has either two
7847 equal sides or three unequal <lb></lb>sides. </s>
7848
7849 <s>The Greeks call the former <foreign lang="grc">τρίγωνον
7850 ἰσοσκελές</foreign> the latter <foreign lang="grc">σκαληνόν</foreign> for <lb></lb>a right angle triangle cannot have three
7851 equal sides. </s>
7852
7853 <s>If a shaft is inclined <lb></lb>and sunk in the same vein in which the tunnel is
7854 driven, a triangle is likewise <lb></lb>made with a right angle, and this again,
7855 according to the various inequalities <lb></lb>of the mountain slope, has either
7856 two equal or three unequal sides. </s>
7857
7858 <s>But if <lb></lb>a shaft is inclined and is sunk in one vein, and a tunnel is
7859 driven in <lb></lb>another vein, then a triangle comes into existence which has
7860 either an obtuse <lb></lb>angle or all acute angles. </s>
7861
7862 <s>The former the Greeks call <foreign lang="grc">ἀμβλυγώνιον,</foreign> the
7863 latter <lb></lb><foreign lang="grc">ὀχυγώνιον.</foreign> That triangle which
7864 has an obtuse angle cannot have three <lb></lb>equal sides, but in accordance
7865 with the different mountain slopes has either <lb></lb>two equal sides or three
7866 unequal sides. </s>
7867
7868 <s>That triangle which has all acute <lb></lb>angles in accordance with the
7869 different mountain slopes has either three equal <lb></lb>sides, which the
7870 Greeks call <foreign lang="grc">τρίγωνον ἰσόπλευρον</foreign> or two
7871 equal sides or three <lb></lb>unequal sides.</s>
7872 </p>
7873 <p type="main">
7874
7875 <s>The surveyor, as I said, employs his art when the owners of the mines
7876 <lb></lb>desire to know how many fathoms of the intervening ground require to be
7877 <lb></lb>dug; when a tunnel is being driven toward a shaft and does not yet
7878 reach <lb></lb>it; or when the shaft has not yet been sunk to the depth of the
7879 bottom of the <lb></lb>tunnel which is under it; or when neither the tunnel
7880 reaches to that point, <lb></lb>nor has the shaft been sunk to it. </s>
7881
7882 <s>It is of importance that miners should <lb></lb>know how many fathoms remain from
7883 the tunnel to the shaft, or from the <lb></lb>shaft to the tunnel, in order to
7884 calculate the expenditure; and in order that <lb></lb>the owners of a
7885 metal-bearing mine may hasten the sinking of a shaft and <lb></lb>the excavation
7886 of the metal, before the tunnel reaches that point and the <lb></lb>tunnel
7887 owners excavate part of the metal by any right of their own; and on <lb></lb>the
7888 other hand, it is important that the owners of a tunnel may similarly
7889 <lb></lb>hasten their driving before a shaft can be sunk to the depth of a
7890 tunnel, so <lb></lb>that they may excavate the metal to which they will have a
7891 right.</s>
7892 </p>
7893 <p type="main">
7894
7895 <s>The surveyor, first of all, if the beams of the shaft-house do not give him
7896 <lb></lb>the opportunity, sets a pair of forked posts by the sides of the shaft
7897 in such <lb></lb>a manner that a pole may be laid across them. </s>
7898
7899 <s>Next, from the pole he lets <lb></lb>down into the shaft a cord with a weight
7900 attached to it. </s>
7901
7902 <s>Then he stretches a <lb></lb>second cord, attached to the upper end of the first
7903 cord, right down along the <lb></lb>slope of the mountain to the bottom of the
7904 mouth of the tunnel, and fixes it to <lb></lb>the ground. </s>
7905
7906 <s>Next, from the same pole not far from the first cord, he lets <lb></lb>down a
7907 third cord, similarly weighted, so that it may intersect the second
7908 <lb></lb>cord, which descends obliquely. </s>
7909
7910 <s>Then, starting from that point where the <lb></lb>third cord cuts the second cord
7911 which descends obliquely to the mouth of the <lb></lb>tunnel, he measures the
7912 second cord upward to where it reaches the end of </s>
7913 </p>
7914 <pb pagenum="131"></pb>
7915 <figure></figure>
7916 <p type="caption">
7917
7918 <s>A—UPRIGHT FORKED POSTS. B—POLE OVER THE POSTS. C—SHAFT.
7919 D—FIRST CORD. <lb></lb>E—WEIGHT OF FIRST CORD. F—SECOND CORD.
7920 G—SAME FIXED GROUND. H—HEAD <lb></lb>OF FIRST CORD. I—MOUTH OF
7921 TUNNEL. K—THIRD CORD. L—WEIGHT OF THIRD CORD. <lb></lb>M—FIRST
7922 SIDE MINOR TRIANGLE. N—SECOND SIDE MINOR TRIANGLE. O—THIRD SIDE
7923 <lb></lb>MINOR TRIANGLE. P—THE MINOR TRIANGLE.<pb pagenum="132"></pb>the first
7924 cord, and makes a note of this first side of the minor triangle<emph type="sup"></emph>17<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. <lb></lb></s>
7925
7926 <s>Afterward, starting again from that point where the third cord intersects the
7927 <lb></lb>second cord, he measures the straight space which lies between that
7928 point <lb></lb>and the opposite point on the first cord, and in that way forms
7929 the minor <lb></lb>triangle, and he notes this second side of the minor triangle
7930 in the same way as <lb></lb>before. </s>
7931
7932 <s>Then, if it is necessary, from the angle formed by the first cord and
7933 <lb></lb>the second side of the minor triangle, he measures upward to the end of
7934 the <lb></lb>first cord and also makes a note of this third side of the minor
7935 triangle. </s>
7936
7937 <s>The <lb></lb>third side of the minor triangle, if the shaft is vertical or
7938 inclined and is sunk <lb></lb>on the same vein in which the tunnel is driven,
7939 will necessarily be the same <lb></lb>length as the third cord above the point
7940 where it intersects the second cord; <lb></lb>and so, as often as the first side
7941 of the minor triangle is contained in the <lb></lb>length of the whole cord
7942 which descends obliquely, so many times the length <lb></lb>of the second side
7943 of the minor triangle indicates the distance between the <lb></lb>mouth of the
7944 tunnel and the point to which the shaft must be sunk; and <lb></lb>similarly, so
7945 many times the length of the third side of the minor triangle <lb></lb>gives the
7946 distance between the mouth of the shaft and the bottom of the
7947 <lb></lb>tunnel.</s>
7948 </p>
7949 <p type="main">
7950
7951 <s>When there is a level bench on the mountain slope, the surveyor first
7952 <lb></lb>measures across this with a measuring-rod; then at the edges of this
7953 bench <lb></lb>he sets up forked posts, and applies the principle of the
7954 triangle to the two <lb></lb>sloping parts of the mountain; and to the fathoms
7955 which are the length of <lb></lb>that part of the tunnel determined by the
7956 triangles, he adds the number <lb></lb>of fathoms which are the width of the
7957 bench. </s>
7958
7959 <s>But if sometimes the <lb></lb>mountain side stands up, so that a cord cannot run
7960 down from the shaft to <lb></lb>the mouth of the tunnel, or, on the other hand,
7961 cannot run up from the <lb></lb>mouth of the tunnel to the shaft, and,
7962 therefore, one cannot connect them in <lb></lb>a straight line, the surveyor, in
7963 order to fix an accurate triangle, measures the <lb></lb>mountain; and going
7964 downward he substitutes for the first part of the cord <lb></lb>a pole one
7965 fathom long, and for the second part a pole half a fathom <lb></lb>long. </s>
7966
7967 <s>Going upward, on the contrary, for the first part of the cord he
7968 sub­<lb></lb>stitutes a pole half a fathom long, and for the next part, one
7969 a whole fathom <lb></lb>long; then where he requires to fix his triangle he adds
7970 a straight line to <lb></lb>these angles.</s>
7971 </p>
7972 <p type="main">
7973
7974 <s>To make this system of measuring clear and more explicit, I will proceed
7975 <lb></lb>by describing each separate kind of triangle. </s>
7976
7977 <s>When a shaft is vertical or <lb></lb>inclined, and is sunk in the same vein on
7978 which the tunnel is driven, there <lb></lb>is created, as I said, a triangle
7979 containing a right angle. </s>
7980
7981 <s>Now if the minor <lb></lb>triangle has the two sides equal, which, in accordance
7982 with the numbering <lb></lb>used by surveyors, are the second and third sides,
7983 then the second and third <lb></lb>sides of the major triangle will be equal;
7984 and so also the intervening <lb></lb>distances will be equal which lie between
7985 the mouth of the tunnel and the <lb></lb>bottom of the shaft, and which lie
7986 between the mouth of the shaft and the <lb></lb>bottom of the tunnel. </s>
7987
7988 <s>For example, if the first side of the minor triangle is <lb></lb>seven feet long
7989 and the second and likewise the third sides are five feet, and <pb pagenum="133"></pb>the length shown by the cord for the side of the major
7990 triangle is 101 times <lb></lb>seven feet, that is 117 fathoms and five feet,
7991 then the intervening space, of <lb></lb>course, whether the whole of it has been
7992 already driven through or has yet <lb></lb>to be driven, will be one hundred
7993 times five feet, which makes eighty-three <lb></lb>fathoms and two feet. </s>
7994
7995 <s>Anyone with this example of proportions will be <lb></lb>able to construct the
7996 major and minor triangles in the same way as I have <lb></lb>done, if there be
7997 the necessary upright posts and cross-beams. </s>
7998
7999 <s>When a shaft is <lb></lb>vertical the triangle is absolutely upright; when it is
8000 inclined and is sunk on <lb></lb>the same vein in which the tunnel is driven, it
8001 is inclined toward one side. </s>
8002 </p>
8003 <figure></figure>
8004 <p type="caption">
8005
8006 <s>A TRIANGLE HAVING A RIGHT ANGLE AND TWO EQUAL SIDES.<lb></lb>Therefore, if a
8007 tunnel has been driven into the mountain for sixty fathoms, <lb></lb>there
8008 remains a space of ground to be penetrated twenty-three fathoms and <lb></lb>two
8009 feet long; for five feet of the second side of the major triangle, which
8010 <lb></lb>lies above the mouth of the shaft and corresponds with the first side
8011 of the <lb></lb>minor triangle, must not be added. </s>
8012
8013 <s>Therefore, if the shaft has been sunk <lb></lb>in the middle of the head meer, a
8014 tunnel sixty fathoms long will reach <lb></lb>to the boundary of the meer only
8015 when the tunnel has been extended a <lb></lb>further two fathoms and two feet;
8016 but if the shaft is located in the middle of <lb></lb>an ordinary meer, then the
8017 boundary will be reached when the tunnel has been <lb></lb>driven a further
8018 length of nine fathoms and two feet. </s>
8019
8020 <s>Since a tunnel, for <lb></lb>every one hundred fathoms of length, rises in grade
8021 one fathom, or at all <lb></lb>events, ought to rise as it proceeds toward the
8022 shaft, one more fathom must <lb></lb>always be taken from the depth allowed to
8023 the shaft, and one added to the <lb></lb>length allowed to the tunnel. </s>
8024
8025 <s>Proportionately, because a tunnel fifty <lb></lb>fathoms long is raised half a
8026 fathom, this amount must be taken from the <lb></lb>depth of the shaft and added
8027 to the length of the tunnel. </s>
8028
8029 <s>In the same way <lb></lb>if a tunnel is one hundred or fifty fathoms shorter or
8030 longer, the same propor­<lb></lb>tion also must be taken from the depth of
8031 the one and added to the length <lb></lb>of the other. </s>
8032
8033 <s>For this reason, in the case mentioned above, half a fathom <lb></lb>and a little
8034 more must be added to the distance to be driven through, so <lb></lb>that there
8035 remain twenty-three fathoms, five feet, two palms, one and a half
8036 <lb></lb>digits and a fifth of a digit; that is, if even the minutest
8037 proportions are <lb></lb>carried out; and surveyors do not neglect these without
8038 good cause. <lb></lb></s>
8039
8040 <s>Similarly, if the shaft is seventy fathoms deep, in order that it may reach
8041 to <lb></lb>the bottom of the tunnel, it still must be sunk a further depth of
8042 thirteen <lb></lb>fathoms and two feet, or rather twelve fathoms and a half, one
8043 foot, two <lb></lb>digits, and four-fifths of half a digit. </s>
8044
8045 <s>And in this instance five feet must be <lb></lb>deducted from the reckoning,
8046 because these five feet complete the third side <lb></lb>of the minor triangle,
8047 which is above the mouth of the shaft, and from its <pb pagenum="134"></pb>depth
8048 there must be deducted half a fathom, two palms, one and a half digits
8049 <lb></lb>and the fifth part of half a digit. </s>
8050
8051 <s>But if the tunnel has been driven to a <lb></lb>point where it is under the
8052 shaft, then to reach the roof of the tunnel the <lb></lb>shaft must still be
8053 sunk a depth of eleven fathoms, two and a half feet, one <lb></lb>palm, two
8054 digits, and four-fifths of half a digit.</s>
8055 </p>
8056 <p type="main">
8057
8058 <s>If a minor triangle is produced of the kind having three unequal sides,
8059 <lb></lb>then the sides of the greater triangle cannot be equal; that is, if the
8060 first <lb></lb>side of the minor triangle is eight feet long, the second six
8061 feet long, and the <lb></lb>third five feet long, and the cord along the side of
8062 the greater triangle, not <lb></lb>to go too far from the example just given, is
8063 one hundred and one times <lb></lb>eight feet, that is, one hundred and
8064 thirty-four fathoms and four feet, the <lb></lb>distance which lies between the
8065 mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of the <lb></lb>shaft will occupy one hundred
8066 times six feet in length, that is, one hundred <lb></lb>fathoms. </s>
8067
8068 <s>The distance between the mouth of the shaft and the bottom of the <lb></lb>tunnel
8069 is one hundred times five feet, that is, eighty-three fathoms and two feet.
8070 <lb></lb></s>
8071
8072 <s>And so, if the tunnel is eighty-five fathoms long, the remainder to be driven
8073 <lb></lb>into the mountain is fifteen fathoms long, and here, too, a correction
8074 in <lb></lb>measurement must be taken from the depth of the shaft and added to
8075 the <lb></lb>length of the tunnel; what this is precisely, I will pursue no
8076 further, since <lb></lb>everyone having a small knowledge of arithmetic can work
8077 it out. </s>
8078
8079 <s>If the <lb></lb>shaft is sixty-seven fathoms deep, in order that it may reach the
8080 bottom of <lb></lb>the tunnel, the further distance required to be sunk amounts
8081 to sixteen <lb></lb>fathoms and two feet.</s>
8082 </p>
8083 <figure></figure>
8084 <p type="caption">
8085
8086 <s>A TRIANGLE HAVING A RIGHT ANGLE AND THREE UNEQUAL SIDES.</s>
8087 </p>
8088 <p type="main">
8089
8090 <s>The surveyor employs this same method in measuring the mountain, <lb></lb>whether
8091 the shaft and tunnel are on one and the same vein, whether the vein <lb></lb>is
8092 vertical or inclined, or whether the shaft is on the principal vein and the
8093 tunnel <lb></lb>on a transverse vein descending vertically to the depths of the
8094 earth; in the <lb></lb>latter case the excavation is to be made where the
8095 transverse vein cuts the <lb></lb>vertical vein. </s>
8096
8097 <s>If the principal vein descends on an incline and the cross-vein <lb></lb>descends
8098 vertically, then a minor triangle is created having one obtuse angle or
8099 <lb></lb>all three angles acute. </s>
8100
8101 <s>If the minor triangle has one angle obtuse and the two <lb></lb>sides which are
8102 the second and third are equal, then the second and third <lb></lb>sides of the
8103 major triangle will be equal, so that if the first side of the minor
8104 <lb></lb>triangle is nine feet, the second, and likewise the third, will be five
8105 feet. </s>
8106
8107 <s>Then <lb></lb>the first side of the major triangle will be one hundred and one
8108 times nine <lb></lb>feet, or one hundred and fifty-one and one-half fathoms, and
8109 each of the <lb></lb>other sides of the major triangle will be one hundred times
8110 five feet, that is, <lb></lb>eighty-three fathoms and two feet. </s>
8111
8112 <s>But when the first shaft is inclined, <pb pagenum="135"></pb>generally speaking,
8113 it is not deep; but there are usually several, all <lb></lb>inclined, and one
8114 always following the other. </s>
8115
8116 <s>Therefore, if a tunnel is seventy­<lb></lb>seven fathoms long, it will reach
8117 to the middle of the bottom of a shaft when <lb></lb>six fathoms and two feet
8118 further have been sunk. </s>
8119
8120 <s>But if all such inclined <lb></lb>shafts are seventy-six fathoms deep, in order
8121 that the last one may reach <lb></lb>the bottom of the tunnel, a depth of seven
8122 fathoms and two feet remains to <lb></lb>be sunk.</s>
8123 </p>
8124 <figure></figure>
8125 <p type="caption">
8126
8127 <s>TRIANGLE HAVING AN OBTUSE ANGLE AND TWO EQUAL SIDES.</s>
8128 </p>
8129 <p type="main">
8130
8131 <s>If a minor triangle is made which has an obtuse angle and three unequal
8132 <lb></lb>sides, then again the sides of the large triangle cannot be equal. </s>
8133
8134 <s>For <lb></lb>example, if the first side of the minor triangle is six feet long,
8135 the second <lb></lb>three feet, and the third four feet, and the cord along the
8136 side of the greater <lb></lb>triangle one hundred and one times six feet, that
8137 is, one hundred and one <lb></lb>fathoms, the distance between the mouth of the
8138 tunnel and the bottom of <lb></lb>the last shaft will be a length one hundred
8139 times three feet, or fifty fathoms; <lb></lb>but the depth that lies between the
8140 mouth of the first shaft and the bottom of <lb></lb>the tunnel is one hundred
8141 times four feet, or sixty-six fathoms and four feet. <lb></lb></s>
8142
8143 <s>Therefore, if a tunnel is forty-four fathoms long, the remaining distance to
8144 <lb></lb>be driven is six fathoms. </s>
8145
8146 <s>If the shafts are fifty-eight fathoms deep, the <lb></lb>newest will touch the
8147 bottom of the tunnel when eight fathoms and four <lb></lb>feet have been
8148 sunk.</s>
8149 </p>
8150 <figure></figure>
8151 <p type="caption">
8152
8153 <s>TRIANGLE HAVING AN OBTUSE ANGLE AND THREE UNEQUAL SIDES.</s>
8154 </p>
8155 <p type="main">
8156
8157 <s>If a minor triangle is produced which has all its angles acute and its
8158 <lb></lb>three sides equal, then necessarily the second and third sides of the
8159 minor <lb></lb>triangle will be equal, and likewise the sides of the major
8160 triangle frequently <lb></lb>referred to will be equal. </s>
8161
8162 <s>Thus if each side of the minor triangle is six feet <lb></lb>long, and the cord
8163 measurement for the side of the major triangle is one <lb></lb>hundred and one
8164 times six feet, that is, one hundred and one fathoms, then <lb></lb>both the
8165 distances to be dug will be one hundred fathoms. </s>
8166
8167 <s>And thus if the <lb></lb>tunnel is ninety fathoms long, it will reach the middle
8168 of the bottom of the <lb></lb>last shaft when ten fathoms further have been
8169 driven. </s>
8170
8171 <s>If the shafts are <pb pagenum="136"></pb>ninety-five fathoms deep, the last will
8172 reach the bottom of the tunnel when <lb></lb>it is sunk a further depth of five
8173 fathoms.</s>
8174 </p>
8175 <figure></figure>
8176 <p type="caption">
8177
8178 <s>A TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND ITS THREE SIDES EQUAL.</s>
8179 </p>
8180 <p type="main">
8181
8182 <s>If a triangle is made which has all its angles acute, but only two sides
8183 <lb></lb>equal, namely, the first and third, then the second and third sides are
8184 not <lb></lb>equal; therefore the distances to be dug cannot be equal. </s>
8185
8186 <s>For example, if <lb></lb>the first side of the minor triangle is six feet long,
8187 and the second is four feet, <lb></lb>and the third is six feet, and the cord
8188 measurement for the side of the major <lb></lb>triangle is one hundred and one
8189 times six feet, that is, one hundred and one <lb></lb>fathoms, then the distance
8190 between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of <lb></lb>the last shaft will
8191 be sixty-six fathoms and four feet. </s>
8192
8193 <s>But the distance from the <lb></lb>mouth of the first shaft to the bottom of the
8194 tunnel is one hundred fathoms. <lb></lb></s>
8195
8196 <s>So if the tunnel is sixty fathoms long, the remaining distance to be driven
8197 <lb></lb>into the mountain is six fathoms and four feet. </s>
8198
8199 <s>If the shaft is ninety-seven <lb></lb>fathoms deep, the last one will reach the
8200 bottom of the tunnel when a further <lb></lb>depth of three fathoms has been
8201 sunk.</s>
8202 </p>
8203 <figure></figure>
8204 <p type="caption">
8205
8206 <s>TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND TWO SIDES EQUAL, A, B, UNEQUAL SIDE
8207 C.</s>
8208 </p>
8209 <p type="main">
8210
8211 <s>If a minor triangle is produced which has all its angles acute, but its
8212 <lb></lb>three sides unequal, then again the distances to be dug cannot be
8213 equal. <lb></lb></s>
8214
8215 <s>For example, if the first side of the minor triangle is seven feet long, the
8216 <lb></lb>second side is four feet, and the third side is six feet, and the cord
8217 measure­<lb></lb>ment for the side of the major triangle is one hundred and
8218 one times seven <lb></lb>feet or one hundred and seventeen fathoms and four
8219 feet, the distance <lb></lb>between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of
8220 the last shaft will be <lb></lb>four hundred feet or sixty-six fathoms, and the
8221 depth between the mouth of <lb></lb>the first shaft and the bottom of the tunnel
8222 will be one hundred fathoms. <lb></lb></s>
8223
8224 <s>Therefore, if a tunnel is fifty fathoms long, it will reach the middle of the
8225 <lb></lb>bottom of the newest shaft when it has been driven sixteen fathoms and
8226 four <lb></lb>feet further. </s>
8227
8228 <s>But if the shafts are then ninety-two fathoms deep, the last <pb pagenum="137"></pb>shaft will reach the bottom of the tunnel when it has
8229 been sunk a further <lb></lb>eight fathoms.</s>
8230 </p>
8231 <figure></figure>
8232 <p type="caption">
8233
8234 <s>A TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND ITS THREE SIDES UNEQUAL.</s>
8235 </p>
8236 <p type="main">
8237
8238 <s>This is the method of the surveyor in measuring the mountain, if the
8239 <lb></lb>principal vein descends inclined into the depths of the earth or the
8240 transverse <lb></lb>vein is vertical. </s>
8241
8242 <s>But if they are both inclined, the surveyor uses the same <lb></lb>method, or he
8243 measures the slope of the mountain separately from the slope <lb></lb>of the
8244 shaft. </s>
8245
8246 <s>Next, if a transverse vein in which a tunnel is driven does not <lb></lb>cut the
8247 principal vein in that spot where the shaft is sunk, then it is necessary
8248 <lb></lb>for the starting point of the survey to be in the other shaft in which
8249 the <lb></lb>transverse vein cuts the principal vein. </s>
8250
8251 <s>But if there be no shaft on that spot <lb></lb>where the outcrop of the
8252 transverse vein cuts the outcrop of the principal <lb></lb>vein, then the
8253 surface of the ground which lies between the shafts must <lb></lb>be measured,
8254 or that between the shaft and the place where the outcrop of <lb></lb>the one
8255 vein intersects the outcrop of the other.</s>
8256 </p>
8257 <p type="main">
8258
8259 <s>Some surveyors, although they use three cords, nevertheless ascertain
8260 <lb></lb>only the length of a tunnel by that method of measuring, and determine
8261 <lb></lb>the depth of a shaft by another method; that is, by the method by
8262 <lb></lb>which cords are re-stretched on a level part of the mountain or in
8263 <lb></lb>a valley, or in flat fields, and are measured again. </s>
8264
8265 <s>Some, however, do <lb></lb>not employ this method in surveying the depth of a
8266 shaft and the <lb></lb>length of a tunnel, but use only two cords, a graduated
8267 hemicycle<emph type="sup"></emph>18<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> and a <lb></lb>rod half
8268 a fathom long. </s>
8269
8270 <s>They suspend in the shaft one cord, fastened <lb></lb>from the upper pole and
8271 weighted, just as the others do. </s>
8272
8273 <s>Fastened to the <lb></lb>upper end of this cord, they stretch another right down
8274 the slope of the mountain <lb></lb>to the bottom of the mouth of the tunnel and
8275 fix it to the ground. </s>
8276
8277 <s>Then to <lb></lb>the upper part of this second cord they apply on its lower side
8278 the broad part <lb></lb>of a hemicycle. </s>
8279
8280 <s>This consists of half a circle, the outer margin of which is <lb></lb>covered
8281 with wax, and within this are six semi-circular lines. </s>
8282
8283 <s>From the <pb pagenum="138"></pb>waxed margin through the first semi-circular
8284 line, and reaching to the second, <lb></lb>there proceed straight lines
8285 converging toward the centre of the hemicycle; <lb></lb>these mark the middles
8286 of intervening spaces lying between other straight lines <lb></lb>which extend
8287 to the fourth semi-circular line. </s>
8288
8289 <s>But all lines whatsoever, from <lb></lb>the waxed margin up to the fourth line,
8290 whether they go beyond it or not, <lb></lb>correspond with the graduated lines
8291 which mark the minor spaces of a rod. <lb></lb></s>
8292
8293 <s>Those which go beyond the fourth line correspond with the lines marking </s>
8294 </p>
8295 <figure></figure>
8296 <p type="caption">
8297
8298 <s>A—WAXED SEMICIRCLE OF THE HEMICYCLE. B—SEMICIRCULAR LINES.
8299 C—STRAIGHT <lb></lb>LINES. D—LINE MEASURING THE HALF. E—LINE
8300 MEASURING THE WHOLE. F—TONGUE.<pb pagenum="139"></pb>the major spaces on
8301 the rod, and those which proceed further, mark the <lb></lb>middle of the
8302 intervening space which lies between the others. </s>
8303
8304 <s>The <lb></lb>straight lines, which run from the fifth to the sixth semi-circular
8305 line, show <lb></lb>nothing further. </s>
8306
8307 <s>Nor does the line which measures the half, show anything <lb></lb>when it has
8308 already passed from the sixth straight line to the base of the
8309 <lb></lb>hemicycle. </s>
8310
8311 <s>When the hemicycle is applied to the cord, if its tongue indicates <lb></lb>the
8312 sixth straight line which lies between the second and third semi-circular
8313 <lb></lb>lines, the surveyor counts on the rod six lines which separate the
8314 minor <lb></lb>spaces, and if the length of this portion of the rod be taken
8315 from the second <lb></lb>cord, as many times as the cord itself is half-fathoms
8316 long, the remaining <lb></lb>length of cord shows the distance the tunnel must
8317 be driven to reach under <lb></lb>the shaft. </s>
8318
8319 <s>But if he sees that the tongue has gone so far that it marks the <lb></lb>sixth
8320 line between the fourth and fifth semi-circular lines, he counts six lines
8321 <lb></lb>which separate the major spaces on the rod; and this entire space is
8322 deducted <lb></lb>from the length of the second cord, as many times as the
8323 number of whole <lb></lb>fathoms which the cord contains; and then, in like
8324 manner, the remaining <lb></lb>length of cord shows us the distance the tunnel
8325 must be driven to reach <lb></lb>under the shaft.<emph type="sup"></emph>19<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
8326 </p>
8327 <figure></figure>
8328 <p type="caption">
8329
8330 <s>STRETCHED CORDS: A—FIRST CORD. B—SECOND CORD. C—THIRD CORD.
8331 <lb></lb>D—TRIANGLE.</s>
8332 </p>
8333 <pb pagenum="140"></pb>
8334 <p type="main">
8335
8336 <s>Both these surveyors, as well as the others, in the first place make use
8337 <lb></lb>of the haulage rope. </s>
8338
8339 <s>These they measure by means of others made of linden <lb></lb>bark, because the
8340 latter do not stretch at all, while the former become very <lb></lb>slack. </s>
8341
8342 <s>These cords they stretch on the surveyor&#039;s field, the first one to
8343 <lb></lb>represent the parts of mountain slopes which descend obliquely. </s>
8344
8345 <s>Then the <lb></lb>second cord, which represents the length of the tunnel to be
8346 driven to reach <lb></lb>the shaft, they place straight, in such a direction
8347 that one end of it can touch <lb></lb>the lower end of the first cord; then they
8348 similarly lay the third cord straight, <lb></lb>and in such a direction that its
8349 upper end may touch the upper end of <lb></lb>the first cord, and its lower end
8350 the other extremity of the second cord, and <lb></lb>thus a triangle is formed. </s>
8351
8352 <s>This third cord is measured by the instrument <lb></lb>with the index, to
8353 determine its relation to the perpendicular; and the length <lb></lb>of this
8354 cord shows the depth of the shaft.</s>
8355 </p>
8356 <p type="main">
8357
8358 <s>Some surveyors, to make their system of measuring the depth of a shaft
8359 <lb></lb>more certain, use five stretched cords: the first one descending
8360 obliquely; <lb></lb>two, that is to say the second and third, for ascertaining
8361 the length of the <lb></lb>tunnel; two for the depth of the shaft; in which way
8362 they form a quadrangle <lb></lb>divided into two equal triangles, and this tends
8363 to greater accuracy.</s>
8364 </p>
8365 <figure></figure>
8366 <p type="caption">
8367
8368 <s>STRETCHED CORDS: A—FIRST. B—SECOND. B—THIRD.
8369 C—FOURTH. C—FIFTH. <lb></lb>D—QUADRANGLE.</s>
8370 </p>
8371 <p type="main">
8372
8373 <s>These systems of measuring the depth of a shaft and the length of a
8374 <lb></lb>tunnel, are accurate when the vein and also the shaft or shafts go down
8375 to the <pb pagenum="141"></pb>tunnel vertically or inclined, in an uninterrupted
8376 c<gap></gap>se. </s>
8377
8378 <s>The same is true <lb></lb>when a tunnel runs straight on to a shaft. </s>
8379
8380 <s>But when each of them bends <lb></lb>now in this, now in that direction, if they
8381 have not been completely driven <lb></lb>and sunk, no living man is clever
8382 enough to judge how far they are deflected <lb></lb>from a straight course. </s>
8383
8384 <s>But if the whole of either one of the two has been ex­<lb></lb>cavated its
8385 full distance, then we can estimate more easily the length of one, <lb></lb>or
8386 the depth of the other; and so the location of the tunnel, which is below
8387 <lb></lb>a newly-started shaft, is determined by a method of surveying which I
8388 will <lb></lb>describe. </s>
8389
8390 <s>First of all a tripod is fixed at the mouth of the tunnel, and likewise at
8391 <lb></lb>the mouth of the shaft which has been started, or at the place where
8392 the shaft will <lb></lb>be started. </s>
8393
8394 <s>The tripod is made of three stakes fixed to the ground, a small
8395 <lb></lb>rectangular board being placed upon the stakes and fixed to them, and
8396 on <lb></lb>this is set a compass. </s>
8397
8398 <s>Then from the lower tripod a weighted cord is let <lb></lb>down perpendicularly
8399 to the earth, close to which cord a stake is fixed in the <lb></lb>ground. </s>
8400
8401 <s>To this stake another cord is tied and drawn straight into the tunnel <lb></lb>to
8402 a point as far as it can go without being bent by the hangingwall or the
8403 <lb></lb>footwall of the vein. </s>
8404
8405 <s>Next, from the cord which hangs from the lower tripod, <lb></lb>a third cord
8406 likewise fixed is brought straight up the sloping side of the <lb></lb>mountain
8407 to the stake of the upper tripod, and fastened to it. </s>
8408
8409 <s>In order that <lb></lb>the measuring of the depth of the shaft may be more
8410 certain, the third cord <lb></lb>should touch one and the same side of the cord
8411 hanging from the lower tripod <lb></lb>which is touched by the second
8412 cord—the one which is drawn into the tunnel. <lb></lb></s>
8413
8414 <s>All this having been correctly carried out, the surveyor, when at length
8415 <lb></lb>the cord which has been drawn straight into the tunnel is about to be
8416 bent <lb></lb>by the hangingwall or footwall, places a plank in the bottom of
8417 the tunnel <lb></lb>and on it sets the orbis, an instrument which has an
8418 indicator peculiar <lb></lb>to itself. </s>
8419
8420 <s>This instrument, although it also has waxed circles, differs from the
8421 <lb></lb>other, which I have described in the third book. </s>
8422
8423 <s>But by both these <lb></lb>instruments, as well as by a rule and a square, he
8424 determines whether the <lb></lb>stretched cords reach straight to the extreme
8425 end of the tunnel, or whether <lb></lb>they sometimes reach straight, and are
8426 sometimes bent by the footwall or <lb></lb>hangingwall. </s>
8427
8428 <s>Each instrument is divided into parts, but the compass into <lb></lb>twenty-four
8429 parts, the orbis into sixteen parts; for first of all it is divided
8430 <lb></lb>into four principal parts, and then each of these is again divided into
8431 four. <lb></lb></s>
8432
8433 <s>Both have waxed circles, but the compass has seven circles, and the orbis
8434 <lb></lb>only five circles. </s>
8435
8436 <s>These waxed circles the surveyor marks, whichever instru­<lb></lb>ment he
8437 uses, and by the succession of these same marks he notes any <lb></lb>change in
8438 the direction in which the cord extends. </s>
8439
8440 <s>The orbis has an open­<lb></lb>ing running from its outer edge as far as the
8441 centre, into which opening he <lb></lb>puts an iron screw, to which he binds the
8442 second cord, and by screwing it into <lb></lb>the plank, fixes it so that the
8443 orbis may be immovable. </s>
8444
8445 <s>He takes care <lb></lb>to prevent the second cord, and afterward the others which
8446 are put up, <lb></lb>from being pulled off the screw, by employing a heavy iron,
8447 into an opening <lb></lb>of which he fixes the head of the screw. </s>
8448
8449 <s>In the case of the compass, since <lb></lb>it has no opening, he merely places it
8450 by the side of the screw. </s>
8451
8452 <s>That the <lb></lb>instrument does not incline forward or backward, and in that
8453 way the <pb pagenum="142"></pb>measurement become a greater length than it
8454 should be, he sets upon the <lb></lb>instrument a standing plummet level, the
8455 tongue of which, if the instrument <lb></lb>is level, indicates no numbers, but
8456 the point from which the numbers start.</s>
8457 </p>
8458 <figure></figure>
8459 <p type="caption">
8460
8461 <s>COMPASS. A, B, C, D, E, F, G ARE THE SEVEN WAXED CIRCLES.</s>
8462 </p>
8463 <p type="main">
8464
8465 <s>When the surveyor has carefully observed each separate angle of the
8466 <lb></lb>tunnel and has measured such parts as he ought to measure, then he lays
8467 <lb></lb>them out in the same way on the surveyor&#039;s field<emph type="sup"></emph>20<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> in the open air, and again <lb></lb>no less
8468 carefully observes each separate angle and measures them. </s>
8469
8470 <s>First of <lb></lb>all, to each angle, according as the calculation of his
8471 triangle and his art <lb></lb>require it, he lays out a straight cord as a line. </s>
8472
8473 <s>Then he stretches a cord at </s>
8474 </p>
8475 <pb></pb>
8476 <figure></figure>
8477 <p type="caption">
8478
8479 <s>A, B, C, D, E—FIVE WAXED CIRCLES OF THE <emph type="italics"></emph>orbis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>F—OPENING OF SAME.
8480 G—SCREW. H—PERFORATED IRON.</s>
8481 </p>
8482 <pb></pb>
8483 <figure></figure>
8484 <p type="caption">
8485
8486 <s>A—LINES OF THE ROD WHICH SEPARATE MINOR SPACES. B—LINES OF THE
8487 ROD WHICH SEPARATE MAJOR SPACES.<pb pagenum="143"></pb>such an angle as
8488 represents the slope of the mountain, so that its lower end <lb></lb>may reach
8489 the end of the straight cord; then he stretches a third cord </s>
8490 </p>
8491 <figure></figure>
8492 <p type="caption">
8493
8494 <s>A—STANDING PLUMMET LEVEL. B—TONGUE. C—LEVEL AND TONGUE.<pb pagenum="144"></pb>similarly straight and at such an angle, that with its
8495 upper end it may reach <lb></lb>the upper end of the second cord, and with its
8496 lower end the last end of the <lb></lb>first cord. </s>
8497
8498 <s>The length of the third cord shows the depth of the shaft, as I <lb></lb>said
8499 before, and at the same time that point on the tunnel to which the shaft
8500 <lb></lb>will reach when it has been sunk.</s>
8501 </p>
8502 <p type="main">
8503
8504 <s>If one or more shafts reach the tunnel through intermediate drifts and
8505 <lb></lb>shafts, the surveyor, starting from the nearest which is open to the
8506 air, <lb></lb>measures in a shorter time the depth of the shaft which requires
8507 to be sunk, <lb></lb>than if he starts from the mouth of the tunnel. </s>
8508
8509 <s>First of all he measures <lb></lb>that space on the surface which lies between
8510 the shaft which has been sunk <lb></lb>and the one which requires to be sunk. </s>
8511
8512 <s>Then he measures the incline of all <lb></lb>the shafts which it is necessary to
8513 measure, and the length of all the drifts <lb></lb>with which they are in any
8514 way connected to the tunnel. </s>
8515
8516 <s>Lastly, he <lb></lb>measures part of the tunnel; and when all this is properly
8517 done, he demon­<lb></lb>strates the depth of the shaft and the point in the
8518 tunnel to which the shaft <lb></lb>will reach. </s>
8519
8520 <s>But sometimes a very deep straight shaft requires to be sunk <lb></lb>at the same
8521 place where there is a previous inclined shaft, and to the same <lb></lb>depth,
8522 in order that loads may be raised and drawn straight up by machines.
8523 <lb></lb></s>
8524
8525 <s>Those machines on the surface are turned by horses; those inside the earth,
8526 <lb></lb>by the same means, and also by water-power. </s>
8527
8528 <s>And so, if it becomes <lb></lb>necessary to sink such a shaft, the surveyor first
8529 of all fixes an iron screw <lb></lb>in the upper part of the old shaft, and from
8530 the screw he lets down a cord <lb></lb>as far as the first angle, where again he
8531 fixes a screw, and again lets down the <lb></lb>cord as far as the second angle;
8532 this he repeats again and again until the <lb></lb>cord reaches to the bottom of
8533 the shaft. </s>
8534
8535 <s>Then to each angle of the cord he <lb></lb>applies a hemicycle, and marks the
8536 waxed semi-circle according to the lines <lb></lb>which the tongue indicates,
8537 and designates it by a number, in case it should be <lb></lb>moved; then he
8538 measures the separate parts of the cord with another cord <lb></lb>made of
8539 linden bark. </s>
8540
8541 <s>Afterward, when he has come back out of the shaft, <lb></lb>he goes away and
8542 transfers the markings from the waxed semi-circle of the <lb></lb>hemicycle to
8543 an orbis similarly waxed. </s>
8544
8545 <s>Lastly, the cords are stretched on the <lb></lb>surveyor&#039;s field, and he measures
8546 the angles, as the system of measuring by <lb></lb>triangles requires, and
8547 ascertains which part of the footwall and which <lb></lb>part of the hangingwall
8548 rock must be cut away in order that the shaft may <lb></lb>descend straight. </s>
8549
8550 <s>But if the surveyor is required to show the owners of the <lb></lb>mine, the spot
8551 in a drift or a tunnel in which a shaft needs to be raised <lb></lb>from the
8552 bottom upward, that it should cut through more quickly, he <lb></lb>begins
8553 measuring from the bottom of the drift or tunnel, at a point <lb></lb>beyond the
8554 spot at which the bottom of the shaft will arrive, when it has been
8555 <lb></lb>sunk. </s>
8556
8557 <s>When he has measured the part of the drift or tunnel up to the first
8558 <lb></lb>shaft which connects with an upper drift, he measures the incline of
8559 this <lb></lb>shaft by applying a hemicycle or orbis to the cord. </s>
8560
8561 <s>Then in a like manner <lb></lb>he measures the upper drift and the incline shaft
8562 which is sunk therein <lb></lb>toward which a raise is being dug, then again all
8563 the cords are stretched in <lb></lb>the surveyor&#039;s field, the last cord in such
8564 a way that it reaches the first, and <lb></lb>then he measures them. </s>
8565
8566 <s>From this measurement is known in what part <pb pagenum="145"></pb>of the drift
8567 or tunnel the raise should be made, and how many fathoms of <lb></lb>vein remain
8568 to be broken through in order that the shaft may be connected.</s>
8569 </p>
8570 <p type="main">
8571
8572 <s>I have described the first reason for surveying; I will now describe
8573 <lb></lb>another. </s>
8574
8575 <s>When one vein comes near another, and their owners are different <lb></lb>persons
8576 who have late come into possession, whether they drive a tunnel <lb></lb>or a
8577 drift, or sink a shaft, they may encroach, or seem to encroach, without
8578 <lb></lb>any lawful right, upon the boundaries of the older owners, for which
8579 reason <lb></lb>the latter very often seek redress, or take legal proceedings. </s>
8580
8581 <s>The surveyor <lb></lb>either himself settles the dispute between the owners, or
8582 by his art gives <lb></lb>evidence to the judges for making their decision, that
8583 one shall not encroach <lb></lb>on the mine of the other. </s>
8584
8585 <s>Thus, first of all he measures the mines of each <lb></lb>party with a basket
8586 rope and cords of linden bark; and having applied to the <lb></lb>cords an orbis
8587 or a compass, he notes the directions in which they extend. <lb></lb></s>
8588
8589 <s>Then he stretches the cords on the surveyor&#039;s field; and starting from that
8590 <lb></lb>point whose owners are in possession of the old meer toward the other,
8591 <lb></lb>whether it is in the hanging or footwall of the vein, he stretches a
8592 cross­<lb></lb>cord in a straight line, according to the sixth division of
8593 the compass, <lb></lb>that is, at a right angle to the vein, for a distance of
8594 three and a <lb></lb>half fathoms, and assigns to the older owners that which
8595 belongs to <lb></lb>them. </s>
8596
8597 <s>But if both ends of one vein are being dug out in two tunnels, or <lb></lb>drifts
8598 from opposite directions, the surveyor first of all considers the lower
8599 <lb></lb>tunnel or drift and afterward the upper one, and judges how much each
8600 of <lb></lb>them has risen little by little. </s>
8601
8602 <s>On each side strong men take in their hands <lb></lb>a stretched cord and hold it
8603 so that there is no point where it is not strained <lb></lb>tight; on each side
8604 the surveyor supports the cord with a rod half a fathom <lb></lb>long, and stays
8605 the rod at the end with a short stick as often as he thinks <lb></lb>it
8606 necessary. </s>
8607
8608 <s>But some fasten cords to the rods to make them steadier. <lb></lb></s>
8609
8610 <s>The surveyor attaches a suspended plummet level to the middle of the cord to
8611 <lb></lb>enable him to calculate more accurately on both sides, and from this he
8612 ascer­<lb></lb>tains whether one tunnel has risen more than another, or in
8613 like manner one <lb></lb>drift more than another. </s>
8614
8615 <s>Afterward he measures the incline of the shafts <lb></lb>on both sides, so that
8616 he can estimate their position on each side. </s>
8617
8618 <s>Then he <lb></lb>easily sees how many fathoms remain in the space which must be
8619 broken <lb></lb>through. </s>
8620
8621 <s>But the grade of each tunnel, as I said, should rise one fathom in <lb></lb>the
8622 distance of one hundred fathoms.</s>
8623 </p>
8624 <p type="main">
8625
8626 <s>The Swiss surveyors, when they wish to measure tunnels driven into <lb></lb>the
8627 highest mountains, also use a rod half a fathom long, but composed of
8628 <lb></lb>three parts, which screw together, so that they may be shortened. </s>
8629
8630 <s>They <lb></lb>use a cord made of linden bark to which are fastened slips of paper
8631 showing <lb></lb>the number of fathoms. </s>
8632
8633 <s>They also employ an instrument peculiar to them, <lb></lb>which has a needle; but
8634 in place of the waxed circles they carry in their <lb></lb>hands a chart on
8635 which they inscribe the readings of the instrument. </s>
8636
8637 <s>The <lb></lb>instrument is placed on the back part of the rod so that the tongue,
8638 and the <lb></lb>extended cord which runs through the three holes in the tongue,
8639 demonstrates <lb></lb>the direction, and they note the number of fathoms. </s>
8640
8641 <s>The tongue shows <lb></lb>whether the cord inclines forward or backward. </s>
8642
8643 <s>The tongue does not hang, <pb pagenum="146"></pb>as in the case of the suspended
8644 plummet level, but is fixed to the instrument in <lb></lb>a half-lying position. </s>
8645
8646 <s>They measure the tunnels for the purpose of knowing <lb></lb>how many fathoms
8647 they have been increased in elevation; how many fathoms <lb></lb>the lower is
8648 distant from the upper one; how many fathoms of interval is </s>
8649 </p>
8650 <figure></figure>
8651 <p type="caption">
8652
8653 <s>INDICATOR OF A SUSPENDED PLUMMET LEVEL.<pb pagenum="147"></pb>not yet pierced
8654 between the miners who on opposite sides are digging on <lb></lb>the same vein,
8655 or cross-stringers, or two veins which are approaching one <lb></lb>another.</s>
8656 </p>
8657 <p type="main">
8658
8659 <s>But I return to our mines. </s>
8660
8661 <s>If the surveyor desires to fix the boundaries <lb></lb>of the meer within the
8662 tunnels or drifts, and mark to them with a sign cut in the <lb></lb>rock, in the
8663 same way that the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> has marked these boundaries <lb></lb>above ground, he first
8664 of all ascertains, by measuring in the manner <lb></lb>which I have explained
8665 above, which part of the tunnel or drift lies <lb></lb>beneath the surface
8666 boundary mark, stretching the cords along the drifts to <lb></lb>a point beyond
8667 that spot in the rock where he judges the mark should be <lb></lb>cut. </s>
8668
8669 <s>Then, after the same cords have been laid out on the surveyor&#039;s field,
8670 <lb></lb>he starts from that upper cord at a point which shows the boundary
8671 mark, <lb></lb>and stretches another cross-cord straight downward according to
8672 the sixth </s>
8673 </p>
8674 <figure></figure>
8675 <p type="caption">
8676
8677 <s>A—NEEDLE OF THE INSTRUMENT. B—ITS TONGUE. C, D, E—HOLES IN
8678 THE TONGUE.<pb pagenum="148"></pb>division of the compass—that is at a
8679 right angle. </s>
8680
8681 <s>Then that part <lb></lb>of the lowest cord which lies beyond the part to which
8682 the cross-cord <lb></lb>runs being removed, it shows at what point the boundary
8683 mark should <lb></lb>be cut into the rock of the tunnel or drift. </s>
8684
8685 <s>The cutting is made in the <lb></lb>presence of the two Jurors and the manager
8686 and the foreman of each <lb></lb>mine. </s>
8687
8688 <s>For as the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
8689 in the presence of these same persons sets <lb></lb>the boundary stones on the
8690 surface, so the surveyor cuts in the rock a sign <lb></lb>which for this reason
8691 is called the boundary rock. </s>
8692
8693 <s>If he fixes the boundary <lb></lb>mark of a meer in which a shaft has recently
8694 begun to be sunk on a vein, <lb></lb>first of all he measures and notes the
8695 incline of that shaft by the com­<lb></lb>pass or by another way with the
8696 applied cords; then he measures all <lb></lb>the drifts up to that one in whose
8697 rock the boundary mark has to <lb></lb>be cut. </s>
8698
8699 <s>Of these drifts he measures each angle; then the cords, being <lb></lb>laid out
8700 on the surveyor&#039;s field, in a similar way he stretches a
8701 cross­<lb></lb>cord, as I said, and cuts the sign on the rock. </s>
8702
8703 <s>But if the underground <lb></lb>boundary rock has to be cut in a drift which lies
8704 beneath the first drift, the <lb></lb>surveyor starts from the mark in the first
8705 drift, notes the different angles, <lb></lb>one by one, takes his measurements,
8706 and in the lower drift stretches a cord <lb></lb>beyond that place where he
8707 judges the mark ought to be cut; and then, <lb></lb>as I said before, lays out
8708 the cords on the surveyor&#039;s field. </s>
8709
8710 <s>Even if a vein <lb></lb>runs differently in the lower drift from the upper one,
8711 in which the first <lb></lb>boundary mark has been cut in the rock, still, in
8712 the lower drift the mark <lb></lb>must be cut in the rock vertically beneath. </s>
8713
8714 <s>For if he cuts the lower mark <lb></lb>obliquely from the upper one some part of
8715 the possession of one mine is <lb></lb>taken away to its detriment, and given to
8716 the other. </s>
8717
8718 <s>Moreover, if it <lb></lb>happens that the underground boundary mark requires to
8719 be cut in an <lb></lb>angle, the surveyor, starting from that angle, measures
8720 one fathom toward <lb></lb>the front of the mine and another fathom toward the
8721 back, and from these <lb></lb>measurements forms a triangle, and dividing its
8722 middle by a cross-cord, <lb></lb>makes his cutting for the boundary mark.</s>
8723 </p>
8724 <p type="main">
8725
8726 <s>Lastly, the surveyor sometimes, in order to make more certain, finds the
8727 <lb></lb>boundary of the meers in those places where many old boundary marks
8728 <lb></lb>are cut in the rock. </s>
8729
8730 <s>Then, starting from a stake fixed on the surface, <lb></lb>he first of all
8731 measures to the nearest mine; then he measures one shaft <lb></lb>after another;
8732 then he fixes a stake on the surveyors&#039; field, and making <lb></lb>a beginning
8733 from it stretches the same cords in the same way and measures <lb></lb>them, and
8734 again fixes in the ground a stake which for him will signify the end <lb></lb>of
8735 his measuring. </s>
8736
8737 <s>Afterward he again measures underground from that <lb></lb>spot at which he left
8738 off, as many shafts and drifts as he can remember. </s>
8739
8740 <s>Then <lb></lb>he returns to the surveyor&#039;s field, and starting again from the
8741 second stake, <lb></lb>makes his measurements; and he does this as far as the
8742 drift in which the <lb></lb>boundary mark must be cut in the rock. </s>
8743
8744 <s>Finally, commencing from the <lb></lb>stake first fixed in the ground, he
8745 stretches a cross-cord in a straight line to <lb></lb>the last stake, and this
8746 shows the length of the lowest drift. </s>
8747
8748 <s>The point <lb></lb>where they touch, he judges to be the place where the
8749 underground boundary <lb></lb>mark should be cut.</s>
8750 </p>
8751 <p type="head">
8752
8753 <s>END OF BOOK V.</s>
8754 </p>
8755 <pb></pb>
8756 <p type="head">
8757
8758 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>BOOK VI.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
8759 </p>
8760 <p type="main">
8761
8762 <s>Digging of veins I have written of, and the timbering <lb></lb>of shafts,
8763 tunnels, drifts, and other excavations, <lb></lb>and the art of surveying. </s>
8764
8765 <s>I will now speak first of <lb></lb>all, of the iron tools with which veins and
8766 rocks are <lb></lb>broken, then of the buckets into which the lumps <lb></lb>of
8767 earth, rock, metal, and other excavated materials <lb></lb>are thrown, in order
8768 that they may be drawn, con­<lb></lb>veyed, or carried out. </s>
8769
8770 <s>Also, I will speak of the <lb></lb>water vessels and drains, then of the machines
8771 of <lb></lb>different kinds,<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> and lastly
8772 of the maladies of miners. </s>
8773
8774 <s>And while all these <lb></lb>matters are being described accurately, many methods
8775 of work will be <lb></lb>explained.</s>
8776 </p>
8777 <p type="main">
8778
8779 <s>There are certain iron tools which the miners designate by names of their
8780 <lb></lb>own, and besides these, there are wedges, iron blocks, iron plates,
8781 hammers, <lb></lb>crowbars, pikes, picks, hoes, and shovels. </s>
8782
8783 <s>Of those which are especially <lb></lb>referred to as “iron tools”
8784 there are four varieties, which are different <lb></lb>from one another in
8785 length or thickness, but not in shape, for the <lb></lb>upper end of all of them
8786 is broad and square, so that it can be struck by the <pb pagenum="150"></pb>hammer. </s>
8787
8788 <s>The lower end is pointed so as to split the hard rocks and veins <lb></lb>with
8789 its point. </s>
8790
8791 <s>All of these have eyes except the fourth. </s>
8792
8793 <s>The first, <lb></lb>which is in daily use among miners, is three-quarters of a
8794 foot long, a digit <lb></lb>and a half wide, and a digit thick. </s>
8795
8796 <s>The second is of the same width as the <lb></lb>first, and the same thickness,
8797 but one and one half feet long, and is used to <lb></lb>shatter the hardest
8798 veins in such a way that they crack open. </s>
8799
8800 <s>The third <lb></lb>is the same length as the second, but is a little wider and
8801 thicker; with <lb></lb>this one they dig the bottoms of those shafts which
8802 slowly accumulate water. <lb></lb></s>
8803
8804 <s>The fourth is nearly three palms and one digit long, two digits thick, and in
8805 <lb></lb>the upper end it is three digits wide, in the middle it is one palm
8806 wide, and <lb></lb>at the lower end it is pointed like the others; with this
8807 they cut out the <lb></lb>harder veins. </s>
8808
8809 <s>The eye in the first tool is one palm distant from the upper <lb></lb>end, in the
8810 second and third it is seven digits distant; each swells out <lb></lb>around the
8811 eye on both sides, and into it they fit a wooden handle, which <lb></lb>they
8812 hold with one hand, while they strike the iron tool with a hammer, after
8813 <lb></lb>placing it against the rock. </s>
8814
8815 <s>These tools are made larger or smaller as <lb></lb>necessary. </s>
8816
8817 <s>The smiths, as far as possible, sharpen again all that become dull.</s>
8818 </p>
8819 <figure></figure>
8820 <p type="caption">
8821
8822 <s>A—FIRST “IRON TOOL.” B—SECOND. C—THIRD.
8823 D—FOURTH.<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> E—WEDGE.
8824 F—IRON <lb></lb>BLOCK. G—IRON PLATE. H—WOODEN HANDLE.
8825 I—HANDLE INSERTED IN FIRST TOOL.</s>
8826 </p>
8827 <p type="main">
8828
8829 <s>A wedge is usually three palms and two digits long and six digits wide;
8830 <lb></lb>at the upper end, for a distance of a palm, it is three digits thick,
8831 and <lb></lb>beyond that point it becomes thinner by degrees, until finally it
8832 is quite <lb></lb>sharp.</s>
8833 </p>
8834 <pb pagenum="151"></pb>
8835 <p type="main">
8836
8837 <s>The iron block is six digits in length and width; at the upper end it is
8838 <lb></lb>two digits thick, and at the bottom a digit and a half. </s>
8839
8840 <s>The iron plate is <lb></lb>the same length and width as the iron block, but it is
8841 very thin. </s>
8842
8843 <s>All of these, <lb></lb>as I explained in the last book, are used when the hardest
8844 kind of veins are <lb></lb>hewn out. </s>
8845
8846 <s>Wedges, locks, and plates, are likewise made larger or smaller.</s>
8847 </p>
8848 <figure></figure>
8849 <p type="caption">
8850
8851 <s>A—SMALLEST OF THE SMALLER HAMMERS. B—INTERMEDIATE.
8852 C—LARGEST. D—SMALL <lb></lb>KIND OF THE LARGER HAMMER. E—LARGE
8853 KIND. F—WOODEN HANDLE. G—HANDLE <lb></lb>FIXED IN THE SMALLEST
8854 HAMMER.</s>
8855 </p>
8856 <p type="main">
8857
8858 <s>Hammers are of two kinds, the smaller ones the miners hold in <lb></lb>one hand,
8859 and the larger ones they hold with both hands. </s>
8860
8861 <s>The former, <lb></lb>because of their size and use, are of three sorts. </s>
8862
8863 <s>With the smallest, <lb></lb>that is to say, the lightest, they strike the second
8864 “iron tool;” with the <lb></lb>intermediate one the first
8865 “iron tool;” and with the largest the third “iron
8866 <lb></lb>tool”; this one is two digits wide and thick. </s>
8867
8868 <s>Of the larger sort of hammers <lb></lb>there are two kinds; with the smaller they
8869 strike the fourth “iron tool;” <lb></lb>with the larger they drive
8870 the wedges into the cracks; the former are three, <lb></lb>and the latter five
8871 digits wide and thick, and a foot long. </s>
8872
8873 <s>All swell out in <lb></lb>their middle, in which there is an eye for a handle,
8874 but in most cases the <lb></lb>handles are somewhat light, in order that the
8875 workmen may be able to strike <lb></lb>more powerful blows by the hammer&#039;s full
8876 weight being thus concentrated.</s>
8877 </p>
8878 <pb pagenum="152"></pb>
8879 <p type="main">
8880
8881 <s>The iron crowbars are likewise of two kinds, and each kind is pointed at
8882 <lb></lb>one end. </s>
8883
8884 <s>One is rounded, and with this they pierce to a shaft full of water <lb></lb>when
8885 a tunnel reaches to it; the other is flat, and with this they knock out
8886 <lb></lb>of the stopes on to the floor, the rocks which have been softened by
8887 the fire, <lb></lb>and which cannot be dislodged by the pike. </s>
8888
8889 <s>A miner&#039;s pike, like a sailor&#039;s, <lb></lb>is a long rod having an iron head.</s>
8890 </p>
8891 <figure></figure>
8892 <p type="caption">
8893
8894 <s>A—ROUND CROWBAR. B—FLAT CROWBAR. C—PIKE.</s>
8895 </p>
8896 <figure></figure>
8897 <p type="caption">
8898
8899 <s>A—PICK. B—HOE. C—SHOVEL.</s>
8900 </p>
8901 <pb pagenum="153"></pb>
8902 <p type="main">
8903
8904 <s>The miner&#039;s pick differs from a peasant&#039;s pick in that the latter is wide
8905 <lb></lb>at the bottom and sharp, but the former is pointed. </s>
8906
8907 <s>It is used to dig out <lb></lb>ore which is not hard, such as earth. </s>
8908
8909 <s>Likewise a hoe and shovel are in no <lb></lb>way different from the common
8910 articles, with the one they scrape up earth <lb></lb>and sand, with the other
8911 they throw it into vessels.</s>
8912 </p>
8913 <p type="main">
8914
8915 <s>Now earth, rock, mineral substances and other things dug out with <lb></lb>the
8916 pick or hewn out with the “iron tools” are hauled out of the
8917 shaft <lb></lb>in buckets, or baskets, or hide buckets; they are drawn out of
8918 tunnels in <lb></lb>wheelbarrows or open trucks, and from both they are
8919 sometimes carried in <lb></lb>trays.</s>
8920 </p>
8921 <p type="main">
8922
8923 <s>Buckets are of two kinds, which differ in size, but not in material or
8924 <lb></lb>shape. </s>
8925
8926 <s>The smaller for the most part hold only about one <emph type="italics"></emph>metreta;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> the <lb></lb>larger are generally
8927 capable of carrying one-sixth of a <emph type="italics"></emph>congius;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> neither is <lb></lb>of unchangeable capacity, but they
8928 often vary.<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> Each is made of staves
8929 circled <lb></lb>with hoops, one of which binds the top and the other the
8930 bottom. <lb></lb></s>
8931
8932 <s>The hoops are sometimes made of hazel and oak, but these are easily
8933 <lb></lb>broken by dashing against the shaft, while those made of iron are more
8934 <lb></lb>durable. </s>
8935
8936 <s>In the larger buckets the staves are thicker and wider, as also are <lb></lb>both
8937 hoops, and in order that the buckets may be more firm and strong, <lb></lb>they
8938 have eight iron straps, somewhat broad, four of which run from the
8939 <lb></lb>upper hoop downwards, and four from the lower hoop upwards, as if to
8940 meet <lb></lb>each other. </s>
8941
8942 <s>The bottom of each bucket, both inside and outside, is furnished <lb></lb>with
8943 two or three straps of iron, which run from one side of the lower hoop
8944 <lb></lb>to the other, but the straps which are on the outside are fixed
8945 crosswise. <lb></lb></s>
8946
8947 <s>Each bucket has two iron hafts which project above the edge, and it has an
8948 <lb></lb>iron semi-circular bail whose lower ends are fixed directly into the
8949 hafts, <lb></lb>that the bucket may be handled more easily. </s>
8950
8951 <s>Each kind of bucket is much <lb></lb>deeper than it is wide, and each is wider at
8952 the top, in order that the material <lb></lb>which is dug out may be the more
8953 easily poured in and poured out again. <lb></lb></s>
8954
8955 <s>Into the smaller buckets strong boys, and into larger ones men, fill earth
8956 <lb></lb>from the bottom of the shaft with hoes; or the other material dug up is
8957 <lb></lb>shovelled into them or filled in with their hands, for which reason
8958 these men <lb></lb>are called “shovellers.<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>” Afterward they fix the hook of the drawing-rope
8959 <lb></lb>into the bale; then the buckets are drawn up by machines—the
8960 smaller ones, <lb></lb>because of their lighter weight, by machines turned by
8961 men, and the larger <lb></lb>ones, being heavier, by the machines turned by
8962 horses. </s>
8963
8964 <s>Some, in place <lb></lb>of these buckets, substitute baskets which hold just as
8965 much, or even more, <lb></lb>since they are lighter than the buckets; some use
8966 sacks made of ox-hide <lb></lb>instead of buckets, and the drawing-rope hook is
8967 fastened to their iron bale, <lb></lb>usually three of these filled with
8968 excavated material are drawn up at the <lb></lb>same time as three are being
8969 lowered and three are being filled by boys. </s>
8970
8971 <s>The <lb></lb>latter are generally used at Schneeberg and the former at
8972 Freiberg.<lb></lb><pb pagenum="154"></pb><figure id="fig2"></figure></s>
8973 </p>
8974 <figure></figure>
8975 <p type="caption">
8976
8977 <s>A—SMALL BUCKET. B—LARGE BUCKET. C—STAVES. D—IRON
8978 HOOPS. E—IRON <lb></lb>STRAPS. F—IRON STRAPS ON THE BOTTOM.
8979 G—HAFTS. H—IRON BALE. I—HOOK OF <lb></lb>DRAWING-ROPE.
8980 K—BASKET. L—HIDE BUCKET OR SACK.</s>
8981 </p>
8982 <p type="main">
8983
8984 <s>That which we call a <emph type="italics"></emph>cisíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> is a vehicle
8985 with one wheel, not with <lb></lb>two, such as horses draw. </s>
8986
8987 <s>When filled with excavated material it is pushed <pb pagenum="155"></pb>by a
8988 workman out of tunnels or sheds. </s>
8989
8990 <s>It is made as follows: two planks <lb></lb>are chosen about five feet long, one
8991 foot wide, and two digits thick; of <lb></lb>each of these the lower side is cut
8992 away at the front for a length of one <lb></lb>foot, and at the back for a
8993 length of two feet, while the middle is left whole. <lb></lb></s>
8994
8995 <s>Then in the front parts are bored circular holes, in order that the ends of
8996 an <lb></lb>axle may revolve in them. </s>
8997
8998 <s>The intermediate parts of the planks are <lb></lb>perforated twice near the
8999 bottom, so as to receive the heads of two little <lb></lb>cleats on which the
9000 planks are fixed; and they are also perforated in the <lb></lb>middle, so as to
9001 receive the heads of two end-boards, while keys fixed in <lb></lb>these
9002 projecting heads strengthen the whole structure. </s>
9003
9004 <s>The handles are <lb></lb>made out of the extreme ends of the long planks, and
9005 they turn downward <lb></lb>at the ends that they may be grasped more firmly in
9006 the hands. </s>
9007
9008 <s>The small <lb></lb>wheel, of which there is only one, neither has a nave nor does
9009 it revolve <lb></lb>around the axle, but turns around with it. </s>
9010
9011 <s>From the felloe, which the <lb></lb>Greeks called <foreign lang="grc">ἀψῑδες,</foreign> two transverse spokes fixed into it pass through
9012 the <lb></lb>middle of the axle toward the opposite felloe; the axle is square,
9013 with <lb></lb>the exception of the ends, each of which is rounded so as to turn
9014 in the <lb></lb>opening. </s>
9015
9016 <s>A workman draws out this barrow full of earth and rock and draws <lb></lb>it back
9017 empty. </s>
9018
9019 <s>Miners also have another wheelbarrow, larger than this <lb></lb>one, which they
9020 use when they wash earth mixed with tin-stone on to which <lb></lb>a stream has
9021 been turned. </s>
9022
9023 <s>The front end-board of this one is deeper, in <lb></lb>order that the earth which
9024 has been thrown into it may not fall out.</s>
9025 </p>
9026 <figure></figure>
9027 <p type="caption">
9028
9029 <s>A—SMALL WHEELBARROW. B—LONG PLANKS THEREOF. C—END-BOARDS.
9030 D—SMALL <lb></lb>WHEEL. E—LARGER BARROW. F—FRONT END-BOARD
9031 THEREOF.</s>
9032 </p>
9033 <pb pagenum="156"></pb>
9034 <figure></figure>
9035 <p type="caption">
9036
9037 <s>A—RECTANGULAR IRON BANDS ON TRUCK. B—ITS IRON STRAPS.
9038 C—IRON AXLE. <lb></lb>D—WOODEN ROLLERS. E—SMALL IRON KEYS.
9039 F—LARGE BLUNT IRON PIN. <lb></lb>G—SAME TRUCK UPSIDE DOWN.</s>
9040 </p>
9041 <p type="main">
9042
9043 <s>The open truck has a capacity half as large again as a wheelbarrow; it is
9044 <lb></lb>about four feet long and about two and a half feet wide and deep; and
9045 since <lb></lb>its shape is rectangular, it is bound together with three
9046 rectangular iron <lb></lb>bands, and besides these there are iron straps on all
9047 sides. </s>
9048
9049 <s>Two small iron <lb></lb>axles are fixed to the bottom, around the ends of which
9050 wooden rollers revolve <lb></lb>on either side; in order that the rollers shall
9051 not fall off the immovable <lb></lb>axles, there are small iron keys. </s>
9052
9053 <s>A large blunt pin fixed to the bottom of the <lb></lb>truck runs in a groove of a
9054 plank in such a way that the truck does not <lb></lb>leave the beaten track. </s>
9055
9056 <s>Holding the back part with his hands, the carrier <lb></lb>pushes out the truck
9057 laden with excavated material, and pushes it back <lb></lb>again empty. </s>
9058
9059 <s>Some people call it a “dog”<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, because when it moves it <lb></lb>makes a noise which seems to
9060 them not unlike the bark of a dog. </s>
9061
9062 <s>This truck <lb></lb>is used when they draw loads out of the longest tunnels, both
9063 because it is <lb></lb>moved more easily and because a heavier load can be
9064 placed in it.</s>
9065 </p>
9066 <p type="main">
9067
9068 <s>Bateas<emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> are hollowed out of a single
9069 block of wood; the smaller kind <lb></lb>are generally two feet long and one
9070 foot wide. </s>
9071
9072 <s>When they have been <lb></lb>filled with ore, especially when but little is dug
9073 from the shafts and tunnels, <lb></lb>men either carry them out on their
9074 shoulders, or bear them away hung from <lb></lb></s>
9075 </p>
9076 <pb pagenum="157"></pb>
9077 <figure></figure>
9078 <p type="caption">
9079
9080 <s>A—SMALL BATEA. B—ROPE. C—LARGE BATEA.<lb></lb>their necks. </s>
9081
9082 <s>Pliny<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> is our authority that among
9083 the ancients everything <lb></lb>which was mined was carried out on men&#039;s
9084 shoulders, but in truth this <lb></lb>method of carrying forth burdens is
9085 onerous, since it causes great fatigue <lb></lb>to a great number of men, and
9086 involves a large expenditure for labour; for <lb></lb>this reason it has been
9087 rejected and abandoned in our day. </s>
9088
9089 <s>The length of <lb></lb>the larger batea is as much as three feet, the width up to
9090 a foot and a palm. <lb></lb></s>
9091
9092 <s>In these bateas the metallic earth is washed for the purpose of testing
9093 it.</s>
9094 </p>
9095 <p type="main">
9096
9097 <s>Water-vessels differ both in the use to which they are put and in the
9098 <lb></lb>material of which they are made; some draw the water from the shafts
9099 and <lb></lb>pour it into other things, as dippers; while some of the vessels
9100 filled with <lb></lb>water are drawn out by machines, as buckets and bags; some
9101 are made of <lb></lb>wood, as the dippers and buckets, and others of hides, as
9102 the bags. </s>
9103
9104 <s>The <lb></lb>water-buckets, just like the buckets which are filled with dry
9105 material, are of <lb></lb>two kinds, the smaller and the larger, but these are
9106 unlike the other buckets at <lb></lb>the top, as in this case they are narrower,
9107 in order that the water may not be <lb></lb>spilled by being bumped against the
9108 timbers when they are being drawn out <lb></lb>of the shafts, especially those
9109 considerably inclined. </s>
9110
9111 <s>The water is poured <lb></lb>into these buckets by dippers, which are small
9112 wooden buckets, but unlike the <lb></lb>water-buckets, they are neither narrow
9113 at the top nor bound with iron hoops, <lb></lb>but with hazel,—because
9114 there is no necessity for either. </s>
9115
9116 <s>The smaller buckets <lb></lb>are drawn up by machines turned by men, the larger
9117 ones by those turned by <lb></lb>horses.</s>
9118 </p>
9119 <pb pagenum="158"></pb>
9120 <figure></figure>
9121 <p type="caption">
9122
9123 <s>A—SMALLER WATER-BUCKET. B—LARGER WATER-BUCKET. C—DIPPER</s>
9124 </p>
9125 <figure></figure>
9126 <p type="caption">
9127
9128 <s>A—WATER-BAG WHICH TAKES IN WATER BY ITSELF. B—WATER-BAG INTO
9129 WHICH WATER <lb></lb>POURS WHEN IT IS PUSHED WITH A SHOVEL.</s>
9130 </p>
9131 <pb pagenum="159"></pb>
9132 <p type="main">
9133
9134 <s>Our people give the name of water-bags to those very large skins for
9135 <lb></lb>carrying water which are made of two, or two and a half, ox-hides. </s>
9136
9137 <s>When <lb></lb>these water-bags have undergone much wear and use, first the hair
9138 comes <lb></lb>off them and they become bald and shining; after this they become
9139 <lb></lb>torn. </s>
9140
9141 <s>If the tear is but a small one, a piece of smooth notched stick is put
9142 <lb></lb>into the broken part, and the broken bag is bound into its notches on
9143 either <lb></lb>side and sewn together; but if it is a large one, they mend it
9144 with a piece of <lb></lb>ox-hide. </s>
9145
9146 <s>The water-bags are fixed to the hook of a drawing-chain and let <lb></lb>down and
9147 dipped into the water, and as soon as they are filled they are drawn <lb></lb>up
9148 by the largest machine. </s>
9149
9150 <s>They are of two kinds; the one kind take in the <lb></lb>water by themselves; the
9151 water pours into the other kind when it is pushed <lb></lb>in a certain way by a
9152 wooden shovel.</s>
9153 </p>
9154 <p type="main">
9155
9156 <s>When the water has been drawn out from the shafts, it is run off in
9157 <lb></lb>troughs, or into a hopper, through which it runs into the trough. </s>
9158
9159 <s>Likewise <lb></lb>the water which flows along the sides of the tunnels is carried
9160 off in drains. <lb></lb></s>
9161
9162 <s>These are composed of two hollowed beams joined firmly together, so as to
9163 <lb></lb>hold the water which flows through them, and they are covered by planks
9164 <lb></lb>all along their course, from the mouth of the tunnel right up to the
9165 extreme <lb></lb>end of it, to prevent earth or rock falling into them and
9166 obstructing the flow <lb></lb>of the water. </s>
9167
9168 <s>If much mud gradually settles in them the planks are raised <lb></lb>and the
9169 drains are cleaned out, for they would otherwise become stopped up <lb></lb>and
9170 obstructed by this accident. </s>
9171
9172 <s>With regard to the trough lying above </s>
9173 </p>
9174 <figure></figure>
9175 <p type="caption">
9176
9177 <s>A—TROUGH. B—HOPPER.<pb pagenum="160"></pb>ground, which miners place
9178 under the hoppers which are close by the shaft <lb></lb>houses, these are
9179 usually hollowed out of single trees. </s>
9180
9181 <s>Hoppers are generally <lb></lb>made of four planks, so cut on the lower side and
9182 joined together that the <lb></lb>top part of the hopper is broader and the
9183 bottom part narrower.</s>
9184 </p>
9185 <p type="main">
9186
9187 <s>I have sufficiently indicated the nature of the miners&#039; iron tools and
9188 <lb></lb>their vessels. </s>
9189
9190 <s>I will now explain their machines, which are of three kinds, <lb></lb>that is,
9191 hauling machines, ventilating machines, and ladders. </s>
9192
9193 <s>By means of <lb></lb>the hauling machines loads are drawn out of the shafts; the
9194 ventilating <lb></lb>machines receive the air through their mouths and blow it
9195 into shafts or <lb></lb>tunnels, for if this is not done, diggers cannot carry
9196 on their labour without <lb></lb>great difficulty in breathing; by the steps of
9197 the ladders the miners go <lb></lb>down into the shafts and come up again.</s>
9198 </p>
9199 <p type="main">
9200
9201 <s>Hauling machines are of varied and diverse forms, some of them being
9202 <lb></lb>made with great skill, and if I am not mistaken, they were unknown to
9203 the <lb></lb>Ancients. </s>
9204
9205 <s>They have been invented in order that water may be drawn from <lb></lb>the depths
9206 of the earth to which no tunnels reach, and also the excavated <lb></lb>material
9207 from shafts which are likewise not connected with a tunnel, or if <lb></lb>so,
9208 only with very long ones. </s>
9209
9210 <s>Since shafts are not all of the same depth, there <lb></lb>is a great variety
9211 among these hauling machines. </s>
9212
9213 <s>Of those by which dry loads <lb></lb>are drawn out of the shafts, five sorts are
9214 in the most common use, of which <lb></lb>I will now describe the first. </s>
9215
9216 <s>Two timbers a little longer than the shaft are <lb></lb>placed beside it, the one
9217 in the front of the shaft, the other at the back. <lb></lb></s>
9218
9219 <s>Their extreme ends have holes through which stakes, pointed at the bottom
9220 <lb></lb>like wedges, are driven deeply into the ground, so that the timbers may
9221 remain <lb></lb>stationary. </s>
9222
9223 <s>Into these timbers are mortised the ends of two cross-timbers, <lb></lb>one laid
9224 on the right end of the shaft, while the other is far enough <lb></lb>from the
9225 left end that between it and that end there remains suitable <lb></lb>space for
9226 placing the ladders. </s>
9227
9228 <s>In the middle of the cross-timbers, posts are <lb></lb>fixed and secured with
9229 iron keys. </s>
9230
9231 <s>In hollows at the top of these posts <lb></lb>thick iron sockets hold the ends of
9232 the barrel, of which each end projects <lb></lb>beyond the hollow of the post,
9233 and is mortised into the end of another <lb></lb>piece of wood a foot and a half
9234 long, a palm wide and three digits thick; <lb></lb>the other end of these pieces
9235 of wood is seven digits wide, and into each <lb></lb>of them is fixed a round
9236 handle, likewise a foot and a half long. </s>
9237
9238 <s>A <lb></lb>winding-rope is wound around the barrel and fastened to it at the
9239 <lb></lb>middle part. </s>
9240
9241 <s>The loop at each end of the rope has an iron hook which <lb></lb>is engaged in
9242 the bale of a bucket, and so when the windlass revolves by <lb></lb>being turned
9243 by the cranks, a loaded bucket is always being drawn out of the <lb></lb>shaft
9244 and an empty one is being sent down into it. </s>
9245
9246 <s>Two robust men turn <lb></lb>the windlass, each having a wheelbarrow near him,
9247 into which he unloads <lb></lb>the bucket which is drawn up nearest to him; two
9248 buckets generally fill a <lb></lb>wheelbarrow; therefore when four buckets have
9249 been drawn up, each man <lb></lb>runs his own wheelbarrow out of the shed and
9250 empties it. </s>
9251
9252 <s>Thus it happens <lb></lb>that if shafts are dug deep, a hillock rises around the
9253 shed of the windlass. <lb></lb></s>
9254
9255 <s>If a vein is not metal-bearing, they pour out the earth and rock without
9256 <lb></lb>discriminating; whereas if it is metal-bearing, they preserve these
9257 materials, <pb pagenum="161"></pb>which they unload separately and crush and
9258 wash. </s>
9259
9260 <s>When they draw up <lb></lb>buckets of water they empty the water through the
9261 hopper into a trough, <lb></lb>through which it flows away.</s>
9262 </p>
9263 <figure></figure>
9264 <p type="caption">
9265
9266 <s>A—TIMBER PLACED IN FRONT OF THE SHAFT. B—TIMBER PLACED AT THE
9267 BACK OF THE <lb></lb>SHAFT. C—POINTED STAKES. D—CROSS-TIMBERS.
9268 E—POSTS OR THICK PLANKS. <lb></lb>F—IRON SOCKETS. G—BARREL.
9269 H—ENDS OF BARREL. I—PIECES OF WOOD. <lb></lb>K—HANDLE.
9270 L—DRAWING-ROPE. M—ITS HOOK. N—BUCKET. O—BALE OF THE
9271 <lb></lb>BUCKET.</s>
9272 </p>
9273 <p type="main">
9274
9275 <s>The next kind of machine, which miners employ when the shaft is <lb></lb>deeper,
9276 differs from the first in that it possesses a wheel as well as cranks.
9277 <lb></lb></s>
9278
9279 <s>This windlass, if the load is not being drawn up from a great depth, is
9280 turned <lb></lb>by one windlass man, the wheel taking the place of the other
9281 man. </s>
9282
9283 <s>But if the <lb></lb>depth is greater, then the windlass is turned by three men,
9284 the wheel being <lb></lb>substituted for a fourth, because the barrel having
9285 been once set in motion, <lb></lb>the rapid revolutions of the wheel help, and
9286 it can be turned more easily. <lb></lb></s>
9287
9288 <s>Sometimes masses of lead are hung on to this wheel, or are fastened to the
9289 <lb></lb>spokes, in order that when it is turned they depress the spokes by
9290 their weight <lb></lb>and increase the motion; some persons for the same reason
9291 fasten into the <lb></lb>barrel two, three, or four iron rods, and weight their
9292 ends with lumps of lead. <lb></lb></s>
9293
9294 <s>The windlass wheel differs from the wheel of a carriage and from the one </s>
9295 </p>
9296 <pb pagenum="162"></pb>
9297 <figure></figure>
9298 <p type="caption">
9299
9300 <s>A—BARREL. B—STRAIGHT LEVERS. C—USUAL CRANK. D—SPOKES
9301 OF WHEEL. <lb></lb>E—RIM OF THE SAME WHEEL.<lb></lb>which is turned by water
9302 power, for it lacks the buckets of a water-wheel <lb></lb>and it lacks the nave
9303 of a carriage wheel. </s>
9304
9305 <s>In the place of the nave it has a thick <lb></lb>barrel, in which are mortised
9306 the lower ends of the spokes, just as their upper <lb></lb>ends are mortised
9307 into the rim. </s>
9308
9309 <s>When three windlass men turn this machine, <lb></lb>four straight levers are
9310 fixed to the one end of the barrel, and to the <lb></lb>other the crank which is
9311 usual in mines, and which is composed of two limbs, <lb></lb>of which the
9312 rounded horizontal one is grasped by the hands; the rect­<lb></lb>angular
9313 limb, which is at right angles to the horizontal one, has mortised in its
9314 <lb></lb>lower end the round handle, and in the upper end the end of the barrel. </s>
9315
9316 <s>This <lb></lb>crank is worked by one man, the levers by two men, of whom one
9317 pulls while <lb></lb>the other pushes; all windlass workers, whatsoever kind of
9318 a machine they <lb></lb>may turn, are necessarily robust that they can sustain
9319 such great toil.</s>
9320 </p>
9321 <p type="main">
9322
9323 <s>The third kind of machine is less fatiguing for the workman, while it
9324 <lb></lb>raises larger loads; even though it is slower, like all other machines
9325 which <lb></lb>have drums, yet it reaches greater depths, even to a depth of 180
9326 feet. </s>
9327
9328 <s>It <lb></lb>consists of an upright axle with iron journals at its extremities,
9329 which <lb></lb>turn in two iron sockets, the lower of which is fixed in a block
9330 set in the <lb></lb>ground and the upper one in the roof beam. </s>
9331
9332 <s>This axle has at its lower end a </s>
9333 </p>
9334 <pb pagenum="163"></pb>
9335 <figure></figure>
9336 <p type="caption">
9337
9338 <s>A—UPRIGHT AXLE. B—BLOCK. C—ROOF BEAM. D—WHEEL.
9339 E—TOOTHED-DRUM. <lb></lb>F—HORIZONTAL AXLE. G—DRUM COMPOSED OF
9340 RUNDLES. H—DRAWING ROPE. <lb></lb>I—POLE. K—UPRIGHT POSTS.
9341 L—CLEATS ON THE WHEEL.<lb></lb>wheel made of thick planks joined firmly
9342 together, and at its upper end a <lb></lb>toothed drum; this toothed drum turns
9343 another drum made of rundles, which <lb></lb>is on a horizontal axle. </s>
9344
9345 <s>A winding-rope is wound around this latter axle, <lb></lb>which turns in iron
9346 bearings set in the beams. </s>
9347
9348 <s>So that they may not fall, the <lb></lb>two workmen grasp with their hands a pole
9349 fixed to two upright posts, and <lb></lb>then pushing the cleats of the lower
9350 wheel backward with their feet, they <lb></lb>revolve the machine; as often as
9351 they have drawn up and emptied one <lb></lb>bucket full of excavated material,
9352 they turn the machine in the opposite <lb></lb>direction and draw out
9353 another.</s>
9354 </p>
9355 <p type="main">
9356
9357 <s>The fourth machine raises burdens once and a half as large again as the
9358 <lb></lb>two machines first explained. </s>
9359
9360 <s>When it is made, sixteen beams are erected <lb></lb>each forty feet long, one
9361 foot thick and one foot wide, joined at the top with <lb></lb>clamps and widely
9362 separated at the bottom. </s>
9363
9364 <s>The lower ends of all of <lb></lb>them are mortised into separate sills laid flat
9365 upon the ground; these sills <lb></lb>are five feet long, a foot and a half
9366 wide, and a foot thick. </s>
9367
9368 <s>Each beam is also <lb></lb>connected with its sill by a post, whose upper end is
9369 mortised into the beam <pb pagenum="164"></pb>and its lower end mortised into
9370 the sill; these posts are four feet long, one <lb></lb>foot thick, and one foot
9371 wide. </s>
9372
9373 <s>Thus a circular area is made, the diameter of <lb></lb>which is fifty feet; in
9374 the middle of this area a hole is sunk to a depth of ten <lb></lb>feet, and
9375 rammed down tight, and in order to give it sufficient firmness, it is
9376 <lb></lb>strengthened with contiguous small timbers, through which pins are
9377 driven, <lb></lb>for by them the earth around the hole is held so that it cannot
9378 fall in. </s>
9379
9380 <s>In <lb></lb>the bottom of the hole is planted a sill, three or four feet long and
9381 a foot and a <lb></lb>half thick and wide; in order that it may remain fixed, it
9382 is set into the small <lb></lb>timbers; in the middle of it is a steel socket in
9383 which the pivot of the axle turns. <lb></lb></s>
9384
9385 <s>In like manner a timber is mortised into two of the large beams, at the top
9386 <lb></lb>beneath the clamps; this has an iron bearing in which the other iron
9387 journal of <lb></lb>the axle revolves. </s>
9388
9389 <s>Every axle used in mining, to speak of them once for all, <lb></lb>has two iron
9390 journals, rounded off on all sides, one fixed with keys in the centre
9391 <lb></lb>of each end. </s>
9392
9393 <s>That part of this journal which is fixed to the end <lb></lb>of the axle is as
9394 broad as the end itself and a digit thick; that which <lb></lb>projects beyond
9395 the axle is round and a palm thick, or thicker if necessity <lb></lb>requires;
9396 the ends of each miner&#039;s axle are encircled and bound by an <lb></lb>iron band
9397 to hold the journal more securely. </s>
9398
9399 <s>The axle of this machine, <lb></lb>except at the ends, is square, and is forty
9400 feet long, a foot and a half thick <lb></lb>and wide. </s>
9401
9402 <s>Mortised and clamped into the axle above the lower end are the <lb></lb>ends of
9403 four inclined beams; their outer ends support two double
9404 cross­<lb></lb>beams similarly mortised into them; the inclined beams are
9405 eighteen feet <lb></lb>long, three palms thick, and five wide. </s>
9406
9407 <s>The two cross-beams are fixed to <lb></lb>the axle and held together by wooden
9408 keys so that they will not separate, <lb></lb>and they are twenty-four feet
9409 long. </s>
9410
9411 <s>Next, there is a drum which is made of <lb></lb>three wheels, of which the middle
9412 one is seven feet distant from the upper <lb></lb>one and from the lower one;
9413 the wheels have four spokes which are <lb></lb>supported by the same number of
9414 inclined braces, the lower ends of which <lb></lb>are joined together round the
9415 axle by a clamp; one end of each spoke is <lb></lb>mortised into the axle and
9416 the other into the rim. </s>
9417
9418 <s>There are rundles all <lb></lb>round the wheels, reaching from the rim of the
9419 lowest one to the rim of the <lb></lb>middle one, and likewise from the rim of
9420 the middle wheel to the rim of the top <lb></lb>one; around these rundles are
9421 wound the drawing-ropes, one between the lowest <lb></lb>wheel and the middle
9422 one, the other between the middle and top wheels. <lb></lb></s>
9423
9424 <s>The whole of this construction is shaped like a cone, and is covered with a
9425 <lb></lb>shingle roof, with the exception of that square part which faces the
9426 shaft. <lb></lb></s>
9427
9428 <s>Then cross-beams, mortised at both ends, connect a double row of upright
9429 <lb></lb>posts; all of these are eighteen feet long, but the posts are one foot
9430 thick <lb></lb>and one foot wide, and the cross-beams are three palms thick and
9431 wide. <lb></lb></s>
9432
9433 <s>There are sixteen posts and eight cross-beams, and upon these cross-beams
9434 <lb></lb>are laid two timbers a foot wide and three palms thick, hollowed out to
9435 a <lb></lb>width of half a foot and to a depth of five digits; the one is laid
9436 upon the <lb></lb>upper cross-beams and the other upon the lower; each is long
9437 enough to <lb></lb>reach nearly from the drum of the whim to the shaft. </s>
9438
9439 <s>Near the same drum <lb></lb>each timber has a small round wooden roller six
9440 digits thick, whose ends are </s>
9441 </p>
9442 <pb pagenum="165"></pb>
9443 <figure></figure>
9444 <p type="caption">
9445
9446 <s>A—UPRIGHT BEAMS. B—SILLS LAID FLAT UPON THE GROUND.
9447 C—POSTS. D—AREA. <lb></lb>E—SILL SET AT THE BOTTOM OF THE
9448 HOLE. F—AXLE. G—DOUBLE CROSS-BEAMS. <lb></lb>H—DRUM.
9449 I—WINDING-ROPES. K—BUCKET. L—SMALL PIECES OF WOOD HANGING
9450 <lb></lb>FROM DOUBLE CROSS-BEAMS. M—SHORT WOODEN BLOCK. N—CHAIN.
9451 O—POLE BAR. <lb></lb>P—GRAPPLING HOOK. (Some members mentioned in
9452 the text are not shown).<pb pagenum="166"></pb>covered with iron bands and
9453 revolve in iron rings. </s>
9454
9455 <s>Each timber also has a <lb></lb>wooden pulley, which together with its iron axle
9456 revolves in holes in the <lb></lb>timber. </s>
9457
9458 <s>These pulleys are hollowed out all round, in order that the
9459 drawing­<lb></lb>rope may not slip out of them, and thus each rope is drawn
9460 tight and turns <lb></lb>over its own roller and its own pulley. </s>
9461
9462 <s>The iron hook of each rope is engaged <lb></lb>with the bale of the bucket. </s>
9463
9464 <s>Further, with regard to the double cross­<lb></lb>beams which are mortised to
9465 the lower part of the main axle, to each end <lb></lb>of them there is mortised
9466 a small piece of wood four feet long. </s>
9467
9468 <s>These appear <lb></lb>to hang from the double cross-beams, and a short wooden
9469 block is fixed to the <lb></lb>lower part of them, on which a driver sits. </s>
9470
9471 <s>Each of these blocks has an iron <lb></lb>clavis which holds a chain, and that in
9472 turn a pole-bar. </s>
9473
9474 <s>In this way it is <lb></lb>possible for two horses to draw this whim, now this
9475 way and now that; turn <lb></lb>by turn one bucket is drawn out of the shaft
9476 full and another is let down <lb></lb>into it empty; if, indeed, the shaft is
9477 very deep four horses turn the whim. <lb></lb></s>
9478
9479 <s>When a bucket has been drawn up, whether filled with dry or wet materials,
9480 <lb></lb>it must be emptied, and a workman inserts a grappling hook and
9481 overturns <lb></lb>it; this hook hangs on a chain made of three or four links,
9482 fixed to a timber.</s>
9483 </p>
9484 <p type="main">
9485
9486 <s>The fifth machine is partly like the whim, and partly like the third rag
9487 <lb></lb>and chain pump, which draws water by balls when turned by horse power,
9488 <lb></lb>as I will explain a little later. </s>
9489
9490 <s>Like this pump, it is turned by horse <lb></lb>power and has two axles, namely,
9491 an upright one—about whose lower end, <lb></lb>which decends into an
9492 underground chamber, there is a toothed drum—and a <lb></lb>horizontal
9493 one, around which there is a drum made of rundles. </s>
9494
9495 <s>It has indeed <lb></lb>two drums around its horizontal axle, similar to those of
9496 the big machine, but <lb></lb>smaller, because it draws buckets from a shaft
9497 almost two hundred and forty <lb></lb>feet deep. </s>
9498
9499 <s>One drum is made of hubs to which cleats are fixed, and <lb></lb>the other is
9500 made of rundles; and near the latter is a wheel two <lb></lb>feet deep, measured
9501 on all sides around the axle, and one foot wide; and <lb></lb>against this
9502 impinges a brake,<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> which holds the
9503 whim when occasion demands <lb></lb>that it be stopped. </s>
9504
9505 <s>This is necessary when the hide buckets are emptied <lb></lb>after being drawn up
9506 full of rock fragments or earth, or as often as water <lb></lb>is poured out of
9507 buckets similarly drawn up; for this machine not only <lb></lb>raises dry loads,
9508 but also wet ones, just like the other four machines which <lb></lb>I have
9509 already described. </s>
9510
9511 <s>By this also, timbers fastened on to its winding­<lb></lb>chain are let down
9512 into a shaft. </s>
9513
9514 <s>The brake is made of a piece of wood one <lb></lb>foot thick and half a foot
9515 long, projecting from a timber that is suspended <lb></lb>by a chain from one
9516 end of a beam which oscillates on an iron pin, this in <lb></lb>turn being
9517 supported in the claws of an upright post; and from the other end <lb></lb>of
9518 this oscillating beam a long timber is suspended by a chain, and from this
9519 <lb></lb>long timber again a short beam is suspended. </s>
9520
9521 <s>A workman sits on the short <lb></lb>beam when the machine needs to be stopped,
9522 and lowers it; he then inserts <lb></lb>a plank or small stick so that the two
9523 timbers are held down and cannot be <lb></lb>raised. </s>
9524
9525 <s>In this way the brake is raised, and seizing the drum, presses it <lb></lb>so
9526 tightly that sparks often fly from it; the suspended timber to which
9527 <lb></lb>the short beam is attached, has several holes in which the chain is
9528 </s>
9529 </p>
9530 <pb pagenum="167"></pb>
9531 <figure></figure>
9532 <p type="caption">
9533
9534 <s>A—TOOTHED DRUM WHICH IS ON THE UPRIGHT AXLE. B—HORIZONTAL AXLE.
9535 C—DRUM <lb></lb>WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. D—WHEEL NEAR IT.
9536 E—DRUM MADE OF HUBS. <lb></lb>F—BRAKE. G—OSCILLATING BEAM.
9537 H—SHORT BEAM. I—HOOK.<pb pagenum="168"></pb>fixed, so that it may be
9538 raised as much as is convenient. </s>
9539
9540 <s>Above this wheel <lb></lb>there are boards to prevent the water from dripping
9541 down and wetting it, for <lb></lb>if it becomes wet the brake will not grip the
9542 machine so well. </s>
9543
9544 <s>Near the <lb></lb>other drum is a pin from which hangs a chain, in the last link
9545 of which there <lb></lb>is an iron hook three feet long; a ring is fixed to the
9546 bottom of the bucket, <lb></lb>and this hook, being inserted into it, holds the
9547 bucket back so that the water <lb></lb>may be poured out or the fragments of
9548 rock emptied.</s>
9549 </p>
9550 <p type="main">
9551
9552 <s>The miners either carry, draw, or roll down the mountains the ore which
9553 <lb></lb>is hauled out of the shafts by these five machines or taken out of the
9554 <lb></lb>tunnels. </s>
9555
9556 <s>In the winter time our people place a box on a sledge and draw <lb></lb>it down
9557 the low mountains with a horse; and in this season they <lb></lb>also fill sacks
9558 made of hide and load them on dogs, or place two or <lb></lb>three of them on a
9559 small sledge which is higher in the fore part and lower at <lb></lb>the back. </s>
9560
9561 <s>Sitting on these sacks, not without risk of his life, the bold <lb></lb>driver
9562 guides the sledge as it rushes down the mountain into the valleys with
9563 <lb></lb>a stick, which he carries in his hand; when it is rushing down too
9564 <lb></lb>quickly he arrests it with the stick, or with the same stick brings it
9565 back to <lb></lb>the track when it is turning aside from its proper course. </s>
9566
9567 <s>Some of the </s>
9568 </p>
9569 <figure></figure>
9570 <p type="caption">
9571
9572 <s>A—SLEDGE WITH BOX PLACED ON IT. B—SLEDGE WITH SACKS PLACED ON IT.
9573 C—STICK. <lb></lb>D—DOGS WITH PACK-SADDLES. E—PIG-SKIN SACKS
9574 TIED TO A ROPE.<pb pagenum="169"></pb>Noricians<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> collect ore during the winter into sacks made of bristly
9575 pigskins, <lb></lb>and drag them down from the highest mountains, which neither
9576 horses, <lb></lb>mules nor asses can climb. </s>
9577
9578 <s>Strong dogs, that are trained to bear pack <lb></lb>saddles, carry these sacks
9579 when empty into the mountains. </s>
9580
9581 <s>When they <lb></lb>are filled with ore, bound with thongs, and fastened to a
9582 rope, a man, <lb></lb>winding the rope round his arm or breast, drags them down
9583 through the <lb></lb>snow to a place where horses, mules, or asses bearing
9584 pack-saddles can <lb></lb>climb. </s>
9585
9586 <s>There the ore is removed from the pigskin sacks and put into other <lb></lb>sacks
9587 made of double or triple twilled linen thread, and these placed on the
9588 <lb></lb>pack-saddles of the beasts are borne down to the works where the ores
9589 <lb></lb>are washed or smelted. </s>
9590
9591 <s>If, indeed, the horses, mules, or asses are able <lb></lb>to climb the mountains,
9592 linen sacks filled with ore are placed on their saddles, <lb></lb>and they carry
9593 these down the narrow mountain paths, which are passable <lb></lb>neither by
9594 wagons nor sledges, into the valleys lying below the steeper <lb></lb>portions
9595 of the mountains. </s>
9596
9597 <s>But on the declivity of cliffs which beasts cannot <lb></lb>climb, are placed
9598 long open boxes made of planks, with transverse cleats to <lb></lb>hold them
9599 together; into these boxes is thrown the ore which has been <lb></lb>brought in
9600 wheelbarrows, and when it has run down to the level it is gathered <lb></lb>into
9601 sacks, and the beasts either carry it away on their backs or drag it away
9602 <lb></lb>after it has been thrown into sledges or wagons. </s>
9603
9604 <s>When the drivers bring <lb></lb>ore down steep mountain slopes they use
9605 two-wheeled carts, and they drag <lb></lb>behind them on the ground the trunks
9606 of two trees, for these by their weight <lb></lb>hold back the heavily-laden
9607 carts, which contain ore in their boxes, and check <lb></lb>their descent, and
9608 but for these the driver would often be obliged to <lb></lb>bind chains to the
9609 wheels. </s>
9610
9611 <s>When these men bring down ore from mountains <lb></lb>which do not have such
9612 declivities, they use wagons whose beds are twice <lb></lb>as long as those of
9613 the carts. </s>
9614
9615 <s>The planks of these are so put together that, <lb></lb>when the ore is unloaded
9616 by the drivers, they can be raised and taken apart, <lb></lb>for they are only
9617 held together by bars. </s>
9618
9619 <s>The drivers employed by the owners <lb></lb>of the ore bring down thirty or sixty
9620 wagon-loads, and the master of the <lb></lb>works marks on a stick the number of
9621 loads for each driver. </s>
9622
9623 <s>But some <lb></lb>ore, especially tin, after being taken from the mines, is
9624 divided into eight <lb></lb>parts, or into nine, if the owners of the mine give
9625 “ninth parts” to the <lb></lb>owners of the tunnel. </s>
9626
9627 <s>This is occasionally done by measuring with a bucket, <lb></lb>but more
9628 frequently planks are put together on a spot where, with the <lb></lb>addition
9629 of the level ground as a base, it forms a hollow box. </s>
9630
9631 <s>Each owner <lb></lb>provides for removing, washing, and smelting that portion
9632 which has fallen <lb></lb>to him. (Illustration p. </s>
9633
9634 <s>170).</s>
9635 </p>
9636 <p type="main">
9637
9638 <s>Into the buckets, drawn by these five machines, the boys or men throw
9639 <lb></lb>the earth and broken rock with shovels, or they fill them with their
9640 hands; <lb></lb>hence they get their name of shovellers. </s>
9641
9642 <s>As I have said, the same <lb></lb>machines raise not only dry loads, but also wet
9643 ones, or water; but before <lb></lb>I explain the varied and diverse kinds of
9644 machines by which miners are wont </s>
9645 </p>
9646 <pb pagenum="170"></pb>
9647 <figure></figure>
9648 <p type="caption">
9649
9650 <s>A—HORSES WITH PACK-SADDLES. B—LONG BOX PLACED ON THE SLOPE OF THE
9651 CLIFF. <lb></lb>C—CLEATS THEREOF. D—WHEELBARROW. E—TWO-WHEELED
9652 CART. F—TRUNKS OF <lb></lb>TREES. G—WAGON. H—ORE BEING
9653 UNLOADED FROM THE WAGON. I—BARS. <lb></lb>K—MASTER OF THE WORKS
9654 MARKING THE NUMBER OF CARTS ON A STICK. L—BOXES <lb></lb>INTO WHICH ARE
9655 THROWN THE ORE WHICH HAS TO BE DIVIDED.<pb pagenum="171"></pb>to draw water
9656 alone, I will explain how heavy bodies, such as axles, iron <lb></lb>chains,
9657 pipes, and heavy timbers, should be lowered into deep vertical shafts.
9658 <lb></lb></s>
9659
9660 <s>A windlass is erected whose barrel has on each end four straight levers; it
9661 <lb></lb>is fixed into upright beams and around it is wound a rope, one end of
9662 which <lb></lb>is fastened to the barrel and the other to those heavy bodies
9663 which are slowly <lb></lb>lowered down by workmen; and if these halt at any part
9664 of the shaft they <lb></lb>are drawn up a little way. </s>
9665
9666 <s>When these bodies are very heavy, then behind <lb></lb>this windlass another is
9667 erected just like it, that their combined strength <lb></lb>may be equal to the
9668 load, and that it may be lowered slowly. </s>
9669
9670 <s>Sometimes for <lb></lb>the same reason, a pulley is fastened with cords to the
9671 roof-beam, and the rope <lb></lb>descends and ascends over it.</s>
9672 </p>
9673 <figure></figure>
9674 <p type="caption">
9675
9676 <s>A—WINDLASS. B—STRAIGHT LEVERS. C—UPRIGHT BEAMS.
9677 D—ROPE. E—PULLEY. <lb></lb>F—TIMBERS TO BE LOWERED.</s>
9678 </p>
9679 <p type="main">
9680
9681 <s>Water is either hoisted or pumped out of shafts. </s>
9682
9683 <s>It is hoisted up after <lb></lb>being poured into buckets or water-bags; the
9684 water-bags are generally <lb></lb>brought up by a machine whose water-wheels
9685 have double paddles, while the <lb></lb>buckets are brought up by the five
9686 machines already described, although in <lb></lb>certain localities the fourth
9687 machine also hauls up water-bags of moderate <lb></lb>size. </s>
9688
9689 <s>Water is drawn up also by chains of dippers, or by suction pumps, or <pb pagenum="172"></pb>by “rag and chain” pumps.<emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> When there is but a small quantity, it is
9690 <lb></lb>either brought up in buckets or drawn up by chains of dippers or
9691 suction <lb></lb>pumps, and when there is much water it is either drawn up in
9692 hide bags or <lb></lb>by rag and chain pumps.</s>
9693 </p>
9694 <p type="main">
9695
9696 <s>First of all, I will describe the machines which draw water by chains <lb></lb>of
9697 dippers, of which there are three kinds. </s>
9698
9699 <s>For the first, a frame is <lb></lb>made entirely of iron bars: it is two and a
9700 half feet high, likewise two and <lb></lb>a half feet long, and in addition
9701 one-sixth and one-quarter of a digit <lb></lb>long, one-fourth and
9702 one-twenty-fourth of a foot wide. </s>
9703
9704 <s>In it there are three <lb></lb>little horizontal iron axles, which revolve in
9705 bearings or wide pillows of steel. <lb></lb></s>
9706
9707 <s>and also four iron wheels, of which two are made with rundles and the same
9708 <lb></lb>number are toothed. </s>
9709
9710 <s>Outside the frame, around the lowest axle, is a <lb></lb>wooden fly-wheel, so
9711 that it can be more readily turned, and inside the frame <lb></lb>is a smaller
9712 drum which is made of eight rundles, one-sixth and one
9713 twenty­<lb></lb>fourth of a foot long. </s>
9714
9715 <s>Around the second axle, which does not project <lb></lb>beyond the frame, and is
9716 therefore only two and a half feet and one-twelfth <lb></lb>and one-third part
9717 of a digit long, there is on the one side, a smaller toothed <lb></lb>wheel,
9718 which has forty-eight teeth, and on the other side a larger drum, <lb></lb>which
9719 is surrounded by twelve rundles one-quarter of a foot long. </s>
9720
9721 <s>Around the <lb></lb>third axle, which is one inch and one-third thick, is a
9722 larger toothed wheel <lb></lb>projecting one foot from the axle in all
9723 directions, which has seventy-two <lb></lb>teeth. </s>
9724
9725 <s>The teeth of each wheel are fixed in with screws, whose threads are
9726 <lb></lb>screwed into threads in the wheel, so that those teeth which are broken
9727 can be <lb></lb>replaced by others; both the teeth and rundles are steel. </s>
9728
9729 <s>The upper axle <lb></lb>projects beyond the frame, and is so skilfully mortised
9730 into the body of <lb></lb>another axle that it has the appearance of being one;
9731 this axle proceeds <lb></lb>through a frame made of beams which stands around
9732 the shaft, into an iron <lb></lb>fork set in a stout oak timber, and turns on a
9733 roller made of pure steel. <lb></lb></s>
9734
9735 <s>Around this axle is a drum of the kind possessed by those machines which
9736 <lb></lb>draw water by rag and chain; this drum has triple curved iron clamps,
9737 <lb></lb>to which the links of an iron chain hook themselves, so that a great
9738 weight <lb></lb>cannot tear them away. </s>
9739
9740 <s>These links are not whole like the links of other <lb></lb>chains, but each one
9741 being curved in the upper part on each side catches the <lb></lb>one which comes
9742 next, whereby it presents the appearance of a double chain. <lb></lb></s>
9743
9744 <s>At the point where one catches the other, dippers made of iron or brass
9745 plates <lb></lb>and holding half a <emph type="italics"></emph>congíus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> are bound to
9746 them with thongs; thus, if there are <lb></lb>one hundred links there will be
9747 the same number of dippers pouring out water. <lb></lb></s>
9748
9749 <s>When the shafts are inclined, the mouths of the dippers project and are
9750 covered <lb></lb>on the top that they may not spill out the water, but when the
9751 shafts are <lb></lb>vertical the dippers do not require a cover. </s>
9752
9753 <s>By fitting the end of the lowest <lb></lb>small axle into the crank, the man who
9754 works the crank turns the axle, and at <lb></lb>the same time the drum whose
9755 rundles turn the toothed wheel of the second <lb></lb>axle; by this wheel is
9756 driven the one that is made of rundles, which <lb></lb></s>
9757 </p>
9758 <pb pagenum="173"></pb>
9759 <figure></figure>
9760 <p type="caption">
9761
9762 <s>A—IRON FRAME. B—LOWEST AXLE. C—FLY-WHEEL. D—SMALLER
9763 DRUM MADE OF <lb></lb>RUNDLES. E—SECOND AXLE. F—SMALLER TOOTHED
9764 WHEEL G—LARGER DRUM MADE <lb></lb>OF RUNDLES. H—UPPER AXLE.
9765 I—LARGER TOOTHED WHEEL. K—BEARINGS. <lb></lb>L—PILLOW.
9766 M—FRAMEWORK. N—OAK TIMBER O—SUPPORT OF IRON BEARING
9767 <lb></lb>P—ROLLER Q—UPPER DRUM. R—CLAMPS. S—CHAIN.
9768 T—LINKS. V—DIPPERS <lb></lb>X—CRANK. Y—LOWER DRUM OR
9769 BALANCE WEIGHT.<pb pagenum="174"></pb>again turns the toothed wheel of the upper
9770 small axle and thus the drum to <lb></lb>which the clamps are fixed. </s>
9771
9772 <s>In this way the chain, together with the empty <lb></lb>dippers, is slowly let
9773 down, close to the footwall side of the vein, into the sump <lb></lb>to the
9774 bottom of the balance drum, which turns on a little iron axle, both ends
9775 <lb></lb>of which are set in a thick iron bearing. </s>
9776
9777 <s>The chain is rolled round the drum <lb></lb>and the dippers fill with water; the
9778 chain being drawn up close to the hanging­<lb></lb>wall side, carries the
9779 dippers filled with water above the drum of the upper <lb></lb>axle. </s>
9780
9781 <s>Thus there are always three of the dippers inverted and pouring <lb></lb>water
9782 into a lip, from which it flows away into the drain of the tunnel. </s>
9783
9784 <s>This <lb></lb>machine is less useful, because it cannot be constructed without
9785 great expense, <lb></lb>and it carries off but little water and is somewhat
9786 slow, as also are other <lb></lb>machines which possess a great number of
9787 drums.</s>
9788 </p>
9789 <figure></figure>
9790 <p type="caption">
9791
9792 <s>A—WHEEL WHICH IS TURNED BY TREADING. B—AXLE. C—DOUBLE
9793 CHAIN. D—LINK <lb></lb>OF DOUBLE CHAIN. E—DIPPERS. F—SIMPLE
9794 CLAMPS. G—CLAMP WITH TRIPLE CURVES.</s>
9795 </p>
9796 <p type="main">
9797
9798 <s>The next machine of this kind, described in a few words by Vitruvius,<emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>more rapidly brings up dippers,
9799 holding a <emph type="italics"></emph>congius;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> for this
9800 reason, it is <pb pagenum="175"></pb>more useful than the first one for drawing
9801 water out of shafts, into which <lb></lb>much water is continually flowing. </s>
9802
9803 <s>This machine has no iron frame nor <lb></lb>drums, but has around its axle a
9804 wooden wheel which is turned by treading; <lb></lb>the axle, since it has no
9805 drum, does not last very long. </s>
9806
9807 <s>In other respects <lb></lb>this pump resembles the first kind, except that it
9808 differs from it by having <lb></lb>a double chain. </s>
9809
9810 <s>Clamps should be fixed to the axle of this machine, just as <lb></lb>to the drum
9811 of the other one; some of these are made simple and others <lb></lb>with triple
9812 curves, but each kind has four barbs.</s>
9813 </p>
9814 <p type="main">
9815
9816 <s>The third machine, which far excels the two just described, is made <lb></lb>when
9817 a running stream can be diverted to a mine; the impetus of the <lb></lb>stream
9818 striking the paddles revolves a water-wheel in place of the wheel
9819 <lb></lb>turned by treading. </s>
9820
9821 <s>With regard to the axle, it is like the second machine, </s>
9822 </p>
9823 <figure></figure>
9824 <p type="caption">
9825
9826 <s>A—WHEEL WHOSE PADDLES ARE TURNED BY THE FORCE OF THE STREAM.
9827 B—AXLE. <lb></lb>C—DRUM OF AXLE, TO WHICH CLAMPS ARE FIXED.
9828 D—CHAIN. E—LINK. F—DIPPERS. <lb></lb>G—BALANCE
9829 DRUM.<lb></lb>but the drum which is round the axle, the chain, and the balance
9830 drum, are <lb></lb>like the first machine. </s>
9831
9832 <s>It has much more capacious dippers than even the <lb></lb>second machine, but
9833 since the dippers are frequently broken, miners rarely <lb></lb>use these
9834 machines; for they prefer to lift out small quantities of water by <lb></lb>the
9835 first five machines or to draw it up by suction pumps, or, if there is <pb pagenum="176"></pb>much water, to drain it by the rag and chain pump or to
9836 bring it up in <lb></lb>water-bags.</s>
9837 </p>
9838 <p type="main">
9839
9840 <s>Enough, then, of the first sort of pumps. </s>
9841
9842 <s>I will now explain the other, <lb></lb>that is the pump which draws, by means of
9843 pistons, water which has been <lb></lb>raised by suction. </s>
9844
9845 <s>Of these there are seven varieties, which though they <lb></lb>differ from one
9846 another in structure, nevertheless confer the same benefits <lb></lb>upon
9847 miners, though some to a greater degree than others. </s>
9848
9849 <s>The first pump <lb></lb>is made as follows. </s>
9850
9851 <s>Over the sump is placed a flooring, through which a <lb></lb>pipe—or two
9852 lengths of pipe, one of which is joined into the other—are let
9853 <lb></lb>down to the bottom of the sump; they are fastened with pointed iron
9854 clamps <lb></lb>driven in straight on both sides, so that the pipes may remain
9855 fixed. </s>
9856
9857 <s>The <lb></lb>lower end of the lower pipe is enclosed in a trunk two feet deep;
9858 this trunk, <lb></lb>hollow like the pipe, stands at the bottom of the sump, but
9859 the lower opening <lb></lb>of it is blocked with a round piece of wood; the
9860 trunk has perforations <lb></lb>round about, through which water flows into it. </s>
9861
9862 <s>If there is one length of <lb></lb>pipe, then in the upper part of the trunk
9863 which has been hollowed out there is <lb></lb>enclosed a box of iron, copper, or
9864 brass, one palm deep, but without a bottom, <lb></lb>and a rounded valve so
9865 tightly closes it that the water, which has been drawn <lb></lb>up by suction,
9866 cannot run back; but if there are two lengths of pipe, the <lb></lb>box is
9867 enclosed in the lower pipe at the point of junction. </s>
9868
9869 <s>An opening or a <lb></lb>spout in the upper pipe reaches to the drain of the
9870 tunnel. </s>
9871
9872 <s>Thus the work­<lb></lb>man, eager at his labour, standing on the flooring
9873 boards, pushes the piston <lb></lb>down into the pipe and draws it out again. </s>
9874
9875 <s>At the top of the piston-rod is a <lb></lb>hand-bar and the bottom is fixed in a
9876 shoe; this is the name given to the <lb></lb>leather covering, which is almost
9877 cone-shaped, for it is so stitched that it is <lb></lb>tight at the lower end,
9878 where it is fixed to the piston-rod which it surrounds, <lb></lb>but in the
9879 upper end where it draws the water it is wide open. </s>
9880
9881 <s>Or else an <lb></lb>iron disc one digit thick is used, or one of wood six digits
9882 thick, each of which <lb></lb>is far superior to the shoe. </s>
9883
9884 <s>The disc is fixed by an iron key which pene­<lb></lb>trates through the
9885 bottom of the piston-rod, or it is screwed on to the <lb></lb>rod; it is round,
9886 with its upper part protected by a cover, and has five or <lb></lb>six openings,
9887 either round or oval, which taken together present a star-like
9888 <lb></lb>appearance; the disc has the same diameter as the inside of the pipe,
9889 <lb></lb>so that it can be just drawn up and down in it. </s>
9890
9891 <s>When the workman draws <lb></lb>the piston up, the water which has passed in at
9892 the openings of the disc, <lb></lb>whose cover is then closed, is raised to the
9893 hole or little spout, through which <lb></lb>it flows away; then the valve of
9894 the box opens, and the water which has <lb></lb>passed into the trunk is drawn
9895 up by the suction and rises into the pipe; <lb></lb>but when the workman pushes
9896 down the piston, the valve closes and allows <lb></lb>the disc again to draw in
9897 the water.</s>
9898 </p>
9899 <p type="main">
9900
9901 <s>The piston of the second pump is more easily moved up and down. </s>
9902
9903 <s>When <lb></lb>this pump is made, two beams are placed over the sump, one near the
9904 right side <lb></lb>of it, and the other near the left. </s>
9905
9906 <s>To one beam a pipe is fixed with iron clamps; <lb></lb>to the other is fixed
9907 either the forked branch of a tree or a timber cut out at <lb></lb>the top in
9908 the shape of a fork, and through the prongs of the fork a round <lb></lb>hole is
9909 bored. </s>
9910
9911 <s>Through a wide round hole in the middle of a sweep passes </s>
9912 </p>
9913 <pb pagenum="177"></pb>
9914 <figure></figure>
9915 <p type="caption">
9916
9917 <s>A—SUMP. B—PIPES. C—FLOORING. D—TRUNK.
9918 E—PERFORATIONS OF TRUNK. <lb></lb>F—VALVE. G—SPOUT.
9919 H—PISTON-ROD. I—HAND-BAR OF PISTON. K—SHOE. L—DISC
9920 <lb></lb>WITH ROUND OPENINGS. M—DISC WITH OVAL OPENINGS. N—COVER.
9921 O—THIS MAN IS <lb></lb>BORING LOGS AND MAKING THEM INTO PIPES.
9922 P—BORER WITH AUGER. Q—WIDER BORER.</s>
9923 </p>
9924 <pb pagenum="178"></pb>
9925 <figure></figure>
9926 <p type="caption">
9927
9928 <s>A—ERECT TIMBER. B—AXLE. C—SWEEP WHICH TURNS ABOUT THE AXLE.
9929 D—PISTON <lb></lb>ROD. E—CROSS-BAR. F—RING WITH WHICH TWO
9930 PIPES ARE GENERALLY JOINED.<lb></lb>an iron axle, so fastened in the holes in
9931 the fork that it remains fixed, and <lb></lb>the sweep turns on this axle. </s>
9932
9933 <s>In one end of the sweep the upper end of a <lb></lb>piston-rod is fastened with
9934 an iron key; at the other end a cross-bar is also <lb></lb>fixed, to the extreme
9935 ends of which are handles to enable it to be held more <lb></lb>firmly in the
9936 hands. </s>
9937
9938 <s>And so when the workman pulls the cross-bar upward, <lb></lb>he forces the piston
9939 into the pipe; when he pushes it down again he draws <lb></lb>the piston out of
9940 the pipe; and thus the piston carries up the water which <lb></lb>has been drawn
9941 in at the openings of the disc, and the water flows away through <lb></lb>the
9942 spout into the drains. </s>
9943
9944 <s>This pump, like the next one, is identical with <lb></lb>the first in all that
9945 relates to the piston, disc, trunk, box, and valve.</s>
9946 </p>
9947 <p type="main">
9948
9949 <s>The third pump is not unlike the one just described, but in place of <lb></lb>one
9950 upright, posts are erected with holes at the top, and in these holes the
9951 <lb></lb>ends of an axle revolve. </s>
9952
9953 <s>To the middle of this axle are fixed two wooden <lb></lb>bars, to the end of one
9954 of which is fixed the piston, and to the end of the <lb></lb>other a heavy piece
9955 of wood, but short, so that it can pass between the two <lb></lb>posts and may
9956 move backward and forward. </s>
9957
9958 <s>When the workman pushes <lb></lb>this piece of wood, the piston is drawn out of
9959 the pipe; when it returns by its </s>
9960 </p>
9961 <pb pagenum="179"></pb>
9962 <figure></figure>
9963 <p type="caption">
9964
9965 <s>A—POSTS. B—AXLE. C—WOODEN BARS. D—PISTON ROD.
9966 E—SHORT PIECE OF WOOD. <lb></lb>F—DRAIN. G—THIS MAN IS
9967 DIVERTING THE WATER WHICH IS FLOWING OUT OF THE DRAIN, <lb></lb>TO PREVENT IT
9968 FROM FLOWING INTO THE TRENCHES WHICH ARE BEING DUG.<lb></lb>own weight, the
9969 piston is pushed in. </s>
9970
9971 <s>In this way, the water which the pipe <lb></lb>contains is drawn through the
9972 openings in the disc and emptied by the piston <lb></lb>through the spout into
9973 the drain. </s>
9974
9975 <s>There are some who place a hand-bar <lb></lb>underneath in place of the short
9976 piece of wood. </s>
9977
9978 <s>This pump, as also the last <lb></lb>before described, is less generally used
9979 among miners than the others.</s>
9980 </p>
9981 <p type="main">
9982
9983 <s>The fourth kind is not a simple pump but a duplex one. </s>
9984
9985 <s>It is made as <lb></lb>follows. </s>
9986
9987 <s>A rectangular block of beechwood, five feet long, two and a half <lb></lb>feet
9988 wide, and one and a half feet thick, is cut in two and hollowed out wide
9989 <lb></lb>and deep enough so that an iron axle with cranks can revolve in it. </s>
9990
9991 <s>The axle <lb></lb>is placed between the two halves of this box, and the first
9992 part of the axle, <lb></lb>which is in contact with the wood, is round and the
9993 straight end forms a <lb></lb>journal. </s>
9994
9995 <s>Then the axle is bent down the depth of a foot and again bent so <lb></lb>as to
9996 continue straight, and at this point a round piston-rod hangs from it;
9997 <lb></lb>next it is bent up as far as it was bent down; then it continues a
9998 little way <lb></lb>straight again, and then it is bent up a foot and again
9999 continues straight, <lb></lb>at which point a second round piston-rod is hung
10000 from it; afterward it </s>
10001 </p>
10002 <pb pagenum="180"></pb>
10003 <figure></figure>
10004 <p type="caption">
10005
10006 <s>A—BOX B—LOWER PART OF BOX. C—UPPER PART OF SAME.
10007 D—CLAMPS. E—PIPES <lb></lb>BELOW THE BOX. F—COLUMN PIPE FIXED
10008 ABOVE THE BOX. G—IRON AXLE. H—PISTON­<lb></lb>RODS.
10009 I—WASHERS TO PROTECT THE BEARINGS. K—LEATHERS. L—EYES IN
10010 THE AXLE. <lb></lb>M—RODS WHOSE ENDS ARE WEIGHTED WITH LUMPS OF LEAD.
10011 N—CRANK. <lb></lb>(<emph type="italics"></emph>This plate is unlettered in the
10012 first edition but corrected in those later.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)<pb pagenum="181"></pb>is bent down the same distance as it was bent up the last
10013 time; the other <lb></lb>end of it, which also acts as a journal, is straight. </s>
10014
10015 <s>This part which protrudes <lb></lb>through the wood is protected by two iron
10016 washers in the shape of discs, to <lb></lb>which are fastened two leather
10017 washers of the same shape and size, in order <lb></lb>to prevent the water which
10018 is drawn into the box from gushing out. </s>
10019
10020 <s>These <lb></lb>discs are around the axle; one of them is inside the box and the
10021 other <lb></lb>outside. </s>
10022
10023 <s>Beyond this, the end of the axle is square and has two eyes, in <lb></lb>which
10024 are fixed two iron rods, and to their ends are weighted lumps of lead,
10025 <lb></lb>so that the axle may have a greater propensity to revolve; this axle
10026 can <lb></lb>easily be turned when its end has been mortised in a crank. </s>
10027
10028 <s>The upper part <lb></lb>of the box is the shallower one, and the lower part the
10029 deeper, the upper <lb></lb>part is bored out once straight down through the
10030 middle, the diameter of the <lb></lb>opening being the same as the outside
10031 diameter of the column pipe; the <lb></lb>lower box has, side by side, two
10032 apertures also bored straight down; <lb></lb>these are for two pipes, the space
10033 of whose openings therefore is twice as <lb></lb>great as that of the upper
10034 part; this lower part of the box is placed <lb></lb>upon the two pipes, which
10035 are fitted into it at their upper ends, and the <lb></lb>lower ends of these
10036 pipes penetrate into trunks which stand in the <lb></lb>sump. </s>
10037
10038 <s>These trunks have perforations through which the water flows into <lb></lb>them. </s>
10039
10040 <s>The iron axle is placed in the inside of the box, then the two iron
10041 <lb></lb>piston-rods which hang from it are let down through the two pipes to
10042 the depth <lb></lb>of a foot. </s>
10043
10044 <s>Each piston has a screw at its lower end which holds a thick iron <lb></lb>plate,
10045 shaped like a disc and full of openings, covered with a leather, and
10046 <lb></lb>similarly to the other pump it has a round valve in a little box. </s>
10047
10048 <s>Then the <lb></lb>upper part of the box is placed upon the lower one and properly
10049 fitted to it on <lb></lb>every side, and where they join they are bound by wide
10050 thick iron plates, and <lb></lb>held with small wide iron wedges, which are
10051 driven in and are fastened with <lb></lb>clamps. </s>
10052
10053 <s>The first length of column pipe is fixed into the upper part of the <lb></lb>box,
10054 and another length of pipe extends it, and a third again extends this one,
10055 <lb></lb>and so on, another extending on another, until the uppermost one
10056 reaches the <lb></lb>drain of the tunnel. </s>
10057
10058 <s>When the crank worker turns the axle, the pistons in <lb></lb>turn draw the water
10059 through their discs; since this is done quickly, and <lb></lb>since the area of
10060 openings of the two pipes over which the box is set, is twice <lb></lb>as large
10061 as the opening of the column pipe which rises from the box, and since
10062 <lb></lb>the pistons do not lift the water far up, the impetus of the water from
10063 the <lb></lb>lower pipes forces it to rise and flow out of the column pipe into
10064 the drain of <lb></lb>the tunnel. </s>
10065
10066 <s>Since a wooden box frequently cracks open, it is better to <lb></lb>make it of
10067 lead or copper or brass.</s>
10068 </p>
10069 <p type="main">
10070
10071 <s>The fifth kind of pump is still less simple, for it is composed of two or
10072 <lb></lb>three pumps whose pistons are raised by a machine turned by men, for
10073 each <lb></lb>piston-rod has a tappet which is raised, each in succession, by
10074 two cams on <lb></lb>a barrel; two or four strong men turn it. </s>
10075
10076 <s>When the pistons descend into <lb></lb>the pipes their discs draw the water; when
10077 they are raised these force the <lb></lb>water out through the pipes. </s>
10078
10079 <s>The upper part of each of these piston-rods, <lb></lb>which is half a foot
10080 square, is held in a slot in a cross-beam; the lower part, <lb></lb>which drops
10081 down into the pipes, is made of another piece of wood and is <lb></lb>round. </s>
10082
10083 <s>Each of these three pumps is composed of two lengths of pipe fixed </s>
10084 </p>
10085 <pb pagenum="182"></pb>
10086 <figure></figure>
10087 <p type="caption">
10088
10089 <s>A—TAPPETS OF PISTON-RODS. B—CAMS OF THE BARREL. C—SQUARE
10090 UPPER PARTS <lb></lb>OF PISTON-RODS. D—LOWER ROUNDED PARTS OF PISTON-RODS.
10091 E—CROSS-BEAMS. <lb></lb>F—PIPES. G—APERTURES OF PIPES.
10092 H—TROUGH. (Fifth kind of pump—see p. </s>
10093
10094 <s>181).</s>
10095 </p>
10096 <pb pagenum="183"></pb>
10097 <figure></figure>
10098 <p type="caption">
10099
10100 <s>A—WATER-WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—TRUNK ON WHICH THE LOWEST PIPE
10101 STANDS. <lb></lb>D—BASKET SURROUNDING TRUNK. (Sixth kind of pump—see
10102 p. </s>
10103
10104 <s>184.)<pb pagenum="184"></pb>to the shaft timbers. </s>
10105
10106 <s>This machine draws the water higher, as much as <lb></lb>twenty-four feet. </s>
10107
10108 <s>If the diameter of the pipes is large, only two pumps are <lb></lb>made; if
10109 smaller, three, so that by either method the volume of water is the
10110 <lb></lb>same. </s>
10111
10112 <s>This also must be understood regarding the other machines and <lb></lb>their
10113 pipes. </s>
10114
10115 <s>Since these pumps are composed of two lengths of pipe, the <lb></lb>little iron
10116 box having the iron valve which I described before, is not enclosed <lb></lb>in
10117 a trunk, but is in the lower length of pipe, at that point where it joins
10118 <lb></lb>the upper one; thus the rounded part of the piston-rod is only as long
10119 as <lb></lb>the upper length of pipe; but I will presently explain this more
10120 clearly.</s>
10121 </p>
10122 <p type="main">
10123
10124 <s>The sixth kind of pump would be just the same as the fifth were it not
10125 <lb></lb>that it has an axle instead of a barrel, turned not by men but by a
10126 water­<lb></lb>wheel, which is revolved by the force of water striking its
10127 buckets. <lb></lb></s>
10128
10129 <s>Since water-power far exceeds human strength, this machine draws water
10130 <lb></lb>through its pipes by discs out of a shaft more than one hundred feet
10131 deep. <lb></lb></s>
10132
10133 <s>The bottom of the lowest pipe, set in the sump, not only of this pump but
10134 <lb></lb>also of the others, is generally enclosed in a basket made of
10135 wicker-work, to <lb></lb>prevent wood shavings and other things being sucked in.
10136 (See p. </s>
10137
10138 <s>183.)</s>
10139 </p>
10140 <p type="main">
10141
10142 <s>The seventh kind of pump, invented ten years ago, which is the most
10143 <lb></lb>ingenious, durable, and useful of all, can be made without much
10144 expense. </s>
10145
10146 <s>It <lb></lb>is composed of several pumps, which do not, like those last
10147 described, go down <lb></lb>into the shaft together, but of which one is below
10148 the other, for if there are <lb></lb>three, as is generally the case, the lower
10149 one lifts the water of the sump and <lb></lb>pours it out into the first tank;
10150 the second pump lifts again from that tank <lb></lb>into a second tank, and the
10151 third pump lifts it into the drain of the tunnel. <lb></lb></s>
10152
10153 <s>A wheel fifteen feet high raises the piston-rods of all these pumps at the
10154 same <lb></lb>time and causes them to drop together. </s>
10155
10156 <s>The wheel is made to revolve by <lb></lb>paddles, turned by the force of a stream
10157 which has been diverted to the <lb></lb>mountain. </s>
10158
10159 <s>The spokes of the water-wheel are mortised in an axle six feet <lb></lb>long and
10160 one foot thick, each end of which is surrounded by an iron band, <lb></lb>but in
10161 one end there is fixed an iron journal; to the other end is attached an
10162 <lb></lb>iron like this journal in its posterior part, which is a digit thick
10163 and as wide <lb></lb>as the end of the axle itself. </s>
10164
10165 <s>Then the iron extends horizontally, being <lb></lb>rounded and about three digits
10166 in diameter, for the length of a foot, and <lb></lb>serves as a journal; thence,
10167 it bends to a height of a foot in a curve, <lb></lb>like the horn of the moon,
10168 after which it again extends straight out for <lb></lb>one foot; thus it comes
10169 about that this last straight portion, as it <lb></lb>revolves in an orbit
10170 becomes alternately a foot higher and a foot lower than <lb></lb>the first
10171 straight part. </s>
10172
10173 <s>From this round iron crank there hangs the first flat <lb></lb>pump-rod, for the
10174 crank is fixed in a perforation in the upper end of this flat <lb></lb>pump-rod
10175 just as the iron key of the first set of “claws” is fixed into
10176 the <lb></lb>lower end. </s>
10177
10178 <s>In order to prevent the pump-rod from slipping off it, as it <lb></lb>could
10179 easily do, and that it may be taken off when necessary, its opening <lb></lb>is
10180 wider than the corresponding part of the crank, and it is fastened on
10181 <lb></lb>both sides by iron keys. </s>
10182
10183 <s>To prevent friction, the ends of the pump-rods are <lb></lb>protected by iron
10184 plates or intervening leathers. </s>
10185
10186 <s>This first pump-rod is <lb></lb>about twelve feet long, the other two are
10187 twenty-six feet, and each is a palm </s>
10188 </p>
10189 <pb pagenum="185"></pb>
10190 <figure></figure>
10191 <p type="caption">
10192
10193 <s>A—SHAFT. B—BOTTOM PUMP. C—FIRST TANK. D—SECOND PUMP.
10194 E—SECOND TANK. <lb></lb>F—THIRD PUMP. G—TROUGH. H—THE
10195 IRON SET IN THE AXLE. I—FIRST PUMP ROD. <lb></lb>K—SECOND PUMP ROD.
10196 L—THIRD PUMP ROD. M—FIRST PISTON ROD. N—SECOND <lb></lb>PISTON
10197 ROD. O—THIRD PISTON ROD. P—LITTLE AXLES.
10198 Q—“CLAWS.”<pb pagenum="186"></pb>wide and three digits
10199 thick. </s>
10200
10201 <s>The sides of each pump-rod are covered and <lb></lb>protected by iron plates,
10202 which are held on by iron screws, so that a part <lb></lb>which has received
10203 damage can be repaired. </s>
10204
10205 <s>In the “claws” is set a <lb></lb>small round axle, a foot and a half
10206 long and two palms thick. </s>
10207
10208 <s>The ends are <lb></lb>encircled by iron bands to prevent the iron journals which
10209 revolve in the <lb></lb>iron bearings of the wood from slipping out of it.<emph type="sup"></emph>15<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> From this little axle <lb></lb>the
10210 wooden “claws” extend two feet, with a width and thickness of
10211 six <lb></lb>digits; they are three palms distant from each other, and both the
10212 inner and <lb></lb>outer sides are covered with iron plates. </s>
10213
10214 <s>Two rounded iron keys two digits <lb></lb>thick are immovably fixed into the
10215 claws. </s>
10216
10217 <s>The one of these keys per­<lb></lb>forates the lower end of the first
10218 pump-rod, and the upper end of the second <lb></lb>pump-rod which is held fast. </s>
10219
10220 <s>The other key, which is likewise immovable, <lb></lb>perforates the iron end of
10221 the first piston-rod, which is bent in a curve and <lb></lb>is immovable. </s>
10222
10223 <s>Each such piston-rod is thirteen feet long and three digits <lb></lb>thick, and
10224 descends into the first pipe of each pump to such depth that its <lb></lb>disc
10225 nearly reaches the valve-box. </s>
10226
10227 <s>When it descends into the pipe, the <lb></lb>water, penetrating through the
10228 openings of the disc, raises the leather, and <lb></lb>when the piston-rod is
10229 raised the water presses down the leather, and this <lb></lb>supports its
10230 weight; then the valve closes the box as a door closes an <lb></lb>entrance. </s>
10231
10232 <s>The pipes are joined by two iron bands, one palm wide, one <lb></lb>outside the
10233 other, but the inner one is sharp all round that it may <lb></lb>fit into each
10234 pipe and hold them together. </s>
10235
10236 <s>Although at the present time <lb></lb>pipes lack the inner band, still they have
10237 nipples by which they are joined <lb></lb>together, for the lower end of the
10238 upper one holds the upper end of the lower <lb></lb>one, each being hewn away
10239 for a length of seven digits, the former inside, the <lb></lb>latter outside, so
10240 that the one can fit into the other. </s>
10241
10242 <s>When the piston-rod <lb></lb>descends into the first pipe, that valve which I
10243 have described is closed; <lb></lb>when the piston-rod is raised, the valve is
10244 opened so that the water can run <lb></lb>in through the perforations. </s>
10245
10246 <s>Each one of such pumps is composed of two <lb></lb>lengths of pipe, each of which
10247 is twelve feet long, and the inside diameter is <lb></lb>seven digits. </s>
10248
10249 <s>The lower one is placed in the sump of the shaft, or in a tank, <lb></lb>and its
10250 lower end is blocked by a round piece of wood, above which there are
10251 <lb></lb>six perforations around the pipe through which the water flows into it. </s>
10252
10253 <s>The <lb></lb>upper part of the upper pipe has a notch one foot deep and a palm
10254 wide, <lb></lb>through which the water flows away into a tank or trough. </s>
10255
10256 <s>Each tank is <lb></lb>two feet long and one foot wide and deep. </s>
10257
10258 <s>There is the same number of <lb></lb>axles, “claws,” and rods of each
10259 kind as there are pumps; if there are three <lb></lb>pumps, there are only two
10260 tanks, because-the sump of the shaft and the drain <lb></lb>of the tunnel take
10261 the place of two. </s>
10262
10263 <s>The following is the way this machine <lb></lb>draws water from a shaft. </s>
10264
10265 <s>The wheel being turned raises the first pump­<lb></lb>rod, and the pump-rod
10266 raises the first “claw,” and thus also the second <lb></lb>pump-rod,
10267 and the first piston-rod; then the second pump-rod raises the <lb></lb>second
10268 “claw,” and thus the third pump-rod and the second piston-rod;
10269 <lb></lb>then the third pump-rod raises the third “claw” and the
10270 third piston-rod, <pb pagenum="187"></pb>for there hangs no pump-rod from the
10271 iron key of these claws, for it can be of <lb></lb>no use in the last pump. </s>
10272
10273 <s>In turn, when the first pump-rod descends, each <lb></lb>set of
10274 “claws” is lowered, each pump-rod and each piston-rod. </s>
10275
10276 <s>And by this <lb></lb>system, at the same time the water is lifted into the tanks
10277 and drained out of <lb></lb>them; from the sump at the bottom of the shaft it is
10278 drained out, and it <lb></lb>is poured into the trough of the tunnel. </s>
10279
10280 <s>Further, around the main axle there <lb></lb>may be placed two water wheels, if
10281 the river supplies enough water to turn <lb></lb>them, and from the back part of
10282 each round iron crank, one or two pump-rods <lb></lb>can be hung, each of which
10283 can move the piston-rods of three pumps. <lb></lb></s>
10284
10285 <s>Lastly, it is necessary that the shafts from which the water is pumped out in
10286 <lb></lb>pipes should be vertical, for as in the case of the hauling machines,
10287 all pumps <lb></lb>which have pipes do not draw the water so high if the pipes
10288 are inclined in <lb></lb>inclined shafts, as if they are placed vertically in
10289 vertical shafts.</s>
10290 </p>
10291 <p type="main">
10292
10293 <s>If the river does not supply enough water-power to turn the
10294 last­<lb></lb>described pump, which happens because of the nature of the
10295 locality <lb></lb>or occurs during the summer season when there are daily
10296 droughts, a <lb></lb>machine is built with a wheel so low and light that the
10297 water of ever so little a </s>
10298 </p>
10299 <figure></figure>
10300 <p type="caption">
10301
10302 <s>A—WATER WHEEL OF UPPER MACHINE. B—ITS PUMP. C—ITS TROUGH.
10303 D—WHEEL OF <lb></lb>LOWER MACHINE. E—ITS PUMP. F—RACE.<pb pagenum="188"></pb>stream can turn it. </s>
10304
10305 <s>This water, falling into a race, runs therefrom on to a <lb></lb>second high and
10306 heavy wheel of a lower machine, whose pump lifts the water <lb></lb>out of a
10307 deep shaft. </s>
10308
10309 <s>Since, however, the water of so small a stream cannot <lb></lb>alone revolve the
10310 lower water-wheel, the axle of the latter is turned at the start <lb></lb>with a
10311 crank worked by two men, but as soon as it has poured out into a pool
10312 <lb></lb>the water which has been drawn up by the pumps, the upper wheel draws
10313 <lb></lb>up this water by its own pump, and pours it into the race, from which
10314 it <lb></lb>flows on to the lower water-wheel and strikes its buckets. </s>
10315
10316 <s>So both this <lb></lb>water from the mine, as well as the water of the stream,
10317 being turned down <lb></lb>the races on to that subterranean wheel of the lower
10318 machine, turns it, and <lb></lb>water is pumped out of the deeper part of the
10319 shaft by means of two or <lb></lb>three pumps.<emph type="sup"></emph>16<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
10320 </p>
10321 <p type="main">
10322
10323 <s>If the stream supplies enough water straightway to turn a higher and
10324 <lb></lb>heavier water-wheel, then a toothed drum is fixed to the other end of
10325 the <lb></lb>axle, and this turns the drum made of rundles on another axle set
10326 below it. <lb></lb></s>
10327
10328 <s>To each end of this lower axle there is fitted a crank of round iron curved
10329 <lb></lb>like the horns of the moon, of the kind employed in machines of this
10330 <lb></lb>description. </s>
10331
10332 <s>This machine, since it has rows of pumps on each side, <lb></lb>draws great
10333 quantities of water.</s>
10334 </p>
10335 <p type="main">
10336
10337 <s>Of the rag and chain pumps there are six kinds known to us, of which <lb></lb>the
10338 first is made as follows: A cave is dug under the surface of earth or in a
10339 <lb></lb>tunnel, and timbered on all sides by stout posts and planks, to prevent
10340 either <lb></lb>the men from being crushed or the machine from being broken by
10341 its collapse. <lb></lb></s>
10342
10343 <s>In this cave, thus timbered, is placed a water-wheel fitted to an angular
10344 axle. <lb></lb></s>
10345
10346 <s>The iron journals of the axle revolve in iron pillows, which are held in
10347 timbers <lb></lb>of sufficient strength. </s>
10348
10349 <s>The wheel is generally twenty-four feet high, <lb></lb>occasionally thirty, and
10350 in no way different from those which are made for <lb></lb>grinding corn, except
10351 that it is a little narrower. </s>
10352
10353 <s>The axle has on one side <lb></lb>a drum with a groove in the middle of its
10354 circumference, to which are fixed <lb></lb>many four-curved iron clamps. </s>
10355
10356 <s>In these clamps catch the links of the chain, <lb></lb>which is drawn through the
10357 pipes out of the sump, and which again falls, <lb></lb>through a timbered
10358 opening, right down to the bottom into the sump to a <lb></lb>balancing drum. </s>
10359
10360 <s>There is an iron band around the small axle of the <lb></lb>balancing drum, each
10361 journal of which revolves in an iron bearing fixed to a <lb></lb>timber. </s>
10362
10363 <s>The chain turning about this drum brings up the water by the <lb></lb>balls
10364 through the pipes. </s>
10365
10366 <s>Each length of pipe is encircled and protected by <lb></lb>five iron bands, a
10367 palm wide and a digit thick, placed at equal distances from <lb></lb>each other;
10368 the first band on the pipe is shared in common with the <lb></lb>preceding
10369 length of pipe into which it is fitted, the last band with the
10370 succeed­<lb></lb>ing length of pipe which is fitted into it. </s>
10371
10372 <s>Each length of pipe, except the <lb></lb>first, is bevelled on the outer
10373 circumference of the upper end to a distance <lb></lb>of seven digits and for a
10374 depth of three digits, in order that it may be inserted <lb></lb>into the length
10375 of pipe which goes before it; each, except the last, is reamed <lb></lb>out on
10376 the inside of the lower end to a like distance, but to the depth </s>
10377 </p>
10378 <pb pagenum="189"></pb>
10379 <figure></figure>
10380 <p type="caption">
10381
10382 <s>A—UPPER AXLE. B—WHEEL WHOSE BUCKETS THE FORCE OF THE STREAM
10383 STRIKES. <lb></lb>C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—SECOND AXLE. E—DRUM
10384 COMPOSED OF RUNDLES. F—CURVED <lb></lb>ROUND IRONS. G—ROWS OF
10385 PUMPS.<pb pagenum="190"></pb>of a palm, that it may be able to take the end
10386 of the pipe which <lb></lb>follows. </s>
10387
10388 <s>And each length of pipe is fixed with iron clamps to the timbers of <lb></lb>the
10389 shaft, that it may remain stationary. </s>
10390
10391 <s>Through this continuous series <lb></lb>of pipes, the water is drawn by the balls
10392 of the chain up out of the sump as <lb></lb>far as the tunnel, where it flows
10393 out into the drains through an aperture in <lb></lb>the highest pipe. </s>
10394
10395 <s>The balls which lift the water are connected by the iron <lb></lb>links of the
10396 chain, and are six feet distant from one another; they are made <lb></lb>of the
10397 hair of a horse&#039;s tail sewn into a covering to prevent it from being
10398 <lb></lb>pulled out by the iron clamps on the drum; the balls are of such size
10399 that <lb></lb>one can be held in each hand. </s>
10400
10401 <s>If this machine is set up on the surface of <lb></lb>the earth, the stream which
10402 turns the water-wheel is led away through open­<lb></lb>air ditches; if in a
10403 tunnel, the water is led away through the subterranean <lb></lb>drains. </s>
10404
10405 <s>The buckets of the water-wheel, when struck by the impact of the <lb></lb>stream,
10406 move forward and turn the wheel, together with the drum, whereby <lb></lb>the
10407 chain is wound up and the balls expel the water through the pipes. </s>
10408
10409 <s>If <lb></lb>the wheel of this machine is twenty-four feet in diameter, it draws
10410 water from a <lb></lb>shaft two hundred and ten feet deep; if thirty feet in
10411 diameter, it will draw <lb></lb>water from a shaft two hundred and forty feet
10412 deep. </s>
10413
10414 <s>But such work requires <lb></lb>a stream with greater water-power.</s>
10415 </p>
10416 <p type="main">
10417
10418 <s>The next pump has two drums, two rows of pipes and two
10419 drawing­<lb></lb>chains whose balls lift out the water; otherwise they are
10420 like the last pump. <lb></lb></s>
10421
10422 <s>This pump is usually built when an excessive amount of water flows into the
10423 <lb></lb>sump. </s>
10424
10425 <s>These two pumps are turned by water-power; indeed, water draws
10426 <lb></lb>water.</s>
10427 </p>
10428 <p type="main">
10429
10430 <s>The following is the way of indicating the increase or decrease of the
10431 <lb></lb>water in an underground sump, whether it is pumped by this rag and
10432 chain <lb></lb>pump or by the first pump, or the third, or some other. </s>
10433
10434 <s>From a beam which <lb></lb>is as high above the shaft as the sump is deep, is
10435 hung a cord, to one <lb></lb>end of which there is fastened a stone, the other
10436 end being attached to a <lb></lb>plank. </s>
10437
10438 <s>The plank is lowered down by an iron wire fastened to the <lb></lb>other end;
10439 when the stone is at the mouth of the shaft the plank <lb></lb>is right down the
10440 shaft in the sump, in which water it floats. </s>
10441
10442 <s>This <lb></lb>plank is so heavy that it can drag down the wire and its iron clasp
10443 and <lb></lb>hook, together with the cord, and thus pull the stone upwards. </s>
10444
10445 <s>Thus, as <lb></lb>the water decreases, the plank decends and the stone is raised;
10446 on the <lb></lb>contrary, when the water increases the plank rises and the stone
10447 is lowered. <lb></lb></s>
10448
10449 <s>When the stone nearly touches the beam, since this indicates that the water
10450 <lb></lb>has been exhausted from the sump by the pump, the overseer in charge of
10451 the <lb></lb>machine closes the water-race and stops the water-wheel: when the
10452 stone <lb></lb>nearly touches the ground at the side of the shaft, this
10453 indicates that the <lb></lb>sump is full of water which has again collected in
10454 it, because the water raises <lb></lb>the plank and thus the stone drags back
10455 both the rope and the iron wire; <lb></lb>then the overseer opens the
10456 water-race, whereupon the water of the stream <lb></lb>again strikes the buckets
10457 of the water-wheel and turns the pump. </s>
10458
10459 <s>As <lb></lb>workmen generally cease from their labours on the yearly holidays,
10460 and </s>
10461 </p>
10462 <pb pagenum="191"></pb>
10463 <figure></figure>
10464 <p type="caption">
10465
10466 <s>A—WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—JOURNALS. D—PILLOWS. E—DRUM.
10467 F—CLAMPS. <lb></lb>G—DRAWING-CHAIN. H—TIMBERS. I—BALLS.
10468 K—PIPE. L—RACE OF STREAM.<pb pagenum="192"></pb>sometimes on working
10469 days, and are thus not always near the pump, and as <lb></lb>the pump, if
10470 necessary, must continue to draw water all the time, a bell rings <lb></lb>aloud
10471 continuously, indicating that this pump, or any other kind, is uninjured
10472 <lb></lb>and nothing is preventing its turning. </s>
10473
10474 <s>The bell is hung by a cord from <lb></lb>a small wooden axle held in the timbers
10475 which stand over the shaft, and <lb></lb>a second long cord whose upper end is
10476 fastened to the small axle is lowered <lb></lb>into the shaft; to the lower end
10477 of this cord is fastened a piece of wood; <lb></lb>and as often as a cam on the
10478 main axle strikes it, so often does the bell ring <lb></lb>and give forth a
10479 sound.</s>
10480 </p>
10481 <p type="main">
10482
10483 <s>The third pump of this kind is employed by miners when no river capable
10484 <lb></lb>of turning a water-wheel can be diverted, and it is made as follows. </s>
10485
10486 <s>They <lb></lb>first dig a chamber and erect strong timbers and planks to prevent
10487 the sides <lb></lb>from falling in, which would overwhelm the pump and kill the
10488 men. </s>
10489
10490 <s>The <lb></lb>roof of the chamber is protected with contiguous timbers, so
10491 arranged that <lb></lb>the horses which pull the machine can travel over it. </s>
10492
10493 <s>Next they again set up <lb></lb>sixteen beams forty feet long and one foot wide
10494 and thick, joined by clamps <lb></lb>at the top and spreading apart at the
10495 bottom, and they fit the lower end <lb></lb>of each beam into a separate sill
10496 laid flat on the ground, and join these by a <lb></lb>post; thus there is
10497 created a circular area of which the diameter is fifty <lb></lb>feet. </s>
10498
10499 <s>Through an opening in the centre of this area there descends an <lb></lb>upright
10500 square axle, forty-five feet long and a foot and a half wide and thick;
10501 <lb></lb>its lower pivot revolves in a socket in a block laid flat on the ground
10502 in the <lb></lb>chamber, and the upper pivot revolves in a bearing in a beam
10503 which is mor­<lb></lb>tised into two beams at the summit beneath the clamps;
10504 the lower pivot is <lb></lb>seventeen feet distant from either side of the
10505 chamber, <emph type="italics"></emph>i.e.,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> from its
10506 front and <lb></lb>rear. </s>
10507
10508 <s>At the height of a foot above its lower end, the axle has a toothed wheel,
10509 <lb></lb>the diameter of which is twenty-two feet. </s>
10510
10511 <s>This wheel is composed of four <lb></lb>spokes and eight rim pieces; the spokes
10512 are fifteen feet long and three­<lb></lb>quarters of a foot wide and
10513 thick<emph type="sup"></emph>17<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; one end of them is
10514 mortised in the axle, <lb></lb>the other in the two rims where they are joined
10515 together. </s>
10516
10517 <s>These rims are three­<lb></lb>quarters of a foot thick and one foot wide, and
10518 from them there rise and <lb></lb>project upright teeth three-quarters of a foot
10519 high, half a foot wide, and six <lb></lb>digits thick. </s>
10520
10521 <s>These teeth turn a second horizontal axle by means of a drum <lb></lb>composed of
10522 twelve rundles, each three feet long and six digits wide and <lb></lb>thick. </s>
10523
10524 <s>This drum, being turned, causes the axle to revolve, and around this
10525 <lb></lb>axle there is a drum having iron clamps with four-fold curves in which
10526 catch <lb></lb>the links of a chain, which draws water through pipes by means of
10527 balls. <lb></lb></s>
10528
10529 <s>The iron journals of this horizontal axle revolve on pillows which are set in
10530 <lb></lb>the centre of timbers. </s>
10531
10532 <s>Above the roof of the chamber there are mortised <lb></lb>into the upright axle
10533 the ends of two beams which rise obliquely; the upper <lb></lb>ends of these
10534 beams support double cross-beams, likewise mortised to the <lb></lb>axle. </s>
10535
10536 <s>In the outer end of each cross-beam there is mortised a small wooden
10537 <lb></lb>piece which appears to hang down; in this wooden piece there is
10538 similarly </s>
10539 </p>
10540 <pb pagenum="193"></pb>
10541 <figure></figure>
10542 <p type="caption">
10543
10544 <s>A—UPRIGHT AXLE. B—TOOTHED WHEEL. C—TEETH.
10545 D—HORIZONTAL AXLE. <lb></lb>E—DRUM WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES.
10546 F—SECOND DRUM. G—DRAWING-CHAIN. <lb></lb>H—THE BALLS.<pb pagenum="194"></pb>mortised at the lower end a short board; this has an iron
10547 key which engages <lb></lb>a chain, and this chain again a pole-bar. </s>
10548
10549 <s>This machine, which draws water <lb></lb>from a shaft two hundred and forty feet
10550 deep, is worked by thirty-two horses; <lb></lb>eight of them work for four
10551 hours, and then these rest for twelve hours, and <lb></lb>the same number take
10552 their place. </s>
10553
10554 <s>This kind of machine is employed at the <lb></lb>foot of the Harz<emph type="sup"></emph>18<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> mountains and in the neighbourhood. </s>
10555
10556 <s>Further, if <lb></lb>necessity arises, several pumps of this kind are often built
10557 for the purpose of <lb></lb>mining one vein, but arranged differently in
10558 different localities varying <lb></lb>according to the depth. </s>
10559
10560 <s>At Schemnitz, in the Carpathian mountains, there <lb></lb>are three pumps, of
10561 which the lowest lifts water from the lowest sump to <lb></lb>the first drains,
10562 through which it flows into the second sump; the intermediate <lb></lb>one lifts
10563 from the second sump to the second drain, from which it flows into <lb></lb>the
10564 third sump; and the upper one lifts it to the drains of the tunnel, through
10565 <lb></lb>which it flows away. </s>
10566
10567 <s>This system of three machines of this kind is turned <lb></lb>by ninety-six
10568 horses; these horses go down to the machines by an inclined </s>
10569 </p>
10570 <figure></figure>
10571 <p type="caption">
10572
10573 <s>A—AXLE. B—DRUM. C—DRAWING-CHAIN. D—BALLS.
10574 E—CLAMPS.<pb pagenum="195"></pb>shaft, which slopes and twists like a
10575 screw and gradually descends. </s>
10576
10577 <s>The <lb></lb>lowest of these machines is set in a deep place, which is distant
10578 from the <lb></lb>surface of the ground 660 feet.</s>
10579 </p>
10580 <p type="main">
10581
10582 <s>The fourth species of pump belongs to the same genera, and is made <lb></lb>as
10583 follows. </s>
10584
10585 <s>Two timbers are erected, and in openings in them, the ends of a <lb></lb>barrel
10586 revolve. </s>
10587
10588 <s>Two or four strong men turn the barrel, that is to say, one <lb></lb>or two pull
10589 the cranks, and one or two push them, and in this way help the <lb></lb>others;
10590 alternately another two or four men take their place. </s>
10591
10592 <s>The barrel <lb></lb>of this machine, just like the horizontal axle of the other
10593 machines, has a <lb></lb>drum whose iron clamps catch the links of a
10594 drawing-chain. </s>
10595
10596 <s>Thus water <lb></lb>is drawn through the pipes by the balls from a depth of
10597 forty-eight feet. <lb></lb></s>
10598
10599 <s>Human strength cannot draw water higher than this, because such very
10600 <lb></lb>heavy labour exhausts not only men, but even horses; only water-power
10601 <lb></lb>can drive continuously a drum of this kind. </s>
10602
10603 <s>Several pumps of this kind, as <lb></lb>of the last, are often built for the
10604 purpose of mining on a single vein, <lb></lb>but they are arranged differently
10605 for different positions and depths.</s>
10606 </p>
10607 <figure></figure>
10608 <p type="caption">
10609
10610 <s>A—AXLES. B—LEVERS. C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—DRUM MADE OF
10611 RUNDLES. <lb></lb>E—DRUM IN WHICH IRON CLAMPS ARE FIXED.</s>
10612 </p>
10613 <pb pagenum="196"></pb>
10614 <p type="main">
10615
10616 <s>The fifth pump of this kind is partly like the third and partly like the
10617 <lb></lb>fourth, because it is turned by strong men like the last, and like the
10618 third <lb></lb>it has two axles and three drums, though each axle is horizontal. </s>
10619
10620 <s>The <lb></lb>journals of each axle are so fitted in the pillows of the beams that
10621 they cannot <lb></lb>fly out; the lower axle has a crank at one end and a
10622 toothed drum at the <lb></lb>other end; the upper axle has at one end a drum
10623 made of rundles, and at <lb></lb>the other end, a drum to which are fixed iron
10624 clamps, in which the links of a <lb></lb>chain catch in the same way as before,
10625 and from the same depth, draw water <lb></lb>through pipes by means of balls. </s>
10626
10627 <s>This revolving machine is turned by two <lb></lb>pairs of men alternately, for
10628 one pair stands working while the other sits <lb></lb>taking a rest; while they
10629 are engaged upon the task of turning, one pulls <lb></lb>the crank and the other
10630 pushes, and the drums help to make the pump turn <lb></lb>more easily.</s>
10631 </p>
10632 <p type="main">
10633
10634 <s>The sixth pump of this kind likewise has two axles. </s>
10635
10636 <s>At one end of the <lb></lb>lower axle is a wheel which is turned by two men
10637 treading, this is twenty­<lb></lb>three feet high and four feet wide, so
10638 that one man may stand alongside <lb></lb>the other. </s>
10639
10640 <s>At the other end of this axle is a toothed wheel. </s>
10641
10642 <s>The upper<emph type="sup"></emph>19<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>axle has two drums
10643 and one wheel; the first drum is made of rundles, and to <lb></lb>the other
10644 there are fixed the iron clamps. </s>
10645
10646 <s>The wheel is like the one on the <lb></lb>second machine which is chiefly used
10647 for drawing earth and broken rock <lb></lb>out of shafts. </s>
10648
10649 <s>The treaders, to prevent themselves from falling, grasp in <lb></lb>their hands
10650 poles which are fixed to the inner sides of the wheel. </s>
10651
10652 <s>When <lb></lb>they turn this wheel, the toothed drum being made to revolve, sets
10653 in motion <lb></lb>the other drum which is made of rundles, by which means again
10654 the links <lb></lb>of the chain catch to the cleats of the third drum and draw
10655 water through <lb></lb>pipes by means of balls,—from a depth of sixty-six
10656 feet.</s>
10657 </p>
10658 <p type="main">
10659
10660 <s>But the largest machine of all those which draw water is the one which
10661 <lb></lb>follows. </s>
10662
10663 <s>First of all a reservoir is made in a timbered chamber; this
10664 reser­<lb></lb>voir is eighteen feet long and twelve feet wide and high. </s>
10665
10666 <s>Into this reservoir <lb></lb>a stream is diverted through a water-race or through
10667 the tunnel; it has two <lb></lb>entrances and the same number of gates. </s>
10668
10669 <s>Levers are fixed to the upper part <lb></lb>of these gates, by which they can be
10670 raised and let down again, so that by one <lb></lb>way the gates are opened and
10671 in the other way closed. </s>
10672
10673 <s>Beneath the openings <lb></lb>are two plank troughs which carry the water flowing
10674 from the reservoir, and <lb></lb>pour it on to the buckets of the water-wheel,
10675 the impact of which turns the <lb></lb>wheel. </s>
10676
10677 <s>The shorter trough carries the water, which strikes the buckets <lb></lb>that
10678 turn the wheel toward the reservoir, and the longer trough carries <lb></lb>the
10679 water which strikes those buckets that turn the wheel in the opposite
10680 <lb></lb>direction. </s>
10681
10682 <s>The casing or covering of the wheel is made of joined boards to <lb></lb>which
10683 strips are affixed on the inner side. </s>
10684
10685 <s>The wheel itself is thirty-six feet <lb></lb>in diameter, and is mortised to an
10686 axle, and it has, as I have already said, <lb></lb>two rows of buckets, of which
10687 one is set the opposite way to the other, so <lb></lb>that the wheel may be
10688 turned toward the reservoir or in the opposite </s>
10689 </p>
10690 <pb pagenum="197"></pb>
10691 <figure></figure>
10692 <p type="caption">
10693
10694 <s>A—AXLES. B—WHEEL WHICH IS TURNED BY TREADING. C—TOOTHED
10695 WHEEL. <lb></lb>D—DRUM MADE OF RUNDLES. E—DRUM TO WHICH ARE FIXED
10696 IRON CLAMPS. <lb></lb>F—SECOND WHEEL. G—BALLS.<pb pagenum="198"></pb>direction. </s>
10697
10698 <s>The axle is square and is thirty-five feet long and two feet thick <lb></lb>and
10699 wide. </s>
10700
10701 <s>Beyond the wheel, at a distance of six feet, the axle has four hubs, <lb></lb>one
10702 foot wide and thick, each one of which is four feet distant from the
10703 next<gap></gap><lb></lb>to these hubs are fixed by iron nails as many pieces of wood
10704 as are necessary <lb></lb>to cover the hubs, and, in order that the wood pieces
10705 may fit tight, they are <lb></lb>broader on the outside and narrower on the
10706 inside; in this way a drum is <lb></lb>made, around which is wound a chain to
10707 whose ends are hooked leather bags. <lb></lb></s>
10708
10709 <s>The reason why a drum of this kind is made, is that the axle may be kept in
10710 <lb></lb>good condition, because this drum when it becomes worn away by use can
10711 <lb></lb>be repaired easily. </s>
10712
10713 <s>Further along the axle, not far from the end, is another <lb></lb>drum one foot
10714 broad, projecting two feet on all sides around the axle. </s>
10715
10716 <s>And <lb></lb>to this, when occasion demands, a brake is applied forcibly and
10717 holds back <lb></lb>the machine; this kind of brake I have explained before. </s>
10718
10719 <s>Near the axle, <lb></lb>in place of a hopper, there is a floor with a
10720 considerable slope, having in <lb></lb>front of the shaft a width of fifteen
10721 feet and the same at the back; at each <lb></lb>side of it there is a stout post
10722 carrying an iron chain which has a large hook. <lb></lb></s>
10723
10724 <s>Five men operate this machine; one lets down the doors which close the
10725 <lb></lb>reservoir gates, or by drawing down the levers, opens the water-races;
10726 this <lb></lb>man, who is the director of this machine, stands in a hanging cage
10727 beside the <lb></lb>reservoir. </s>
10728
10729 <s>When one bag has been drawn out nearly as far as the sloping <lb></lb>floor, he
10730 closes the water gate in order that the wheel may be stopped; when <lb></lb>the
10731 bag has been emptied he opens the other water gate, in order that the
10732 <lb></lb>other set of buckets may receive the water and drive the wheel in the
10733 opposite <lb></lb>direction. </s>
10734
10735 <s>If he cannot close the water-gate quickly enough, and the water
10736 <lb></lb>continues to flow, he calls out to his comrade and bids him raise the
10737 brake <lb></lb>upon the drum and stop the wheel. </s>
10738
10739 <s>Two men alternately empty the bags, <lb></lb>one standing on that part of the
10740 floor which is in front of the shaft, <lb></lb>and the other on that part which
10741 is at the back. </s>
10742
10743 <s>When the bag has been <lb></lb>nearly drawn up—of which fact a certain link
10744 of the chain gives warning—the <lb></lb>man who stands on the one part of
10745 the floor, catches a large iron hook in one <lb></lb>link of the chain, and
10746 pulls out all the subsequent part of the chain toward <lb></lb>the floor, where
10747 the bag is emptied by the other man. </s>
10748
10749 <s>The object of this <lb></lb>hook is to prevent the chain, by its own weight, from
10750 pulling down the <lb></lb>other empty bag, and thus pulling the whole chain from
10751 its axle and <lb></lb>dropping it down the shaft. </s>
10752
10753 <s>His comrade in the work, seeing that the bag <lb></lb>filled with water has been
10754 nearly drawn out, calls to the director of the <lb></lb>machine and bids him
10755 close the water of the tower so that there will be time <lb></lb>to empty the
10756 bag; this being emptied, the director of the machine first of <lb></lb>all
10757 slightly opens the other water-gate of the tower to allow the end of the
10758 <lb></lb>chain, together with the empty bag, to be started into the shaft again,
10759 and <lb></lb>then opens entirely the water-gates. </s>
10760
10761 <s>When that part of the chain which <lb></lb>has been pulled on to the floor has
10762 been wound up again, and has been let <lb></lb>down over the shaft from the
10763 drum, he takes out the large hook which was <lb></lb>fastened into a link of the
10764 chain. </s>
10765
10766 <s>The fifth man stands in a sort of cross-cut <lb></lb>beside the sump, that he may
10767 not be hurt, if it should happen that a link </s>
10768 </p>
10769 <pb pagenum="199"></pb>
10770 <figure></figure>
10771 <p type="caption">
10772
10773 <s>A—RESERVOIR. B—RACE. C, D—LEVERS. E, F—TROUGHS UNDER
10774 THE WATER GATES. <lb></lb>G, H—DOUBLE ROWS OF BUCKETS. I—AXLE.
10775 K—LARGER DRUM. L—DRAWING-CHAIN. <lb></lb>M—BAG.
10776 N—HANGING CAGE. O—MAN WHO DIRECTS THE MACHINE. P, Q—MEN
10777 <lb></lb>EMPTYING BAGS.<pb pagenum="200"></pb>is broken and part of the chain or
10778 anything else should fall down; he guides <lb></lb>the bag with a wooden shovel,
10779 and fills it with water if it fails to take <lb></lb>in the water spontaneously. </s>
10780
10781 <s>In these days, they sew an iron band into the <lb></lb>top of each bag that it
10782 may constantly remain open, and when lowered into <lb></lb>the sump may fill
10783 itself with water, and there is no need for a man to act as <lb></lb>governor of
10784 the bags. </s>
10785
10786 <s>Further, in these days, of those men who stand on <lb></lb>the floor the one
10787 empties the bags, and the other closes the gates of the <lb></lb>reservoir and
10788 opens them again, and the same man usually fixes the large <lb></lb>hook in the
10789 link of the chain. </s>
10790
10791 <s>In this way, three men only are employed in <lb></lb>working this machine; or
10792 even—since sometimes the one who empties the <lb></lb>bag presses the
10793 brake which is raised against the other drum and thus stops <lb></lb>the
10794 wheel—two men take upon themselves the whole labour.</s>
10795 </p>
10796 <p type="main">
10797
10798 <s>But enough of haulage machines; I will now speak of ventilating
10799 <lb></lb>machines. </s>
10800
10801 <s>If a shaft is very deep and no tunnel reaches to it, or no drift <lb></lb>from
10802 another shaft connects with it, or when a tunnel is of great length and
10803 <lb></lb>no shaft reaches to it, then the air does not replenish itself. </s>
10804
10805 <s>In such a case it <lb></lb>weighs heavily on the miners, causing them to breathe
10806 with difficulty, and <lb></lb>sometimes they are even suffocated, and burning
10807 lamps are also extinguished. <lb></lb></s>
10808
10809 <s>There is, therefore, a necessity for machines which the Greeks call
10810 <lb></lb><foreign lang="grc">πνευματικάι</foreign> and the Latins <emph type="italics"></emph>spiritales<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>—though they
10811 do not give forth any <lb></lb>sound—which enable the miners to breathe
10812 easily and carry on their work.</s>
10813 </p>
10814 <p type="main">
10815
10816 <s>These devices are of three genera. </s>
10817
10818 <s>The first receives and diverts into <lb></lb>the shaft the blowing of the wind,
10819 and this genus is divided into three species, <lb></lb>of which the first is as
10820 follows. </s>
10821
10822 <s>Over the shaft—to which no tunnel connects— <lb></lb>are placed three
10823 sills a little longer than the shaft, the first over the front, <lb></lb>the
10824 second over the middle, and the third over the back of the shaft. </s>
10825
10826 <s>Their <lb></lb>ends have openings, through which pegs, sharpened at the bottom,
10827 are driven <lb></lb>deeply into the ground so as to hold them immovable, in the
10828 same way that <lb></lb>the sills of the windlass are fixed. </s>
10829
10830 <s>Each of these sills is mortised into each <lb></lb>of three cross-beams, of which
10831 one is at the right side of the shaft, the second <lb></lb>at the left, and the
10832 third in the middle. </s>
10833
10834 <s>To the second sill and the second <lb></lb>cross-beam—each of which is
10835 placed over the middle of the shaft—planks <lb></lb>are fixed which are
10836 joined in such a manner that the one which precedes <lb></lb>always fits into
10837 the groove of the one which follows. </s>
10838
10839 <s>In this way four angles <lb></lb>and the same number of intervening hollows are
10840 created, which collect the <lb></lb>winds that blow from all directions. </s>
10841
10842 <s>The planks are roofed above with a <lb></lb>cover made in a circular shape, and
10843 are open below, in order that the wind may <lb></lb>not be diverted upward and
10844 escape, but may be carried downward; and there­<lb></lb>by the winds of
10845 necessity blow into the shafts through these four openings. <lb></lb></s>
10846
10847 <s>However, there is no need to roof this kind of machine in those localities in
10848 <lb></lb>which it can be so placed that the wind can blow down through its
10849 topmost <lb></lb>part.</s>
10850 </p>
10851 <pb pagenum="201"></pb>
10852 <figure></figure>
10853 <p type="caption">
10854
10855 <s>A—SILLS. B—POINTED STAKES. C—CROSS-BEAMS. D—UPRIGHT
10856 PLANKS. <lb></lb>E—HOLLOWS. F—WINDS. G—COVERING DISC.
10857 H—SHAFTS. I—MACHINE <lb></lb>WITHOUT A COVERING.</s>
10858 </p>
10859 <p type="main">
10860
10861 <s>The second machine of this genus turns the blowing wind into a shaft
10862 <lb></lb>through a long box-shaped conduit, which is made of as many lengths of
10863 <lb></lb>planks, joined together, as the depth of the shaft requires; the joints
10864 are <lb></lb>smeared with fat, glutinous clay moistened with water. </s>
10865
10866 <s>The mouth of this con­<lb></lb>duit either projects out of the shaft to a
10867 height of three or four feet, or it does <lb></lb>not project; if it projects,
10868 it is shaped like a rectangular funnel, broader and <lb></lb>wider at the top
10869 than the conduit itself, that it may the more easily gather <lb></lb>the wind;
10870 if it does not project, it is not broader than the conduit, but <lb></lb>planks
10871 are fixed to it away from the direction in which the wind is blowing,
10872 <lb></lb>which catch the wind and force it into the conduit.</s>
10873 </p>
10874 <p type="main">
10875
10876 <s>The third of this genus of machine is made of a pipe or pipes and <lb></lb>a
10877 barrel. </s>
10878
10879 <s>Above the uppermost pipe there is erected a wooden barrel, four </s>
10880 </p>
10881 <pb pagenum="202"></pb>
10882 <figure></figure>
10883 <p type="caption">
10884
10885 <s>A—PROJECTING MOUTH OF CONDUIT. B—PLANKS FIXED TO THE MOUTH OF THE
10886 CONDUIT <lb></lb>WHICH DOES NOT PROJECT.<lb></lb>feet high and three feet in
10887 diameter, bound with wooden hoops; it has a <lb></lb>square blow-hole always
10888 open, which catches the breezes and guides them <lb></lb>down either by a pipe
10889 into a conduit or by many pipes into the shaft. </s>
10890
10891 <s>To <lb></lb>the top of the upper pipe is attached a circular table as thick as
10892 <lb></lb>the bottom of the barrel, but of a little less diameter, so that the
10893 barrel may be <lb></lb>turned around on it; the pipe projects out of the table
10894 and is fixed in a <lb></lb>round opening in the centre of the bottom of the
10895 barrel. </s>
10896
10897 <s>To the end of the <lb></lb>pipe a perpendicular axle is fixed which runs through
10898 the centre of the barrel <lb></lb>into a hole in the cover, in which it is
10899 fastened, in the same way as at the <lb></lb>bottom. </s>
10900
10901 <s>Around this fixed axle and the table on the pipe, the movable <lb></lb>barrel is
10902 easily turned by a zephyr, or much more by a wind, which govern <lb></lb>the
10903 wing on it. </s>
10904
10905 <s>This wing is made of thin boards and fixed to the upper <lb></lb>part of the
10906 barrel on the side furthest away from the blow-hole; this, as I <lb></lb>have
10907 said, is square and always open. </s>
10908
10909 <s>The wind, from whatever quarter of <pb pagenum="203"></pb>the world it blows,
10910 drives the wing straight toward the opposite direction, in <lb></lb>which way
10911 the barrel turns the blow-hole towards the wind itself; the <lb></lb>blow-hole
10912 receives the wind, and it is guided down into the shaft by means <lb></lb>of the
10913 conduit or pipes.</s>
10914 </p>
10915 <figure></figure>
10916 <p type="caption">
10917
10918 <s>A—WOODEN BARRELS. B—HOOPS. C—BLOW-HOLES. D—PIPE.
10919 <lb></lb>E—TABLE. F—AXLE. G—OPENING IN THE BOTTOM OF THE
10920 BARREL. <lb></lb>H—WING.</s>
10921 </p>
10922 <p type="main">
10923
10924 <s>The second genus of blowing machine is made with fans, and is likewise
10925 <lb></lb>varied and of many forms, for the fans are either fitted to a windlass
10926 barrel <lb></lb>or to an axle. </s>
10927
10928 <s>If to an axle, they are either contained in a hollow drum, <lb></lb>which is made
10929 of two wheels and a number of boards joining them together, <lb></lb>or else in
10930 a box-shaped casing. </s>
10931
10932 <s>The drum is stationary and closed on the <lb></lb>sides, except for round holes
10933 of such size that the axle may turn in them; <lb></lb>it has two square
10934 blow-holes, of which the upper one receives the air, while <lb></lb>the lower
10935 one empties into the conduit through which the air is led down the
10936 <lb></lb>shaft. </s>
10937
10938 <s>The ends of the axle, which project on each side of the drum, are
10939 <lb></lb>supported by forked posts or hollowed beams plated with thick iron; one
10940 <lb></lb>end of the axle has a crank, while in the other end are fixed four rods
10941 with <lb></lb>thick heavy ends, so that they weight the axle, and when turned,
10942 make it </s>
10943 </p>
10944 <pb pagenum="204"></pb>
10945 <figure></figure>
10946 <p type="caption">
10947
10948 <s>A—DRUM. B—BOX-SHAPED CASING. C—BLOW-HOLE. D—SECOND
10949 HOLE. <lb></lb>E—CONDUIT. F—AXLE. G—LEVER OF AXLE.
10950 H—RODS.<pb pagenum="205"></pb>prone to motion as it revolves. </s>
10951
10952 <s>And so, when the workman turns the axle <lb></lb>by the crank, the fans, the
10953 description of which I will give a little later, draw <lb></lb>in the air by the
10954 blow-hole, and force it through the other blow-hole which <lb></lb>leads to the
10955 conduit, and through this conduit the air penetrates into the
10956 <lb></lb>shaft.</s>
10957 </p>
10958 <p type="main">
10959
10960 <s>The one with the box-shaped casing is furnished with just the same
10961 <lb></lb>things as the drum, but the drum is far superior to the box: for the
10962 fans so <lb></lb>fill the drum that they almost touch it on every side, and
10963 drive into the <lb></lb>conduit all the air that has been accumulated; but they
10964 cannot thus fill <lb></lb>the box-shaped casing, on account of its angles, into
10965 which the air partly <lb></lb>retreats; therefore it cannot be as useful as the
10966 drum. </s>
10967
10968 <s>The kind with a <lb></lb>box-shaped casing is not only placed on the ground, but
10969 is also set up on timbers <lb></lb>like a windmill, and its axle, in place of a
10970 crank, has four sails outside, <lb></lb>like the sails of a windmill. </s>
10971
10972 <s>When these are struck by the wind they turn <lb></lb>the axle, and in this way
10973 its fans—which are placed within the casing—drive </s>
10974 </p>
10975 <figure></figure>
10976 <p type="caption">
10977
10978 <s>A—BOX-SHAPED CASING PLACED ON THE GROUND. B—ITS BLOW-HOLE.
10979 C—ITS AXLE <lb></lb>WITH FANS. D—CRANK OF THE AXLE. E—RODS OF
10980 SAME. F—CASING SET ON TIMBERS. <lb></lb>G—SAILS WHICH THE AXLE HAS
10981 OUTSIDE THE CASING.<pb pagenum="206"></pb>the air through the blow-hole and the
10982 conduit into the shaft. </s>
10983
10984 <s>Although <lb></lb>this machine has no need of men whom it is necessary to pay to
10985 work the <lb></lb>crank, still when the sky is devoid of wind, as it often is,
10986 the machine does <lb></lb>not turn, and it is therefore less suitable than the
10987 others for ventilating a shaft.</s>
10988 </p>
10989 <p type="main">
10990
10991 <s>In the kind where the fans are fixed to an axle, there is generally a
10992 <lb></lb>hollow stationary drum at one end of the axle, and on the other end is
10993 fixed <lb></lb>a drum made of rundles. </s>
10994
10995 <s>This rundle drum is turned by the toothed wheel <lb></lb>of a lower axle, which
10996 is itself turned by a wheel whose buckets receive the <lb></lb>impetus of water. </s>
10997
10998 <s>If the locality supplies an abundance of water this <lb></lb>machine is most
10999 useful, because to turn the crank does not need men <lb></lb>who require pay,
11000 and because it forces air without cessation through the <lb></lb>conduit into
11001 the shaft.</s>
11002 </p>
11003 <figure></figure>
11004 <p type="caption">
11005
11006 <s>A—HOLLOW DRUM. B—ITS BLOW-HOLE. C—AXLE WITH FANS.
11007 D—DRUM <lb></lb>WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. E—LOWER AXLE. F—ITS
11008 TOOTHED WHEEL. <lb></lb>G—WATER WHEEL.</s>
11009 </p>
11010 <p type="main">
11011
11012 <s>Of the fans which are fixed on to an axle contained in a drum or box,
11013 <lb></lb>there are three sorts. </s>
11014
11015 <s>The first sort is made of thin boards of such length <lb></lb>and width as the
11016 height and width of the drum or box require; the second <pb pagenum="207"></pb>sort is made of boards of the same width, but shorter, to which are bound
11017 <lb></lb>long thin blades of poplar or some other flexible wood; the third sort
11018 has <lb></lb>boards like the last, to which are bound double and triple rows of
11019 goose <lb></lb>feathers. </s>
11020
11021 <s>This last is less used than the second, which in turn is less used <lb></lb>than
11022 the first. </s>
11023
11024 <s>The boards of the fan are mortised into the quadrangular <lb></lb>parts of the
11025 barrel axle.</s>
11026 </p>
11027 <figure></figure>
11028 <p type="caption">
11029
11030 <s>A—FIRST KIND OF FAN. B—SECOND KIND OF FAN. C—THIRD KIND OF
11031 <lb></lb>FAN. D—QUADRANGULAR PART OF AXLE. E—ROUND PART OF SAME.
11032 <lb></lb>F—CRANK.</s>
11033 </p>
11034 <p type="main">
11035
11036 <s>Blowing machines of the third genus, which are no less varied and of no
11037 <lb></lb>fewer forms than those of the second genus, are made with bellows, for
11038 by its <lb></lb>blasts the shafts and tunnels are not only furnished with air
11039 through conduits <lb></lb>or pipes, but they can also be cleared by suction of
11040 their heavy and pestilential <lb></lb>vapours. </s>
11041
11042 <s>In the latter case, when the bellows is opened it draws the <lb></lb>vapours from
11043 the conduits through its blow-hole and sucks these vapours <lb></lb>into itself;
11044 in the former case, when it is compressed, it drives the air through
11045 <lb></lb>its nozzle into the conduits or pipes. </s>
11046
11047 <s>They are compressed either by a man, <pb pagenum="208"></pb>or by a horse or by
11048 water-power; if by a man, the lower board of a large bellows is <lb></lb>fixed
11049 to the timbers above the conduit which projects out of the shaft, and so
11050 <lb></lb>placed that when the blast is blown through the conduit, its nozzle is
11051 <lb></lb>set in the conduit. </s>
11052
11053 <s>When it is desired to suck out heavy or pestilential <lb></lb>vapours, the
11054 blow-hole of the bellows is fitted all round the mouth of the <lb></lb>conduit. </s>
11055
11056 <s>Fixed to the upper bellows board is a lever which couples <lb></lb>with another
11057 running downward from a little axle, into which it is <lb></lb>mortised so that
11058 it may remain immovable; the iron journals of this little <lb></lb>axle revolve
11059 in openings of upright posts; and so when the workman pulls <lb></lb>down the
11060 lever the upper board of the bellows is raised, and at the same time
11061 <lb></lb>the flap of the blow-hole is dragged open by the force of the wind. </s>
11062
11063 <s>If the <lb></lb>nozzle of the bellows is enclosed in the conduit it draws pure
11064 air into itself, <lb></lb>but if its blow-hole is fitted all round the mouth of
11065 the conduit it exhausts <lb></lb>the heavy and pestilential vapours out of the
11066 conduit and thus from the <lb></lb>shaft, even if it is one hundred and twenty
11067 feet deep. </s>
11068
11069 <s>A stone placed on the <lb></lb>upper board of the bellows depresses it and then
11070 the flap of the blow-hole is </s>
11071 </p>
11072 <figure></figure>
11073 <p type="caption">
11074
11075 <s>A—SMALLER PART OF SHAFT. B—SQUARE CONDUIT. C—BELLOWS.
11076 D—LARGER PART <lb></lb>OF SHAFT.<pb pagenum="209"></pb>closed. </s>
11077
11078 <s>The bellows, by the first method, blows fresh air into the conduit
11079 <lb></lb>through its nozzle, and by the second method blows out through the
11080 nozzle <lb></lb>the heavy and pestilential vapours which have been collected. </s>
11081
11082 <s>In this <lb></lb>latter case fresh air enters through the larger part of the
11083 shaft, and the miners <lb></lb>getting the benefit of it can sustain their toil. </s>
11084
11085 <s>A certain smaller part of the <lb></lb>shaft which forms a kind of estuary,
11086 requires to be partitioned off from the <lb></lb>other larger part by
11087 uninterrupted lagging, which reaches from the top of the <lb></lb>shaft to the
11088 bottom; through this part the long but narrow conduit reaches <lb></lb>down
11089 nearly to the bottom of the shaft.</s>
11090 </p>
11091 <p type="main">
11092
11093 <s>When no shaft has been sunk to such depth as to meet a tunnel driven <lb></lb>far
11094 into a mountain, these machines should be built in such a manner that
11095 <lb></lb>the workman can move them about. </s>
11096
11097 <s>Close by the drains of the tunnel <lb></lb>through which the water flows away,
11098 wooden pipes should be placed and <lb></lb>joined tightly together in such a
11099 manner that they can hold the air; these <lb></lb>should reach from the mouth of
11100 the tunnel to its furthest end. </s>
11101
11102 <s>At the mouth <lb></lb>of the tunnel the bellows should be so placed that through
11103 its nozzle it can <lb></lb>blow its accumulated blasts into the pipes or the
11104 conduit; since one blast </s>
11105 </p>
11106 <figure></figure>
11107 <p type="caption">
11108
11109 <s>A—TUNNEL. B—PIPE. C—NOZZLE OF DOUBLE BELLOWS.<pb pagenum="210"></pb>always drives forward another, they penetrate into the
11110 tunnel and change <lb></lb>the air, whereby the miners are enabled to continue
11111 their work.</s>
11112 </p>
11113 <p type="main">
11114
11115 <s>If heavy vapours need to be drawn off from the tunnels, generally three
11116 <lb></lb>double or triple bellows, without nozzles and closed in the forepart,
11117 are placed <lb></lb>upon benches. </s>
11118
11119 <s>A workman compresses them by treading with his feet, just <lb></lb>as persons
11120 compress those bellows of the organs which give out varied and <lb></lb>sweet
11121 sounds in churches. </s>
11122
11123 <s>These heavy vapours are thus drawn along the <lb></lb>air-pipes and through the
11124 blow-hole of the lower bellows board, and are <lb></lb>expelled through the
11125 blow-hole of the upper bellows board into the open <lb></lb>air, or into some
11126 shaft or drift. </s>
11127
11128 <s>This blow-hole has a flap-valve, which the <lb></lb>noxious blast opens, as often
11129 as it passes out. </s>
11130
11131 <s>Since one volume of air con­<lb></lb>stantly rushes in to take the place of
11132 another which has been drawn out by <lb></lb>the bellows, not only is the heavy
11133 air drawn out of a tunnel as great as 1,200 <lb></lb>feet long, or even longer,
11134 but also the wholesome air is naturally drawn in <lb></lb>through that part of
11135 the tunnel which is open outside the conduits. </s>
11136
11137 <s>In this way <lb></lb>the air is changed, and the miners are enabled to carry on
11138 the work they have <lb></lb>begun. </s>
11139
11140 <s>If machines of this kind had not been invented, it would be necessary
11141 <lb></lb>for miners to drive two tunnels into a mountain, and continually, at
11142 every <lb></lb>two hundred feet at most, to sink a shaft from the upper tunnel
11143 to the <lb></lb>lower one, that the air passing into the one, and descending by
11144 the shafts <lb></lb>into the other, would be kept fresh for the miners; this
11145 could not be done <lb></lb>without great expense.</s>
11146 </p>
11147 <p type="main">
11148
11149 <s>There are two different machines for operating, by means of horses, the
11150 <lb></lb>above described bellows. </s>
11151
11152 <s>The first of these machines has on its axle a <lb></lb>wooden wheel, the rim of
11153 which is covered all the way round by steps; a <lb></lb>horse is kept
11154 continually within bars, like those within which horses are held <lb></lb>to be
11155 shod with iron, and by treading these steps with its feet it turns the
11156 wheel, <lb></lb>together with the axle; the cams on the axle press down the
11157 sweeps which <lb></lb>compress the bellows. </s>
11158
11159 <s>The way the instrument is made which raises the <lb></lb>bellows again, and also
11160 the benches on which the bellows rest, I will explain <lb></lb>more clearly in
11161 Book IX. </s>
11162
11163 <s>Each bellows, if it draws heavy vapours <lb></lb>out of a tunnel, blows them out
11164 of the hole in the upper board; if they are <lb></lb>drawn out of a shaft, it
11165 blows them out through its nozzle. </s>
11166
11167 <s>The wheel has <lb></lb>a round hole, which is transfixed with a pole when the
11168 machine needs to be <lb></lb>stopped.</s>
11169 </p>
11170 <p type="main">
11171
11172 <s>The second machine has two axles; the upright one is turned by a horse,
11173 <lb></lb>and its toothed drum turns a drum made of rundles on a horizontal axle;
11174 <lb></lb>in other respects this machine is like the last. </s>
11175
11176 <s>Here, also, the nozzles of <lb></lb>the bellows placed in the conduits blow a
11177 blast into the shaft or tunnel.</s>
11178 </p>
11179 <p type="main">
11180
11181 <s>In the same way that this last machine can refresh the heavy air of a
11182 <lb></lb>shaft or tunnel, so also could the old system of ventilating by the
11183 constant <lb></lb>shaking of linen cloths, which Pliny<emph type="sup"></emph>20<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> has explained; the air not only grows </s>
11184 </p>
11185 <pb pagenum="211"></pb>
11186 <figure></figure>
11187 <p type="caption">
11188
11189 <s>A—MACHINE FIRST DESCRIBED. B—THIS WORKMAN, TREADING WITH HIS
11190 FEET, IS COM­<lb></lb>PRESSING THE BELLOWS. C—BELLOWS WITHOUT NOZZLES.
11191 D—HOLE BY WHICH HEAVY <lb></lb>VAPOURS OR BLASTS ARE BLOWN OUT.
11192 E—CONDUITS. F—TUNNEL. G—SECOND <lb></lb>MACHINE DESCRIBED.
11193 H—WOODEN WHEEL. I—ITS STEPS. K—BARS. L—HOLE IN
11194 <lb></lb>SAME WHEEL. M—POLE. N—THIRD MACHINE DESCRIBED.
11195 O—UPRIGHT AXLE. <lb></lb>P—ITS TOOTHED DRUM. Q—HORIZONTAL
11196 AXLE. R—ITS DRUM WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES.</s>
11197 </p>
11198 <pb pagenum="212"></pb>
11199 <figure></figure>
11200 <p type="caption">
11201
11202 <s>A—TUNNEL. B—LINEN CLOTH.<lb></lb>heavier with the depth of a shaft,
11203 of which fact he has made mention, but <lb></lb>also with the length of a
11204 tunnel.</s>
11205 </p>
11206 <p type="main">
11207
11208 <s>The climbing machines of miners are ladders, fixed to one side of the shaft,
11209 <lb></lb>and these reach either to the tunnel or to the bottom of the shaft. </s>
11210
11211 <s>I need not <lb></lb>describe how they are made, because they are used everywhere,
11212 and need <lb></lb>not so much skill in their construction as care in fixing
11213 them. </s>
11214
11215 <s>However, <lb></lb>miners go down into mines not only by the steps of ladders, but
11216 they are <lb></lb>also lowered into them while sitting on a stick or a wicker
11217 basket, fastened to <lb></lb>the rope of one of the three drawing machines which
11218 I described at first. <lb></lb></s>
11219
11220 <s>Further, when the shafts are much inclined, miners and other workmen <lb></lb>sit
11221 in the dirt which surrounds their loins and slide down in the same way
11222 <lb></lb>that boys do in winter-time when the water on some hillside has
11223 congealed <lb></lb>with the cold, and to prevent themselves from falling, one
11224 arm is wound about <lb></lb>a rope, the upper end of which is fastened to a beam
11225 at the mouth of the shaft, <lb></lb>and the lower end to a stake fixed in the
11226 bottom of the shaft. </s>
11227
11228 <s>In these three <lb></lb>ways miners descend into the shafts. </s>
11229
11230 <s>A fourth way may be mentioned <lb></lb>which is employed when men and horses go
11231 down to the underground </s>
11232 </p>
11233 <pb pagenum="213"></pb>
11234 <figure></figure>
11235 <p type="caption">
11236
11237 <s>A—DESCENDING INTO THE SHAFT BY LADDERS. B—BY SITTING ON A STICK.
11238 C—BY <lb></lb>SITTING ON THE DIRT. D—DESCENDING BY STEPS CUT IN THE
11239 ROCK.<pb pagenum="214"></pb>machines and come up again, that is by inclined
11240 shafts which are twisted like <lb></lb>a screw and have steps cut in the rock,
11241 as I have already described.</s>
11242 </p>
11243 <p type="main">
11244
11245 <s>It remains for me to speak of the ailments and accidents of miners, and of
11246 <lb></lb>the methods by which they can guard against these, for we should always
11247 <lb></lb>devote more care to maintaining our health, that we may freely perform
11248 our <lb></lb>bodily functions, than to making profits. </s>
11249
11250 <s>Of the illnesses, some affect the <lb></lb>joints, others attack the lungs, some
11251 the eyes, and finally some are fatal to <lb></lb>men.</s>
11252 </p>
11253 <p type="main">
11254
11255 <s>Where water in shafts is abundant and very cold, it frequently injures
11256 <lb></lb>the limbs, for cold is harmful to the sinews. </s>
11257
11258 <s>To meet this, miners should <lb></lb>make themselves sufficiently high boots of
11259 rawhide, which protect their <lb></lb>legs from the cold water; the man who does
11260 not follow this advice will <lb></lb>suffer much ill-health, especially when he
11261 reaches old age. </s>
11262
11263 <s>On the other <lb></lb>hand, some mines are so dry that they are entirely devoid
11264 of water, and this <lb></lb>dryness causes the workmen even greater harm, for
11265 the dust which is stirred <lb></lb>and beaten up by digging penetrates into the
11266 windpipe and lungs, and <lb></lb>produces difficulty in breathing, and the
11267 disease which the Greeks call <lb></lb><foreign lang="grc">ἂσθμα.</foreign>
11268 If the dust has corrosive qualities, it eats away the lungs, and
11269 <lb></lb>implants consumption in the body; hence in the mines of the Carpathian
11270 <lb></lb>Mountains women are found who have married seven husbands, all of whom
11271 <lb></lb>this terrible consumption has carried off to a premature death. </s>
11272
11273 <s>At Altenberg <lb></lb>in Meissen there is found in the mines black <emph type="italics"></emph>pompholyx,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which eats wounds
11274 <lb></lb>and ulcers to the bone; this also corrodes iron, for which reason the
11275 keys <lb></lb>of their sheds are made of wood. </s>
11276
11277 <s>Further, there is a certain kind of <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>21<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>which
11278 eats away the feet of the workmen when they have become wet, and
11279 <lb></lb>similarly their hands, and injures their lungs and eyes. </s>
11280
11281 <s>Therefore, for their <pb pagenum="215"></pb>digging they should make for
11282 themselves not only boots of rawhide, but gloves <lb></lb>long enough to reach
11283 to the elbow, and they should fasten loose veils over their <lb></lb>faces; the
11284 dust will then neither be drawn through these into their wind­<lb></lb>pipes
11285 and lungs, nor will it fly into their eyes. </s>
11286
11287 <s>Not dissimilarly, among the <lb></lb>Romans<emph type="sup"></emph>22<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> the makers of vermilion took precautions against breathing
11288 its fatal <lb></lb>dust.</s>
11289 </p>
11290 <p type="main">
11291
11292 <s>Stagnant air, both that which remains in a shaft and that which remains
11293 <lb></lb>in a tunnel, produces a difficulty in breathing; the remedies for this
11294 evil <lb></lb>are the ventilating machines which I have explained above. </s>
11295
11296 <s>There is another <lb></lb>illness even more destructive, which soon brings death
11297 to men who work <lb></lb>in those shafts or levels or tunnels in which the hard
11298 rock is broken by fire. <lb></lb></s>
11299
11300 <s>Here the air is infected with poison, since large and small veins and seams
11301 <lb></lb>in the rocks exhale some subtle poison from the minerals, which is
11302 driven <lb></lb>out by the fire, and this poison itself is raised with the smoke
11303 not unlike <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>pompholyx,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>23<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> which clings to the upper
11304 part of the walls in the works in which <lb></lb>ore is smelted. </s>
11305
11306 <s>If this poison cannot escape from the ground, but falls down <lb></lb>into the
11307 pools and floats on their surface, it often causes danger, for if at any
11308 <lb></lb>time the water is disturbed through a stone or anything else, these
11309 fumes rise <lb></lb>again from the pools and thus overcome the men, by being
11310 drawn in with their <lb></lb>breath; this is even much worse if the fumes of the
11311 fire have not yet all <lb></lb>escaped. </s>
11312
11313 <s>The bodies of living creatures who are infected with this poison
11314 <lb></lb>generally swell immediately and lose all movement and feeling, and they
11315 die <lb></lb>without pain; men even in the act of climbing from the shafts by
11316 the <lb></lb>steps of ladders fall back into the shafts when the poison
11317 overtakes them, <lb></lb>because their hands do not perform their office, and
11318 seem to them to be round <lb></lb>and spherical, and likewise their feet. </s>
11319
11320 <s>If by good fortune the injured <lb></lb>ones escape these evils, for a little
11321 while they are pale and look like <lb></lb>dead men. </s>
11322
11323 <s>At such times, no one should descend into the mine or into the
11324 <lb></lb>neighbouring mines, or if he is in them he should come out quickly. </s>
11325
11326 <s>Prudent <lb></lb>and skilled miners burn the piles of wood on Friday, towards
11327 evening, and <lb></lb><pb pagenum="216"></pb>they do not descend into the shafts nor
11328 enter the tunnels again before Monday, <lb></lb>and in the meantime the
11329 poisonous fumes pass away.</s>
11330 </p>
11331 <p type="main">
11332
11333 <s>There are also times when a reckoning has to be made with Orcus,<emph type="sup"></emph>24<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>for some metalliferous
11334 localities, though such are rare, spontaneously <lb></lb>produce poison and
11335 exhale pestilential vapour, as is also the case with some <lb></lb>openings in
11336 the ore, though these more often contain the noxious fumes. <lb></lb></s>
11337
11338 <s>In the towns of the plains of Bohemia there are some caverns which, <lb></lb>at
11339 certain seasons of the year, emit pungent vapours which put out lights
11340 <lb></lb>and kill the miners if they linger too long in them. </s>
11341
11342 <s>Pliny, too, has left <lb></lb>a record that when wells are sunk, the sulphurous
11343 or aluminous vapours <lb></lb>which arise kill the well-diggers, and it is a
11344 test of this danger if a burning <lb></lb>lamp which has been let down is
11345 extinguished. </s>
11346
11347 <s>In such cases a second well <lb></lb>is dug to the right or left, as an
11348 air-shaft, which draws off these noxious <lb></lb>vapours. </s>
11349
11350 <s>On the plains they construct bellows which draw up these noxious <lb></lb>vapours
11351 and remedy this evil; these I have described before.</s>
11352 </p>
11353 <p type="main">
11354
11355 <s>Further, sometimes workmen slipping from the ladders into the shafts
11356 <lb></lb>break their arms, legs, or necks, or fall into the sumps and are
11357 drowned; <lb></lb>often, indeed, the negligence of the foreman is to blame, for
11358 it is his special <lb></lb>work both to fix the ladders so firmly to the timbers
11359 that they cannot break <lb></lb>away, and to cover so securely with planks the
11360 sumps at the bottom of the <lb></lb>shafts, that the planks cannot be moved nor
11361 the men fall into the water; <lb></lb>wherefore the foreman must carefully
11362 execute his own work. </s>
11363
11364 <s>Moreover, <lb></lb>he must not set the entrance of the shaft-house toward the
11365 north wind, <lb></lb>lest in winter the ladders freeze with cold, for when this
11366 happens the men&#039;s <lb></lb>hands become stiff and slippery with cold, and cannot
11367 perform their office <lb></lb>of holding. </s>
11368
11369 <s>The men, too, must be careful that, even if none of these things <lb></lb>happen,
11370 they do not fall through their own carelessness.</s>
11371 </p>
11372 <p type="main">
11373
11374 <s>Mountains, too, slide down and men are crushed in their fall and perish.
11375 <lb></lb></s>
11376
11377 <s>In fact, when in olden days Rammelsberg, in Goslar, sank down, so many
11378 <lb></lb>men were crushed in the ruins that in one day, the records tell us,
11379 about <lb></lb>400 women were robbed of their husbands. </s>
11380
11381 <s>And eleven years ago, part <lb></lb>of the mountain of Altenberg, which had been
11382 excavated, became loose and <lb></lb>sank, and suddenly crushed six miners; it
11383 also swallowed up a hut and one <lb></lb>mother and her little boy. </s>
11384
11385 <s>But this generally occurs in those mountains <lb></lb>which contain <emph type="italics"></emph>venae cumulatae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
11386 <s> Therefore, miners should leave numerous <lb></lb>arches under the mountains
11387 which need support, or provide underpinning. <lb></lb></s>
11388
11389 <s>Falling pieces of rock also injure their limbs, and to prevent this from
11390 hap­<lb></lb>pening, miners should protect the shafts, tunnels, and
11391 drifts.</s>
11392 </p>
11393 <p type="main">
11394
11395 <s>The venomous ant which exists in Sardinia is not found in our mines.
11396 <lb></lb></s>
11397
11398 <s>This animal is, as Solinus<emph type="sup"></emph>25<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> writes,
11399 very small and like a spider in shape; it <lb></lb>is called <emph type="italics"></emph>solífuga,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> because it
11400 shuns (<emph type="italics"></emph>fugít<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>) the
11401 light (<emph type="italics"></emph>solem<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>). It is very
11402 common <lb></lb><pb pagenum="217"></pb>in silver mines; it creeps unobserved and
11403 brings destruction upon those <lb></lb>who imprudently sit on it. </s>
11404
11405 <s>But, as the same writer tells us, springs of warm <lb></lb>and salubrious waters
11406 gush out in certain places, which neutralise the venom <lb></lb>inserted by the
11407 ants.</s>
11408 </p>
11409 <p type="main">
11410
11411 <s>In some of our mines, however, though in very few, there are other
11412 <lb></lb>pernicious pests. </s>
11413
11414 <s>These are demons of ferocious aspect, about which I have <lb></lb>spoken in my
11415 book <emph type="italics"></emph>De Animantibus Subterraneis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
11416 <s> Demons of this kind <lb></lb>are expelled and put to flight by prayer and
11417 fasting.<emph type="sup"></emph>26<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
11418 </p>
11419 <p type="main">
11420
11421 <s>Some of these evils, as well as certain other things, are the reason why
11422 <lb></lb>pits are occasionally abandoned. </s>
11423
11424 <s>But the first and principal cause is that <lb></lb>they do not yield metal, or
11425 if, for some fathoms, they do bear metal they <lb></lb>become barren in depth. </s>
11426
11427 <s>The second cause is the quantity of water which <lb></lb>flows in; sometimes the
11428 miners can neither divert this water into the <lb></lb>tunnels, since tunnels
11429 cannot be driven so far into the mountains, or they <lb></lb>cannot draw it out
11430 with machines because the shafts are too deep; or if they <lb></lb>could draw it
11431 out with machines, they do not use them, the reason <lb></lb>undoubtedly being
11432 that the expenditure is greater than the profits of a <lb></lb>moderately poor
11433 vein. </s>
11434
11435 <s>The third cause is the noxious air, which the owners <lb></lb>sometimes cannot
11436 overcome either by skill or expenditure, for which reason <lb></lb>the digging
11437 is sometimes abandoned, not only of shafts, but also of tunnels. </s>
11438
11439 <s>The <lb></lb>fourth cause is the poison produced in particular places, if it is
11440 not in our <lb></lb>power either completely to remove it or to moderate its
11441 effects. </s>
11442
11443 <s>This is the <lb></lb>reason why the caverns in the Plain known as Laurentius<emph type="sup"></emph>27<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> used not to be <lb></lb><pb pagenum="218"></pb>worked, though they were not deficient in silver. </s>
11444
11445 <s>The fifth cause are the <lb></lb>fierce and murderous demons, for if they cannot
11446 be expelled, no one escapes <lb></lb>from them. </s>
11447
11448 <s>The sixth cause is that the underpinnings become loosened <lb></lb>and collapse,
11449 and a fall of the mountain usually follows; the underpinnings <lb></lb>are then
11450 only restored when the vein is very rich in metal. </s>
11451
11452 <s>The seventh <lb></lb>cause is military operations. </s>
11453
11454 <s>Shafts and tunnels should not be re-opened <lb></lb>unless we are quite certain
11455 of the reasons why the miners have deserted them, <lb></lb>because we ought not
11456 to believe that our ancestors were so indolent and <lb></lb>spiritless as to
11457 desert mines which could have been carried on with profit. <lb></lb></s>
11458
11459 <s>Indeed, in our own days, not a few miners, persuaded by old women&#039;s tales,
11460 <lb></lb>have re-opened deserted shafts and lost their time and trouble. </s>
11461
11462 <s>Therefore, <lb></lb>to prevent future generations from being led to act in such a
11463 way, it is <lb></lb>advisable to set down in writing the reason why the digging
11464 of each shaft or <lb></lb>tunnel has been abandoned, just as it is agreed was
11465 once done at Freiberg, <lb></lb>when the shafts were deserted on account of the
11466 great inrush of water.</s>
11467 </p>
11468 <p type="head">
11469
11470 <s>END OF BOOK VI.</s>
11471 </p>
11472 <figure></figure>
11473 <pb></pb>
11474 <p type="head">
11475
11476 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>BOOK VII.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
11477 </p>
11478 <p type="main">
11479
11480 <s>Since the Sixth Book has described the iron tools, <lb></lb>the vessels and the
11481 machines used in mines, this <lb></lb>Book will describe the methods of
11482 assaying<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> ores; <lb></lb>because it
11483 is desirable to first test them in order <lb></lb>that the material mined may be
11484 advantageously <lb></lb>smelted, or that the dross may be purged away and
11485 <lb></lb>the metal made pure. </s>
11486
11487 <s>Although writers have men­<lb></lb>tioned such tests, yet none of them have
11488 set down the <lb></lb>directions for performing them, wherefore it is no
11489 <lb></lb>wonder that those who come later have written nothing on the subject.
11490 <lb></lb></s>
11491
11492 <s>By tests of this kind miners can determine with certainty whether <lb></lb>ores
11493 contain any metal in them or not; or if it has already been <lb></lb>indicated
11494 that the ore contains one or more metals, the tests show whether <lb></lb>it is
11495 much or little; the miners also ascertain by such tests the method by
11496 <lb></lb>which the metal can be separated from that part of the ore devoid of
11497 it; <lb></lb>and further, by these tests, they determine that part in which
11498 there is much <lb></lb>metal from that part in which there is little. </s>
11499
11500 <s>Unless these tests have been <lb></lb>carefully applied before the metals are
11501 melted out, the ore cannot be smelted <lb></lb>without great loss to the owners,
11502 for the parts which do not easily melt in the <lb></lb>fire carry the metals off
11503 with them or consume them. </s>
11504
11505 <s>In the last case, they pass <lb></lb>off with the fumes; in the other case they
11506 are mixed with the slag and furnace <lb></lb>accretions, and in such event the
11507 owners lose the labour which they have spent <lb></lb>in preparing the furnaces
11508 and the crucibles, and further, it is necessary for them <lb></lb>to incur fresh
11509 expenditure for fluxes and other things. </s>
11510
11511 <s>Metals, when they have <lb></lb>been melted out, are usually assayed in order
11512 that we may ascertain what pro­<lb></lb>portion of silver is in a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper or
11513 lead, or what quantity of <lb></lb>gold is in one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver; and, on the other hand,
11514 what proportion of copper <lb></lb>or lead is contained in a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, or
11515 what quantity of silver is <lb></lb>contained in one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold. </s>
11516
11517 <s>And from this we can calculate whether it <lb></lb>will be worth while to
11518 separate the precious metals from the base metals, or <lb></lb>not. </s>
11519
11520 <s>Further, a test of this kind shows whether coins are good or are
11521 <lb></lb>debased; and readily detects silver, if the coiners have mixed more
11522 than is <lb></lb>lawful with the gold; or copper, if the coiners have alloyed
11523 with the gold or <lb></lb>silver more of it than is allowable. </s>
11524
11525 <s>I will explain all these methods with the <lb></lb>utmost care that I can.</s>
11526 </p>
11527 <pb pagenum="220"></pb>
11528 <p type="main">
11529
11530 <s>The method of assaying ore used by mining people, differs from <lb></lb>smelting
11531 only by the small amount of material used. </s>
11532
11533 <s>Inasmuch as, by <lb></lb>smelting a small quantity, they learn whether the
11534 smelting of a large <pb pagenum="221"></pb>quantity will compensate them for
11535 their expenditure; hence, if they are not <lb></lb>particular to employ assays,
11536 they may, as I have already said, sometimes smelt <lb></lb>the metal from the
11537 ore with a loss or sometimes without any profit; for they <pb pagenum="222"></pb>can assay the ore at a very small expense, and smelt it only at a great
11538 <lb></lb>expense. </s>
11539
11540 <s>Both processes, however, are carried out in the same way, for just <lb></lb>as we
11541 assay ore in a little furnace, so do we smelt it in the large furnace. </s>
11542
11543 <s>Also <lb></lb>in both cases charcoal and not wood is burned. </s>
11544
11545 <s>Moreover, in the crucible <lb></lb>when metals are tested, be they gold, silver,
11546 copper, or lead, they are mixed in <lb></lb>precisely the same way as they are
11547 mixed in the blast furnace when they <lb></lb>are smelted. </s>
11548
11549 <s>Further, those who assay ores with fire, either pour out the <lb></lb>metal in a
11550 liquid state, or, when it has cooled, break the crucible and clean <pb pagenum="223"></pb>the metal from slag; and in the same way the smelter, as
11551 soon as the metal <lb></lb>flows from the furnace into the forehearth, pours in
11552 cold water and takes the <lb></lb>slag from the metal with a hooked bar. </s>
11553
11554 <s>Finally, in the same way that gold <lb></lb>and silver are separated from lead in
11555 a cupel, so also are they separated in <lb></lb>the cupellation furnace.</s>
11556 </p>
11557 <p type="main">
11558
11559 <s>It is necessary that the assayer who is testing ore or metals should be
11560 <lb></lb>prepared and instructed in all things necessary in assaying, and that
11561 he <lb></lb>should close the doors of the room in which the assay furnace
11562 stands, lest </s>
11563 </p>
11564 <figure></figure>
11565 <p type="caption">
11566
11567 <s>ROUND ASSAY FURNACE.</s>
11568 </p>
11569 <figure></figure>
11570 <p type="caption">
11571
11572 <s>RECTANGULAR ASSAY FURNACE.<pb pagenum="224"></pb>anyone coming at an inopportune
11573 moment might disturb his thoughts when <lb></lb>they are intent on the work. </s>
11574
11575 <s>It is also necessary for him to place his balances <lb></lb>in a case, so that
11576 when he weighs the little buttons of metal the scales may <lb></lb>not be
11577 agitated by a draught of air, for that is a hindrance to his work.</s>
11578 </p>
11579 <p type="main">
11580
11581 <s>Now I will describe the different things which are necessary in assaying,
11582 <lb></lb>beginning with the assay furnace, of which one differs from another in
11583 <lb></lb>shape, material, and the place in which it is set. </s>
11584
11585 <s>In shape, they may be <lb></lb>round or rectangular, the latter shape being more
11586 suited to assaying ores. <lb></lb></s>
11587
11588 <s>The materials of the assay furnaces differ, in that one is made of bricks,
11589 <lb></lb>another of iron, and certain ones of clay. </s>
11590
11591 <s>The one of bricks is built on a <lb></lb>chimney-hearth which is three and a half
11592 feet high; the iron one is placed <lb></lb>in the same position, and also the
11593 one of clay. </s>
11594
11595 <s>The brick one is a cubit high, <lb></lb>a foot wide on the inside, and one foot
11596 two digits long; at a point five digits <lb></lb>above the hearth—which is
11597 usually the thickness of an unbaked<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
11598 brick— <lb></lb>an iron plate is laid, and smeared over with lute on the
11599 upper side to prevent <lb></lb>it from being injured by the fire; in front of
11600 the furnace above the plate is a <lb></lb>mouth a palm high, five digits wide,
11601 and rounded at the top. </s>
11602
11603 <s>The iron plate </s>
11604 </p>
11605 <figure></figure>
11606 <p type="caption">
11607
11608 <s>A—OPENINGS IN THE PLATE. B—PART OF PLATE WHICH PROJECTS BEYOND
11609 THE FURNACE.<lb></lb>has three openings which are one digit wide and three
11610 digits long, one is at <lb></lb>each side and the third at the back; through
11611 them sometimes the ash falls <lb></lb>from the burning charcoal, and sometimes
11612 the draught blows through the <lb></lb>chamber which is below the iron plate,
11613 and stimulates the fire. </s>
11614
11615 <s>For this <lb></lb>reason this furnace when used by metallurgists is named from
11616 assaying, but <lb></lb>when used by the alchemists it is named from the
11617 wind<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
11618
11619 <s>The part of the <lb></lb>iron plate which projects from the furnace is generally
11620 three-quarters of a <lb></lb><pb pagenum="225"></pb>palm long and a palm wide; small
11621 pieces of charcoal, after being laid thereon, <lb></lb>can be placed quickly in
11622 the furnace through its mouth with a pair of tongs, <lb></lb>or again, if
11623 necessary, can be taken out of the furnace and laid there.</s>
11624 </p>
11625 <p type="main">
11626
11627 <s>The iron assay furnace is made of four iron bars a foot and a half high,
11628 <lb></lb>which at the bottom are bent outward and broadened a short distance to
11629 enable <lb></lb>them to stand more firmly; the front part of the furnace is made
11630 from two <lb></lb>of these bars, and the back part from two of them; to these
11631 bars on both <lb></lb>sides are joined and welded three iron cross-bars, the
11632 first at a height of a palm <lb></lb>from the bottom, the second at a height of
11633 a foot, and the third at the top. <lb></lb></s>
11634
11635 <s>The upright bars are perforated at that point where the side cross-bars are
11636 <lb></lb>joined to them, in order that three similar iron bars on the remaining
11637 sides <lb></lb>can be engaged in them; thus there are twelve cross-bars, which
11638 make <lb></lb>three stages at unequal intervals. </s>
11639
11640 <s>At the lower stage, the upright bars are <lb></lb>distant from each other one
11641 foot and five digits; and at the middle stage the <lb></lb>front is distant from
11642 the back three palms and one digit, and the sides are <lb></lb>distant from each
11643 other three palms and as many digits; at the highest stage <lb></lb>from the
11644 front to the back there is a distance of two palms, and between the
11645 <lb></lb>sides three palms, so that in this way the furnace becomes narrower at
11646 the <lb></lb>top. </s>
11647
11648 <s>Furthermore, an iron rod, bent to the shape of the mouth, is set into
11649 <lb></lb>the lowest bar of the front; this mouth, just like that of the brick
11650 furnace, <lb></lb>is a palm high and five digits wide. </s>
11651
11652 <s>Then the front cross-bar of the lower <lb></lb>stage is perforated on each side
11653 of the mouth, and likewise the back one; <lb></lb>through these perforations
11654 there pass two iron rods, thus making altogether <lb></lb>four bars in the lower
11655 stage, and these support an iron plate smeared with <lb></lb>lute; part of this
11656 plate also projects outside the furnace. </s>
11657
11658 <s>The outside of <lb></lb>the furnace from the lower stage to the upper, is covered
11659 with iron plates, <lb></lb>which are bound to the bars by iron wires, and
11660 smeared with lute to enable <lb></lb>them to bear the heat of the fire as long
11661 as possible.</s>
11662 </p>
11663 <p type="main">
11664
11665 <s>As for the clay furnace, it must be made of fat, thick clay, medium so
11666 <lb></lb>far as relates to its softness or hardness. </s>
11667
11668 <s>This furnace has exactly the same <lb></lb>height as the iron one, and its base
11669 is made of two earthenware tiles, one <lb></lb>foot and three palms long and one
11670 foot and one palm wide. </s>
11671
11672 <s>Each side of the <lb></lb>fore part of both tiles is gradually cut away for the
11673 length of a palm, so <lb></lb>that they are half a foot and a digit wide, which
11674 part projects from the <lb></lb>furnace; the tiles are about a digit and a half
11675 thick. </s>
11676
11677 <s>The walls are similarly <lb></lb>of clay, and are set on the lower tiles at a
11678 distance of a digit from the edge, <lb></lb>and support the upper tiles; the
11679 walls are three digits high and have four <lb></lb>openings, each of which is
11680 about three digits high; those of the back part and <lb></lb>of each side are
11681 five digits wide, and of the front, a palm and a half wide, to <lb></lb>enable
11682 the freshly made cupels to be conveniently placed on the hearth, when
11683 <lb></lb>it has been thoroughly warmed, that they may be dried there. </s>
11684
11685 <s>Both tiles <lb></lb>are bound on the outer edge with iron wire, pressed into
11686 them, so that they <lb></lb>will be less easily broken; and the tiles, not
11687 unlike the iron bed-plate, have <lb></lb>three openings three digits long and a
11688 digit wide, in order that when the upper <lb></lb>one on account of the heat of
11689 the fire or for some other reason has become <lb></lb>damaged, the lower one may
11690 be exchanged and take its place. </s>
11691
11692 <s>Through these <pb pagenum="226"></pb>holes, the ashes from the burning charcoal,
11693 as I have stated, fall down, and <lb></lb>air blows into the furnace after
11694 passing through the openings in the walls of <lb></lb>the chamber. </s>
11695
11696 <s>The furnace is rectangular, and inside at the lower part it is <lb></lb>three
11697 palms and one digit wide and three palms and as many digits long. </s>
11698
11699 <s>At <lb></lb>the upper part it is two palms and three digits wide, so that it also
11700 grows <lb></lb>narrower; it is one foot high; in the middle of the back it is
11701 cut out at <lb></lb>the bottom in the shape of a semicircle, of half a digit
11702 radius. </s>
11703
11704 <s>Not <lb></lb>unlike the furnace before described, it has in its forepart a mouth
11705 which is <lb></lb>rounded at the top, one palm high and a palm and a digit wide. </s>
11706
11707 <s>Its door <lb></lb>is also made of clay, and this has a window and a handle; even
11708 the lid <lb></lb>of the furnace which is made of clay has its own handle,
11709 fastened on with iron <lb></lb>wire. </s>
11710
11711 <s>The outer parts and sides of this furnace are bound with iron wires,
11712 <lb></lb>which are usually pressed in, in the shape of triangles. </s>
11713
11714 <s>The brick furnaces <lb></lb>must remain stationary; the clay and iron ones can be
11715 carried from one <lb></lb>place to another. </s>
11716
11717 <s>Those of brick can be prepared more quickly, while those <lb></lb>of iron are
11718 more lasting, and those of clay are more suitable. </s>
11719
11720 <s>Assayers <lb></lb>also make temporary furnaces in another way; they stand three
11721 bricks <lb></lb>on a hearth, one on each side and a third one at the back, the
11722 fore-part lies <lb></lb>open to the draught, and on these bricks is placed an
11723 iron plate, upon which <lb></lb>they again stand three bricks, which hold and
11724 retain the charcoal.</s>
11725 </p>
11726 <p type="main">
11727
11728 <s>The setting of one furnace differs from another, in that some are placed
11729 <lb></lb>higher and others lower; that one is placed higher, in which the man
11730 who is <lb></lb>assaying the ore or metals introduces the scorifier through the
11731 mouth with the <lb></lb>tongs; that one is placed lower, into which he
11732 introduces the crucible <lb></lb>through its open top.</s>
11733 </p>
11734 <p type="main">
11735
11736 <s>In some cases the assayer uses an iron hoop<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> in place of a furnace; <lb></lb>this is placed upon the hearth
11737 of a chimney, the lower edge being daubed <lb></lb>with lute to prevent the
11738 blast of the bellows from escaping under it. <lb></lb></s>
11739
11740 <s>If the blast is given slowly, the ore will be smelted and the copper will
11741 melt in <lb></lb>the triangular crucible, which is placed in it and taken away
11742 again with the <lb></lb>tongs. </s>
11743
11744 <s>The hoop is two palms high and half a digit thick; its diameter is
11745 <lb></lb>generally one foot and one palm, and where the blast from the bellows
11746 enters <lb></lb>into it, it is notched out. </s>
11747
11748 <s>The bellows is a double one, such as goldworkers <lb></lb>use, and sometimes
11749 smiths. </s>
11750
11751 <s>In the middle of the bellows there is a board in <lb></lb>which there is an
11752 air-hole, five digits wide and seven long, covered by a <lb></lb>little flap
11753 which is fastened over the air-hole on the lower side of the board;
11754 <lb></lb>this flap is of equal length and width. </s>
11755
11756 <s>The bellows, without its head, is <lb></lb>three feet long, and at the back is
11757 one foot and one palm wide and <lb></lb>somewhat rounded, and it is three palms
11758 wide at the head; the head itself <lb></lb>is three palms long and two palms and
11759 a digit wide at the part where it joins <lb></lb>the boards, then it gradually
11760 becomes narrower. </s>
11761
11762 <s>The nozzle, of which there <lb></lb>is only one, is one foot and two digits long;
11763 this nozzle, and one-half of the <lb></lb>head in which the nozzle is fixed, are
11764 placed in an opening of the wall, this <lb></lb>being one foot and one palm
11765 thick; it reaches only to the iron hoop on the <pb pagenum="227"></pb>hearth,
11766 for it does not project beyond the wall. </s>
11767
11768 <s>The hide of the bellows is <lb></lb>fixed to the bellows-boards with its own
11769 peculiar kind of iron nails. </s>
11770
11771 <s>It joins <lb></lb>both bellows-boards to the head, and over it there are cross
11772 strips of <lb></lb>hide fixed to the bellows-boards with broad-headed nails, and
11773 similarly <lb></lb>fixed to the head. </s>
11774
11775 <s>The middle board of the bellows rests on an iron bar, <lb></lb>to which it is
11776 fastened with iron nails clinched on both ends, so that it cannot <lb></lb>move;
11777 the iron bar is fixed between two upright posts, through which it
11778 <lb></lb>penetrates. </s>
11779
11780 <s>Higher up on these upright posts there is a wooden axle, with <lb></lb>iron
11781 journals which revolve in the holes in the posts. </s>
11782
11783 <s>In the middle of <lb></lb>this axle there is mortised a lever, fixed with iron
11784 nails to prevent it from <lb></lb>flying out; the lever is five and a half feet
11785 long, and its posterior end is <lb></lb>engaged in the iron ring of an iron rod
11786 which reaches to the “tail” of the <lb></lb>lowest bellows-board,
11787 and there engages another similar ring. </s>
11788
11789 <s>And so when <lb></lb>the workman pulls down the lever, the lower part of the
11790 bellows is raised and <lb></lb>drives the wind into the nozzle; then the wind,
11791 penetrating through the hole <lb></lb>in the middle bellows-board, which is
11792 called the air-hole, lifts up the upper <lb></lb>part of the bellows, upon whose
11793 upper board is a piece of lead, heavy enough <lb></lb>to press down that part of
11794 the bellows again, and this being pressed down <lb></lb>blows a blast through
11795 the nozzle. </s>
11796
11797 <s>This is the principle of the double bellows, <lb></lb>which is peculiar to the
11798 iron hoop where are placed the triangular crucibles in <lb></lb>which copper ore
11799 is smelted and copper is melted.</s>
11800 </p>
11801 <figure></figure>
11802 <p type="caption">
11803
11804 <s>A—IRON HOOP. B—DOUBLE BELLOWS. C—ITS NOZZLE.
11805 D—LEVER.</s>
11806 </p>
11807 <p type="main">
11808
11809 <s>I have spoken of the furnaces and the iron hoop; I will now speak of <lb></lb>the
11810 muffles and the crucibles. </s>
11811
11812 <s>The muffle is made of clay, in the shape <lb></lb>of an inverted gutter tile; it
11813 covers the scorifiers, lest coal dust fall into <lb></lb>them and interfere with
11814 the assay. </s>
11815
11816 <s>It is a palm and a half broad, and the <lb></lb>height, which corresponds with
11817 the mouth of the furnace, is generally a palm, <pb pagenum="228"></pb>and it is
11818 nearly as long as the furnace; only at the front end does it touch <lb></lb>the
11819 mouth of the furnace, everywhere else on the sides and at the back
11820 <lb></lb>there is a space of three digits, to allow the charcoal to lie in the
11821 open space <lb></lb>between it and the furnace. </s>
11822
11823 <s>The muffle is as thick as a fairly thick earthen <lb></lb>jar; its upper part is
11824 entire; the back has two little windows, and each side <lb></lb>has two or three
11825 or even four, through which the heat passes into the scorifiers <lb></lb>and
11826 melts the ore. </s>
11827
11828 <s>In place of little windows, some muffles have small holes, <lb></lb>ten in the
11829 back and more on each side. </s>
11830
11831 <s>Moreover, in the back below the <lb></lb>little windows, or small holes, there
11832 are cut away three semi-circular notches <lb></lb>half a digit high, and on each
11833 side there are four. </s>
11834
11835 <s>The back of the muffle <lb></lb>is generally a little lower than the front.</s>
11836 </p>
11837 <figure></figure>
11838 <p type="caption">
11839
11840 <s>A—BROAD LITTLE WINDOWS OF MUFFLE. B—NARROW ONES. C—OPENINGS
11841 IN THE <lb></lb>BACK THEREOF.</s>
11842 </p>
11843 <p type="main">
11844
11845 <s>The crucibles differ in the materials from which they are made, because
11846 <lb></lb>they are made of either clay or ashes; and those of clay, which we also
11847 call <lb></lb>“earthen,” differ in shape and size. </s>
11848
11849 <s>Some are made in the shape of a mod­<lb></lb>erately thick salver
11850 (scorifiers), three digits wide, and of a capacity of an <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> measure; in these
11851 the ore mixed with fluxes is melted, and they are used <lb></lb>by those who
11852 assay gold or silver ore. </s>
11853
11854 <s>Some are triangular and much <lb></lb>thicker and more capacious, holding five,
11855 or six, or even more <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in <lb></lb>these copper is melted, so that it can be
11856 poured out, expanded, and tested <lb></lb>with fire, and in these copper ore is
11857 usually melted.</s>
11858 </p>
11859 <p type="main">
11860
11861 <s>The cupels are made of ashes; like the preceding scorifiers they are
11862 <lb></lb>tray-shaped, and their lower part is very thick but their capacity is
11863 less. <lb></lb></s>
11864
11865 <s>In these lead is separated from silver, and by them assays are concluded.
11866 <lb></lb></s>
11867
11868 <s>Inasmuch as the assayers themselves make the cupels, something must <lb></lb>be
11869 said about the material from which they are made, and the method <lb></lb>of
11870 making them. </s>
11871
11872 <s>Some make them out of all kinds of ordinary ashes; these <lb></lb>are not good,
11873 because ashes of this kind contain a certain amount of fat, <lb></lb>whereby
11874 such cupels are easily broken when they are hot. </s>
11875
11876 <s>Others make <lb></lb>them likewise out of any kind of ashes which have been
11877 previously <lb></lb>leached; of this kind are the ashes into which warm water
11878 has been infused <lb></lb>for the purpose of making lye. </s>
11879
11880 <s>These ashes, after being dried in the sun or <lb></lb>a furnace, are sifted in a
11881 hair sieve; and although warm water washes away the </s>
11882 </p>
11883 <pb pagenum="229"></pb>
11884 <figure></figure>
11885 <p type="caption">
11886
11887 <s>A—SCORIFIER. B—TRIANGULAR CRUCIBLE. C—CUPEL.<lb></lb>fat from
11888 the ashes, still the cupels which are made from such ashes are not <lb></lb>very
11889 good because they often contain charcoal dust, sand, and pebbles. <lb></lb></s>
11890
11891 <s>Some make them in the same way out of any kind of ashes, but first of all
11892 <lb></lb>pour water into the ashes and remove the scum which floats thereon;
11893 then, <lb></lb>after it has become clear, they pour away the water, and dry the
11894 ashes; they <lb></lb>then sift them and make the cupels from them. </s>
11895
11896 <s>These, indeed, are good, <lb></lb>but not of the best quality, because ashes of
11897 this kind are also not devoid of <lb></lb>small pebbles and sand. </s>
11898
11899 <s>To enable cupels of the best quality to be made, all <lb></lb>the impurities must
11900 be removed from the ashes. </s>
11901
11902 <s>These impurities are of <lb></lb>two kinds; the one sort light, to which class
11903 belong charcoal dust and fatty <lb></lb>material and other things which float in
11904 water, the other sort heavy, such <lb></lb>as small stones, fine sand, and any
11905 other materials which settle in the <lb></lb>bottom of a vessel. </s>
11906
11907 <s>Therefore, first of all, water should be poured into the <lb></lb>ashes and the
11908 light impurities removed; then the ashes should be <lb></lb>kneaded with the
11909 hands, so that they will become properly mixed with <lb></lb>the water. </s>
11910
11911 <s>When the water has become muddy and turbid, it should be <lb></lb>poured into a
11912 second vessel. </s>
11913
11914 <s>In this way the small stones and fine sand, or <lb></lb>any other heavy substance
11915 which may be there, remain in the first vessel, <lb></lb>and should be thrown
11916 away. </s>
11917
11918 <s>When all the ashes have settled in this second <lb></lb>vessel, which will be
11919 shown if the water has become clear and does not taste <lb></lb>of the flavour
11920 of lye, the water should be thrown away, and the ashes <lb></lb>which have
11921 settled in the vessel should be dried in the sun or in a furnace. <lb></lb></s>
11922
11923 <s>This material is suitable for the cupels, especially if it is the ash of
11924 beech <lb></lb>wood or other wood which has a small annual growth; those ashes
11925 made <lb></lb>from twigs and limbs of vines, which have rapid annual growth, are
11926 not so <pb pagenum="230"></pb>good, for the cupels made from them, since they
11927 are not sufficiently dry, <lb></lb>frequently crack and break in the fire and
11928 absorb the metals. </s>
11929
11930 <s>If ashes of <lb></lb>beech or similar wood are not to be had, the assayer makes
11931 little balls of such <lb></lb>ashes as he can get, after they have been cleared
11932 of impurities in the manner <lb></lb>before described, and puts them in a
11933 baker&#039;s or potter&#039;s oven to burn, and from <lb></lb>these the cupels are made,
11934 because the fire consumes whatever fat or damp <lb></lb>there may be. </s>
11935
11936 <s>As to all kinds of ashes, the older they are the better, for it is
11937 <lb></lb>necessary that they should have the greatest possible dryness. </s>
11938
11939 <s>For this <lb></lb>reason ashes obtained from burned bones, especially from the
11940 bones of the <lb></lb>heads of animals, are the most suitable for cupels, as are
11941 also those ashes <lb></lb>obtained from the horns of deer and the spines of
11942 fishes. </s>
11943
11944 <s>Lastly, some take the <lb></lb>ashes which are obtained from burnt scrapings of
11945 leather, when the tanners <lb></lb>scrape the hides to clear them from hair. </s>
11946
11947 <s>Some prefer to use compounds, <lb></lb>that one being recommended which has one
11948 and a half parts of ashes from the <lb></lb>bones of animals or the spines of
11949 fishes, and one part of beech ashes, and half a <lb></lb>part of ashes of burnt
11950 hide scrapings. </s>
11951
11952 <s>From this mixture good cupels are <lb></lb>made, though far better ones are
11953 obtained from equal portions of ashes of <lb></lb>burnt hide scrapings, ashes of
11954 the bones of heads of sheep and calves, and <lb></lb>ashes of deer horns. </s>
11955
11956 <s>But the best of all are produced from deer horns alone, <lb></lb>burnt to powder;
11957 this kind, by reason of its extreme dryness, absorbs metals <lb></lb>least of
11958 all. </s>
11959
11960 <s>Assayers of our own day, however, generally make the <lb></lb>cupels from beech
11961 ashes. </s>
11962
11963 <s>These ashes, after being prepared in the <lb></lb>manner just described, are
11964 first of all sprinkled with beer or water, to make <lb></lb>them stick together,
11965 and are then ground in a small mortar. </s>
11966
11967 <s>They are ground <lb></lb>again after being mixed with the ashes obtained from the
11968 skulls of beasts or from <lb></lb>the spines of fishes; the more the ashes are
11969 ground the better they are. <lb></lb></s>
11970
11971 <s>Some rub bricks and sprinkle the dust so obtained, after sifting it, into the
11972 <lb></lb>beech ashes, for dust of this kind does not allow the hearth-lead to
11973 absorb <lb></lb>the gold or silver by eating away the cupels. </s>
11974
11975 <s>Others, to guard against the <lb></lb>same thing, moisten the cupels with white
11976 of egg after they have been made, <lb></lb>and when they have been dried in the
11977 sun, again crush them; especially if they <lb></lb>want to assay in it an ore or
11978 copper which contains iron. </s>
11979
11980 <s>Some moisten the <lb></lb>ashes again and again with cow&#039;s milk, and dry them,
11981 and grind them in a <lb></lb>small mortar, and then mould the cupels. </s>
11982
11983 <s>In the works in which silver <lb></lb>is separated from copper, they make cupels
11984 from two parts of the ashes of <lb></lb>the crucible of the cupellation furnace,
11985 for these ashes are very dry, and from <lb></lb>one part of bone-ash. </s>
11986
11987 <s>Cupels which have been made in these ways also <lb></lb>need to be placed in the
11988 sun or in a furnace; afterward, in whatever way <lb></lb>they have been made,
11989 they must be kept a long time in dry places, for the <lb></lb>older they are,
11990 the dryer and better they are.</s>
11991 </p>
11992 <p type="main">
11993
11994 <s>Not only potters, but also the assayers themselves, make scorifiers <lb></lb>and
11995 triangular crucibles. </s>
11996
11997 <s>They make them out of fatty clay, which is <lb></lb>dry<emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, and neither hard nor soft. </s>
11998
11999 <s>With this clay they mix the dust of old <lb></lb>broken crucibles, or of burnt
12000 and worn bricks; then they knead with a <lb></lb>pestle the clay thus mixed with
12001 dust, and then dry it. </s>
12002
12003 <s>As to these crucibles, <pb pagenum="231"></pb>the older they are, the dryer and
12004 better they are. </s>
12005
12006 <s>The moulds in which the <lb></lb>cupels are moulded are of two kinds, that is, a
12007 smaller size and a larger size. <lb></lb></s>
12008
12009 <s>In the smaller ones are made the cupels in which silver or gold is purged
12010 <lb></lb>from the lead which has absorbed it; in the larger ones are made cupels
12011 in <lb></lb>which silver is separated from copper and lead. </s>
12012
12013 <s>Both moulds are made out <lb></lb>of brass and have no bottom, in order that the
12014 cupels can be taken out of <lb></lb>them whole. </s>
12015
12016 <s>The pestles also are of two kinds, smaller and larger, each <lb></lb>likewise of
12017 brass, and from the lower end of them there projects a round <lb></lb>knob, and
12018 this alone is pressed into the mould and makes the hollow part of <lb></lb>the
12019 cupel. </s>
12020
12021 <s>The part which is next to the knob corresponds to the upper <lb></lb>part of the
12022 mould.</s>
12023 </p>
12024 <figure></figure>
12025 <p type="caption">
12026
12027 <s>A—LITTLE MOULD. B—INVERTED MOULD. C—PESTLE. D—ITS
12028 KNOB. E—SECOND <lb></lb>PESTLE.</s>
12029 </p>
12030 <p type="main">
12031
12032 <s>So much for these matters. </s>
12033
12034 <s>I will now speak of the preparation of the <lb></lb>ore for assaying. </s>
12035
12036 <s>It is prepared by roasting, burning, crushing, and wash­<lb></lb>ing. </s>
12037
12038 <s>It is necessary to take a fixed weight of ore in order that one may
12039 <lb></lb>determine how great a portion of it these preparations consume. </s>
12040
12041 <s>The <lb></lb>hard stone containing the metal is burned in order that, when its
12042 hardness <lb></lb>has been overcome, it can be crushed and washed; indeed, the
12043 very hardest <lb></lb>kind, before it is burned, is sprinkled with vinegar, in
12044 order that it may more <lb></lb>rapidly soften in the fire. </s>
12045
12046 <s>The soft stone should be broken with a hammer, <lb></lb>crushed in a mortar and
12047 reduced to powder; then it should be washed <lb></lb>and then dried again. </s>
12048
12049 <s>If earth is mixed with the mineral, it is washed in a <lb></lb>basin, and that
12050 which settles is assayed in the fire after it is dried. </s>
12051
12052 <s>All mining <lb></lb>products which are washed must again be dried. </s>
12053
12054 <s>But ore which is rich in <lb></lb>metal is neither burned nor crushed nor washed,
12055 but is roasted, lest that <lb></lb>method of preparation should lose some of the
12056 metal. </s>
12057
12058 <s>When the fires have <pb pagenum="232"></pb>been kindled, this kind of ore is
12059 roasted in an enclosed pot, which is stopped <lb></lb>up with lute. </s>
12060
12061 <s>A less valuable ore is even burned on a hearth, being placed <lb></lb>upon the
12062 charcoal; for we do not make a great expenditure upon metals, if <lb></lb>they
12063 are not worth it. </s>
12064
12065 <s>However, I will go into fuller details as to all these <lb></lb>methods of
12066 preparing ore, both a little later, and in the following Book.</s>
12067 </p>
12068 <p type="main">
12069
12070 <s>For the present, I have decided to explain those things which mining
12071 <lb></lb>people usually call fluxes<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
12072 because they are added to ores, not only for <lb></lb>assaying, but also for
12073 smelting. </s>
12074
12075 <s>Great power is discovered in all these fluxes, <lb></lb>but we do not see the
12076 same effects produced in every case; and some are of a <lb></lb>very complicated
12077 nature. </s>
12078
12079 <s>For when they have been mixed with the ore <lb></lb>and are melted in either the
12080 assay or the smelting furnace, some of them, <lb></lb>because they melt easily,
12081 to some extent melt the ore; others, because they <lb></lb>either make the ore
12082 very hot or penetrate into it, greatly assist the fire in <lb></lb>separating
12083 the impurities from the metals, and they also mix the fused part <lb></lb>with
12084 the lead, or they partly protect from the fire the ore whose metal contents
12085 <lb></lb>would be either consumed in the fire, or carried up with the fumes and
12086 fly out <lb></lb>of the furnace; some fluxes absorb the metals. </s>
12087
12088 <s>To the first order be­<lb></lb>longs lead, whether it be reduced to little
12089 granules or resolved into ash by <lb></lb>fire, or red-lead<emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, or ochre made from lead<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, or litharge, or hearth-lead, or <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="233"></pb>galena; also copper, the same either roasted or in leaves
12090 or filings<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; also the <lb></lb>slags of
12091 gold, silver, copper, and lead; also soda<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, its slags, saltpetre, burned <lb></lb>alum, vitriol, <emph type="italics"></emph>sal tostus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and melted
12092 salt<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; stones which easily melt
12093 <lb></lb>in hot furnaces, the sand which is made from them<emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; soft <emph type="italics"></emph>tophus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>,
12094 <lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="234"></pb>and a certain white schist<emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
12095
12096 <s>But lead, its ashes, red-lead, ochre, and <lb></lb>litharge, are more efficacious
12097 for ores which melt easily; hearth-lead for <lb></lb>those which melt with
12098 difficulty; and galena for those which melt with <lb></lb>greater difficulty. </s>
12099
12100 <s>To the second order belong iron filings, their slag, <emph type="italics"></emph>sal <lb></lb>artificíosus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> argol, dried lees
12101 of vinegar<emph type="sup"></emph>15<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, and the lees of the
12102 <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which separates
12103 <lb></lb>gold from silver<emph type="sup"></emph>16<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; these lees
12104 and <emph type="italics"></emph>sal artíficíosus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> have the power of penetrating <lb></lb>into ore, the argol
12105 to a considerable degree, the lees of vinegar to a greater <lb></lb>degree, but
12106 most of all those of the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which separates gold from silver; <lb></lb>filings and slags of iron, since
12107 they melt more slowly, have the power of heat­<lb></lb>ing the ore. </s>
12108
12109 <s>To the third order belong pyrites, the cakes which are melted <lb></lb>from them,
12110 soda, its slags, salt, iron, iron scales, iron filings, iron slags, vitriol,
12111 <lb></lb>the sand which is resolved from stones which easily melt in the fire,
12112 and <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>tophus;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> but first
12113 of all are pyrites and the cakes which are melted from it, for <lb></lb>they
12114 absorb the metals of the ore and guard them from the fire which
12115 con­<lb></lb>sumes them. </s>
12116
12117 <s>To the fourth order belong lead and copper, and their relations. <lb></lb></s>
12118
12119 <s>And so with regard to fluxes, it is manifest that some are natural, others
12120 <lb></lb>fall in the category of slags, and the rest are purged from slag. </s>
12121
12122 <s>When we <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="235"></pb>assay ores, we can without great expense
12123 add to them a small portion of any <lb></lb>sort of flux, but when we smelt them
12124 we cannot add a large portion without <lb></lb>great expense. </s>
12125
12126 <s>We must, therefore, consider how great the cost is, to avoid <lb></lb>incurring a
12127 greater expense on smelting an ore than the profit we make out of <lb></lb>the
12128 metals which it yields.</s>
12129 </p>
12130 <p type="main">
12131
12132 <s>The colour of the fumes which the ore emits after being placed on a hot
12133 <lb></lb>shovel or an iron plate, indicates what flux is needed in addition to
12134 the lead, <lb></lb>for the purpose of either assaying or smelting. </s>
12135
12136 <s>If the fumes have a purple <lb></lb>tint, it is best of all, and the ore does not
12137 generally require any flux whatever. <lb></lb></s>
12138
12139 <s>If the fumes are blue, there should be added cakes melted out of pyrites or
12140 <lb></lb>other cupriferous rock; if yellow, litharge and sulphur should be
12141 added; if <lb></lb>red, glass-galls<emph type="sup"></emph>17<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
12142 and salt; if green, then cakes melted from cupriferous stones,
12143 <lb></lb>litharge, and glass-galls; if the fumes are black, melted salt or iron
12144 slag, <lb></lb>litharge and white lime rock. </s>
12145
12146 <s>If they are white, sulphur and iron which is <lb></lb>eaten with rust; if they
12147 are white with green patches, iron slag and <lb></lb>sand obtained from stones
12148 which easily melt; if the middle part of the <lb></lb>fumes are yellow and
12149 thick, but the outer parts green, the same sand and <lb></lb>iron slag. </s>
12150
12151 <s>The colour of the fumes not only gives us information as to the <lb></lb>proper
12152 remedies which should be applied to each ore, but also more or less
12153 <lb></lb>indication as to the solidified juices which are mixed with it, and
12154 which give <lb></lb>forth such fumes. </s>
12155
12156 <s>Generally, blue fumes signify that the ore contains azure; <lb></lb>yellow,
12157 orpiment; red, realgar; green, chrysocolla; black, black bitumen;
12158 <lb></lb>white, tin<emph type="sup"></emph>18<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; white with green
12159 patches, the same mixed with chrysocolla; <lb></lb>the middle part yellow and
12160 other parts green show that it contains sulphur. <lb></lb></s>
12161
12162 <s>Earth, however, and other things dug up which contain metals,
12163 some­<lb></lb>times emit similarly coloured fumes.</s>
12164 </p>
12165 <p type="main">
12166
12167 <s>If the ore contains any <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then iron slag is added to it; if pyrites, <lb></lb>then
12168 are added cakes melted from a cupriferous stone and sand made from
12169 <lb></lb>stones which easily melt. </s>
12170
12171 <s>If the ore contains iron, then pyrites and sulphur <lb></lb>are added; for just
12172 as iron slag is the flux for an ore mixed with sulphur, so <lb></lb>on the
12173 contrary, to a gold or silver ore containing iron, from which they are
12174 <lb></lb><pb pagenum="236"></pb>not easily separated, is added sulphur and sand
12175 made from stones which <lb></lb>easily melt.</s>
12176 </p>
12177 <p type="main">
12178
12179 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Sal artíficíosus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>19<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> suitable for use in
12180 assaying ore is made in many ways. <lb></lb></s>
12181
12182 <s>By the first method, equal portions of argol, lees of vinegar, and urine,
12183 <lb></lb>are all boiled down together till turned into salt. </s>
12184
12185 <s>The second method is from <lb></lb>equal portions of the ashes which wool-dyers
12186 use, of lime. </s>
12187
12188 <s>of argol purified, <lb></lb>and of melted salt; one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of each of these ingredients is thrown
12189 into <lb></lb>twenty <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of urine; then all are boiled down to one-third and strained, <lb></lb>and
12190 afterward there is added to what remains one <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and four <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of unmelted salt, eight
12191 pounds of lye being at the same time poured into <lb></lb>the pots, with
12192 litharge smeared around on the inside, and the whole is boiled <lb></lb>till the
12193 salt becomes thoroughly dry. </s>
12194
12195 <s>The third method follows. </s>
12196
12197 <s>Unmelted <lb></lb>salt, and iron which is eaten with rust, are put into a vessel,
12198 and after <lb></lb>urine has been poured in, it is covered with a lid and put in
12199 a warm place <lb></lb>for thirty days; then the iron is washed in the urine and
12200 taken out, and <lb></lb>the residue is boiled until it is turned into salt. </s>
12201
12202 <s>In the fourth method by <lb></lb>which <emph type="italics"></emph>sal
12203 artíficíosus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is prepared, the
12204 lye made from equal portions of <lb></lb>lime and the ashes which wool-dyers
12205 use, together with equal portions of <lb></lb>salt, soap, white argol, and
12206 saltpetre, are boiled until in the end the mix­<lb></lb>ture evaporates and
12207 becomes salt. </s>
12208
12209 <s>This salt is mixed with the concentrates <lb></lb>from washing, to melt them.</s>
12210 </p>
12211 <p type="main">
12212
12213 <s>Saltpetre is prepared in the following manner, in order that it may be
12214 <lb></lb>suitable for use in assaying ore. </s>
12215
12216 <s>It is placed in a pot which is smeared on <lb></lb>the inside with litharge, and
12217 lye made of quicklime is repeatedly poured over <lb></lb>it, and it is heated
12218 until the fire consumes it. </s>
12219
12220 <s>Wherefore the saltpetre <lb></lb>does not kindle with the fire, since it has
12221 absorbed the lime which preserves <lb></lb>it, and thus it is prepared<emph type="sup"></emph>20<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
12222 </p>
12223 <p type="main">
12224
12225 <s>The following compositions<emph type="sup"></emph>21<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> are
12226 recommended to smelt all ores which <lb></lb>the heat of fire breaks up or melts
12227 only with difficulty. </s>
12228
12229 <s>Of these, one is made <lb></lb>from stones of the third order, which easily melt
12230 when thrown into hot <lb></lb>furnaces. </s>
12231
12232 <s>They are crushed into pure white powder, and with half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="237"></pb>of this powder there are mixed two <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of yellow litharge, likewise crushed.
12233 <lb></lb></s>
12234
12235 <s>This mixture is put into a scorifier large enough to hold it, and placed
12236 under <lb></lb>the muffle of a hot furnace; when the charge flows like water,
12237 which occurs <lb></lb>after half an hour, it is taken out of the furnace and
12238 poured on to a stone, <lb></lb>and when it has hardened it has the appearance of
12239 glass, and this is likewise <lb></lb>crushed. </s>
12240
12241 <s>This powder is sprinkled over any metalliferous ore which does <lb></lb>not
12242 easily melt when we are assaying it, and it causes the slag to exude.</s>
12243 </p>
12244 <p type="main">
12245
12246 <s>Others, in place of litharge, substitute lead ash,<emph type="sup"></emph>22<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> which is made in the <lb></lb>following way:
12247 sulphur is thrown into lead which has been melted in a <lb></lb>crucible, and it
12248 soon becomes covered with a sort of scum; when this is <lb></lb>removed, sulphur
12249 is again thrown in, and the skin which forms is again taken <lb></lb>off; this
12250 is frequently repeated, in fact until all the lead is turned into
12251 <lb></lb>powder. </s>
12252
12253 <s>There is a powerful flux compound which is made from one <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>each of prepared saltpetre,
12254 melted salt, glass-gall, and argol, and one-third <lb></lb>of an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of litharge and a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of glass ground to powder;
12255 this flux, being <lb></lb>added to an equal weight of ore, liquefies it. </s>
12256
12257 <s>A more powerful flux is made by <lb></lb>placing together in a pot, smeared on
12258 the inside with litharge, equal portions <lb></lb>of white argol, common salt,
12259 and prepared saltpetre, and these are heated <lb></lb>until a white powder is
12260 obtained from them, and this is mixed with as much <lb></lb>litharge; one part
12261 of this compound is mixed with two parts of the ore which <lb></lb>is to be
12262 assayed. </s>
12263
12264 <s>A still more powerful flux than this is made out of ashes <lb></lb>of black lead,
12265 saltpetre, orpiment, <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and dried lees of the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> with <lb></lb>which gold workers separate
12266 gold from silver. </s>
12267
12268 <s>The ashes of lead<emph type="sup"></emph>23<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> are made from
12269 <lb></lb>one pound of lead and one pound of sulphur; the lead is flattened out
12270 into <lb></lb>sheets by pounding with a hammer, and placed alternately with
12271 sulphur in a <lb></lb>crucible or pot, and they are heated together until the
12272 fire consumes the <lb></lb>sulphur and the lead turns to ashes. </s>
12273
12274 <s>One <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of crushed
12275 saltpetre is mixed <lb></lb>with one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of orpiment similarly ground to powder, and the two are
12276 cooked <lb></lb>in an iron pan until they liquefy; they are then poured out, and
12277 after cool­<lb></lb>ing are again ground to powder. </s>
12278
12279 <s>A <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a
12280 <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the <lb></lb>dried
12281 lees (<emph type="italics"></emph>of what?<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>) are placed
12282 alternately in a crucible and heated to the <lb></lb>point at which they form a
12283 button, which is similarly reduced to powder. <lb></lb></s>
12284
12285 <s>A <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of this powder and one
12286 <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the
12287 ashes of lead, as well as a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>powder made out of the saltpetre and orpiment,
12288 are mixed together and a <lb></lb><pb pagenum="238"></pb>powder is made from them,
12289 one part of which added to two parts of ore <lb></lb>liquefies it and cleanses
12290 it of dross. </s>
12291
12292 <s>But the most powerful flux is one which <lb></lb>has two <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of sulphur and as much glass-galls,
12293 and half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
12294 each of <lb></lb>the following,—<emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> salt obtained from
12295 boiled urine, melted common salt, <lb></lb>prepared saltpetre, litharge,
12296 vitriol, argol, salt obtained from ashes of musk ivy, <lb></lb>dried lees of the
12297 <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> by which
12298 gold-workers separate gold from silver, <lb></lb>alum reduced by fire to powder,
12299 and one <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
12300 camphor<emph type="sup"></emph>24<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> combined with
12301 <lb></lb>sulphur and ground into powder. </s>
12302
12303 <s>A half or whole portion of this mixture, <lb></lb>as the necessity of the case
12304 requires, is mixed with one portion of the ore <lb></lb>and two portions of
12305 lead, and put in a scorifier; it is sprinkled with powder <lb></lb>of crushed
12306 Venetian glass, and when the mixture has been heated for an hour <lb></lb>and a
12307 half or two hours, a button will settle in the bottom of the scorifier, and
12308 <lb></lb>from it the lead is soon separated.</s>
12309 </p>
12310 <p type="main">
12311
12312 <s>There is also a flux which separates sulphur, orpiment and realgar from
12313 <lb></lb>metalliferous ore. </s>
12314
12315 <s>This flux is composed of equal portions of iron slag, <lb></lb>white <emph type="italics"></emph>tophus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and salt. </s>
12316
12317 <s>After these juices have been secreted, the ores <lb></lb>themselves are melted,
12318 with argol added to them. </s>
12319
12320 <s>There is one flux which <lb></lb>preserves <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> from the fire, that
12321 the fire may not consume it, and <lb></lb>which preserves the metals from the
12322 <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
12323 and this is composed of equal <lb></lb>portions of sulphur, prepared saltpetre,
12324 melted salt, and vitriol, heated <lb></lb>together in lye until no odour
12325 emanates from the sulphur, which occurs after <lb></lb>a space of three or four
12326 hours.<emph type="sup"></emph>25<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
12327 </p>
12328 <p type="main">
12329
12330 <s>It is also worth while to substitute certain other mixtures. </s>
12331
12332 <s>Take two <lb></lb>portions of ore properly prepared, one portion of iron filings,
12333 and likewise <lb></lb>one portion of salt, and mix; then put them into a
12334 scorifier and place them <lb></lb>in a muffle furnace; when they are reduced by
12335 the fire and run together, a <lb></lb>button will settle in the bottom of the
12336 scorifier. </s>
12337
12338 <s>Or else take equal portions <lb></lb>of ore and of lead ochre, and mix with them
12339 a small quantity of iron filings, <lb></lb>and put them into a scorifier, then
12340 scatter iron filings over the mixture. </s>
12341
12342 <s>Or <lb></lb>else take ore which has been ground to powder and sprinkle it in a
12343 crucible, <lb></lb>and then sprinkle over it an equal quantity of salt that has
12344 been three or <lb></lb>four times moistened with urine and dried; then, again
12345 and again alternately, <lb></lb>powdered ore and salt; next, after the crucible
12346 has been covered with a <lb></lb>lid and sealed, it is placed upon burning
12347 charcoal. </s>
12348
12349 <s>Or else take one portion of <lb></lb>ore, one portion of minute lead granules,
12350 half a portion of Venetian glass, <lb></lb>and the same quantity of glass-galls. </s>
12351
12352 <s>Or else take one portion of ore, one <lb></lb>portion of lead granules, half a
12353 portion of salt, one-fourth of a portion of argol, <lb></lb>and the same
12354 quantity of lees of the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
12355 which separates gold from silver. <lb></lb></s>
12356
12357 <s>Or else take equal portions of prepared ore and a powder in which there
12358 <lb></lb><pb pagenum="239"></pb>are equal portions of very minute lead granules,
12359 melted salt, <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <lb></lb>iron slag Or else take equal portions of gold
12360 ore, vitriol, argol, and of salt. <lb></lb></s>
12361
12362 <s>So much for the fluxes.</s>
12363 </p>
12364 <p type="main">
12365
12366 <s>In the assay furnace, when it has been prepared in the way in which I
12367 <lb></lb>have described, is first placed a muffle. </s>
12368
12369 <s>Then selected pieces of live charcoals <lb></lb>are laid on it, for, from pieces
12370 of inferior quality, a great quantity of ash collects <lb></lb>around the muffle
12371 and hinders the action of the fire. </s>
12372
12373 <s>Then the scorifiers are <lb></lb>placed under the muffle with tongs, and glowing
12374 coals are placed under the <lb></lb>fore part of the muffle to warm the
12375 scorifiers more quickly; and when the lead <lb></lb>or ore is to be placed in
12376 the scorifiers, they are taken out again with the <lb></lb>tongs. </s>
12377
12378 <s>When the scorifiers glow in the heat, first of all the ash or small
12379 <lb></lb>charcoals, if any have fallen into them, should be blown away with an
12380 iron <lb></lb>pipe two feet long and a digit in diameter; this same thing must
12381 be done <lb></lb>if ash or small coal has fallen into the cupels. </s>
12382
12383 <s>Next, put in a small ball of lead <lb></lb>with the tongs, and when this lead has
12384 begun to be turned into fumes and <lb></lb>consumed, add to it the prepared ore
12385 wrapped in paper. </s>
12386
12387 <s>It is preferable that <lb></lb>the assayer should wrap it in paper, and in this
12388 way put it in the scorifier, <lb></lb>than that he should drop it in with a
12389 copper ladle; for when the <lb></lb>scorifiers are small, if he uses a ladle he
12390 frequently spills some part of the <lb></lb>ore. </s>
12391
12392 <s>When the paper is burnt, he stirs the ore with a small charcoal held in
12393 <lb></lb>the tongs, so that the lead may absorb the metal which is mixed in the
12394 ore; <lb></lb>when this mixture has taken place, the slag partly adheres by its
12395 cir­<lb></lb>cumference to the scorifier and makes a kind of black ring, and
12396 partly <lb></lb>floats on the lead in which is mixed the gold or silver; then
12397 the slag must <lb></lb>be removed from it.</s>
12398 </p>
12399 <p type="main">
12400
12401 <s>The lead used must be entirely free from every trace of silver, as is that
12402 <lb></lb>which is known as <emph type="italics"></emph>Víllacense.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>26<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> But if this
12403 kind is not obtainable, the lead <lb></lb>must be assayed separately, to
12404 determine with certainty that proportion of <lb></lb>silver it contains, so that
12405 it may be deducted from the calculation of the <lb></lb>ore, and the result be
12406 exact; for unless such lead be used, the assay will be <lb></lb>false and
12407 misleading. </s>
12408
12409 <s>The lead balls are made with a pair of iron tongs, <lb></lb>about one foot long;
12410 its iron claws are so formed that when pressed <lb></lb>together they are
12411 egg-shaped; each claw contains a hollow cup, and when <lb></lb>the claws are
12412 closed there extends upward from the cup a passage, so there <lb></lb>are two
12413 openings, one of which leads to each hollow cup. </s>
12414
12415 <s>And so when the <lb></lb>molten lead is poured in through the openings, it flows
12416 down into the hollow <lb></lb>cup, and two balls are formed by one pouring.</s>
12417 </p>
12418 <p type="main">
12419
12420 <s>In this place I ought not to omit mention of another method of assaying
12421 <lb></lb>employed by some assayers. </s>
12422
12423 <s>They first of all place prepared ore in the <lb></lb>scorifiers and heat it, and
12424 afterward they add the lead. </s>
12425
12426 <s>Of this method I <lb></lb>cannot approve, for in this way the ore frequently
12427 becomes cemented, and <lb></lb>for this reason it does not stir easily
12428 afterward, and is very slow in mixing <lb></lb>with the lead.</s>
12429 </p>
12430 <pb pagenum="240"></pb>
12431 <p type="main">
12432
12433 <s>If the whole space of the furnace covered by the muffle is not filled with
12434 <lb></lb>scorifiers, cupels are put in the empty space, in order that they may
12435 become <lb></lb>warmed in the meantime. </s>
12436
12437 <s>Sometimes, however, it is filled with scorifiers, <lb></lb>when we are assaying
12438 many different ores, or many portions of one ore at the <lb></lb>same time. </s>
12439
12440 <s>Although the cupels are usually dried in one hour, yet smaller <lb></lb>ones are
12441 done more quickly, and the larger ones more slowly. </s>
12442
12443 <s>Unless the <lb></lb>cupels are heated before the metal mixed with lead is placed
12444 in them, they </s>
12445 </p>
12446 <figure></figure>
12447 <p type="caption">
12448
12449 <s>A—CLAWS OF THE TONGS. B—IRON, GIVING FORM OF AN EGG.
12450 C—OPENING.<lb></lb>frequently break, and the lead always sputters and
12451 sometimes leaps out of them; <lb></lb>if the cupel is broken or the lead leaps
12452 out of it, it is necessary to assay <lb></lb>another portion of ore; but if the
12453 lead only sputters, then the cupels should <lb></lb>be covered with broad thin
12454 pieces of glowing charcoal, and when the lead <lb></lb>strikes these, it falls
12455 back again, and thus the mixture is slowly exhaled. <lb></lb></s>
12456
12457 <s>Further, if in the cupellation the lead which is in the mixture is not
12458 con­<lb></lb>sumed, but remains fixed and set, and is covered by a kind of
12459 skin, this is a <lb></lb>sign that it has not been heated by a sufficiently hot
12460 fire; put into the <lb></lb>mixture, therefore, a dry pine stick, or a twig of a
12461 similar tree, and hold it <lb></lb>in the hand in order that it can be drawn
12462 away when it has been heated. <lb></lb></s>
12463
12464 <s>Then take care that the heat is sufficient and equal; if the heat has not
12465 <lb></lb>passed all round the charge, as it should when everything is done
12466 rightly, <lb></lb>but causes it to have a lengthened shape, so that it appears
12467 to have a tail, <lb></lb>this is a sign that the heat is deficient where the
12468 tail lies. </s>
12469
12470 <s>Then in order <lb></lb>that the cupel may be equally heated by the fire, turn it
12471 around with a small <lb></lb>iron hook, whose handle is likewise made of iron
12472 and is a foot and a half long.</s>
12473 </p>
12474 <figure></figure>
12475 <p type="caption">
12476
12477 <s>SMALL IRON HOOK.</s>
12478 </p>
12479 <p type="main">
12480
12481 <s>Next, if the mixture has not enough lead, add as much of it as is required
12482 <lb></lb>with the iron tongs, or with the brass ladle to which is fastened a
12483 very long <lb></lb>handle. </s>
12484
12485 <s>In order that the charge may not be cooled, warm the lead beforehand. <pb pagenum="241"></pb>But it is better at first to add as much lead as is
12486 required to the ore which <lb></lb>needs melting, rather than afterward when the
12487 melting has been half finished, <lb></lb>that the whole quantity may not vanish
12488 in fumes, but part of it remain <lb></lb>fast. </s>
12489
12490 <s>When the heat of the fire has nearly consumed the lead, then is the <lb></lb>time
12491 when the gold and silver gleam in their varied colours, and when all the
12492 <lb></lb>lead has been consumed the gold or silver settles in the cupel. </s>
12493
12494 <s>Then as <lb></lb>soon as possible remove the cupel out of the furnace, and take
12495 the button out <lb></lb>of it while it is still warm, in order that it does not
12496 adhere to the ashes. </s>
12497
12498 <s>This <lb></lb>generally happens if the button is already cold when it is taken
12499 out. </s>
12500
12501 <s>If the <lb></lb>ashes do adhere to it, do not scrape it with a knife, lest some
12502 of it be lost and <lb></lb>the assay be erroneous, but squeeze it with the iron
12503 tongs, so that the ashes <lb></lb>drop off through the pressure. </s>
12504
12505 <s>Finally, it is of advantage to make two or <lb></lb>three assays of the same ore
12506 at the same time, in order that if by chance <lb></lb>one is not successful, the
12507 second, or in any event the third, may be certain.</s>
12508 </p>
12509 <p type="main">
12510
12511 <s>While the assayer is assaying the ore, in order to prevent the great heat
12512 <lb></lb>of the fire from injuring his eyes, it will be useful for him always to
12513 have <lb></lb>ready a thin wooden tablet, two palms wide, with a handle by which
12514 it may <lb></lb>be held, and with a slit down the middle in order that he may
12515 look through <lb></lb>it as through a crack, since it is necessary for him to
12516 look frequently within <lb></lb>and carefully to consider everything.</s>
12517 </p>
12518 <figure></figure>
12519 <p type="caption">
12520
12521 <s>A—HANDLE OF TABLET. B—ITS CRACK.</s>
12522 </p>
12523 <p type="main">
12524
12525 <s>Now the lead which has absorbed the silver from a metallic ore is
12526 con­<lb></lb>sumed in the cupel by the heat in the space of three quarters
12527 of an hour. </s>
12528
12529 <s>When <lb></lb>the assays are completed the muffle is taken out of the furnace,
12530 and the <lb></lb>ashes removed with an iron shovel, not only from the brick and
12531 iron furnaces, <lb></lb>but also from the earthen one, so that the furnace need
12532 not be removed from <lb></lb>its foundation.</s>
12533 </p>
12534 <p type="main">
12535
12536 <s>From ore placed in the triangular crucible a button is melted out, from
12537 <lb></lb>which metal is afterward made. </s>
12538
12539 <s>First of all, glowing charcoal is put into <lb></lb>the iron hoop, then is put in
12540 the triangular crucible, which contains the ore <lb></lb>together with those
12541 things which can liquefy it and purge it of its dross; <lb></lb>then the fire is
12542 blown with the double bellows, and the ore is heated until <lb></lb>the button
12543 settles in the bottom of the crucible. </s>
12544
12545 <s>We have explained that <lb></lb>there are two methods of assaying ore,—one,
12546 by which the lead is mixed <pb pagenum="242"></pb>with ore in the scorifier and
12547 afterward again separated from it in the cupel; <lb></lb>the other, by which it
12548 is first melted in the triangular earthen crucible and <lb></lb>afterward mixed
12549 with lead in the scorifier, and later separated from it in the <lb></lb>cupel. </s>
12550
12551 <s>Now let us consider which is more suitable for each ore, or, if neither
12552 <lb></lb>is suitable, by what other method in one way or another we can assay
12553 it.</s>
12554 </p>
12555 <p type="main">
12556
12557 <s>We justly begin with a gold ore, which we assay by both methods, for <lb></lb>if
12558 it is rich and seems not to be strongly resistant to fire, but to liquefy
12559 easily, <lb></lb>one <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of it (known to us as the lesser weights),<emph type="sup"></emph>27<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> together with <lb></lb>one and a half, or two <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead of the larger
12560 weights, are mixed together <lb></lb>and placed in the scorifier, and the two
12561 are heated in the fire until they are <lb></lb>well mixed. </s>
12562
12563 <s>But since such an ore sometimes resists melting, add a little <lb></lb>salt to
12564 it, either <emph type="italics"></emph>sal torrefactus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
12565 or <emph type="italics"></emph>sal artificiosus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> for
12566 this will subdue it, and <lb></lb>prevent the alloy from collecting much dross;
12567 stir it frequently with an iron <lb></lb>rod, in order that the lead may flow
12568 around the gold on every side, and absorb <lb></lb>it and cast out the waste. </s>
12569
12570 <s>When this has been done, take out the alloy and <lb></lb>cleanse it of slag; then
12571 place it in the cupel and heat it until it exhales all <lb></lb>the lead, and a
12572 bead of gold settles in the bottom.</s>
12573 </p>
12574 <p type="main">
12575
12576 <s>If the gold ore is seen not to be easily melted in the fire, roast it and
12577 <lb></lb>extinguish it with brine. </s>
12578
12579 <s>Do this again and again, for the more often you <lb></lb>roast it and extinguish
12580 it, the more easily the ore can be crushed fine, and the <lb></lb>more quickly
12581 does it melt in the fire and give up whatever dross it possesses. <pb pagenum="243"></pb>Mix one part of this ore, when it has been roasted,
12582 crushed, and washed, with <lb></lb>three parts of some powder compound which
12583 melts ore, and six parts of lead. <lb></lb></s>
12584
12585 <s>Put the charge into the triangular crucible, place it in the iron hoop to
12586 which <lb></lb>the double bellows reaches, and heat first in a slow fire, and
12587 afterward <lb></lb>gradually in a fiercer fire, till it melts and flows like
12588 water. </s>
12589
12590 <s>If the ore does <lb></lb>not melt, add to it a little more of these fluxes, mixed
12591 with an equal portion <lb></lb>of yellow litharge, and stir it with a hot iron
12592 rod until it all melts. </s>
12593
12594 <s>Then <lb></lb>take the crucible out of the hoop, shake off the button when it has
12595 cooled, <lb></lb>and when it has been cleansed, melt first in the scorifier and
12596 afterward in <lb></lb>the cupel. </s>
12597
12598 <s>Finally, rub the gold which has settled in the bottom of the cupel,
12599 <lb></lb>after it has been taken out and cooled, on the touchstone, in order to
12600 find out <lb></lb>what proportion of silver it contains. </s>
12601
12602 <s>Another method is to put a <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (of the lesser
12603 weights) of gold ore into the triangular crucible, and <lb></lb>add to it a
12604 <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (of the larger
12605 weights) of glass-galls. </s>
12606
12607 <s>If it resists melting, <lb></lb>add half a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of roasted argol, and if even then it resists, add the
12608 <lb></lb>same quantity of roasted lees of vinegar, or lees of the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which separates <lb></lb>gold
12609 from silver, and the button will settle in the bottom of the crucible.
12610 <lb></lb></s>
12611
12612 <s>Melt this button again in the scorifier and a third time in the cupel.</s>
12613 </p>
12614 <p type="main">
12615
12616 <s>We determine in the following way, before it is melted in the muffle
12617 <lb></lb>furnace, whether pyrites contains gold in it or not: if, after being
12618 three times <lb></lb>roasted and three times quenched in sharp vinegar, it has
12619 not broken nor <lb></lb>changed its colour, there is gold in it. </s>
12620
12621 <s>The vinegar by which it is quenched <lb></lb>should be mixed with salt that is
12622 put in it, and frequently stirred and dissolved <lb></lb>for three days. </s>
12623
12624 <s>Nor is pyrites devoid of gold, when, after being roasted and <lb></lb>then rubbed
12625 on the touchstone, it colours the touchstone in the same way that <lb></lb>it
12626 coloured it when rubbed in its crude state. </s>
12627
12628 <s>Nor is gold lacking in that, <lb></lb>whose concentrates from washing, when
12629 heated in the fire, easily melt, giving <lb></lb>forth little smell and
12630 remaining bright; such concentrates are heated in the <lb></lb>fire in a
12631 hollowed piece of charcoal covered over with another charcoal.</s>
12632 </p>
12633 <p type="main">
12634
12635 <s>We also assay gold ore without fire, but more often its sand or the
12636 con­<lb></lb>centrates which have been made by washing, or the dust gathered
12637 up by <lb></lb>some other means. </s>
12638
12639 <s>A little of it is slightly moistened with water and heated <lb></lb>until it
12640 begins to exhale an odour, and then to one portion of ore are placed
12641 <lb></lb>two portions of quicksilver<emph type="sup"></emph>28<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
12642 in a wooden dish as deep as a basin. </s>
12643
12644 <s>They are <lb></lb>mixed together with a little brine, and are then ground with a
12645 wooden pestle <lb></lb>for the space of two hours, until the mixture becomes of
12646 the thickness of dough, <lb></lb>and the quicksilver can no longer be
12647 distinguished from the concentrates <lb></lb>made by the washing, nor the
12648 concentrates from the quicksilver. </s>
12649
12650 <s>Warm, or <lb></lb>at least tepid, water is poured into the dish and the material
12651 is washed until <lb></lb>the water runs out clear. </s>
12652
12653 <s>Afterward cold water is poured into the same dish, <lb></lb>and soon the
12654 quicksilver, which has absorbed all the gold, runs together <lb></lb>into a
12655 separate place away from the rest of the concentrates made by <lb></lb>washing. </s>
12656
12657 <s>The quicksilver is afterward separated from the gold by means <lb></lb>of a pot
12658 covered with soft leather, or with canvas made of woven <lb></lb>threads of
12659 cotton; the amalgam is poured into the middle of the cloth or <pb pagenum="244"></pb>leather, which sags about one hand&#039;s breadth; next, the
12660 leather is folded <lb></lb>over and tied with a waxed string, and the dish
12661 catches the quicksilver <lb></lb>which is squeezed through it. </s>
12662
12663 <s>As for the gold which remains in the leather, <lb></lb>it is placed in a
12664 scorifier and purified by being placed near glowing coals. </s>
12665
12666 <s>Others <lb></lb>do not wash away the dirt with warm water, but with strong lye
12667 and vinegar, <lb></lb>for they pour these liquids into the pot, and also throw
12668 into it the quicksilver <lb></lb>mixed with the concentrates made by washing. </s>
12669
12670 <s>Then they set the pot in a <lb></lb>warm place, and after twenty-four hours pour
12671 out the liquids with the dirt, and <lb></lb>separate the quicksilver from the
12672 gold in the manner which I have described. <lb></lb></s>
12673
12674 <s>Then they pour urine into a jar set in the ground, and in the jar place a
12675 <lb></lb>pot with holes in the bottom, and in the pot they place the gold; then
12676 the <lb></lb>lid is put on and cemented, and it is joined with the jar; they
12677 afterward heat <lb></lb>it till the pot glows red. </s>
12678
12679 <s>After it has cooled, if there is copper in the gold <lb></lb>they melt it with
12680 lead in a cupel, that the copper may be separated from it; <lb></lb>but if there
12681 is silver in the gold they separate them by means of the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>which has the power
12682 of parting these two metals. </s>
12683
12684 <s>There are some who, <lb></lb>when they separate gold from quicksilver, do not
12685 pour the amalgam into <lb></lb>a leather, but put it into a gourd-shaped earthen
12686 vessel, which they place <lb></lb>in the furnace and heat gradually over burning
12687 charcoal; next, with an iron <lb></lb>plate, they cover the opening of the
12688 operculum, which exudes vapour, and as <lb></lb>soon as it has ceased to exude,
12689 they smear it with lute and heat it for a short <lb></lb>time; then they remove
12690 the operculum from the pot, and wipe off the <lb></lb>quicksilver which adheres
12691 to it with a hare&#039;s foot, and preserve it for future <lb></lb>use. </s>
12692
12693 <s>By the latter method, a greater quantity of quicksilver is lost, and by
12694 <lb></lb>the former method, a smaller quantity.</s>
12695 </p>
12696 <p type="main">
12697
12698 <s>If an ore is rich in silver, as is <emph type="italics"></emph>rudis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> silver<emph type="sup"></emph>29<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>,
12699 frequently silver glance, <lb></lb>or rarely ruby silver, gray silver, black
12700 silver, brown silver, or yellow silver, <lb></lb>as soon as it is cleansed and
12701 heated, a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (of the lesser weights) of <lb></lb>it is placed in an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of molten lead in a cupel, and is
12702 heated until the lead <lb></lb>exhales. </s>
12703
12704 <s>But if the ore is of poor or moderate quality, it must first be dried,
12705 <lb></lb>then crushed, and then to a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (of the lesser weights) an
12706 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of lead is
12707 added, and it is heated in the scorifier until it melts. </s>
12708
12709 <s>If it is not <lb></lb>soon melted by the fire, it should be sprinkled with a
12710 little powder of the <lb></lb>first order of fluxes, and if then it does not
12711 melt, more is added little by little <lb></lb>until it melts and exudes its
12712 slag; that this result may be reached sooner, <lb></lb>the powder which has been
12713 sprinkled over it should be stirred in with an iron <lb></lb>rod. </s>
12714
12715 <s>When the scorifier has been taken out of the assay furnace, the alloy
12716 <lb></lb>should be poured into a hole in a baked brick; and when it has cooled
12717 and been <lb></lb>cleansed of the slag, it should be placed in a cupel and
12718 heated until it exhales <lb></lb>all its lead; the weight of silver which
12719 remains in the cupel indicates what <lb></lb>proportion of silver is contained
12720 in the ore.</s>
12721 </p>
12722 <p type="main">
12723
12724 <s>We assay copper ore without lead, for if it is melted with it, the copper
12725 <lb></lb>usually exhales and is lost. </s>
12726
12727 <s>Therefore, a certain weight of such an ore <pb pagenum="245"></pb>is first
12728 roasted in a hot fire for about six or eight hours; next, when it has
12729 <lb></lb>cooled, it is crushed and washed; then the concentrates made by washing
12730 <lb></lb>are again roasted, crushed, washed, dried, and weighed. </s>
12731
12732 <s>The portion which <lb></lb>it has lost whilst it is being roasted and washed is
12733 taken into account, and <lb></lb>these concentrates by washing represent the
12734 cake which will be melted out <lb></lb>of the copper ore. </s>
12735
12736 <s>Place three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
12737 (lesser weights) of this, mixed <lb></lb>with three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (lesser weights) each of copper
12738 scales<emph type="sup"></emph>30<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, saltpetre, <lb></lb>and
12739 Venetian glass, mixed, into the triangular crucible, and place it in the
12740 iron <lb></lb>hoop which is set on the hearth in front of the double bellows. </s>
12741
12742 <s>Cover the crucible <lb></lb>with charcoal in such a way that nothing may fall
12743 into the ore which is to be <lb></lb>melted, and so that it may melt more
12744 quickly. </s>
12745
12746 <s>At first blow a gentle blast with <lb></lb>the bellows in order that the ore may
12747 be heated gradually in the fire; then <lb></lb>blow strongly till it melts, and
12748 the fire consumes that which has been added to <lb></lb>it, and the ore itself
12749 exudes whatever slag it possesses. </s>
12750
12751 <s>Next, cool <lb></lb>the crucible which has been taken out, and when this is
12752 broken you will find <lb></lb>the copper; weigh this, in order to ascertain how
12753 great a portion of the ore <lb></lb>the fire has consumed. </s>
12754
12755 <s>Some ore is only once roasted, crushed, and washed; <lb></lb>and of this kind of
12756 concentrates, three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (lesser weights) are <lb></lb>taken with one <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each of
12757 common salt, argol and glass­<lb></lb>galls. </s>
12758
12759 <s>Heat them in the triangular crucible, and when the mixture has <lb></lb>cooled a
12760 button of pure copper will be found, if the ore is rich in this metal.
12761 <lb></lb></s>
12762
12763 <s>If, however, it is less rich, a stony lump results, with which the copper is
12764 <lb></lb>intermixed; this lump is again roasted, crushed, and, after adding
12765 stones <lb></lb>which easily melt and saltpetre, it is again melted in another
12766 crucible, and <lb></lb>there settles in the bottom of the crucible a button of
12767 pure copper. </s>
12768
12769 <s>If you <lb></lb>wish to know what proportion of silver is in this copper button,
12770 melt it in a <lb></lb>cupel after adding lead. </s>
12771
12772 <s>With regard to this test I will speak later.</s>
12773 </p>
12774 <p type="main">
12775
12776 <s>Those who wish to know quickly what portion of silver the copper ore
12777 <lb></lb>contains, roast the ore, crush and wash it, then mix a little yellow
12778 litharge <lb></lb>with one <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (lesser weights) of the concentrates, and put the
12779 <lb></lb>mixture into a scorifier, which they place under the muffle in a hot
12780 furnace for <lb></lb>the space of half an hour. </s>
12781
12782 <s>When the slag exudes, by reason of the melting force <lb></lb>which is in the
12783 litharge, they take the scorifier out; when it has cooled, they <lb></lb>cleanse
12784 it of slag and again crush it, and with one <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of it they <lb></lb>mix one
12785 and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
12786 lead granules. </s>
12787
12788 <s>They then put it into another <lb></lb>scorifier, which they place under the
12789 muffle in a hot furnace, adding to the <lb></lb>mixture a little of the powder
12790 of some one of the fluxes which cause ore to <lb></lb>melt; when it has melted
12791 they take it out, and after it has cooled, cleanse <lb></lb>it of slag; lastly,
12792 they heat it in the cupel till it has exhaled all of the lead, <lb></lb>and only
12793 silver remains.</s>
12794 </p>
12795 <p type="main">
12796
12797 <s>Lead ore may be assayed by this method: crush half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>pure lead-stone and the
12798 same quantity of the <emph type="italics"></emph>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which they call <lb></lb>borax, mix them together, place
12799 them in a crucible, and put a glowing coal <pb pagenum="246"></pb>in the middle
12800 of it. </s>
12801
12802 <s>As soon as the borax crackles and the lead-stone melts, <lb></lb>which soon
12803 occurs, remove the coal from the crucible, and the lead will settle <lb></lb>to
12804 the bottom of it; weigh it out, and take account of that portion of it
12805 <lb></lb>which the fire has consumed. </s>
12806
12807 <s>If you also wish to know what portion of silver <lb></lb>is contained in the
12808 lead, melt the lead in the cupel until all of it exhales.</s>
12809 </p>
12810 <p type="main">
12811
12812 <s>Another way is to roast the lead ore, of whatsoever quality it be, wash
12813 <lb></lb>it, and put into the crucible one <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the concentrates, together
12814 <lb></lb>with three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
12815 of the powdered compound which melts ore, mixed <lb></lb>together, and place it
12816 in the iron hoop that it may melt; when it has cooled, <lb></lb>cleanse it of
12817 its slag, and complete the test as I have already said. </s>
12818
12819 <s>Another way is <lb></lb>to take two <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of prepared ore, five <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of roasted copper, one <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>glass, or
12820 glass-galls reduced to powder, a <emph type="italics"></emph>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of salt, and mix them. </s>
12821
12822 <s>Put <lb></lb>the mixture into the triangular crucible, and heat it over a gentle
12823 fire to <lb></lb>prevent it from breaking; when the mixture has melted, blow the
12824 fire <lb></lb>vigorously with the bellows; then take the crucible off the live
12825 coals and <lb></lb>let it cool in the open air; do not pour water on it, lest
12826 the lead button being <lb></lb>acted upon by the excessive cold should become
12827 mixed with the slag, and the <lb></lb>assay in this way be erroneous. </s>
12828
12829 <s>When the crucible has cooled, you will find <lb></lb>in the bottom of it the lead
12830 button. </s>
12831
12832 <s>Another way is to take two <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>ore, a <emph type="italics"></emph>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of litharge, two <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of Venetian glass and
12833 a <emph type="italics"></emph>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of
12834 saltpetre. </s>
12835
12836 <s>If there is difficulty in melting the ore, add to it iron filings,
12837 <lb></lb>which, since they increase the heat, easily separate the waste from
12838 lead and <lb></lb>other metals. </s>
12839
12840 <s>By the last way, lead ore properly prepared is placed in the <lb></lb>crucible,
12841 and there is added to it only the sand made from stones which easily
12842 <lb></lb>melt, or iron filings, and then the assay is completed as formerly.</s>
12843 </p>
12844 <p type="main">
12845
12846 <s>You can assay tin ore by the following method. </s>
12847
12848 <s>First roast it, then <lb></lb>crush, and afterward wash it; the concentrates are
12849 again roasted, crushed, <lb></lb>and washed. </s>
12850
12851 <s>Mix one and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of this with one <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the <emph type="italics"></emph>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which they call borax; from the mixture, <lb></lb>when it
12852 has been moistened with water, make a lump. </s>
12853
12854 <s>Afterwards, <lb></lb>perforate a large round piece of charcoal, making this
12855 opening a palm deep, <lb></lb>three digits wide on the upper side and narrower
12856 on the lower side; when <lb></lb>the charcoal is put in its place the latter
12857 should be on the bottom and the <lb></lb>former uppermost. </s>
12858
12859 <s>Let it be placed in a crucible, and let glowing coal be <lb></lb>put round it on
12860 all sides; when the perforated piece of coal begins to burn, <lb></lb>the lump
12861 is placed in the upper part of the opening, and it is covered with a
12862 <lb></lb>wide piece of glowing coal, and after many pieces of coal have been put
12863 round <lb></lb>it, a hot fire is blown up with the bellows, until all the tin
12864 has run out <lb></lb>of the lower opening of the charcoal into the crucible. </s>
12865
12866 <s>Another way is to <lb></lb>take a large piece of charcoal, hollow it out, and
12867 smear it with lute, that the <lb></lb>ore may not leap out when white hot. </s>
12868
12869 <s>Next, make a small hole through the <lb></lb>middle of it, then fill up the large
12870 opening with small charcoal, and put the <lb></lb>ore upon this; put fire in the
12871 small hole and blow the fire with the nozzle of <lb></lb>a hand bellows; place
12872 the piece of charcoal in a small crucible, smeared <lb></lb>with lute, in which,
12873 when the melting is finished, you will find a button <lb></lb>of tin.</s>
12874 </p>
12875 <pb pagenum="247"></pb>
12876 <p type="main">
12877
12878 <s>In assaying bismuth ore, place pieces of ore in the scorifier, and put
12879 <lb></lb>it under the muffle in a hot furnace; as soon as they are heated, they
12880 <lb></lb>drip with bismuth, which runs together into a button.</s>
12881 </p>
12882 <p type="main">
12883
12884 <s>Quicksilver ore is usually tested by mixing one part of broken ore <lb></lb>with
12885 three-parts of charcoal dust and a handful of salt. </s>
12886
12887 <s>Put the mixture into <lb></lb>a crucible or a pot or a jar, cover it with a lid,
12888 seal it with lute, place it on <lb></lb>glowing charcoal, and as soon as a burnt
12889 cinnabar colour shows in it, take <lb></lb>out the vessel; for if you continue
12890 the heat too long the mixture exhales the <lb></lb>quicksilver with the fumes. </s>
12891
12892 <s>The quicksilver itself, when it has become cool, is <lb></lb>found in the bottom
12893 of the crucible or other vessel. </s>
12894
12895 <s>Another way is to place <lb></lb>broken ore in a gourd-shaped earthen vessel, put
12896 it in the assay furnace, <lb></lb>and cover with an operculum which has a long
12897 spout; under the spout, put <lb></lb>an ampulla to receive the quicksilver which
12898 distills. </s>
12899
12900 <s>Cold water should be <lb></lb>poured into the ampulla, so that the quicksilver
12901 which has been heated by the <lb></lb>fire may be continuously cooled and
12902 gathered together, for the quicksilver <lb></lb>is borne over by the force of
12903 the fire, and flows down through the spout of <lb></lb>the operculum into the
12904 ampulla. </s>
12905
12906 <s>We also assay quicksilver ore in the very <lb></lb>same way in which we smelt it. </s>
12907
12908 <s>This I will explain in its proper place.</s>
12909 </p>
12910 <p type="main">
12911
12912 <s>Lastly, we assay iron ore in the forge of a blacksmith. </s>
12913
12914 <s>Such ore is burned, <lb></lb>crushed, washed, and dried; a magnet is laid over
12915 the concentrates, and <lb></lb>the particles of iron are attracted to it; these
12916 are wiped off with a brush, <lb></lb>and are caught in a crucible, the magnet
12917 being continually passed over the <lb></lb>concentrates and the particles wiped
12918 off, so long as there remain any particles <lb></lb>which the magnet can attract
12919 to it. </s>
12920
12921 <s>These particles are heated in the crucible <lb></lb>with saltpetre until they
12922 melt, and an iron button is melted out of them. <lb></lb></s>
12923
12924 <s>If the magnet easily and quickly attracts the particles to it, we infer that
12925 the <lb></lb>ore is rich in iron; if slowly, that it is poor; if it appears
12926 actually to repel <lb></lb>the ore, then it contains little or no iron. </s>
12927
12928 <s>This is enough for the assaying of <lb></lb>ores.</s>
12929 </p>
12930 <p type="main">
12931
12932 <s>I will now speak of the assaying of the metal alloys. </s>
12933
12934 <s>This is done both <lb></lb>by coiners and merchants who buy and sell metal, and
12935 by miners, but most <lb></lb>of all by the owners and mine masters, and by the
12936 owners and masters of <lb></lb>the works in which the metals are smelted, or in
12937 which one metal is parted <lb></lb>from another.</s>
12938 </p>
12939 <p type="main">
12940
12941 <s>First I will describe the way assays are usually made to ascertain what
12942 <lb></lb>portion of precious metal is contained in base metal. </s>
12943
12944 <s>Gold and silver are <lb></lb>now reckoned as precious metals and all the others
12945 as base metals. </s>
12946
12947 <s>Once <lb></lb>upon a time the base metals were burned up, in order that the
12948 precious metals <lb></lb>should be left pure; the Ancients even discovered by
12949 such burning what <lb></lb>portion of gold was contained in silver, and in this
12950 way all the silver was <lb></lb>consumed, which was no small loss. </s>
12951
12952 <s>However, the famous mathematician, <lb></lb>Archimedes<emph type="sup"></emph>31<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, to gratify King Hiero, invented a method of
12953 testing the silver, <pb pagenum="248"></pb>which was not very rapid, and was
12954 more accurate for testing a large mass <lb></lb>than a small one. </s>
12955
12956 <s>This I will explain in my commentaries. </s>
12957
12958 <s>The <lb></lb>alchemists have shown us a way of separating silver from gold by
12959 which <lb></lb>neither of them is lost<emph type="sup"></emph>32<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
12960 </p>
12961 <p type="main">
12962
12963 <s>Gold which contains silver,<emph type="sup"></emph>33<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> or
12964 silver which contains gold, is first rubbed <lb></lb>on the touchstone. </s>
12965
12966 <s>Then a needle in which there is a similar amount of <lb></lb>gold or silver is
12967 rubbed on the same touchstone, and from the lines which are <lb></lb>produced in
12968 this way, is perceived what portion of silver there is in the gold, <lb></lb>or
12969 what portion of gold there is in the silver. </s>
12970
12971 <s>Next there is added to the <lb></lb>silver which is in the gold, enough silver to
12972 make it three times as much as the <lb></lb>gold. </s>
12973
12974 <s>Then lead is placed in a cupel and melted; a little later, a small
12975 <lb></lb>amount of copper is put in it, in fact, half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of it, or half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <lb></lb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
12976 (of the smaller weights) if the gold or silver does not contain any
12977 <lb></lb>copper. </s>
12978
12979 <s>The cupel, when the lead and copper are wanting, attracts the particles
12980 <lb></lb>of gold and silver, and absorbs them. </s>
12981
12982 <s>Finally, one-third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the gold, <lb></lb>and one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>34<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> of the silver must be placed together in the same cupel and
12983 <lb></lb>melted; for if the gold and silver were first placed in the cupel and
12984 melted, as I <lb></lb>have already said, it absorbs particles of them, and the
12985 gold, when separated <lb></lb>from the silver, will not be found pure. </s>
12986
12987 <s>These metals are heated until the <lb></lb>lead and the copper are consumed, and
12988 again, the same weight of each is melted <lb></lb>in the same manner in another
12989 cupel. </s>
12990
12991 <s>The buttons are pounded with a <lb></lb>hammer and flattened out, and each little
12992 leaf is shaped in the form of a <lb></lb>tube, and each is put into a small
12993 glass ampulla. </s>
12994
12995 <s>Over these there is poured <lb></lb>one <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and one <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (of the large weight) of the third quality <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua <lb></lb>valens,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which I will
12996 describe in the Tenth Book. </s>
12997
12998 <s>This is heated over a slow <lb></lb>fire, and small bubbles, resembling pearls in
12999 shape, will be seen to adhere <lb></lb>to the tubes. </s>
13000
13001 <s>The redder the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> appears,
13002 the better it is judged to be; <lb></lb>when the redness has vanished, small
13003 white bubbles are seen to be resting <lb></lb>on the tubes, resembling pearls
13004 not only in shape, but also in colour. </s>
13005
13006 <s>After <lb></lb>a short time the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is poured off and other is poured on; when this has
13007 <lb></lb>again raised six or eight small white bubbles, it is poured off and the
13008 tubes are <lb></lb>taken out and washed four or five times with spring water; or
13009 if they are <lb></lb>heated with the same water, when it is boiling, they will
13010 shine more brilliantly. <lb></lb></s>
13011
13012 <s>Then they are placed in a saucer, which is held in the hand and gradually
13013 <lb></lb>dried by the gentle heat of the fire; afterward the saucer is placed
13014 over glowing <lb></lb>charcoal and covered with a charcoal, and a moderate blast
13015 is blown upon it <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="249"></pb>with the mouth and then a blue
13016 flame will be emitted. </s>
13017
13018 <s>In the end the tubes <lb></lb>are weighed, and if their weights prove equal, he
13019 who has undertaken this work <lb></lb>has not laboured in vain. </s>
13020
13021 <s>Lastly, both are placed in another balance-pan and <lb></lb>weighed; of each tube
13022 four grains must not be counted, on account of the <lb></lb>silver which remains
13023 in the gold and cannot be separated from it. </s>
13024
13025 <s>From the <lb></lb>weight of the tubes we learn the weight both of the gold and of
13026 the silver <lb></lb>which is in the button. </s>
13027
13028 <s>If some assayer has omitted to add so much silver to <lb></lb>the gold as to make
13029 it three times the quantity, but only double, or two and a <lb></lb>half times
13030 as much, he will require the stronger quality of <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which <lb></lb>separates gold from silver,
13031 such as the fourth quality. </s>
13032
13033 <s>Whether the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>which he
13034 employs for gold and silver is suitable for the purpose, or whether <lb></lb>it
13035 is more or less strong than is right, is recognised by its effect. </s>
13036
13037 <s>That of <lb></lb>medium strength raises the little bubbles on the tubes and is
13038 found to colour <lb></lb>the ampulla and the operculum a strong red; the weaker
13039 one is found to <lb></lb>colour them a light red, and the stronger one to break
13040 the tubes. </s>
13041
13042 <s>To pure <lb></lb>silver in which there is some portion of gold, nothing should be
13043 added when <lb></lb>they are being heated in the cupel prior to their being
13044 parted, except a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of
13045 lead and one-fourth or one-third its amount of copper of the lesser weights.
13046 <lb></lb></s>
13047
13048 <s>If the silver contains in itself a certain amount of copper, let it be
13049 weighed, <lb></lb>both after it has been melted with the lead, and after the
13050 gold has been parted <lb></lb>from it; by the former we learn how much copper is
13051 in it, by the latter how <lb></lb>much gold. </s>
13052
13053 <s>Base metals are burnt up even to-day for the purpose of assay, <lb></lb>because
13054 to lose so little of the metal is small loss, but from a large mass of
13055 <lb></lb>base metal, the precious metal is always extracted, as I will explain
13056 in <lb></lb>Books X. and XI.</s>
13057 </p>
13058 <p type="main">
13059
13060 <s>We assay an alloy of copper and silver in the following way. </s>
13061
13062 <s>From a <lb></lb>few cakes of copper the assayer cuts out portions, small samples
13063 from small <lb></lb>cakes, medium samples from medium cakes, and large samples
13064 from large <lb></lb>cakes; the small ones are equal in size to half a hazel nut,
13065 the large <lb></lb>ones do not exceed the size of half a chestnut, and those of
13066 medium size come <lb></lb>between the two. </s>
13067
13068 <s>He cuts out the samples from the middle of the <lb></lb>bottom of each cake. </s>
13069
13070 <s>He places the samples in a new, clean, triangular <lb></lb>crucible and fixes to
13071 them pieces of paper upon which are written the weight <lb></lb>of the cakes of
13072 copper, of whatever size they may be; for example, he writes,
13073 <lb></lb>“These samples have been cut from copper which weighs twenty
13074 <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondía.”<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> When he wishes to know how much silver one <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13075 <lb></lb>copper of this kind has in it, first of all he throws glowing coals
13076 into the <lb></lb>iron hoop, then adds charcoal to it. </s>
13077
13078 <s>When the fire has become hot, the paper <lb></lb>is taken out of the crucible and
13079 put aside, he then sets that crucible on the <lb></lb>fire and gradually heats
13080 it for a quarter of an hour until it becomes red hot. <lb></lb></s>
13081
13082 <s>Then he stimulates the fire by blowing with a blast from the double bellows
13083 <lb></lb>for half an hour, because copper which is devoid of lead requires this
13084 time to <lb></lb>become hot and to melt; copper not devoid of lead melts
13085 quicker. </s>
13086
13087 <s>When <lb></lb>he has blown the bellows for about the space of time stated, he
13088 removes the <lb></lb>glowing charcoal with the tongs, and stirs the copper with
13089 a splinter of wood, <lb></lb>which he grasps with the tongs. </s>
13090
13091 <s>If it does not stir easily, it is a sign that the <pb pagenum="250"></pb>copper
13092 is not wholly liquefied; if he finds this is the case, he again places a
13093 <lb></lb>large piece of charcoal in the crucible, and replaces the glowing
13094 charcoal which <lb></lb>had been removed, and again blows the bellows for a
13095 short time. </s>
13096
13097 <s>When all <lb></lb>the copper has melted he stops using the bellows, for if he
13098 were to continue <lb></lb>to use them, the fire would consume part of the
13099 copper, and then that which <lb></lb>remained would be richer than the cake from
13100 which it had been cut; this is <lb></lb>no small mistake. </s>
13101
13102 <s>Therefore, as soon as the copper has become sufficiently <lb></lb>liquified, he
13103 pours it out into a little iron mould, which may be large or small,
13104 <lb></lb>according as more or less copper is melted in the crucible for the
13105 purpose of the <lb></lb>assay. </s>
13106
13107 <s>The mould has a handle, likewise made of iron, by which it is held <lb></lb>when
13108 the copper is poured in, after which, he plunges it into a tub of water
13109 <lb></lb>placed near at hand, that the copper may be cooled. </s>
13110
13111 <s>Then he again dries the <lb></lb>copper by the fire, and cuts off its point with
13112 an iron wedge; the portion <lb></lb>nearest the point he hammers on an anvil and
13113 makes into a leaf, which he <lb></lb>cuts into pieces.</s>
13114 </p>
13115 <figure></figure>
13116 <p type="caption">
13117
13118 <s>A—IRON MOULD. B—ITS HANDLE.</s>
13119 </p>
13120 <p type="main">
13121
13122 <s>Others stir the molten copper with a stick of linden tree charcoal, and
13123 <lb></lb>then pour it over a bundle of new clean birch twigs, beneath which is
13124 placed <lb></lb>a wooden tub of sufficient size and full of water, and in this
13125 manner the copper <lb></lb>is broken up into little granules as small as hemp
13126 seeds. </s>
13127
13128 <s>Others employ straw <lb></lb>in place of twigs. </s>
13129
13130 <s>Others place a broad stone in a tub and pour in enough <lb></lb>water to cover
13131 the stone, then they run out the molten copper from the <lb></lb>crucible on to
13132 the stone, from which the minute granules roll off; others <lb></lb>pour the
13133 molten copper into water and stir it until it is resolved into granules.
13134 <lb></lb></s>
13135
13136 <s>The fire does not easily melt the copper in the cupel unless it has been
13137 poured <lb></lb>and a thin leaf made of it, or unless it has been resolved into
13138 granules or <lb></lb>made into filings; and if it does not melt, all the labour
13139 has been undertaken <lb></lb>in vain. </s>
13140
13141 <s>In order that they may be accurately weighed out, silver and lead <lb></lb>are
13142 resolved into granules in the same manner as copper. </s>
13143
13144 <s>But to return <lb></lb>to the assay of copper. </s>
13145
13146 <s>When the copper has been prepared by these <lb></lb>methods, if it is free of
13147 lead and iron, and rich in silver, to each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpon­<lb></lb>díum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (lesser
13148 weights) add one and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead (larger weights). If, <lb></lb>however, the copper
13149 contains some lead, add one <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead; if it contains <lb></lb>iron, add two <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
13150 <s> First put the lead into a cupel, and after it begins <lb></lb>to smoke, add the
13151 copper; the fire generally consumes the copper, together <lb></lb>with the lead,
13152 in about one hour and a quarter. </s>
13153
13154 <s>When this is done, the silver <pb pagenum="251"></pb>will be found in the bottom
13155 of the cupel. </s>
13156
13157 <s>The fire consumes both of those <lb></lb>metals more quickly if they are heated
13158 in that furnace which draws in air. </s>
13159
13160 <s>It <lb></lb>is better to cover the upper half of it with a lid, and not only to
13161 put on the <lb></lb>muffle door, but also to close the window of the muffle door
13162 with a piece of <lb></lb>charcoal, or with a piece of brick. </s>
13163
13164 <s>If the copper be such that the silver can <lb></lb>only be separated from it with
13165 difficulty, then before it is tested with fire in <lb></lb>the cupel, lead
13166 should first be put into the scorifier, and then the copper should <lb></lb>be
13167 added with a moderate quantity of melted salt, both that the lead may
13168 <lb></lb>absorb the copper and that the copper may be cleansed of the dross
13169 which <lb></lb>abounds in it.</s>
13170 </p>
13171 <p type="main">
13172
13173 <s>Tin which contains silver should not at the beginning of the assay be
13174 <lb></lb>placed in a cupel, lest the silver, as often happens, be consumed and
13175 converted <lb></lb>into fumes, together with the tin. </s>
13176
13177 <s>As soon as the lead<emph type="sup"></emph>35<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> has begun to
13178 fume <lb></lb>in the scorifier, then add that<emph type="sup"></emph>36<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> to it. </s>
13179
13180 <s>In this way the lead will take the <lb></lb>silver and the tin will boil and turn
13181 into ashes, which may be removed with a <lb></lb>wooden splinter. </s>
13182
13183 <s>The same thing occurs if any alloy is melted in which there <lb></lb>is tin. </s>
13184
13185 <s>When the lead has absorbed the silver which was in the tin, then, <lb></lb>and
13186 not till then, it is heated in the cupel. </s>
13187
13188 <s>First place the lead with which <lb></lb>the silver is mixed, in an iron pan, and
13189 stand it on a hot furnace and let it <lb></lb>melt; afterward pour this lead
13190 into a small iron mould, and then beat it <lb></lb>out with a hammer on an anvil
13191 and make it into leaves in the same way as <lb></lb>the copper. </s>
13192
13193 <s>Lastly, place it in the cupel, which assay can be carried out in <lb></lb>the
13194 space of half an hour. </s>
13195
13196 <s>A great heat is harmful to it, for which reason <lb></lb>there is no necessity
13197 either to cover the half of the furnace with a lid or to <lb></lb>close up its
13198 mouth.</s>
13199 </p>
13200 <p type="main">
13201
13202 <s>The minted metal alloys, which are known as money, are assayed in the
13203 <lb></lb>following way. </s>
13204
13205 <s>The smaller silver coins which have been picked out from <lb></lb>the bottom and
13206 top and sides of a heap are first carefully cleansed; then, after <lb></lb>they
13207 have been melted in the triangular crucible, they are either resolved
13208 <lb></lb>into granules, or made into thin leaves. </s>
13209
13210 <s>As for the large coins which weigh <lb></lb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> half an
13211 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or an
13212 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> beat them into
13213 leaves. <lb></lb></s>
13214
13215 <s>Then take a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the
13216 granules, or an equal weight of the leaves, and likewise <lb></lb>take another
13217 <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in the same way. </s>
13218
13219 <s>Wrap each sample separately in paper, <lb></lb>and afterwards place two small
13220 pieces of lead in two cupels which have first <lb></lb>been heated. </s>
13221
13222 <s>The more precious the money is, the smaller portion of lead <lb></lb>do we
13223 require for the assay, the more base, the larger is the portion required;
13224 <lb></lb>for if a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver
13225 is said to contain only half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or one <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper, <lb></lb>we add to the <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of granules half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead. </s>
13226
13227 <s>If it is composed of equal <lb></lb>parts of silver and copper, we add an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead, but if
13228 in a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper
13229 <lb></lb>there is only half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or one <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, we add an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a half <lb></lb>of lead. </s>
13230
13231 <s>As soon as the lead has begun to fume, put into each cupel one of <lb></lb>the
13232 papers in which is wrapped the sample of silver alloyed with copper, and
13233 <lb></lb>close the mouth of the muffle with charcoal. </s>
13234
13235 <s>Heat them with a gentle fire <lb></lb>until all the lead and copper are consumed,
13236 for a hot fire by its heat forces the <lb></lb><pb pagenum="252"></pb>silver,
13237 combined with a certain portion of lead, into the cupel, in which way
13238 <lb></lb>the assay is rendered erroneous. </s>
13239
13240 <s>Then take the beads out of the cupel and <lb></lb>clean them of dross. </s>
13241
13242 <s>If neither depresses the pan of the balance in which it <lb></lb>is placed, but
13243 their weight is equal, the assay has been free from error; but <lb></lb>if one
13244 bead depresses its pan, then there is an error, for which reason the
13245 <lb></lb>assay must be repeated. </s>
13246
13247 <s>If the <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of coin contains
13248 but seven <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13249 <lb></lb>pure silver it is because the King, or Prince, or the State who coins
13250 the money, <lb></lb>has taken one <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which he keeps partly for profit and partly for the
13251 <lb></lb>expense of coining, he having added copper to the silver. </s>
13252
13253 <s>Of all these <lb></lb>matters I have written extensively in my book <emph type="italics"></emph>De Precio Metallorum et <lb></lb>Monetís.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
13254 </p>
13255 <p type="main">
13256
13257 <s>We assay gold coins in various ways. </s>
13258
13259 <s>If there is copper mixed with <lb></lb>the gold, we melt them by fire in the same
13260 way as silver coins; if there is <lb></lb>silver mixed with the gold, they are
13261 separated by the strongest <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua valens;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>if there is copper and silver mixed with the gold,
13262 then in the first place, after <lb></lb>the addition of lead, they are heated in
13263 the cupel until the fire consumes the <lb></lb>copper and the lead, and
13264 afterward the gold is parted from the silver.</s>
13265 </p>
13266 <p type="main">
13267
13268 <s>It remains to speak of the touchstone<emph type="sup"></emph>37<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> with which gold and silver are <lb></lb>tested, and which was also used by
13269 the Ancients. </s>
13270
13271 <s>For although the assay made <lb></lb>by fire is more certain, still, since we
13272 often have no furnace, nor muffle, nor <lb></lb>crucibles, or some delay must be
13273 occasioned in using them, we can always <lb></lb>rub gold or silver on the
13274 touchstone, which we can have in readiness. <lb></lb></s>
13275
13276 <s>Further, when gold coins are assayed in the fire, of what use are they
13277 after­<lb></lb>ward? </s>
13278
13279 <s>A touchstone must be selected which is thoroughly black and free <lb></lb>of
13280 sulphur, for the blacker it is and the more devoid of sulphur, the better it
13281 <pb pagenum="253"></pb>generally is; I have written elsewhere of its
13282 nature<emph type="sup"></emph>38<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
13283
13284 <s>First the gold is <lb></lb>rubbed on the touchstone, whether it contains silver
13285 or whether it is obtained <lb></lb>from the mines or from the smelting; silver
13286 also is rubbed in the same <lb></lb>way. </s>
13287
13288 <s>Then one of the needles, that we judge by its colour to be of similar
13289 <lb></lb>composition, is rubbed on the touchstone; if this proves too pale,
13290 another <lb></lb>needle which has a stronger colour is rubbed on the touchstone;
13291 and if this <lb></lb>proves too deep in colour, a third which has a little paler
13292 colour is used. </s>
13293
13294 <s>For <lb></lb>this will show us how great a proportion of silver or copper, or
13295 silver and <lb></lb>copper together, is in the gold, or else how great a
13296 proportion of copper is in <lb></lb>silver.</s>
13297 </p>
13298 <p type="main">
13299
13300 <s>These needles are of four kinds.<emph type="sup"></emph>39<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
13301 The first kind are made of gold and <lb></lb>silver, the second of gold and
13302 copper, the third of gold, silver, and copper, <lb></lb>and the fourth of silver
13303 and copper. </s>
13304
13305 <s>The first three kinds of needles are <lb></lb>used principally for testing gold,
13306 and the fourth for silver. </s>
13307
13308 <s>Needles of this <lb></lb>kind are prepared in the following ways. </s>
13309
13310 <s>The lesser weights correspond <lb></lb>proportionately to the larger weights, and
13311 both of them are used, not <lb></lb>only by mining people, but by coiners also. </s>
13312
13313 <s>The needles are made in <lb></lb>accordance with the lesser weights, and each set
13314 corresponds to a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>which, in our own vocabulary, is called a <emph type="italics"></emph>mark.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
13315 <s> The <emph type="italics"></emph>bes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which is employed
13316 <lb></lb>by those who coin gold, is divided into twenty-four double <emph type="italics"></emph>sextulae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which <lb></lb><pb pagenum="254"></pb>are now called after the Greek name <emph type="italics"></emph>ceratía;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and each double <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is <lb></lb>divided into
13317 four <emph type="italics"></emph>semi-sextulae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which
13318 are called <emph type="italics"></emph>granas;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and each
13319 <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>is divided into three units of four <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each, of which each unit is called
13320 <lb></lb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>grenlín.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
13321 <s> If we made the needles to be each four <emph type="italics"></emph>síliquae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> there would be <lb></lb>two
13322 hundred and eighty-eight in a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> but if each were made to be a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>or a double <emph type="italics"></emph>scripula,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then there would be
13323 ninety-six in a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
13324 <s> By these two <lb></lb>methods too many needles would be made, and the majority
13325 of them, by reason <lb></lb>of the small difference in the proportion of the
13326 gold, would indicate nothing, <lb></lb>therefore it is advisable to make them
13327 each of a double <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in
13328 this way <lb></lb>twenty-four needles are made, of which the first is made of
13329 twenty-three <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13330 silver and one of gold. </s>
13331
13332 <s>Fannius is our authority that the Ancients <lb></lb>called the double <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> a <emph type="italics"></emph>duella.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
13333 <s> When a bar of silver is rubbed on the <lb></lb>touchstone and colours it just as
13334 this needle does, it contains one <emph type="italics"></emph>duella<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold. <lb></lb></s>
13335
13336 <s>In this manner we determine by the other needles what proportion of gold
13337 <lb></lb>there is, or when the gold exceeds the silver in weight, what
13338 proportion of <lb></lb>silver.</s>
13339 </p>
13340 <p type="main">
13341
13342 <s>The needles are made<emph type="sup"></emph>40<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>:—</s>
13343 </p>
13344 <p type="main">
13345
13346 <s>The 1st needle of 23 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13347 of silver and 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>duella<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13348 gold.</s>
13349 </p>
13350 <p type="main">
13351
13352 <s>The 2nd needle of 22 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13353 of silver and 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13354 gold.</s>
13355 </p>
13356 <p type="main">
13357
13358 <s>The 3rd needle of 21 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13359 of silver and 3 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13360 gold.</s>
13361 </p>
13362 <p type="main">
13363
13364 <s>The 4th needle of 20 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13365 of silver and 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13366 gold.</s>
13367 </p>
13368 <p type="main">
13369
13370 <s>The 5th needle of 19 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13371 of silver and 5 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13372 gold.</s>
13373 </p>
13374 <p type="main">
13375
13376 <s>The 6th needle of 18 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13377 of silver and 6 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13378 gold.</s>
13379 </p>
13380 <p type="main">
13381
13382 <s>The 7th needle of 17 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13383 of silver and 7 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13384 gold.</s>
13385 </p>
13386 <p type="main">
13387
13388 <s>The 8th needle of 16 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13389 of silver and 8 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13390 gold.</s>
13391 </p>
13392 <pb pagenum="255"></pb>
13393 <p type="main">
13394
13395 <s>The 9th needle of 15 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13396 of silver and 9 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13397 gold.</s>
13398 </p>
13399 <p type="main">
13400
13401 <s>The 10th needle of 14 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13402 of silver and 10 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13403 gold.</s>
13404 </p>
13405 <p type="main">
13406
13407 <s>The 11th needle of 13 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13408 of silver and 11 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13409 gold.</s>
13410 </p>
13411 <p type="main">
13412
13413 <s>The 12th needle of 12 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13414 of silver and 12 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13415 gold.</s>
13416 </p>
13417 <p type="main">
13418
13419 <s>The 13th needle of 11 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13420 of silver and 13 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13421 gold.</s>
13422 </p>
13423 <p type="main">
13424
13425 <s>The 14th needle of 10 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13426 of silver and 14 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13427 gold.</s>
13428 </p>
13429 <p type="main">
13430
13431 <s>The 15th needle of 9 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13432 of silver and 15 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13433 gold.</s>
13434 </p>
13435 <p type="main">
13436
13437 <s>The 16th needle of 8 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13438 of silver and 16 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13439 gold.</s>
13440 </p>
13441 <p type="main">
13442
13443 <s>The 17th needle of 7 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13444 of silver and 17 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13445 gold.</s>
13446 </p>
13447 <p type="main">
13448
13449 <s>The 18th needle of 6 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13450 of silver and 18 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13451 gold.</s>
13452 </p>
13453 <p type="main">
13454
13455 <s>The 19th needle of 5 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13456 of silver and 19 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13457 gold.</s>
13458 </p>
13459 <p type="main">
13460
13461 <s>The 20th needle of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13462 of silver and 20 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13463 gold.</s>
13464 </p>
13465 <p type="main">
13466
13467 <s>The 21st needle of 3 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13468 of silver and 21 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13469 gold.</s>
13470 </p>
13471 <p type="main">
13472
13473 <s>The 22nd needle of 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13474 of silver and 22 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13475 gold.</s>
13476 </p>
13477 <p type="main">
13478
13479 <s>The 23rd needle of 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13480 of silver and 23 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13481 gold.</s>
13482 </p>
13483 <p type="main">
13484
13485 <s>The 24th needle of pure gold</s>
13486 </p>
13487 <figure></figure>
13488 <p type="main">
13489
13490 <s>By the first eleven needles, when they are rubbed on the touchstone, we
13491 <lb></lb>test what proportion of gold a bar of silver contains, and with the
13492 remaining <lb></lb>thirteen we test what proportion of silver is in a bar of
13493 gold; and also what <lb></lb>proportion of either may be in money.</s>
13494 </p>
13495 <p type="main">
13496
13497 <s>Since some gold coins are composed of gold and copper, thirteen needles
13498 <lb></lb>of another kind are made as follows:—</s>
13499 </p>
13500 <pb pagenum="256"></pb>
13501 <p type="main">
13502
13503 <s>The 1st of 12 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold
13504 and 12 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13505 copper.</s>
13506 </p>
13507 <p type="main">
13508
13509 <s>The 2nd of 13 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold
13510 and 11 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13511 copper.</s>
13512 </p>
13513 <p type="main">
13514
13515 <s>The 3rd of 14 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold
13516 and 10 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13517 copper.</s>
13518 </p>
13519 <p type="main">
13520
13521 <s>The 4th of 15 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold
13522 and 9 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper.</s>
13523 </p>
13524 <p type="main">
13525
13526 <s>The 5th of 16 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold
13527 and 8 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper.</s>
13528 </p>
13529 <p type="main">
13530
13531 <s>The 6th of 17 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold
13532 and 7 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper.</s>
13533 </p>
13534 <p type="main">
13535
13536 <s>The 7th of 18 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold
13537 and 6 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper.</s>
13538 </p>
13539 <p type="main">
13540
13541 <s>The 8th of 19 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold
13542 and 5 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper.</s>
13543 </p>
13544 <p type="main">
13545
13546 <s>The 9th of 20 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold
13547 and 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper.</s>
13548 </p>
13549 <p type="main">
13550
13551 <s>The 10th of 21 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13552 gold and 3 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13553 copper.</s>
13554 </p>
13555 <p type="main">
13556
13557 <s>The 11th of 22 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13558 gold and 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13559 copper.</s>
13560 </p>
13561 <p type="main">
13562
13563 <s>The 12th of 23 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13564 gold and 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13565 copper.</s>
13566 </p>
13567 <p type="main">
13568
13569 <s>The 13th of pure gold.</s>
13570 </p>
13571 <p type="main">
13572
13573 <s>These needles are not much used, because gold coins of that kind are
13574 <lb></lb>somewhat rare; the ones chiefly used are those in which there is much
13575 <lb></lb>copper. </s>
13576
13577 <s>Needles of the third kind, which are composed of gold, silver, and
13578 <lb></lb>copper, are more largely used, because such gold coins are common. </s>
13579
13580 <s>But since <lb></lb>with the gold there are mixed equal or unequal portions of
13581 silver and copper, <lb></lb>two sorts of needles are made. </s>
13582
13583 <s>If the proportion of silver and copper is <lb></lb>equal, the needles are as
13584 follows:—<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table2"></arrow.to.target></s>
13585 </p>
13586 <table>
13587 <table.target id="table2"></table.target>
13588 <row>
13589 <cell>Gold.</cell>
13590 <cell>Silver.</cell>
13591 <cell>Copper.</cell>
13592 </row>
13593 <row>
13594 <cell>The 1st of 12 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13595 <cell>6 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 0 <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13596 <cell>6 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 0 <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13597 </row>
13598 <row>
13599 <cell>The 2nd of 13 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13600 <cell>5 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13601 <cell>5 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13602 </row>
13603 <row>
13604 <cell>The 3rd of 14 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13605 <cell>5 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13606 <cell>5 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13607 </row>
13608 <row>
13609 <cell>The 4th of 15 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13610 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13611 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13612 </row>
13613 <row>
13614 <cell>The 5th of 16 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13615 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13616 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13617 </row>
13618 <row>
13619 <cell>The 6th of 17 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13620 <cell>3 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13621 <cell>3 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13622 </row>
13623 <row>
13624 <cell>The 7th of 18 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13625 <cell>3 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13626 <cell>3 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13627 </row>
13628 <row>
13629 <cell>The 8th of 19 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13630 <cell>2 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13631 <cell>2 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13632 </row>
13633 <row>
13634 <cell>The 9th of 20 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13635 <cell>2 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13636 <cell>2 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13637 </row>
13638 <row>
13639 <cell>The 10th of 21 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13640 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13641 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13642 </row>
13643 <row>
13644 <cell>The 11th of 22 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13645 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13646 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13647 </row>
13648 <row>
13649 <cell>The 12th of 23</cell>
13650 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13651 <cell></cell>
13652 </row>
13653 <row>
13654 <cell>The 13th of pure gold.</cell>
13655 <cell></cell>
13656 <cell></cell>
13657 </row>
13658 </table>
13659 <p type="main">
13660
13661 <s>Some make twenty-five needles, in order to be able to detect the two
13662 <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>scrípula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13663 silver or copper which are in a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold. </s>
13664
13665 <s>Of these needles, the <lb></lb>first is composed of twelve <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold and six of silver, and the
13666 same <lb></lb>number of copper. </s>
13667
13668 <s>The second, of twelve <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
13669 and one <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold and
13670 <lb></lb>five <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and one
13671 and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>sextulae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
13672 silver, and the same number of <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and one and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>sextulae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper. </s>
13673
13674 <s>The remaining needles are <lb></lb>made in the same proportion.</s>
13675 </p>
13676 <p type="main">
13677
13678 <s>Pliny is our authority that the Romans could tell to within one <emph type="italics"></emph>scrípulum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>how much
13679 gold was in any given alloy, and how much silver or copper.</s>
13680 </p>
13681 <p type="main">
13682
13683 <s>Needles may be made in either of two ways, namely, in the ways of which
13684 <lb></lb>I have spoken, and in the ways of which I am now about to speak. </s>
13685
13686 <s>If <pb pagenum="257"></pb>unequal portions of silver and copper have been mixed
13687 with the gold, thirty­<lb></lb>seven needles are made in the following
13688 way:—<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table3"></arrow.to.target></s>
13689 </p>
13690 <pb pagenum="258"></pb>
13691 <table>
13692 <table.target id="table3"></table.target>
13693 <row>
13694 <cell></cell>
13695 <cell>Gold.</cell>
13696 <cell></cell>
13697 <cell>Silver.</cell>
13698 <cell></cell>
13699 <cell></cell>
13700 <cell>Copper.</cell>
13701 <cell></cell>
13702 </row>
13703 <row>
13704 <cell></cell>
13705 <cell></cell>
13706 <cell></cell>
13707 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sext-<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13708 <cell></cell>
13709 <cell></cell>
13710 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sext-<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13711 <cell></cell>
13712 </row>
13713 <row>
13714 <cell></cell>
13715 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Duellae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13716 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13717 <cell></cell>
13718 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13719 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13720 <cell></cell>
13721 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13722 </row>
13723 <row>
13724 <cell></cell>
13725 <cell></cell>
13726 <cell></cell>
13727 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>ulae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13728 <cell></cell>
13729 <cell></cell>
13730 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>ulae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
13731 <cell></cell>
13732 </row>
13733 <row>
13734 <cell>The 1st of</cell>
13735 <cell>12</cell>
13736 <cell>9</cell>
13737 <cell>0</cell>
13738 <cell>0</cell>
13739 <cell>3</cell>
13740 <cell>0</cell>
13741 <cell>0</cell>
13742 </row>
13743 <row>
13744 <cell>The 2nd of</cell>
13745 <cell>12</cell>
13746 <cell>8</cell>
13747 <cell>0</cell>
13748 <cell>0</cell>
13749 <cell>4</cell>
13750 <cell>0</cell>
13751 <cell>0</cell>
13752 </row>
13753 <row>
13754 <cell>The 3rd of</cell>
13755 <cell>12</cell>
13756 <cell>7</cell>
13757 <cell></cell>
13758 <cell></cell>
13759 <cell>5</cell>
13760 <cell></cell>
13761 <cell></cell>
13762 </row>
13763 <row>
13764 <cell>The 4th of</cell>
13765 <cell>13</cell>
13766 <cell>8</cell>
13767 <cell>1/2</cell>
13768 <cell></cell>
13769 <cell>2</cell>
13770 <cell>1/2</cell>
13771 <cell></cell>
13772 </row>
13773 <row>
13774 <cell>The 5th of</cell>
13775 <cell>13</cell>
13776 <cell>7</cell>
13777 <cell>1/2</cell>
13778 <cell>4</cell>
13779 <cell>3</cell>
13780 <cell>1</cell>
13781 <cell>8</cell>
13782 </row>
13783 <row>
13784 <cell>The 6th of</cell>
13785 <cell>13</cell>
13786 <cell>6</cell>
13787 <cell>1/2</cell>
13788 <cell>8</cell>
13789 <cell>4</cell>
13790 <cell>1</cell>
13791 <cell>4</cell>
13792 </row>
13793 <row>
13794 <cell>The 7th of</cell>
13795 <cell>14</cell>
13796 <cell>7</cell>
13797 <cell>1</cell>
13798 <cell></cell>
13799 <cell>2</cell>
13800 <cell>1</cell>
13801 <cell></cell>
13802 </row>
13803 <row>
13804 <cell>The 8th of</cell>
13805 <cell>14</cell>
13806 <cell>6</cell>
13807 <cell>1</cell>
13808 <cell>8</cell>
13809 <cell>3</cell>
13810 <cell>1/2</cell>
13811 <cell>4</cell>
13812 </row>
13813 <row>
13814 <cell>The 9th of</cell>
13815 <cell>14</cell>
13816 <cell>5</cell>
13817 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
13818 <cell>4</cell>
13819 <cell>4</cell>
13820 <cell></cell>
13821 <cell>8</cell>
13822 </row>
13823 <row>
13824 <cell>The 10th of</cell>
13825 <cell>15</cell>
13826 <cell>6</cell>
13827 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
13828 <cell></cell>
13829 <cell>2</cell>
13830 <cell>1/2</cell>
13831 <cell></cell>
13832 </row>
13833 <row>
13834 <cell>The 11th of</cell>
13835 <cell>15</cell>
13836 <cell>6</cell>
13837 <cell></cell>
13838 <cell></cell>
13839 <cell>3</cell>
13840 <cell></cell>
13841 <cell></cell>
13842 </row>
13843 <row>
13844 <cell>The 12th of</cell>
13845 <cell>15</cell>
13846 <cell>5</cell>
13847 <cell>1/2</cell>
13848 <cell></cell>
13849 <cell>3</cell>
13850 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
13851 <cell></cell>
13852 </row>
13853 <row>
13854 <cell>The 13th of</cell>
13855 <cell>16</cell>
13856 <cell>6</cell>
13857 <cell></cell>
13858 <cell></cell>
13859 <cell>2</cell>
13860 <cell></cell>
13861 <cell></cell>
13862 </row>
13863 <row>
13864 <cell>The 14th of</cell>
13865 <cell>16</cell>
13866 <cell>5</cell>
13867 <cell>1/2</cell>
13868 <cell>4</cell>
13869 <cell>2</cell>
13870 <cell>1</cell>
13871 <cell>8</cell>
13872 </row>
13873 <row>
13874 <cell>The 15th of</cell>
13875 <cell>16</cell>
13876 <cell>4</cell>
13877 <cell>1</cell>
13878 <cell>8</cell>
13879 <cell>3</cell>
13880 <cell>1/2</cell>
13881 <cell>4</cell>
13882 </row>
13883 <row>
13884 <cell>The 16th of</cell>
13885 <cell>17</cell>
13886 <cell>5</cell>
13887 <cell>1/2</cell>
13888 <cell>0</cell>
13889 <cell>1</cell>
13890 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
13891 <cell></cell>
13892 </row>
13893 <row>
13894 <cell>The 17th of</cell>
13895 <cell>17</cell>
13896 <cell>4</cell>
13897 <cell>1</cell>
13898 <cell>8</cell>
13899 <cell>2</cell>
13900 <cell>1/2</cell>
13901 <cell>4</cell>
13902 </row>
13903 <row>
13904 <cell>The 18th of</cell>
13905 <cell>17</cell>
13906 <cell>4</cell>
13907 <cell>4</cell>
13908 <cell></cell>
13909 <cell>2</cell>
13910 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
13911 <cell>8</cell>
13912 </row>
13913 <row>
13914 <cell>The 19th of</cell>
13915 <cell>18</cell>
13916 <cell>4</cell>
13917 <cell>1</cell>
13918 <cell></cell>
13919 <cell>1</cell>
13920 <cell>1</cell>
13921 <cell></cell>
13922 </row>
13923 <row>
13924 <cell>The 20th of</cell>
13925 <cell>18</cell>
13926 <cell>4</cell>
13927 <cell>0</cell>
13928 <cell></cell>
13929 <cell>2</cell>
13930 <cell>1</cell>
13931 <cell></cell>
13932 </row>
13933 <row>
13934 <cell>The 21st of</cell>
13935 <cell>18</cell>
13936 <cell>3</cell>
13937 <cell>1</cell>
13938 <cell></cell>
13939 <cell>2</cell>
13940 <cell></cell>
13941 <cell></cell>
13942 </row>
13943 <row>
13944 <cell>The 22nd of</cell>
13945 <cell>19</cell>
13946 <cell>2</cell>
13947 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
13948 <cell></cell>
13949 <cell>1</cell>
13950 <cell>1/2</cell>
13951 <cell></cell>
13952 </row>
13953 <row>
13954 <cell>The 23rd of</cell>
13955 <cell>19</cell>
13956 <cell>3</cell>
13957 <cell>1/2</cell>
13958 <cell>4</cell>
13959 <cell>1</cell>
13960 <cell>1</cell>
13961 <cell>8</cell>
13962 </row>
13963 <row>
13964 <cell>The 24th of</cell>
13965 <cell>19</cell>
13966 <cell>2</cell>
13967 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
13968 <cell>8</cell>
13969 <cell>2</cell>
13970 <cell></cell>
13971 <cell>4</cell>
13972 </row>
13973 <row>
13974 <cell>The 25th of</cell>
13975 <cell>20</cell>
13976 <cell>3</cell>
13977 <cell></cell>
13978 <cell></cell>
13979 <cell>1</cell>
13980 <cell></cell>
13981 <cell></cell>
13982 </row>
13983 <row>
13984 <cell>The 26th of</cell>
13985 <cell>20</cell>
13986 <cell>2</cell>
13987 <cell>1</cell>
13988 <cell>8</cell>
13989 <cell>1</cell>
13990 <cell>1/2</cell>
13991 <cell>4</cell>
13992 </row>
13993 <row>
13994 <cell>The 27th of</cell>
13995 <cell>20</cell>
13996 <cell>2</cell>
13997 <cell>1/2</cell>
13998 <cell>4</cell>
13999 <cell>1</cell>
14000 <cell>1</cell>
14001 <cell>8</cell>
14002 </row>
14003 <row>
14004 <cell>The 28th of</cell>
14005 <cell>21</cell>
14006 <cell>2</cell>
14007 <cell>1/2</cell>
14008 <cell></cell>
14009 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14010 <cell></cell>
14011 <cell></cell>
14012 </row>
14013 <row>
14014 <cell>The 29th of</cell>
14015 <cell>21</cell>
14016 <cell>2</cell>
14017 <cell></cell>
14018 <cell></cell>
14019 <cell>1</cell>
14020 <cell></cell>
14021 <cell></cell>
14022 </row>
14023 <row>
14024 <cell>The 30th of</cell>
14025 <cell>21</cell>
14026 <cell>1</cell>
14027 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14028 <cell></cell>
14029 <cell>1</cell>
14030 <cell>1/2</cell>
14031 <cell></cell>
14032 </row>
14033 <row>
14034 <cell>The 31st of</cell>
14035 <cell>22</cell>
14036 <cell>1</cell>
14037 <cell>1</cell>
14038 <cell></cell>
14039 <cell>1</cell>
14040 <cell></cell>
14041 <cell></cell>
14042 </row>
14043 <row>
14044 <cell>The 32nd of</cell>
14045 <cell>22</cell>
14046 <cell>1</cell>
14047 <cell>1/2</cell>
14048 <cell>4</cell>
14049 <cell>0</cell>
14050 <cell>1</cell>
14051 <cell>8</cell>
14052 </row>
14053 <row>
14054 <cell>The 33rd of</cell>
14055 <cell>22</cell>
14056 <cell>1</cell>
14057 <cell></cell>
14058 <cell>8</cell>
14059 <cell></cell>
14060 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14061 <cell>4</cell>
14062 </row>
14063 <row>
14064 <cell>The 34th of</cell>
14065 <cell>23</cell>
14066 <cell></cell>
14067 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14068 <cell></cell>
14069 <cell></cell>
14070 <cell>1/2</cell>
14071 <cell></cell>
14072 </row>
14073 <row>
14074 <cell>The 35th of</cell>
14075 <cell>23</cell>
14076 <cell></cell>
14077 <cell>1</cell>
14078 <cell>8</cell>
14079 <cell></cell>
14080 <cell>1/2</cell>
14081 <cell>4</cell>
14082 </row>
14083 <row>
14084 <cell>The 36th of</cell>
14085 <cell>23</cell>
14086 <cell></cell>
14087 <cell>1</cell>
14088 <cell>4</cell>
14089 <cell></cell>
14090 <cell>1/2</cell>
14091 <cell>8</cell>
14092 </row>
14093 <row>
14094 <cell>The 37th of</cell>
14095 <cell>pure gold.</cell>
14096 <cell></cell>
14097 <cell></cell>
14098 <cell></cell>
14099 <cell></cell>
14100 <cell></cell>
14101 <cell></cell>
14102 </row>
14103 </table>
14104 <p type="main">
14105
14106 <s>Since it is rarely found that gold, which has been coined, does not amount to
14107 <lb></lb>at least fifteen <emph type="italics"></emph>duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold in a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> some
14108 make only twenty-eight needles, and <lb></lb>some make them different from those
14109 already described, inasmuch as the <lb></lb>alloy of gold with silver and copper
14110 is sometimes differently proportioned.</s>
14111 </p>
14112 <p type="main">
14113
14114 <s>These needles are made:—<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table4"></arrow.to.target></s>
14115 </p>
14116 <table>
14117 <table.target id="table4"></table.target>
14118 <row>
14119 <cell></cell>
14120 <cell>Gold.</cell>
14121 <cell></cell>
14122 <cell>Silver.</cell>
14123 <cell></cell>
14124 <cell></cell>
14125 <cell>Copper.</cell>
14126 <cell></cell>
14127 </row>
14128 <row>
14129 <cell></cell>
14130 <cell></cell>
14131 <cell></cell>
14132 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sext-<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
14133 <cell></cell>
14134 <cell></cell>
14135 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sext-<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
14136 <cell></cell>
14137 </row>
14138 <row>
14139 <cell></cell>
14140 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Duellae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
14141 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
14142 <cell></cell>
14143 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
14144 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
14145 <cell></cell>
14146 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
14147 </row>
14148 <row>
14149 <cell></cell>
14150 <cell></cell>
14151 <cell></cell>
14152 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>ulae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
14153 <cell></cell>
14154 <cell></cell>
14155 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>ulae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
14156 <cell></cell>
14157 </row>
14158 <row>
14159 <cell>The 1st of</cell>
14160 <cell>15</cell>
14161 <cell>6</cell>
14162 <cell>1</cell>
14163 <cell>8</cell>
14164 <cell>2</cell>
14165 <cell>1/2</cell>
14166 <cell>4</cell>
14167 </row>
14168 <row>
14169 <cell>The 2nd of</cell>
14170 <cell>15</cell>
14171 <cell>6</cell>
14172 <cell></cell>
14173 <cell>4</cell>
14174 <cell>2</cell>
14175 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14176 <cell>8</cell>
14177 </row>
14178 <row>
14179 <cell>The 3rd of</cell>
14180 <cell>15</cell>
14181 <cell>5</cell>
14182 <cell>1/2</cell>
14183 <cell></cell>
14184 <cell>3</cell>
14185 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14186 <cell></cell>
14187 </row>
14188 <row>
14189 <cell>The 4th of</cell>
14190 <cell>16</cell>
14191 <cell>6</cell>
14192 <cell>1/2</cell>
14193 <cell></cell>
14194 <cell>1</cell>
14195 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14196 <cell></cell>
14197 </row>
14198 <row>
14199 <cell>The 5th of</cell>
14200 <cell>16</cell>
14201 <cell>5</cell>
14202 <cell>1</cell>
14203 <cell>8</cell>
14204 <cell>2</cell>
14205 <cell>1/2</cell>
14206 <cell>4</cell>
14207 </row>
14208 <row>
14209 <cell>The 6th of</cell>
14210 <cell>16</cell>
14211 <cell>4</cell>
14212 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14213 <cell>8</cell>
14214 <cell>3</cell>
14215 <cell></cell>
14216 <cell>4</cell>
14217 </row>
14218 <row>
14219 <cell>The 7th of</cell>
14220 <cell>17</cell>
14221 <cell>5</cell>
14222 <cell>1</cell>
14223 <cell>4</cell>
14224 <cell>1</cell>
14225 <cell>1/2</cell>
14226 <cell>8</cell>
14227 </row>
14228 <row>
14229 <cell>The 8th of</cell>
14230 <cell>17</cell>
14231 <cell>5</cell>
14232 <cell></cell>
14233 <cell>4</cell>
14234 <cell>1</cell>
14235 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14236 <cell>8</cell>
14237 </row>
14238 <row>
14239 <cell>The 9th of</cell>
14240 <cell>17</cell>
14241 <cell>4</cell>
14242 <cell>1</cell>
14243 <cell>4</cell>
14244 <cell>2</cell>
14245 <cell>1/2</cell>
14246 <cell>8</cell>
14247 </row>
14248 <row>
14249 <cell>The 10th of</cell>
14250 <cell>18</cell>
14251 <cell>4</cell>
14252 <cell>1</cell>
14253 <cell></cell>
14254 <cell>1</cell>
14255 <cell>1</cell>
14256 <cell></cell>
14257 </row>
14258 <row>
14259 <cell>The 11th of</cell>
14260 <cell>18</cell>
14261 <cell>4</cell>
14262 <cell></cell>
14263 <cell></cell>
14264 <cell>2</cell>
14265 <cell></cell>
14266 <cell></cell>
14267 </row>
14268 <row>
14269 <cell>The 12th of</cell>
14270 <cell>18</cell>
14271 <cell>3</cell>
14272 <cell>1</cell>
14273 <cell></cell>
14274 <cell>2</cell>
14275 <cell>1</cell>
14276 <cell></cell>
14277 </row>
14278 <row>
14279 <cell>The 13th of</cell>
14280 <cell>19</cell>
14281 <cell>3</cell>
14282 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14283 <cell>4</cell>
14284 <cell>1</cell>
14285 <cell>8</cell>
14286 <cell></cell>
14287 </row>
14288 <row>
14289 <cell>The 14th of</cell>
14290 <cell>19</cell>
14291 <cell>3</cell>
14292 <cell>1/2</cell>
14293 <cell>4</cell>
14294 <cell>1</cell>
14295 <cell>1</cell>
14296 <cell>8</cell>
14297 </row>
14298 <row>
14299 <cell>The 15th of</cell>
14300 <cell>19</cell>
14301 <cell>2</cell>
14302 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14303 <cell>4</cell>
14304 <cell>2</cell>
14305 <cell></cell>
14306 <cell>8</cell>
14307 </row>
14308 <row>
14309 <cell>The 16th of</cell>
14310 <cell>20</cell>
14311 <cell>3</cell>
14312 <cell></cell>
14313 <cell></cell>
14314 <cell>1</cell>
14315 <cell></cell>
14316 <cell></cell>
14317 </row>
14318 <row>
14319 <cell>The 17th of</cell>
14320 <cell>20</cell>
14321 <cell>2</cell>
14322 <cell></cell>
14323 <cell></cell>
14324 <cell>1</cell>
14325 <cell>1</cell>
14326 <cell></cell>
14327 </row>
14328 <row>
14329 <cell>The 18th of</cell>
14330 <cell>20</cell>
14331 <cell>2</cell>
14332 <cell></cell>
14333 <cell></cell>
14334 <cell>2</cell>
14335 <cell></cell>
14336 <cell></cell>
14337 </row>
14338 <row>
14339 <cell>The 19th of</cell>
14340 <cell>21</cell>
14341 <cell>2</cell>
14342 <cell>1/2</cell>
14343 <cell>4</cell>
14344 <cell></cell>
14345 <cell>1</cell>
14346 <cell>8</cell>
14347 </row>
14348 <row>
14349 <cell>The 20th of</cell>
14350 <cell>21</cell>
14351 <cell>1</cell>
14352 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14353 <cell>4</cell>
14354 <cell>1</cell>
14355 <cell></cell>
14356 <cell>8</cell>
14357 </row>
14358 <row>
14359 <cell>The 21st of</cell>
14360 <cell>21</cell>
14361 <cell>1</cell>
14362 <cell>1</cell>
14363 <cell>8</cell>
14364 <cell>1</cell>
14365 <cell>1/2</cell>
14366 <cell>4</cell>
14367 </row>
14368 <row>
14369 <cell>The 22nd of</cell>
14370 <cell>22</cell>
14371 <cell>1</cell>
14372 <cell>1</cell>
14373 <cell>8</cell>
14374 <cell>1/2</cell>
14375 <cell>4</cell>
14376 <cell></cell>
14377 </row>
14378 <row>
14379 <cell>The 23rd of</cell>
14380 <cell>22</cell>
14381 <cell>1</cell>
14382 <cell>1</cell>
14383 <cell></cell>
14384 <cell></cell>
14385 <cell>1</cell>
14386 <cell></cell>
14387 </row>
14388 <row>
14389 <cell>The 24th of</cell>
14390 <cell>22</cell>
14391 <cell>1</cell>
14392 <cell>1/2</cell>
14393 <cell>4</cell>
14394 <cell>1</cell>
14395 <cell>8</cell>
14396 <cell></cell>
14397 </row>
14398 <row>
14399 <cell>The 25th of</cell>
14400 <cell>23</cell>
14401 <cell></cell>
14402 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14403 <cell>4</cell>
14404 <cell></cell>
14405 <cell></cell>
14406 <cell>8</cell>
14407 </row>
14408 <row>
14409 <cell>The 26th of</cell>
14410 <cell>23</cell>
14411 <cell></cell>
14412 <cell>1 1/2</cell>
14413 <cell></cell>
14414 <cell></cell>
14415 <cell>1/2</cell>
14416 <cell></cell>
14417 </row>
14418 <row>
14419 <cell>The 27th of</cell>
14420 <cell>23</cell>
14421 <cell></cell>
14422 <cell>1</cell>
14423 <cell>8</cell>
14424 <cell></cell>
14425 <cell>1/2</cell>
14426 <cell>4</cell>
14427 </row>
14428 <row>
14429 <cell>The 28th of</cell>
14430 <cell>pure gold</cell>
14431 <cell></cell>
14432 <cell></cell>
14433 <cell></cell>
14434 <cell></cell>
14435 <cell></cell>
14436 <cell></cell>
14437 </row>
14438 </table>
14439 <p type="main">
14440
14441 <s>Next follows the fourth kind of needles, by which we test silver coins
14442 <lb></lb>which contain copper, or copper coins which contain silver. </s>
14443
14444 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> by <lb></lb>which we
14445 weigh the silver is divided in two different ways. </s>
14446
14447 <s>It is either <lb></lb>divided twelve times, into units of five <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and one <emph type="italics"></emph>scrípulum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each, <pb pagenum="259"></pb>which the ordinary people call <emph type="italics"></emph>nummi<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>41<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; each of these units we again divide <lb></lb>into twenty-four
14448 units of four <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each,
14449 which the same ordinary people <lb></lb>call a <emph type="italics"></emph>grenlin;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or else the <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is divided into sixteen <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which <lb></lb>are
14450 called <emph type="italics"></emph>loths,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each of which
14451 is again divided into eighteen units of four <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>silíquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each, which they call <emph type="italics"></emph>grenlín.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14452 <s> Or else the <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is divided
14453 into <lb></lb>sixteen <emph type="italics"></emph>semuncíae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which each is divided into four <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <lb></lb>each <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into four <emph type="italics"></emph>pfennige.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14454 <s> Needles are made in accordance with <lb></lb>each method of dividing the <emph type="italics"></emph>bes.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14455 <s> According to the first method, to the <lb></lb>number of twenty-four half <emph type="italics"></emph>nummí;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> according to the
14456 second method, to the <lb></lb>number of thirty-one half <emph type="italics"></emph>semuncíae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> that is to say a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> for if the <lb></lb>needles were made to the number of the smaller weights,
14457 the number of <lb></lb>needles would again be too large, and not a few of them,
14458 by reason of the <lb></lb>small difference in proportion of silver or copper,
14459 would have no significance. <lb></lb></s>
14460
14461 <s>We test both bars and coined money composed of silver and copper by both
14462 <lb></lb>scales. </s>
14463
14464 <s>The one is as follows: the first needle is made of twenty-three <lb></lb>parts of
14465 copper and one part silver; whereby, whatsoever bar or coin, when
14466 <lb></lb>rubbed on the touchstone, colours it just as this needle does, in that
14467 bar or <lb></lb>money there is one twenty-fourth part of silver, and so also, in
14468 accordance <lb></lb>with the proportion of silver, is known the remaining
14469 proportion of the copper.</s>
14470 </p>
14471 <p type="main">
14472
14473 <s>The 1st needle is made of 23 parts of copper and 1 of silver.</s>
14474 </p>
14475 <p type="main">
14476
14477 <s>The 2nd needle is made of 22 parts of copper and 2 of silver.</s>
14478 </p>
14479 <p type="main">
14480
14481 <s>The 3rd needle is made of 21 parts of copper and 3 of silver.</s>
14482 </p>
14483 <p type="main">
14484
14485 <s>The 4th needle is made of 20 parts of copper and 4 of silver.</s>
14486 </p>
14487 <p type="main">
14488
14489 <s>The 5th needle is made of 19 parts of copper and 5 of silver.</s>
14490 </p>
14491 <p type="main">
14492
14493 <s>The 6th needle is made of 18 parts of copper and 6 of silver.</s>
14494 </p>
14495 <p type="main">
14496
14497 <s>The 7th needle is made of 17 parts of copper and 7 of silver.</s>
14498 </p>
14499 <p type="main">
14500
14501 <s>The 8th needle is made of 16 parts of copper and 8 of silver.</s>
14502 </p>
14503 <p type="main">
14504
14505 <s>The 9th needle is made of 15 parts of copper and 9 of silver.</s>
14506 </p>
14507 <p type="main">
14508
14509 <s>The 10th needle is made of 14 parts of copper and 10 of silver.</s>
14510 </p>
14511 <p type="main">
14512
14513 <s>The 11th needle is made of 13 parts of copper and 11 of silver.</s>
14514 </p>
14515 <p type="main">
14516
14517 <s>The 12th needle is made of 12 parts of copper and 12 of silver.</s>
14518 </p>
14519 <p type="main">
14520
14521 <s>The 13th needle is made of 11 parts of copper and 13 of silver.</s>
14522 </p>
14523 <p type="main">
14524
14525 <s>The 14th needle is made of 10 parts of copper and 14 of silver.</s>
14526 </p>
14527 <p type="main">
14528
14529 <s>The 15th needle is made of 9 parts of copper and 15 of silver.</s>
14530 </p>
14531 <p type="main">
14532
14533 <s>The 16th needle is made of 8 parts of copper and 16 of silver.</s>
14534 </p>
14535 <p type="main">
14536
14537 <s>The 17th needle is made of 7 parts of copper and 17 of silver.</s>
14538 </p>
14539 <p type="main">
14540
14541 <s>The 18th needle is made of 6 parts of copper and 18 of silver.</s>
14542 </p>
14543 <p type="main">
14544
14545 <s>The 19th needle is made of 5 parts of copper and 19 of silver.</s>
14546 </p>
14547 <p type="main">
14548
14549 <s>The 20th needle is made of 4 parts of copper and 20 of silver.</s>
14550 </p>
14551 <p type="main">
14552
14553 <s>The 21st needle is made of 3 parts of copper and 21 of silver.</s>
14554 </p>
14555 <p type="main">
14556
14557 <s>The 22nd needle is made of 2 parts of copper and 22 of silver.</s>
14558 </p>
14559 <p type="main">
14560
14561 <s>The 23rd needle is made of 1 parts of copper and 23 of silver.</s>
14562 </p>
14563 <p type="main">
14564
14565 <s>The 24th of pure silver.</s>
14566 </p>
14567 <pb pagenum="260"></pb>
14568 <p type="main">
14569
14570 <s>The other method of making needles is as follows:—<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table5"></arrow.to.target></s>
14571 </p>
14572 <table>
14573 <table.target id="table5"></table.target>
14574 <row>
14575 <cell></cell>
14576 <cell>Copper.</cell>
14577 <cell></cell>
14578 <cell>Silver.</cell>
14579 <cell></cell>
14580 </row>
14581 <row>
14582 <cell></cell>
14583 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Semunciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
14584 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sícilící<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
14585 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Semuncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
14586 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sícilící<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
14587 </row>
14588 <row>
14589 <cell>The 1st is of</cell>
14590 <cell>15</cell>
14591 <cell></cell>
14592 <cell>1</cell>
14593 <cell></cell>
14594 </row>
14595 <row>
14596 <cell>The 2nd is of</cell>
14597 <cell>14</cell>
14598 <cell>1</cell>
14599 <cell>1</cell>
14600 <cell>1</cell>
14601 </row>
14602 <row>
14603 <cell>The 3rd is of</cell>
14604 <cell>14</cell>
14605 <cell></cell>
14606 <cell>2</cell>
14607 <cell></cell>
14608 </row>
14609 <row>
14610 <cell>The 4th is of</cell>
14611 <cell>13</cell>
14612 <cell>1</cell>
14613 <cell>2</cell>
14614 <cell>1</cell>
14615 </row>
14616 <row>
14617 <cell>The 5th is of</cell>
14618 <cell>13</cell>
14619 <cell></cell>
14620 <cell>3</cell>
14621 <cell></cell>
14622 </row>
14623 <row>
14624 <cell>The 6th is of</cell>
14625 <cell>12</cell>
14626 <cell>1</cell>
14627 <cell>3</cell>
14628 <cell>1</cell>
14629 </row>
14630 <row>
14631 <cell>The 7th is of</cell>
14632 <cell>12</cell>
14633 <cell></cell>
14634 <cell>4</cell>
14635 <cell></cell>
14636 </row>
14637 <row>
14638 <cell>The 8th is of</cell>
14639 <cell>11</cell>
14640 <cell>1</cell>
14641 <cell></cell>
14642 <cell>1</cell>
14643 </row>
14644 <row>
14645 <cell>The 9th is of</cell>
14646 <cell>11</cell>
14647 <cell></cell>
14648 <cell>5</cell>
14649 <cell></cell>
14650 </row>
14651 <row>
14652 <cell>The 10th is of</cell>
14653 <cell>10</cell>
14654 <cell>1</cell>
14655 <cell>5</cell>
14656 <cell>1</cell>
14657 </row>
14658 <row>
14659 <cell>The 11th is of</cell>
14660 <cell>10</cell>
14661 <cell></cell>
14662 <cell>6</cell>
14663 <cell></cell>
14664 </row>
14665 <row>
14666 <cell>The 12th is of</cell>
14667 <cell>9</cell>
14668 <cell>1</cell>
14669 <cell>6</cell>
14670 <cell>1</cell>
14671 </row>
14672 <row>
14673 <cell>The 13th is of</cell>
14674 <cell>9</cell>
14675 <cell></cell>
14676 <cell>7</cell>
14677 <cell></cell>
14678 </row>
14679 <row>
14680 <cell>The 14th is of</cell>
14681 <cell>8</cell>
14682 <cell>1</cell>
14683 <cell>7</cell>
14684 <cell>1</cell>
14685 </row>
14686 <row>
14687 <cell>The 15th is of</cell>
14688 <cell>8</cell>
14689 <cell></cell>
14690 <cell>8</cell>
14691 <cell></cell>
14692 </row>
14693 <row>
14694 <cell>The 16th is of</cell>
14695 <cell>7</cell>
14696 <cell>1</cell>
14697 <cell>8</cell>
14698 <cell>1</cell>
14699 </row>
14700 <row>
14701 <cell>The 17th is of</cell>
14702 <cell>7</cell>
14703 <cell></cell>
14704 <cell>9</cell>
14705 <cell></cell>
14706 </row>
14707 <row>
14708 <cell>The 18th is of</cell>
14709 <cell>6</cell>
14710 <cell>1</cell>
14711 <cell>9</cell>
14712 <cell>1</cell>
14713 </row>
14714 <row>
14715 <cell>The 19th is of</cell>
14716 <cell>6</cell>
14717 <cell></cell>
14718 <cell>10</cell>
14719 <cell></cell>
14720 </row>
14721 <row>
14722 <cell>The 20th is of</cell>
14723 <cell>5</cell>
14724 <cell>1</cell>
14725 <cell>10</cell>
14726 <cell>1</cell>
14727 </row>
14728 <row>
14729 <cell>The 21st is of</cell>
14730 <cell>5</cell>
14731 <cell></cell>
14732 <cell>11</cell>
14733 <cell></cell>
14734 </row>
14735 <row>
14736 <cell>The 22nd is of</cell>
14737 <cell>4</cell>
14738 <cell>1</cell>
14739 <cell>11</cell>
14740 <cell>1</cell>
14741 </row>
14742 <row>
14743 <cell>The 23rd is of</cell>
14744 <cell>4</cell>
14745 <cell></cell>
14746 <cell>12</cell>
14747 <cell></cell>
14748 </row>
14749 <row>
14750 <cell>The 24th is of</cell>
14751 <cell>3</cell>
14752 <cell>1</cell>
14753 <cell>12</cell>
14754 <cell>1</cell>
14755 </row>
14756 <row>
14757 <cell>The 25th is of</cell>
14758 <cell>3</cell>
14759 <cell></cell>
14760 <cell>13</cell>
14761 <cell></cell>
14762 </row>
14763 <row>
14764 <cell>The 26th is of</cell>
14765 <cell>2</cell>
14766 <cell>1</cell>
14767 <cell>13</cell>
14768 <cell>1</cell>
14769 </row>
14770 <row>
14771 <cell>The 27th is of</cell>
14772 <cell>2</cell>
14773 <cell></cell>
14774 <cell>14</cell>
14775 <cell></cell>
14776 </row>
14777 <row>
14778 <cell>The 28th is of</cell>
14779 <cell>1</cell>
14780 <cell>1</cell>
14781 <cell>14</cell>
14782 <cell>1</cell>
14783 </row>
14784 <row>
14785 <cell>The 29th is of</cell>
14786 <cell>1</cell>
14787 <cell></cell>
14788 <cell>15</cell>
14789 <cell></cell>
14790 </row>
14791 <row>
14792 <cell>The 30th is of</cell>
14793 <cell></cell>
14794 <cell>1</cell>
14795 <cell>15</cell>
14796 <cell>1</cell>
14797 </row>
14798 <row>
14799 <cell>The 31st of pure silver.</cell>
14800 <cell></cell>
14801 <cell></cell>
14802 <cell></cell>
14803 <cell></cell>
14804 </row>
14805 </table>
14806 <p type="main">
14807
14808 <s>So much for this. </s>
14809
14810 <s>Perhaps I have used more words than those most <lb></lb>highly skilled in the art
14811 may require, but it is necessary for the understanding <lb></lb>of these
14812 matters.</s>
14813 </p>
14814 <p type="main">
14815
14816 <s>I will now speak of the weights, of which I have frequently made mention.
14817 <lb></lb></s>
14818
14819 <s>Among mining people these are of two kinds, that is, the greater weights and
14820 <lb></lb>the lesser weights. </s>
14821
14822 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is the
14823 first and largest weight, and of <pb pagenum="261"></pb>course consists of one
14824 hundred <emph type="italics"></emph>librae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and for that
14825 reason is called a <lb></lb>hundred weight.</s>
14826 </p>
14827 <p type="main">
14828
14829 <s>The various weights are:—</s>
14830 </p>
14831 <p type="main">
14832
14833 <s>1st = 100 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> = <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14834 </p>
14835 <p type="main">
14836
14837 <s>2nd = 50 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14838 </p>
14839 <p type="main">
14840
14841 <s>3rd = 52 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14842 </p>
14843 <p type="main">
14844
14845 <s>4th = 16 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14846 </p>
14847 <p type="main">
14848
14849 <s>5th = 8 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14850 </p>
14851 <p type="main">
14852
14853 <s>6th = 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14854 </p>
14855 <p type="main">
14856
14857 <s>7th = 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14858 </p>
14859 <p type="main">
14860
14861 <s>8th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>libra.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14862 </p>
14863 <p type="main">
14864
14865 <s>This <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> consists of
14866 sixteen <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the half
14867 part of the <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is
14868 <lb></lb>the <emph type="italics"></emph>selibra,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which our
14869 people call a <emph type="italics"></emph>mark,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and
14870 consists of eight <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
14871 or, as <lb></lb>they divide it, of sixteen <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>:—</s>
14872 </p>
14873 <p type="main">
14874
14875 <s>9th = 8 <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14876 </p>
14877 <p type="main">
14878
14879 <s>10th = 8 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14880 </p>
14881 <p type="main">
14882
14883 <s>11th = 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14884 </p>
14885 <p type="main">
14886
14887 <s>12th = 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14888 </p>
14889 <p type="main">
14890
14891 <s>13th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>semuncia.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14892 </p>
14893 <p type="main">
14894
14895 <s>14th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>sicilicus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14896 </p>
14897 <p type="main">
14898
14899 <s>15th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14900 </p>
14901 <p type="main">
14902
14903 <s>16th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>dimidi-drachma.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14904 </p>
14905 <p type="main">
14906
14907 <s>The above is how the “greater” weights are divided. </s>
14908
14909 <s>The “lesser” <lb></lb>weights are made of silver or brass or copper. </s>
14910
14911 <s>Of these, the first and largest <lb></lb>generally weighs one <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> for it is necessary
14912 for us to weigh, not only <lb></lb>ore, but also metals to be assayed, and
14913 smaller quantities of lead. </s>
14914
14915 <s>The first <lb></lb>of these weights is called a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the number of <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in it <lb></lb>corresponds
14916 to the larger scale, being likewise one hundred<emph type="sup"></emph>42<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
14917 </p>
14918 <p type="main">
14919
14920 <s>The 1st is called 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14921 </p>
14922 <p type="main">
14923
14924 <s>The 2nd is called 50 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14925 </p>
14926 <p type="main">
14927
14928 <s>The 3rd is called 25 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14929 </p>
14930 <p type="main">
14931
14932 <s>The 4th is called 16 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14933 </p>
14934 <p type="main">
14935
14936 <s>The 5th is called 8 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14937 </p>
14938 <p type="main">
14939
14940 <s>The 6th is called 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14941 </p>
14942 <p type="main">
14943
14944 <s>The 7th is called 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14945 </p>
14946 <p type="main">
14947
14948 <s>The 8th is called 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14949 </p>
14950 <p type="main">
14951
14952 <s>The 9th is called 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>selibra.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14953 </p>
14954 <p type="main">
14955
14956 <s>The 10th is called 8 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14957 </p>
14958 <p type="main">
14959
14960 <s>The 11th is called 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14961 </p>
14962 <p type="main">
14963
14964 <s>The 12th is called 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14965 </p>
14966 <p type="main">
14967
14968 <s>The 13th is called 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14969 </p>
14970 <p type="main">
14971
14972 <s>The 14th is called 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>sicilicus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14973 </p>
14974 <p type="main">
14975
14976 <s>The fourteenth is the last, for the proportionate weights which correspond
14977 <lb></lb>with a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and half
14978 a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> are not used. </s>
14979
14980 <s>On all these weights of <lb></lb>the lesser scale, are written the numbers of
14981 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and of <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14982 <s> Some <pb pagenum="262"></pb>copper assayers divide both the lesser and greater
14983 scale weights into divisions <lb></lb>of a different scale. </s>
14984
14985 <s>Their largest weight of the greater scale weighs one <lb></lb>hundred and twelve
14986 <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which is
14987 the first unit of measurement.</s>
14988 </p>
14989 <p type="main">
14990
14991 <s>1st = 112 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14992 </p>
14993 <p type="main">
14994
14995 <s>2nd = 64 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
14996 </p>
14997 <p type="main">
14998
14999 <s>3rd = 32 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15000 </p>
15001 <p type="main">
15002
15003 <s>4th = 16 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15004 </p>
15005 <p type="main">
15006
15007 <s>5th = 8 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15008 </p>
15009 <p type="main">
15010
15011 <s>6th = 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15012 </p>
15013 <p type="main">
15014
15015 <s>7th = 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15016 </p>
15017 <p type="main">
15018
15019 <s>8th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15020 </p>
15021 <p type="main">
15022
15023 <s>9th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>selibra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or sixteen
15024 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15025 </p>
15026 <p type="main">
15027
15028 <s>10th = 8 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15029 </p>
15030 <p type="main">
15031
15032 <s>11th = 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15033 </p>
15034 <p type="main">
15035
15036 <s>12th = 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15037 </p>
15038 <p type="main">
15039
15040 <s>13th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15041 </p>
15042 <figure></figure>
15043 <p type="main">
15044
15045 <s>As for the <emph type="italics"></emph>selíbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
15046 the lesser weights, which our people, as I have often <lb></lb>said, call a
15047 <emph type="italics"></emph>mark,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the Romans
15048 call a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> coiners who coin
15049 gold, divide it <lb></lb>just like the greater weights scale, into twenty-four
15050 units of two <emph type="italics"></emph>sextulae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>each, and each unit of two <emph type="italics"></emph>sextulae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is divided into four <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-sextulae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <lb></lb>each <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into three
15051 units of four <emph type="italics"></emph>síliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each. </s>
15052
15053 <s>Some also divide <lb></lb>the separate units of four <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into four individual <emph type="italics"></emph>síliquae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> but most,
15054 <lb></lb>omitting the <emph type="italics"></emph>semi-sextulae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then divide the double <emph type="italics"></emph>sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into twelve units of <lb></lb>four <emph type="italics"></emph>sílíquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each,
15055 and do not divide these into four individual <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15056 <s> Thus <lb></lb>the first and greatest unit of measurement, which is the <emph type="italics"></emph>bes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> weighs
15057 twenty­<lb></lb>four double <emph type="italics"></emph>sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15058 </p>
15059 <pb pagenum="263"></pb>
15060 <p type="main">
15061
15062 <s>The 2nd = 12 double <emph type="italics"></emph>sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15063 </p>
15064 <p type="main">
15065
15066 <s>The 3rd = 6 double <emph type="italics"></emph>sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15067 </p>
15068 <p type="main">
15069
15070 <s>The 4th = 3 double <emph type="italics"></emph>sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15071 </p>
15072 <p type="main">
15073
15074 <s>The 5th = 2 double <emph type="italics"></emph>sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15075 </p>
15076 <p type="main">
15077
15078 <s>The 6th = 1 double <emph type="italics"></emph>sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15079 </p>
15080 <p type="main">
15081
15082 <s>The 7th = 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-sextulae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or four <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15083 </p>
15084 <p type="main">
15085
15086 <s>The 8th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>semi-sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or 3
15087 units of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>síliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
15088 each.</s>
15089 </p>
15090 <p type="main">
15091
15092 <s>The 9th = 2 units of four <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15093 </p>
15094 <p type="main">
15095
15096 <s>The 10th = 1 units of four <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15097 </p>
15098 <p type="main">
15099
15100 <s>Coiners who mint silver also divide the <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the lesser weights in the same <lb></lb>way as the
15101 greater weights; our people, indeed, divide it into sixteen <emph type="italics"></emph>sem­<lb></lb>uncíae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
15102 and the <emph type="italics"></emph>semuncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into
15103 eighteen units of four <emph type="italics"></emph>silíquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15104 </p>
15105 <p type="main">
15106
15107 <s>There are ten weights which are placed in the other pan of the balance,
15108 <lb></lb>when they weigh the silver which remains from the copper that has been
15109 <lb></lb>consumed, when they assay the alloy with fire.</s>
15110 </p>
15111 <p type="main">
15112
15113 <s>The 1st = 16 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> = 1
15114 <emph type="italics"></emph>bes.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15115 </p>
15116 <p type="main">
15117
15118 <s>The 2nd = 8 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15119 </p>
15120 <p type="main">
15121
15122 <s>The 3rd = 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15123 </p>
15124 <p type="main">
15125
15126 <s>The 4th = 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15127 </p>
15128 <p type="main">
15129
15130 <s>The 5th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or 18
15131 units of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>sílíquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15132 </p>
15133 <p type="main">
15134
15135 <s>The 6th = 9 units of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15136 </p>
15137 <p type="main">
15138
15139 <s>The 7th = 6 units of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15140 </p>
15141 <p type="main">
15142
15143 <s>The 8th = 3 units of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15144 </p>
15145 <p type="main">
15146
15147 <s>The 9th = 2 units of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15148 </p>
15149 <p type="main">
15150
15151 <s>The 10th = 1 units of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15152 </p>
15153 <p type="main">
15154
15155 <s>The coiners of Nuremberg who mint silver, divide the <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into sixteen <emph type="italics"></emph>sem­<lb></lb>uncíae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> but divide the
15156 <emph type="italics"></emph>semuncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into
15157 four <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into <lb></lb>four <emph type="italics"></emph>pfenníge.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15158 <s> They employ nine weights.</s>
15159 </p>
15160 <p type="main">
15161
15162 <s>The 1st = 16 <emph type="italics"></emph>semuncíae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15163 </p>
15164 <p type="main">
15165
15166 <s>The 2nd = 8 <emph type="italics"></emph>semuncíae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15167 </p>
15168 <p type="main">
15169
15170 <s>The 3rd = 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>semuncíae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15171 </p>
15172 <p type="main">
15173
15174 <s>The 4th = 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>semuncíae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15175 </p>
15176 <p type="main">
15177
15178 <s>The 5th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>semuncíae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15179 </p>
15180 <p type="main">
15181
15182 <s>For they divide the <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in
15183 the same way as our own people, but since they <lb></lb>divide the <emph type="italics"></emph>semuncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into four
15184 <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15185 </p>
15186 <p type="main">
15187
15188 <s>the 6th weight = 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15189 </p>
15190 <p type="main">
15191
15192 <s>the 7th weight = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or
15193 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>pfenníge.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15194 </p>
15195 <p type="main">
15196
15197 <s>the 8th weight = 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>pfenníge.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15198 </p>
15199 <p type="main">
15200
15201 <s>the 9th weight = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>pfenníg<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15202 </p>
15203 <p type="main">
15204
15205 <s>The men of Cologne and Antwerp<emph type="sup"></emph>43<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
15206 divide the <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into twelve
15207 units of <lb></lb>five <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
15208 and one <emph type="italics"></emph>scrípulum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
15209 which weights they call <emph type="italics"></emph>nummi.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15210 <s> Each <lb></lb>of these they again divide into twenty-four units of four <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each, <lb></lb>which they
15211 call <emph type="italics"></emph>grenlíns.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15212 <s> They have ten weights, of which</s>
15213 </p>
15214 <pb pagenum="264"></pb>
15215 <p type="main">
15216
15217 <s>the 1st = 12 <emph type="italics"></emph>nummi<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>bes.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15218 </p>
15219 <p type="main">
15220
15221 <s>the 2nd = 6 <emph type="italics"></emph>nummi<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15222 </p>
15223 <p type="main">
15224
15225 <s>the 3rd = 3 <emph type="italics"></emph>nummi<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15226 </p>
15227 <p type="main">
15228
15229 <s>the 4th = 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>nummi<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15230 </p>
15231 <p type="main">
15232
15233 <s>the 5th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>nummi<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> = 24 units
15234 of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15235 </p>
15236 <p type="main">
15237
15238 <s>the 6th = 12 units of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15239 </p>
15240 <p type="main">
15241
15242 <s>the 7th = 6 units of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15243 </p>
15244 <p type="main">
15245
15246 <s>the 8th = 3 units of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15247 </p>
15248 <p type="main">
15249
15250 <s>the 9th = 2 units of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15251 </p>
15252 <p type="main">
15253
15254 <s>the 10th = 1 units of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each.</s>
15255 </p>
15256 <p type="main">
15257
15258 <s>And so with them, just as with our own people, the <emph type="italics"></emph>mark<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is divided into <lb></lb>two hundred and
15259 eighty-eight <emph type="italics"></emph>grenlíns,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and by the people of Nuremberg it is <lb></lb>divided into two hundred and
15260 fifty-six <emph type="italics"></emph>pfennige.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15261 <s> Lastly, the Venetians divide <lb></lb>the <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into eight <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15262 <s> The <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into four <emph type="italics"></emph>sicilici,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> the <emph type="italics"></emph>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into <lb></lb>thirty-six
15263 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15264 <s> They make twelve weights, which they use whenever they <lb></lb>wish to assay
15265 alloys of silver and copper. </s>
15266
15267 <s>Of these</s>
15268 </p>
15269 <p type="main">
15270
15271 <s>the 1st = 8 <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>bes.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15272 </p>
15273 <p type="main">
15274
15275 <s>the 2nd = 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15276 </p>
15277 <p type="main">
15278
15279 <s>the 3rd = 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15280 </p>
15281 <p type="main">
15282
15283 <s>the 4th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or
15284 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílicí.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15285 </p>
15286 <p type="main">
15287
15288 <s>the 5th = 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>sícilícˊ.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15289 </p>
15290 <p type="main">
15291
15292 <s>the 6th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>sícilicus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15293 </p>
15294 <p type="main">
15295
15296 <s>the 7th = 18 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15297 </p>
15298 <p type="main">
15299
15300 <s>the 8th = 9 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15301 </p>
15302 <p type="main">
15303
15304 <s>the 9th = 6 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15305 </p>
15306 <p type="main">
15307
15308 <s>the 10th = 3 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15309 </p>
15310 <p type="main">
15311
15312 <s>the 11th = 2 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15313 </p>
15314 <p type="main">
15315
15316 <s>the 12th = 1 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15317 </p>
15318 <p type="main">
15319
15320 <s>Since the Venetians divide the <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into eleven hundred and fifty-two <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>or two hundred and
15321 eighty-eight units of 4 <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each, into which number <lb></lb>our people also divide the
15322 <emph type="italics"></emph>bes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> they thus make the
15323 same number of <emph type="italics"></emph>siliquae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and both agree, even though the Venetians divide the <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into smaller
15324 <lb></lb>divisions.</s>
15325 </p>
15326 <p type="main">
15327
15328 <s>This, then, is the system of weights, both of the greater and the lesser
15329 kinds, <lb></lb>which metallurgists employ, and likewise the system of the
15330 lesser weights <lb></lb>which coiners and merchants employ, when they are
15331 assaying metals and <lb></lb>coined money. </s>
15332
15333 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the larger weight
15334 with which they provide them­<lb></lb>selves when they weigh large masses of
15335 these things, I have explained in my <lb></lb>work <emph type="italics"></emph>De
15336 Mensuris et Ponderibus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and in another book, <emph type="italics"></emph>De Precio Metallorum <lb></lb>et Monetis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
15337 </p>
15338 <p type="main">
15339
15340 <s>There are three small balances by which we weigh ore, metals, and
15341 <lb></lb>fluxes. </s>
15342
15343 <s>The first, by which we weigh lead and fluxes, is the largest among these
15344 <lb></lb>smaller balances, and when eight <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (of the greater weights) are placed in <lb></lb>one of its
15345 pans, and the same number in the other, it sustains no damage. <lb></lb></s>
15346
15347 <s>The second is more delicate, and by this we weigh the ore or the metal, which
15348 <lb></lb>is to be assayed; this is well able to carry one <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the lesser <pb pagenum="265"></pb>weights in one pan, and in the other, ore or metal as
15349 heavy as that weight. <lb></lb></s>
15350
15351 <s>The third is the most delicate, and by this we weigh the beads of gold or
15352 <lb></lb>silver, which, when the assay is completed, settle in the bottom of the
15353 cupel. <lb></lb></s>
15354
15355 <s>But if anyone weighs lead in the second balance, or an ore in the third, he
15356 <lb></lb>will do them much injury.</s>
15357 </p>
15358 <p type="main">
15359
15360 <s>Whatsoever small amount of metal is obtained from a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of the lesser weights of
15361 ore or metal alloy, the same greater weight of metal <lb></lb>is smelted from a
15362 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the
15363 greater weight of ore or metal alloy.</s>
15364 </p>
15365 <figure></figure>
15366 <p type="caption">
15367
15368 <s>A—FIRST SMALL BALANCE. B—SECOND. C—THIRD, PLACED IN A
15369 CASE.</s>
15370 </p>
15371 <p type="head">
15372
15373 <s>END OF BOOK VII.</s>
15374 </p>
15375 <pb></pb>
15376 <figure></figure>
15377 <pb></pb>
15378 <p type="head">
15379
15380 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>BOOK VIII.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
15381 </p>
15382 <p type="main">
15383
15384 <s>Questions of assaying were explained in the last <lb></lb>Book, and I have now
15385 come to a greater task, that <lb></lb>is, to the description of how we extract
15386 the metals. <lb></lb></s>
15387
15388 <s>First of all I will explain the method of preparing <lb></lb>the ore<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; for since Nature usually creates
15389 metals <lb></lb>in an impure state, mixed with earth, stones, and
15390 <lb></lb>solidified juices, it is necessary to separate most of <lb></lb>these
15391 impurities from the ores as far as can be, <lb></lb>before they are smelted, and
15392 therefore I will now <lb></lb>describe the methods by which the ores are sorted,
15393 broken with hammers, <lb></lb>burnt, crushed with stamps, ground into powder,
15394 sifted, washed, roasted, <lb></lb>and calcined<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.<lb></lb></s>
15395 </p>
15396 <pb pagenum="268"></pb>
15397 <figure></figure>
15398 <p type="caption">
15399
15400 <s>A—LONG TABLE. B—TRAY. C—TUB.</s>
15401 </p>
15402 <p type="main">
15403
15404 <s>I will start at the beginning with the first sort of work. </s>
15405
15406 <s>Experienced <lb></lb>miners, when they dig the ore, sort the metalliferous
15407 material from earth, <lb></lb>stones, and solidified juices before it is taken
15408 from the shafts and tunnels, <lb></lb>and they put the valuable metal in trays
15409 and the waste into buckets. </s>
15410
15411 <s>But <lb></lb>if some miner who is inexperienced in mining matters has omitted to
15412 do this, <lb></lb>or even if some experienced miner, compelled by some
15413 unavoidable necessity, <lb></lb>has been unable to do so, as soon as the
15414 material which has been dug out <lb></lb>has been removed from the mine, all of
15415 it should be examined, and that part of <lb></lb>the ore which is rich in metal
15416 sorted from that part of it which is devoid of <lb></lb>metal, whether such part
15417 be earth, or solidified juices, or stones. </s>
15418
15419 <s>To smelt <lb></lb>waste together with an ore involves a loss, for some
15420 expenditure is thrown <lb></lb>away, seeing that out of earth and stones only
15421 empty and useless slags are <pb pagenum="269"></pb>melted out, and further, the
15422 solidified juices also impede the smelting of the <lb></lb>metals and cause
15423 loss. </s>
15424
15425 <s>The rock which lies contiguous to rich ore should also be <lb></lb>broken into
15426 small pieces, crushed, and washed, lest any of the mineral should <lb></lb>be
15427 lost. </s>
15428
15429 <s>When, either through ignorance or carelessness, the miners while
15430 <lb></lb>excavating have mixed the ore with earth or broken rock, the work of
15431 sorting <lb></lb>the crude metal or the best ore is done not only by men, but
15432 also by boys and <lb></lb>women. </s>
15433
15434 <s>They throw the mixed material upon a long table, beside which they
15435 <lb></lb>sìt for almost the whole day, and they sort out the ore; when it
15436 has been <lb></lb>sorted out, they collect it in trays, and when collected they
15437 throw it into <lb></lb>tubs, which are carried to the works in which the ores
15438 are smelted.</s>
15439 </p>
15440 <p type="main">
15441
15442 <s>The metal which is dug out in a pure or crude state, to which class belong
15443 <lb></lb>native silver, silver glance, and gray silver, is placed on a stone by
15444 the <lb></lb>mine foreman and flattened out by pounding with heavy square
15445 hammers. <lb></lb></s>
15446
15447 <s>These masses, when they have been thus flattened out like plates, are placed
15448 <lb></lb>either on the stump of a tree, and cut into pieces by pounding an iron
15449 chisel <lb></lb>into them with a hammer, or else they are cut with an iron tool
15450 similar to a <lb></lb>pair of shears. </s>
15451
15452 <s>One blade of these shears is three feet long, and is firmly <lb></lb>fixed in a
15453 stump, and the other blade which cuts the metal is six feet long. </s>
15454 </p>
15455 <figure></figure>
15456 <p type="caption">
15457
15458 <s>A—MASSES OF METAL. B—HAMMER. C—CHISEL. D—TREE STUMPS.
15459 E—IRON TOOL <lb></lb>SIMILAR TO A PAIR OF SHEARS.<pb pagenum="270"></pb>These
15460 pieces of metal are afterward heated in iron basins and smelted in the
15461 <lb></lb>cupellation furnace by the smelters.</s>
15462 </p>
15463 <p type="main">
15464
15465 <s>Although the miners, in the shafts or tunnels, have sorted over the
15466 <lb></lb>material which they mine, still the ore which has been broken down and
15467 carried <lb></lb>out must be broken into pieces by a hammer or minutely crushed,
15468 so that <lb></lb>the more valuable and better parts can be distinguished from
15469 the inferior and <lb></lb>worthless portions. </s>
15470
15471 <s>This is of the greatest importance in smelting ore, for <lb></lb>if the ore is
15472 smelted without this separation, the valuable part frequently <lb></lb>receives
15473 great damage before the worthless part melts in the fire, or else the
15474 <lb></lb>one consumes the other; this latter difficulty can, however, be partly
15475 <lb></lb>avoided by the exercise of care and partly by the use of fluxes. </s>
15476
15477 <s>Now, if a <lb></lb>vein is of poor quality, the better portions which have been
15478 broken down and <lb></lb>carried out should be thrown together in one place, and
15479 the inferior portion <lb></lb>and the rock thrown away. </s>
15480
15481 <s>The sorters place a hard broad stone on a table; <lb></lb>the tables are
15482 generally four feet square and made of joined planks, and to <lb></lb>the edge
15483 of the sides and back are fixed upright planks, which rise about a <lb></lb>foot
15484 from the table; the front, where the sorter sits, is left open. </s>
15485
15486 <s>The </s>
15487 </p>
15488 <figure></figure>
15489 <p type="caption">
15490
15491 <s>A—TABLES. B—UPRIGHT PLANKS. C—HAMMER. D—QUADRANGULAR
15492 HAMMER. <lb></lb>E—DEEPER VESSEL. F—SHALLOWER VESSEL. G—IRON
15493 ROD.<pb pagenum="271"></pb>lumps of ore, rich in gold or silver, are put by
15494 the sorters on the stone and <lb></lb>broken up with a broad, but not thick,
15495 hammer; they either break them into <lb></lb>pieces and throw them into one
15496 vessel, or they break and sort—whence they <lb></lb>get their
15497 name—the more precious from the worthless, throwing and collecting
15498 <lb></lb>them separately into different vessels. </s>
15499
15500 <s>Other men crush the lumps of ore <lb></lb>less rich in gold or silver, which have
15501 likewise been put on the stone, with a <lb></lb>broad thick hammer, and when it
15502 has been well crushed, they collect it and <lb></lb>throw it into one vessel. </s>
15503
15504 <s>There are two kinds of vessels; one is deeper, and a <lb></lb>little wider in the
15505 centre than at the top or bottom; the other is not so deep <lb></lb>though it is
15506 broader at the bottom, and becomes gradually a little narrower <lb></lb>toward
15507 the top. </s>
15508
15509 <s>The latter vessel is covered with a lid, while the former is not
15510 <lb></lb>covered; an iron rod through the handles, bent over on either end, is
15511 <lb></lb>grasped in the hand when the vessel is carried. </s>
15512
15513 <s>But, above all, it behooves <lb></lb>the sorters to be assiduous in their
15514 labours.</s>
15515 </p>
15516 <p type="main">
15517
15518 <s>By another method of breaking ore with hammers, large hard
15519 frag­<lb></lb>ments of ore are broken before they are burned. </s>
15520
15521 <s>The legs of the workmen <lb></lb>—at all events of those who crush pyrites
15522 in this manner with large hammers <lb></lb>in Goslar—are protected with
15523 coverings resembling leggings, and their hands </s>
15524 </p>
15525 <figure></figure>
15526 <p type="caption">
15527
15528 <s>A—PYRITES. B—LEGGINGS. C—GLOVES. D—HAMMER.<pb pagenum="272"></pb>are protected with long gloves, to prevent them from
15529 being injured by the <lb></lb>chips which fly away from the fragments.</s>
15530 </p>
15531 <p type="main">
15532
15533 <s>In that district of Greater Germany which is called Westphalia and in
15534 <lb></lb>that district of Lower Germany which is named Eifel, the broken ore
15535 which <lb></lb>has been burned, is thrown by the workmen into a round area paved
15536 with the <lb></lb>hardest stones, and the fragments are pounded up with iron
15537 tools, which are <lb></lb>very much like hammers in shape and are used like
15538 threshing sledges. </s>
15539
15540 <s>This <lb></lb>tool is a foot long, a palm wide, and a digit thick, and has an
15541 opening in the <lb></lb>middle just as hammers have, in which is fixed a wooden
15542 handle of no great <lb></lb>thickness, but up to three and a half feet long, in
15543 order that the workmen <lb></lb>can pound the ore with greater force by reason
15544 of its weight falling from a <lb></lb>greater height. </s>
15545
15546 <s>They strike and pound with the broad side of the tool, in the <lb></lb>same way
15547 as corn is pounded out on a threshing floor with the threshing <lb></lb>sledges,
15548 although the latter are made of wood and are smooth and fixed to <lb></lb>poles. </s>
15549
15550 <s>When the ore has been broken into small pieces, they sweep it <lb></lb>together
15551 with brooms and remove it to the works, where it is washed </s>
15552 </p>
15553 <figure></figure>
15554 <p type="caption">
15555
15556 <s>A—AREA PAVED WITH STONES. B—BROKEN ORE. C—AREA COVERED WITH
15557 BROKEN ORE. <lb></lb>D—IRON TOOL. E—ITS HANDLE. F—BROOM.
15558 G—SHORT STRAKE. H—WOODEN HOE.<pb pagenum="273"></pb>in a short
15559 strake, at the head of which stands the washer, who draws the water
15560 <lb></lb>upward with a wooden hoe. </s>
15561
15562 <s>The water running down again, carries all <lb></lb>the light particles into a
15563 trough placed underneath. </s>
15564
15565 <s>I shall deal more fully <lb></lb>with this method of washing a little later.</s>
15566 </p>
15567 <p type="main">
15568
15569 <s>Ore is burned for two reasons; either that from being hard, it may become
15570 <lb></lb>soft and more easily broken and more readily crushed with a hammer or
15571 <lb></lb>stamps, and then can be smelted; or that the fatty things, that is to
15572 say, <lb></lb>sulphur, bitumen, orpiment, or realgar<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> may be consumed. </s>
15573
15574 <s>Sulphur is <lb></lb>frequently found in metallic ores, and, generally speaking,
15575 is more harmful <lb></lb>to the metals, except gold, than are the other things. </s>
15576
15577 <s>It is most harmful of <lb></lb>all to iron, and less to tin than to bismuth,
15578 lead, silver, or copper. <lb></lb></s>
15579
15580 <s>Since very rarely gold is found in which there is not some silver, even gold
15581 <lb></lb>ores containing sulphur ought to be roasted before they are smelted,
15582 because, <lb></lb>in a very vigorous furnace fire, sulphur resolves metal into
15583 ashes and makes <lb></lb>slag of it. </s>
15584
15585 <s>Bitumen acts in the same way, in fact sometimes it consumes <lb></lb>silver,
15586 which we may see in bituminous <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
15587 </p>
15588 <p type="main">
15589
15590 <s>I now come to the methods of roasting, and first of all to that one which
15591 <lb></lb>is common to all ores. </s>
15592
15593 <s>The earth is dug out to the required extent, and <lb></lb>thus is made a
15594 quadrangular area of fair size, open at the front, and above <lb></lb>this,
15595 firewood is laid close together, and on it other wood is laid
15596 trans­<lb></lb>versely, likewise close together, for which reason our
15597 countrymen call this <lb></lb>pile of wood a crate; this is repeated until the
15598 pile attains a height of one <lb></lb>or two cubits. </s>
15599
15600 <s>Then there is placed upon it a quantity of ore that has been <lb></lb>broken into
15601 small pieces with a hammer; first the largest of these pieces, <lb></lb>next
15602 those of medium size, and lastly the smallest, and thus is built up a
15603 <lb></lb>gently sloping cone. </s>
15604
15605 <s>To prevent it from becoming scattered, fine sand of the <lb></lb></s>
15606 </p>
15607 <pb pagenum="274"></pb>
15608 <figure></figure>
15609 <p type="caption">
15610
15611 <s>A—AREA. B—WOOD. C—ORE. D—CONE-SHAPED PILES.
15612 E—CANAL.<lb></lb>same ore is soaked with water and smeared over it and
15613 beaten on with shovels; <lb></lb>some workers, if they cannot obtain such fine
15614 sand, cover the pile with char­<lb></lb>coal-dust, just as do
15615 charcoal-burners. </s>
15616
15617 <s>But at Goslar, the pile, when it has <lb></lb>been built up in the form of a
15618 cone, is smeared with <emph type="italics"></emph>atramentum sutorium
15619 <lb></lb>rubrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, which is made by the leaching of roasted pyrites soaked
15620 with water. <lb></lb></s>
15621
15622 <s>In some districts the ore is roasted once, in others twice, in others three
15623 times, <lb></lb>as its hardness may require. </s>
15624
15625 <s>At Goslar, when pyrites is roasted for the third <lb></lb>time, that which is
15626 placed on the top of the pyre exudes a certain greenish, <lb></lb>dry, rough,
15627 thin substance, as I have elsewhere written<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; this is no more <lb></lb>easily burned by the fire than is
15628 asbestos. </s>
15629
15630 <s>Very often also, water is put on <lb></lb><pb pagenum="275"></pb>to the ore which has
15631 been roasted, while it is still hot, in order to make <lb></lb>it softer and
15632 more easily broken; for after fire has dried up the moisture <lb></lb>in the
15633 ore, it breaks up more easily while it is still hot, of which fact burnt
15634 <lb></lb>limestone affords the best example.</s>
15635 </p>
15636 <p type="main">
15637
15638 <s>By digging out the earth they make the areas much larger, and square;
15639 <lb></lb>walls should be built along the sides and back to hold the heat of the
15640 <lb></lb>fire more effectively, and the front should be left open. </s>
15641
15642 <s>In these compart­<lb></lb>ments tin ore is roasted in the following manner. </s>
15643
15644 <s>First of all wood about <lb></lb>twelve feet long should be laid in the area in
15645 four layers, alternately straight <lb></lb>and transverse. </s>
15646
15647 <s>Then the larger pieces of ore should be laid upon them, and <lb></lb>on these
15648 again the smaller ones, which should also be placed around the sides;
15649 <lb></lb>the fine sand of the same ore should also be spread over the pile and
15650 pounded <lb></lb>with shovels, to prevent the pile from falling before it has
15651 been roasted; the <lb></lb>wood should then be fired.</s>
15652 </p>
15653 <figure></figure>
15654 <p type="caption">
15655
15656 <s>A—LIGHTED PYRE. B—PYRE WHICH IS BEING CONSTRUCTED. C—ORE.
15657 D—WOOD. <lb></lb>E—PILE OF THE SAME WOOD.</s>
15658 </p>
15659 <p type="main">
15660
15661 <s>Lead ore, if roasting is necessary, should be piled in an area just like the
15662 <lb></lb>last, but sloping, and the wood should be placed over it. </s>
15663
15664 <s>A tree trunk should <lb></lb>be laid right across the front of the ore to prevent
15665 it from falling out. </s>
15666
15667 <s>The <lb></lb>ore, being roasted in this way, becomes partly melted and resembles
15668 slag. <pb pagenum="276"></pb>Thuringian pyrites, in which there is gold,
15669 sulphur, and vitriol, after the last <lb></lb>particle of vitriol has been
15670 obtained by heating it in water, is thrown into a <lb></lb>furnace, in which
15671 logs are placed. </s>
15672
15673 <s>This furnace is very similar to an oven <lb></lb>in shape, in order that when the
15674 ore is roasted the valuable contents may not <lb></lb>fly away with the smoke,
15675 but may adhere to the roof of the furnace. </s>
15676
15677 <s>In this <lb></lb>way sulphur very often hangs like icicles from the two openings
15678 of the roof <lb></lb>through which the smoke escapes.</s>
15679 </p>
15680 <figure></figure>
15681 <p type="caption">
15682
15683 <s>A—BURNING PYRE WHICH IS COMPOSED OF LEAD ORE WITH WOOD PLACED ABOVE IT.
15684 <lb></lb>B—WORKMAN THROWING ORE INTO ANOTHER AREA. C—OVEN-SHAPED
15685 FURNACE. <lb></lb>D—OPENINGS THROUGH WHICH THE SMOKE ESCAPES.</s>
15686 </p>
15687 <p type="main">
15688
15689 <s>If pyrites or <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or any
15690 other ore containing metal, possesses a good <lb></lb>deal of sulphur or
15691 bitumen, it should be so roasted that neither is lost. </s>
15692
15693 <s>For <lb></lb>this purpose it is thrown on an iron plate full of holes, and
15694 roasted with char­<lb></lb>coal placed on top; three walls support this
15695 plate, two on the sides and the <lb></lb>third at the back. </s>
15696
15697 <s>Beneath the plate are placed pots containing water, into <lb></lb>which the
15698 sulphurous or bituminous vapour descends, and in the water the <lb></lb>fat
15699 accumulates and floats on the top. </s>
15700
15701 <s>If it is sulphur, it is generally of a <lb></lb>yellow colour; if bitumen, it is
15702 black like pitch. </s>
15703
15704 <s>If these were not drawn <lb></lb>out they would do much harm to the metal, when
15705 the ore is being smelted. <lb></lb></s>
15706
15707 <s>When they have thus been separated they prove of some service to man,
15708 <lb></lb>especially the sulphurous kind. </s>
15709
15710 <s>From the vapour which is carried down, not </s>
15711 </p>
15712 <pb pagenum="277"></pb>
15713 <figure></figure>
15714 <p type="caption">
15715
15716 <s>A—IRON PLATES FULL OF HOLES. B—WALLS. C—PLATE ON WHICH ORE
15717 IS PLACED. <lb></lb>D—BURNING CHARCOAL PLACED ON THE ORE. E—POTS.
15718 F—FURNACE. G—MIDDLE <lb></lb>PART OF UPPER CHAMBER. H—THE
15719 OTHER TWO COMPARTMENTS. I—DIVISIONS OF THE <lb></lb>LOWER CHAMBER.
15720 K—MIDDLE WALL. L—POTS WHICH ARE FILLED WITH ORE. M—LIDS
15721 <lb></lb>OF SAME POTS. N—GRATING.<pb pagenum="278"></pb>into the water, but
15722 into the ground, there is created a sulphurous or a <lb></lb>bituminous
15723 substance resembling <emph type="italics"></emph>pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, and so light that it can be
15724 <lb></lb>blown away with a breath. </s>
15725
15726 <s>Some employ a vaulted furnace, open at the <lb></lb>front and divided into two
15727 chambers. </s>
15728
15729 <s>A wall built in the middle of the <lb></lb>furnace divides the lower chamber into
15730 two equal parts, in which are set pots <lb></lb>containing water, as above
15731 described. </s>
15732
15733 <s>The upper chamber is again divided <lb></lb>into three parts, the middle one of
15734 which is always open, for in it the wood <lb></lb>is placed, and it is not
15735 broader than the middle wall, of which it forms the <lb></lb>topmost portion. </s>
15736
15737 <s>The other two compartments have iron doors which are <lb></lb>closed, and which,
15738 together with the roof, keep in the heat when the wood <lb></lb>is lighted. </s>
15739
15740 <s>In these upper compartments are iron bars which take the place <lb></lb>of a
15741 floor, and on these are arranged pots without bottoms, having in <lb></lb>place
15742 of a bottom, a grating made of iron wire, fixed to each, through <lb></lb>the
15743 openings of which the sulphurous or bituminous vapours roasted from <lb></lb>the
15744 ore run into the lower pots. </s>
15745
15746 <s>Each of the upper pots holds a hundred </s>
15747 </p>
15748 <figure></figure>
15749 <p type="caption">
15750
15751 <s>A—HEAP OF CUPRIFEROUS STONES. B—KINDLED HEAP. C—STONES
15752 BEING TAKEN TO <lb></lb>THE BEDS OF FAGGOTS.<pb pagenum="279"></pb>pounds of ore;
15753 when they are filled they are covered with lids and smeared <lb></lb>with
15754 lute.</s>
15755 </p>
15756 <p type="main">
15757
15758 <s>In Eisleben and the neighbourhood, when they roast the schistose <lb></lb>stone
15759 from which copper is smelted, and which is not free from bitumen, <lb></lb>they
15760 do not use piles of logs, but bundles of faggots. </s>
15761
15762 <s>At one time, they used <lb></lb>to pile this kind of stone, when extracted from
15763 the pit, on bundles of <lb></lb>faggots and roast it by firing the faggots;
15764 nowadays, they first of all <lb></lb>carry these same stones to a heap, where
15765 they are left to lie for some time in <lb></lb>such a way as to allow the air
15766 and rain to soften them. </s>
15767
15768 <s>Then they make a <lb></lb>bed of faggot bundles near the heap, and carry the
15769 nearest stones to this <lb></lb>bed; afterward they again place bundles of
15770 faggots in the empty place <lb></lb>from which the first stones have been
15771 removed, and pile over this extended <lb></lb>bed, the stones which lay nearest
15772 to the first lot; and they do this right up to <lb></lb>the end, until all the
15773 stones have been piled mound-shape on a bed of faggots. <lb></lb></s>
15774
15775 <s>Finally they fire the faggots, not, however, on the side where the wind is
15776 <lb></lb>blowing, but on the opposite side, lest the fire blown up by the force
15777 of the <lb></lb>wind should consume the faggots before the stones are roasted
15778 and made soft; <lb></lb>by this method the stones which are adjacent to the
15779 faggots take fire and <lb></lb>communicate it to the next ones, and these again
15780 to the adjoining ones, and <lb></lb>in this way the heap very often burns
15781 continuously for thirty days or more. <lb></lb></s>
15782
15783 <s>This schist rock when rich in copper, as I have said elsewhere, exudes a
15784 <lb></lb>substance of a nature similar to asbestos.</s>
15785 </p>
15786 <p type="main">
15787
15788 <s>Ore is crushed with iron-shod stamps, in order that the metal may be
15789 <lb></lb>separated from the stone and the hanging-wall rock.<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> The machines which <lb></lb>miners use for this
15790 purpose are of four kinds, and are made by the following <lb></lb>method. </s>
15791
15792 <s>A block of oak timber six feet long, two feet and a palm square, is <lb></lb>laid
15793 on the ground. </s>
15794
15795 <s>In the middle of this is fixed a mortar-box, two feet and six <lb></lb>digits
15796 long, one foot and six digits deep; the front, which might be called a <pb pagenum="280"></pb>mouth, lies open; the bottom is covered with a plate of
15797 iron, a palm thick <lb></lb>and two palms and as many digits wide, each end of
15798 which is wedged into the <lb></lb>timber with broad wedges, and the front and
15799 back part of it are fixed to the <lb></lb>timber with iron nails. </s>
15800
15801 <s>To the sides of the mortar above the block are fixed <lb></lb>two upright posts,
15802 whose upper ends are somewhat cut back and are mor­<lb></lb>tised to the
15803 timbers of the building. </s>
15804
15805 <s>Two and a half feet above the mortar <pb pagenum="281"></pb>are placed two
15806 cross-beams joined together, one in front and one in the back, <lb></lb>the ends
15807 of which are mortised into the upright posts already mentioned. <lb></lb></s>
15808
15809 <s>Through each mortise is bored a hole, into which is driven an iron
15810 clavis<gap></gap><lb></lb>one end of the clavis has two horns, and the other end is
15811 perforated in order <lb></lb>that a wedge driven through, binds the beams more
15812 firmly; one horn of the <lb></lb>clavis turns up and the other down. </s>
15813
15814 <s>Three and a half feet above the cross-<pb pagenum="282"></pb>beams, two other
15815 cross-beams of the same kind are again joined in a similar <lb></lb>manner;
15816 these cross-beams have square openings, in which the iron-shod <lb></lb>stamps
15817 are inserted. </s>
15818
15819 <s>The stamps are not far distant from each other, and <lb></lb>fit closely in the
15820 cross-beams. </s>
15821
15822 <s>Each stamp has a tappet at the back, which <lb></lb>requires to be daubed with
15823 grease on the lower side that it can be raised <lb></lb>more easily. </s>
15824
15825 <s>For each stamp there are on a cam-shaft, two cams, rounded on <pb pagenum="283"></pb>the outer end, which alternately raise the stamp, in
15826 order that, by its dropping <lb></lb>into the mortar, it may with its iron head
15827 pound and crush the rock which <lb></lb>has been thrown under it. </s>
15828
15829 <s>To the cam-shaft is fixed a water-wheel whose <lb></lb>buckets are turned by
15830 water-power. </s>
15831
15832 <s>Instead of doors, the mouth of the <lb></lb>mortar has a board, which is fitted
15833 into notches cut out of the front of the block. <lb></lb></s>
15834
15835 <s>This board can be raised, in order that when the mouth is open, the workmen
15836 </s>
15837 </p>
15838 <pb pagenum="284"></pb>
15839 <figure></figure>
15840 <p type="caption">
15841
15842 <s>A—MORTAR. B—UPRIGHT POSTS. C—CROSS-BEAMS. D—STAMPS.
15843 E—THEIR HEADS. <lb></lb>F—AXLE (CAM-SHAFT). G—TOOTH OF THE
15844 STAMP (TAPPET). H—TEETH OF AXLE (CAMS).<lb></lb>can remove with a shovel
15845 the fine sand, and likewise the coarse sand and <lb></lb>broken rock, into which
15846 the rocks have been crushed; this board can be <lb></lb>lowered, so that the
15847 mouth thus being closed, the fresh rock thrown in may <lb></lb>be crushed with
15848 the iron-shod stamps. </s>
15849
15850 <s>If an oak block is not available, <lb></lb>two timbers are placed on the ground
15851 and joined together with iron clamps, <lb></lb>each of the timbers being six
15852 feet long, a foot wide, and a foot and a half thick. <lb></lb></s>
15853
15854 <s>Such depth as should be allowed to the mortar, is obtained by cutting out the
15855 <lb></lb>first beam to a width of three-quarters of a foot and to a length of
15856 two and a <lb></lb>third and one twenty-fourth of a foot. </s>
15857
15858 <s>In the bottom of the part thus dug <lb></lb>out, there should be laid a very hard
15859 rock, a foot thick and three-quarters of a <lb></lb>foot wide; about it, if any
15860 space remains, earth or sand should be filled in <lb></lb>and pounded. </s>
15861
15862 <s>On the front, this bed rock is covered with a plank; this <lb></lb>rock when it
15863 has been broken, should be taken away and replaced by <lb></lb>another. </s>
15864
15865 <s>A smaller mortar having room for only three stamps may also be <lb></lb>made in
15866 the same manner.</s>
15867 </p>
15868 <p type="main">
15869
15870 <s>The stamp-stems are made of small square timbers nine feet long and <lb></lb>half
15871 a foot wide each way. </s>
15872
15873 <s>The iron head of each is made in the following <pb pagenum="285"></pb>way; the
15874 lower part of the head is three palms long and the upper part the <lb></lb>same
15875 length. </s>
15876
15877 <s>The lower part is a palm square in the middle for two palms, <lb></lb>then below
15878 this, for a length of two digits it gradually spreads until it <lb></lb>becomes
15879 five digits square; above the middle part, for a length of two <lb></lb>digits,
15880 it again gradually swells out until it becomes a palm and a half square.
15881 <lb></lb></s>
15882
15883 <s>Higher up, where the head of the shoe is enclosed in the stem, it is bored
15884 <lb></lb>through and similarly the stem itself is pierced, and through the
15885 opening of <lb></lb>each, there passes a broad iron wedge, which prevents the
15886 head falling off the <lb></lb>stem. </s>
15887
15888 <s>To prevent the stamp head from becoming broken by the constant <lb></lb>striking
15889 of fragments of ore or rocks, there is placed around it a quadrangular
15890 <lb></lb>iron band a digit thick, seven digits wide, and six digits deep. </s>
15891
15892 <s>Those who <lb></lb>use three stamps, as is common, make them much larger, and
15893 they are <lb></lb>made square and three palms broad each way; then the iron shoe
15894 <lb></lb>of each has a total length of two feet and a palm; at the lower end, it
15895 is <lb></lb>hexagonal, and at that point it is seven digits wide and thick. </s>
15896
15897 <s>The lower <lb></lb>part of it which projects beyond the stem is one foot and two
15898 palms long; <lb></lb>the upper part, which is enclosed in the stem, is three
15899 palms long; the </s>
15900 </p>
15901 <figure></figure>
15902 <p type="caption">
15903
15904 <s>A—STAMP. B—STEM CUT OUT IN LOWER PART. C—SHOE. D—THE
15905 OTHER SHOE, <lb></lb>BARBED AND GROOVED. E—QUADRANGULAR IRON BAND.
15906 F—WEDGE. G—TAPPET. <lb></lb>H—ANGULAR CAM-SHAFT. I—CAMS.
15907 K—PAIR OF COMPASSES.<pb pagenum="286"></pb>lower part is a palm wide and
15908 thick; then gradually the upper part becomes <lb></lb>narrower and thinner, so
15909 that at the top it is three digits and a half wide and <lb></lb>two thick. </s>
15910
15911 <s>It is bored through at the place where the angles have been <lb></lb>somewhat cut
15912 away; the hole is three digits long and one wide, and is one <lb></lb>digit&#039;s
15913 distance from the top. </s>
15914
15915 <s>There are some who make that part of the <lb></lb>head which is enclosed in the
15916 stem, barbed and grooved, in order that when <lb></lb>the hooks have been fixed
15917 into the stem and wedges fitted to the grooves, <lb></lb>it may remain tightly
15918 fixed, especially when it is also held with two quad­<lb></lb>rangular iron
15919 bands. </s>
15920
15921 <s>Some divide the cam-shaft with a compass into six <lb></lb>sides, others into
15922 nine; it is better for it to be divided into twelve sides, in <lb></lb>order
15923 that successively one side may contain a cam and the next be without
15924 one.</s>
15925 </p>
15926 <p type="main">
15927
15928 <s>The water-wheel is entirely enclosed under a quadrangular box, in case
15929 <lb></lb>either the deep snows or ice in winter, or storms, may impede its
15930 running and <lb></lb>its turning around. </s>
15931
15932 <s>The joints in the planks are stopped all around with <lb></lb>moss. </s>
15933
15934 <s>The cover, however, has one opening, through which there passes <lb></lb>a race
15935 bringing down water which, dropping on the buckets of the wheel, <lb></lb>turns
15936 it round, and flows out again in the lower race under the box. </s>
15937
15938 <s>The <lb></lb>spokes of the water-wheel are not infrequently mortised into the
15939 middle of </s>
15940 </p>
15941 <figure></figure>
15942 <p type="caption">
15943
15944 <s>A—BOX. ALTHOUGH THE UPPER PART IS NOT OPEN, IT IS SHOWN OPEN HERE, THAT
15945 THE <lb></lb>WHEEL MAY BE SEEN. B—WHEEL. C—CAM-SHAFT.
15946 D—STAMPS.<pb pagenum="287"></pb>the cam-shaft; in this case the cams
15947 on both sides raise the stamps, which <lb></lb>either both crush dry or wet ore,
15948 or else the one set crushes dry ore and the <lb></lb>other set wet ore, just as
15949 circumstances require the one or the other; <lb></lb>further, when the one set
15950 is raised and the iron clavises in them are fixed <lb></lb>into openings in the
15951 first cross-beam, the other set alone crushes the ore.</s>
15952 </p>
15953 <p type="main">
15954
15955 <s>Broken rock or stones, or the coarse or fine sand, are removed from <lb></lb>the
15956 mortar of this machine and heaped up, as is also done with the same
15957 <lb></lb>materials when raked out of the dump near the mine. </s>
15958
15959 <s>They are thrown <lb></lb>by a workman into a box, which is open on the top and
15960 the front, and is three <lb></lb>feet long and nearly a foot and a half wide. </s>
15961
15962 <s>Its sides are sloping and made <lb></lb>of planks, but its bottom is made of iron
15963 wire netting, and fastened with <lb></lb>wire to two iron rods, which are fixed
15964 to the two side planks. </s>
15965
15966 <s>This bottom <lb></lb>has openings, through which broken rock of the size of a
15967 hazel nut cannot <lb></lb>pass; the pieces which are too large to pass through
15968 are removed by the <lb></lb>workman, who again places them under stamps, while
15969 those which have <lb></lb>passed through, together with the coarse and fine
15970 sand, he collects in a large <lb></lb>vessel and keeps for the washing. </s>
15971
15972 <s>When he is performing his laborious </s>
15973 </p>
15974 <figure></figure>
15975 <p type="caption">
15976
15977 <s>A—BOX LAID FLAT ON THE GROUND. B—ITS BOTTOM WHICH IS MADE OF IRON
15978 WIRE. <lb></lb>C—BOX INVERTED. D—IRON RODS. E—BOX SUSPENDED
15979 FROM A BEAM, THE INSIDE <lb></lb>BEING VISIBLE. F—BOX SUSPENDED FROM A
15980 BEAM, THE OUTSIDE BEING VISIBLE.<pb pagenum="288"></pb>task he suspends the box
15981 from a beam by two ropes. </s>
15982
15983 <s>This box may rightly <lb></lb>be called a quadrangular sieve, as may also that
15984 kind which follows.</s>
15985 </p>
15986 <p type="main">
15987
15988 <s>Some employ a sieve shaped like a wooden bucket, bound with two iron
15989 <lb></lb>hoops; its bottom, like that of the box, is made of iron wire netting.
15990 <lb></lb></s>
15991
15992 <s>They place this on two small cross-planks fixed upon a post set in the
15993 ground. <lb></lb></s>
15994
15995 <s>Some do not fix the post in the ground, but stand it on the ground until
15996 <lb></lb>there arises a heap of the material which has passed through the sieve,
15997 and <lb></lb>in this the post is fixed. </s>
15998
15999 <s>With an iron shovel the workman throws into this <lb></lb>sieve broken rock,
16000 small stones, coarse and fine sand raked out of the dump; <lb></lb>holding the
16001 handles of the sieve in his hands, he agitates it up and down in </s>
16002 </p>
16003 <figure></figure>
16004 <p type="caption">
16005
16006 <s>A—SIEVE. B—SMALL PLANKS. C—POST. D—BOTTOM OF SIEVE.
16007 E—OPEN BOX. <lb></lb>F—SMALL CROSS-BEAM. G—UPRIGHT
16008 POSTS.<lb></lb>order that by this movement the dust, fine and coarse sand, small
16009 stones, and <lb></lb>fine broken rock may fall through the bottom. </s>
16010
16011 <s>Others do not use a sieve, but <lb></lb>an open box, whose bottom is likewise
16012 covered with wire netting; this they <lb></lb>fix on a small cross-beam fastened
16013 to two upright beams and tilt it backward <lb></lb>and forward.</s>
16014 </p>
16015 <p type="main">
16016
16017 <s>Some use a sieve made of copper, having square copper handles on both
16018 <lb></lb>sides, and through these handles runs a pole, of which one end projects
16019 three­<lb></lb>quarters of a foot beyond one handle; the workman then places
16020 that end in <lb></lb>a rope which is suspended from a beam, and rapidly shakes
16021 the pole alter-<pb pagenum="289"></pb>nately backward and forward. </s>
16022
16023 <s>By this movement the small particles <lb></lb>fall through the bottom of the
16024 sieve. </s>
16025
16026 <s>In order that the end of the pole <lb></lb>may be easily placed in the rope, a
16027 stick, two palms long, holds open the <lb></lb>lower part of the rope as it
16028 hangs double, each end of the rope being tied to <lb></lb>the beam; part of the
16029 rope, however, hangs beyond the stick to a length of <lb></lb>half a foot. </s>
16030
16031 <s>A large box is also used for this purpose, of which the bottom <lb></lb>is either
16032 made of a plank full of holes or of iron netting, as are the other
16033 <lb></lb>boxes. </s>
16034
16035 <s>An iron bale is fastened from the middle of the planks which form <lb></lb>its
16036 sides; to this bale is fastened a rope which is suspended from a wooden
16037 <lb></lb>beam, in order that the box may be moved or tilted in any direction.
16038 </s>
16039 </p>
16040 <figure></figure>
16041 <p type="caption">
16042
16043 <s>A—BOX. B—BALE. C—ROPE. D—BEAM. E—HANDLES.
16044 F—FIVE-TOOTHED RAKE. <lb></lb>G—SIEVE. H—ITS HANDLES.
16045 I—POLE. K—ROPE. L—TIMBER.<lb></lb>There are two handles on
16046 each end, not unlike the handles of a wheel­<lb></lb>barrow; these are held
16047 by two workmen, who shake the box to and fro. <lb></lb></s>
16048
16049 <s>This box is the one principally used by the Germans who dwell in the
16050 <lb></lb>Carpathian mountains. </s>
16051
16052 <s>The smaller particles are separated from the larger <lb></lb>ones by means of
16053 three boxes and two sieves, in order that those which <lb></lb>pass through
16054 each, being of equal size, may be washed together; for the <lb></lb>bottoms of
16055 both the boxes and sieves have openings which do not let <lb></lb>through broken
16056 rock of the size of a hazel nut. </s>
16057
16058 <s>As for the dry remnants <pb pagenum="290"></pb>in the bottoms of the sieves, if
16059 they contain any metal the miners put them <lb></lb>under the stamps. </s>
16060
16061 <s>The larger pieces of broken rock are not separated from <lb></lb>the smaller by
16062 this method until the men and boys, with five-toothed rakes, <lb></lb>have
16063 separated them from the rock fragments, the little stones, the <lb></lb>coarse
16064 and the fine sand and earth, which have been thrown on to the dumps.</s>
16065 </p>
16066 <p type="main">
16067
16068 <s>At Neusohl, in the Carpathians, there are mines where the veins of copper
16069 <lb></lb>lie in the ridges and peaks of the mountains, and in order to save
16070 expense <lb></lb>being incurred by a long and difficult transport, along a rough
16071 and sometimes <lb></lb>very precipitous road, one workman sorts over the dumps
16072 which have been <lb></lb>thrown out from the mines, and another carries in a
16073 wheelbarrow the earth, <lb></lb>fine and coarse sand, little stones, broken
16074 rock, and even the poorer ore, and <lb></lb>overturns the barrow into a long
16075 open chute fixed to a steep rock. </s>
16076
16077 <s>This <lb></lb>chute is held apart by small cleats, and the material slides down a
16078 distance of <lb></lb>about one hundred and fifty feet into a short box, whose
16079 bottom is made of a <lb></lb>thick copper plate, full of holes. </s>
16080
16081 <s>This box has two handles by which it is <lb></lb>shaken to and fro, and at the
16082 top there are two bales made of hazel sticks, <lb></lb>in which is fixed the
16083 iron hook of a rope hung from the branch of a tree or <lb></lb>from a wooden
16084 beam which projects from an upright post. </s>
16085
16086 <s>From time to <lb></lb>time a sifter pulls this box and thrusts it violently
16087 against the tree or post, <lb></lb>by which means the small particles passing
16088 through its holes descend down <lb></lb>another chute into another short box, in
16089 whose bottom there are smaller <lb></lb>holes. </s>
16090
16091 <s>A second sifter, in like manner, thrusts this box violently against a
16092 <lb></lb>tree or post, and a second time the smaller particles are received into
16093 a third <lb></lb>chute, and slide down into a third box, whose bottom has still
16094 smaller holes. <lb></lb></s>
16095
16096 <s>A third sifter, in like manner, thrusts this box violently against a tree or
16097 post, <lb></lb>and for the third time the tiny particles fall through the holes
16098 upon a table. <lb></lb></s>
16099
16100 <s>While the workman is bringing in the barrow, another load which has been
16101 <lb></lb>sorted from the dump, each sifter withdraws the hooks from his bale
16102 <lb></lb>and carries away his own box and overturns it, heaping up the broken
16103 rock <lb></lb>or sand which remains in the bottom of it. </s>
16104
16105 <s>As for the tiny particles which <lb></lb>have slid down upon the table, the first
16106 washer—for there are as many <lb></lb>washers as sifters—sweeps them
16107 off and in a tub nearly full of water, washes <lb></lb>them through a sieve
16108 whose holes are smaller than the holes of the third box. <lb></lb></s>
16109
16110 <s>When this tub has been filled with the material which has passed through
16111 <lb></lb>the sieve, he draws out the plug to let the water run away; then he
16112 removes <lb></lb>with a shovel that which has settled in the tub and throws it
16113 upon the table <lb></lb>of a second washer, who washes it in a sieve with
16114 smaller holes. </s>
16115
16116 <s>The sedi­<lb></lb>ment which has this time settled in his tub, he takes out
16117 and throws on the <lb></lb>table of a third washer, who washes it in a sieve
16118 with the smallest holes. <lb></lb></s>
16119
16120 <s>The copper concentrates which have settled in the last tub are taken out and
16121 <lb></lb>smelted; the sediment which each washer has removed with a limp is
16122 <lb></lb>washed on a canvas strake. </s>
16123
16124 <s>The sifters at Altenberg, in the tin mines of <lb></lb>the mountains bordering on
16125 Bohemia, use such boxes as I have described, <lb></lb>hung from wooden beams. </s>
16126
16127 <s>These, however, are a little larger and open in <lb></lb>the front, through which
16128 opening the broken rock which has not gone through <lb></lb>the sieve can be
16129 shaken out immediately by thrusting the sieve against its post.</s>
16130 </p>
16131 <pb pagenum="291"></pb>
16132 <figure></figure>
16133 <p type="caption">
16134
16135 <s>A—WORKMAN CARRYING BROKEN ROCK IN A BARROW. B—FIRST CHUTE.
16136 C—FIRST BOX. <lb></lb>D—ITS HANDLES. E—ITS BALES.
16137 F—ROPE. G—BEAM. H—POST. I—SECOND <lb></lb>CHUTE.
16138 K—SECOND BOX. L—THIRD CHUTE. M—THIRD BOX. N—FIRST
16139 TABLE. <lb></lb>O—FIRST SIEVE. P—FIRST TUB. Q—SECOND TABLE.
16140 R—SECOND SIEVE. S—SECOND <lb></lb>TUB. T—THIRD TABLE.
16141 V—THIRD SIEVE. X—THIRD TUB. Y—PLUGS.</s>
16142 </p>
16143 <pb pagenum="292"></pb>
16144 <p type="main">
16145
16146 <s>If the ore is rich in metal, the earth, the fine and coarse sand, and the
16147 <lb></lb>pieces of rock which have been broken from the hanging-wall, are dug
16148 out of <lb></lb>the dump with a spade or rake and, with a shovel, are thrown
16149 into a large sieve <lb></lb>or basket, and washed in a tub nearly full of water. </s>
16150
16151 <s>The sieve is generally <lb></lb>a cubit broad and half a foot deep; its bottom
16152 has holes of such size that the <lb></lb>larger pieces of broken rock cannot
16153 pass through them, for this material rests <lb></lb>upon the straight and cross
16154 iron wires, which at their points of contact are <lb></lb>bound by small iron
16155 clips. </s>
16156
16157 <s>The sieve is held together by an iron band and by <lb></lb>two cross-rods
16158 likewise of iron; the rest of the sieve is made of staves in the <lb></lb>shape
16159 of a little tub, and is bound with two iron hoops; some, however, <lb></lb>bind
16160 it with hoops of hazel or oak, but in that case they use three of them.
16161 <lb></lb></s>
16162
16163 <s>On each side it has handles, which are held in the hands by whoever washes
16164 <lb></lb>the metalliferous material. </s>
16165
16166 <s>Into this sieve a boy throws the material to be <lb></lb>washed, and a woman
16167 shakes it up and down, turning it alternately to the </s>
16168 </p>
16169 <figure></figure>
16170 <p type="caption">
16171
16172 <s>A—SIEVE. B—ITS HANDLES. C—TUB. D—BOTTOM OF SIEVE MADE
16173 OF IRON WIRES. <lb></lb>E—HOOP. F—RODS. G—HOOPS. H—WOMAN
16174 SHAKING THE SIEVE. I—BOY SUPPLYING <lb></lb>IT WITH MATERIAL WHICH
16175 REQUIRES WASHING. K—MAN WITH SHOVEL REMOVING FROM <lb></lb>THE TUB THE
16176 MATERIAL WHICH HAS PASSED THROUGH THE SIEVE.<pb pagenum="293"></pb>right and to
16177 the left, and in this way passes through it the smaller pieces of
16178 <lb></lb>earth, sand, and broken rock. </s>
16179
16180 <s>The larger pieces remain in the sieve, and <lb></lb>these are taken out, placed
16181 in a heap and put under the stamps. </s>
16182
16183 <s>The <lb></lb>mud, together with fine sand, coarse sand, and broken rock, which
16184 remain <lb></lb>after the water has been drawn out of the tub, is removed by an
16185 iron shovel <lb></lb>and washed in the sluice, about which I will speak a little
16186 later.</s>
16187 </p>
16188 <p type="main">
16189
16190 <s>The Bohemians use a basket a foot and a half broad and half a foot deep,
16191 <lb></lb>bound together by osiers. </s>
16192
16193 <s>It has two handles by which it is grasped, when <lb></lb>they move it about and
16194 shake it in the tub or in a small pool nearly full <lb></lb>of water. </s>
16195
16196 <s>All that passes through it into the tub or pool they take out and <lb></lb>wash
16197 in a bowl, which is higher in the back part and lower and flat in the
16198 <lb></lb>front; it is grasped by the two handles and shaken in the water, the
16199 lighter <lb></lb>particles flowing away, and the heavier and mineral portion
16200 sinking to the <lb></lb>bottom.</s>
16201 </p>
16202 <figure></figure>
16203 <p type="caption">
16204
16205 <s>A—BASKET. B—ITS HANDLES. C—DISH. D—ITS BACK PART.
16206 E—ITS FRONT PART. <lb></lb>F—HANDLES OF SAME.</s>
16207 </p>
16208 <p type="main">
16209
16210 <s>Gold ore, after being broken with hammers or crushed by the stamps, <lb></lb>and
16211 even tin ore, is further milled to powder. </s>
16212
16213 <s>The upper millstone, which <pb pagenum="294"></pb>is turned by water-power, is
16214 made in the following way. </s>
16215
16216 <s>An axle is rounded <lb></lb>to compass measure, or is made angular, and its iron
16217 pinions turn in iron <lb></lb>sockets which are held in beams. </s>
16218
16219 <s>The axle is turned by a water-wheel, the <lb></lb>buckets of which are fixed to
16220 the rim and are struck by the force of a stream. </s>
16221 </p>
16222 <figure></figure>
16223 <p type="caption">
16224
16225 <s>A—AXLE. B—WATER-WHEEL. C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—DRUM MADE OF
16226 RUNDLES. <lb></lb>E—IRON AXLE. F—MILLSTONE. G—HOPPER.
16227 H—ROUND WOODEN PLATE. <lb></lb>I—TROUGH.<lb></lb>Into the axle is
16228 mortised a toothed drum, whose teeth are fixed in the side <lb></lb>of the rim. </s>
16229
16230 <s>These teeth turn a second drum of rundles, which are made of <lb></lb>very hard
16231 material. </s>
16232
16233 <s>This drum surrounds an iron axle which has a pinion <lb></lb>at the bottom and
16234 revolves in an iron cup in a timber. </s>
16235
16236 <s>At the top of the <lb></lb>iron axle is an iron tongue, dove-tailed into the
16237 millstone, and so when the <lb></lb>teeth of the one drum turn the rundles of
16238 the other, the millstone is made to <lb></lb>turn round. </s>
16239
16240 <s>An overhanging machine supplies it with ore through a hopper, <lb></lb>and the
16241 ore, being ground to powder, is discharged from a round wooden plate
16242 <lb></lb>into a trough and flowing away through it accumulates on the floor;
16243 <lb></lb>from there the ore is carried away and reserved for washing. </s>
16244
16245 <s>Since this <pb pagenum="295"></pb>method of grinding requires the millstone to be
16246 now raised and now <lb></lb>lowered, the timber in whose socket the iron of the
16247 pinion axle revolves, rests <lb></lb>upon two beams, which can be raised and
16248 lowered.</s>
16249 </p>
16250 <p type="main">
16251
16252 <s>There are three mills in use in milling gold ores, especially for quartz<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>which is not lacking in metal. </s>
16253
16254 <s>They are not all turned by water-power, <lb></lb>but some by the strength of men,
16255 and two of them even by the power <lb></lb>of beasts of burden. </s>
16256
16257 <s>The first revolving one differs from the next only <lb></lb>in its driving wheel,
16258 which is closed in and turned by men treading it, or by <lb></lb>horses, which
16259 are placed inside, or by asses, or even by strong goats; the <lb></lb>eyes of
16260 these beasts are covered by linen bands. </s>
16261
16262 <s>The second mill, both <lb></lb>when pushed and turned round, differs from the two
16263 above by having an <lb></lb>upright axle in the place of the horizontal one;
16264 this axle has at its lower end <lb></lb>a disc, which two workmen turn by
16265 treading back its cleats with their feet, <lb></lb>though frequently one man
16266 sustains all the labour; or sometimes there <lb></lb>projects from the axle a
16267 pole which is turned by a horse or an ass, for which <lb></lb>reason it is
16268 called an <emph type="italics"></emph>asinaria.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
16269 <s> The toothed drum which is at the upper end <lb></lb>of the axle turns the drum
16270 which is made of rundles, and together with it the <lb></lb>millstone.</s>
16271 </p>
16272 <p type="main">
16273
16274 <s>The third mill is turned round and round, and not pushed by hand; but
16275 <lb></lb>between this and the others there is a great distinction, for the lower
16276 <lb></lb>millstone is so shaped at the top that it can hold within it the upper
16277 mill­<lb></lb>stone, which revolves around an iron axle; this axle is
16278 fastened in the <lb></lb>centre of the lower stone and passes through the upper
16279 stone. </s>
16280
16281 <s>A workman, <lb></lb>by grasping in his hand an upright iron bar placed in the
16282 upper millstone, <lb></lb>moves it round. </s>
16283
16284 <s>The middle of the upper millstone is bored through, and <lb></lb>the ore, being
16285 thrown into this opening, falls down upon the lower millstone <lb></lb>and is
16286 there ground to powder, which gradually runs out through its opening;
16287 <lb></lb>it is washed by various methods before it is mixed with quicksilver,
16288 <lb></lb>which I will explain presently.</s>
16289 </p>
16290 <p type="main">
16291
16292 <s>Some people build a machine which at one and the same time can crush,
16293 <lb></lb>grind, cleanse, and wash the gold ore, and mix the gold with
16294 quicksilver. <lb></lb></s>
16295
16296 <s>This machine has one water-wheel, which is turned by a stream striking its
16297 <lb></lb>buckets; the main axle on one side of the water-wheel has long cams,
16298 which <lb></lb>raise the stamps that crush the dry ore. </s>
16299
16300 <s>Then the crushed ore is thrown <lb></lb>into the hopper of the upper millstone,
16301 and gradually falling through the <lb></lb>opening, is ground to powder. </s>
16302
16303 <s>The lower millstone is square, but has a round <lb></lb>depression in which the
16304 round, upper millstone turns, and it has an outlet <lb></lb>from which the
16305 powder falls into the first tub. </s>
16306
16307 <s>A vertical iron axle is dove­<lb></lb>tailed into a cross-piece, which is in
16308 turn fixed into the upper millstone; <lb></lb>the upper pinion of this axle is
16309 held in a bearing fixed in a beam; the drum <lb></lb>of the vertical axle is
16310 made of rundles, and is turned by the toothed drum <lb></lb>on the main axle,
16311 and thus turns the millstone. </s>
16312
16313 <s>The powder falls continually <lb></lb>into the first tub, together with water,
16314 and from there runs into a second tub <lb></lb>which is set lower down, and out
16315 of the second into a third, which is the <lb></lb>lowest; from the third, it
16316 generally flows into a small trough hewn out of a </s>
16317 </p>
16318 <pb pagenum="296"></pb>
16319 <figure></figure>
16320 <p type="caption">
16321
16322 <s>A—FIRST MILL. B—WHEEL TURNED BY GOATS. C—SECOND MILL.
16323 D—DISC OF <lb></lb>UPRIGHT AXLE. E—ITS TOOTHED DRUM. F—THIRD
16324 MILL. G—SHAPE OF LOWER <lb></lb>MILLSTONE. H—SMALL UPRIGHT AXLE OF
16325 THE SAME. I—ITS OPENING. K—LEVER <lb></lb>OF THE UPPER MILLSTONE.
16326 L—ITS OPENING.<pb pagenum="297"></pb>tree trunk. </s>
16327
16328 <s>Quicksilver<emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> is placed in each tub,
16329 across which is fixed a small <lb></lb>plank, and through a hole in the middle
16330 of each plank there passes a small <lb></lb>upright axle, which is enlarged
16331 above the plank to prevent it from dropping <lb></lb>into the tub lower than it
16332 should. </s>
16333
16334 <s>At the lower end of the axle three sets <lb></lb>of paddles intersect, each made
16335 from two little boards fixed to the axle <lb></lb>opposite each other. </s>
16336
16337 <s>The upper end of this axle has a pinion held by a <lb></lb>bearing set in a beam,
16338 and around each of these axles is a small drum made <lb></lb>of rundles, each of
16339 which is turned by a small toothed drum on a horizontal <pb pagenum="298"></pb>axle, one end of which is mortised into the large horizontal axle, and the
16340 <lb></lb>other end is held in a hollow covered with thick iron plates in a beam. </s>
16341
16342 <s>Thus <lb></lb>the paddles, of which there are three sets in each tub, turn round,
16343 and <lb></lb>agitating the powder, thoroughly mix it with water and separate the
16344 minute <lb></lb>particles of gold from it, and these are attracted by the
16345 quicksilver and <lb></lb>purified. </s>
16346
16347 <s>The water carries away the waste. </s>
16348
16349 <s>The quicksilver is poured <lb></lb>into a bag made of leather or cloth woven from
16350 cotton, and when this bag is <lb></lb>squeezed, as I have described elsewhere,
16351 the quicksilver drips through it into <lb></lb>a jar placed underneath. </s>
16352
16353 <s>The pure gold<emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> remains in the bag. </s>
16354
16355 <s>Some people <lb></lb>substitute three broad sluices for the tubs, each of which
16356 has an angular axle <lb></lb>on which are set six narrow spokes, and to them are
16357 fixed the same number of <lb></lb>broad paddles; the water that is poured in
16358 strikes these paddles and turns <lb></lb>them round, and they agitate the powder
16359 which is mixed with the water and <lb></lb>separate the metal from it. </s>
16360
16361 <s>If the powder which is being treated contains <lb></lb>gold particles, the first
16362 method of washing is far superior, because the quick­<lb></lb>silver in the
16363 tubs immediately attracts the gold; if it is powder in which <lb></lb>are the
16364 small black stones from which tin is smelted, this latter method is <lb></lb>not
16365 to be despised. </s>
16366
16367 <s>It is very advantageous to place interlaced fir boughs <lb></lb>in the sluices in
16368 which such tin-stuff is washed, after it has run through the <lb></lb>launders
16369 from the mills, because the fine tin-stone is either held back by the
16370 <lb></lb>twigs, or if the current carries them along they fall away from the
16371 water <lb></lb>and settle down.</s>
16372 </p>
16373 <pb pagenum="299"></pb>
16374 <figure></figure>
16375 <p type="caption">
16376
16377 <s>A—WATER-WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—STAMP. D—HOPPER IN THE UPPER
16378 MILLSTONE. <lb></lb>E—OPENING PASSING THROUGH THE CENTRE. F—LOWER
16379 MILLSTONE. G—ITS <lb></lb>ROUND DEPRESSION. H—ITS OUTLET.
16380 I—IRON AXLE. K—ITS CROSSPIECE. L—BEAM. <lb></lb>M—DRUM
16381 OF RUNDLES ON THE IRON AXLE. N—TOOTHED DRUM OF MAIN AXLE.
16382 O—TUBS. <lb></lb>P—THE SMALL PLANKS. Q—SMALL UPRIGHT AXLES.
16383 R—ENLARGED PART OF ONE. <lb></lb><gap></gap></s>
16384 </p>
16385 <pb pagenum="300"></pb>
16386 <p type="main">
16387
16388 <s>Seven methods of washing are in common use for the ores of many <lb></lb>metals;
16389 for they are washed either in a simple buddle, or in a divided buddle,
16390 <lb></lb>or in an ordinary strake, or in a large tank, or in a short strake, or
16391 in a canvas <lb></lb>strake, or in a jigging sieve. </s>
16392
16393 <s>Other methods of washing are either peculiar <lb></lb>to some particular metal,
16394 or are combined with the method of crushing wet <lb></lb>ore by stamps.</s>
16395 </p>
16396 <p type="main">
16397
16398 <s>A simple buddle is made in the following way. </s>
16399
16400 <s>In the first place, the head <lb></lb>is higher than the rest of the buddle, and
16401 is three feet long and a foot and a half <lb></lb>broad; this head is made of
16402 planks laid upon a timber and fastened, and <lb></lb>on both sides, side-boards
16403 are set up so as to hold the water, which flows in <lb></lb>through a pipe or
16404 trough, so that it shall fall straight down. </s>
16405
16406 <s>The middle of <lb></lb>the head is somewhat depressed in order that the broken
16407 rock and the larger <lb></lb>metallic particles may settle into it. </s>
16408
16409 <s>The buddle is sunk into the earth to a <lb></lb>depth of three-quarters of a foot
16410 below the head, and is twelve feet long and <lb></lb>a foot and a half wide and
16411 deep; the bottom and each side are lined with <lb></lb>planks to prevent the
16412 earth, when it is softened by the water, from falling <lb></lb>in or from
16413 absorbing the metallic particles. </s>
16414
16415 <s>The lower end of the buddle is <lb></lb>obstructed by a board, which is not as
16416 high as the sides. </s>
16417
16418 <s>To this straight <lb></lb>buddle there is joined a second transverse buddle, six
16419 feet long and a foot <lb></lb>and a half wide and deep, similarly lined with
16420 planks; at the lower <pb pagenum="301"></pb>end it is closed up with a board,
16421 also lower than the sides of the buddle so <lb></lb>that the water can flow
16422 away: this water falls into a launder and is carried <lb></lb>outside the
16423 building. </s>
16424
16425 <s>In this simple buddle is washed the metallic material <lb></lb>which has passed
16426 on to the floor of the works through the five large sieves. <lb></lb></s>
16427
16428 <s>When this has been gathered into a heap, the washer throws it into the head
16429 <lb></lb>of the buddle, and water is poured upon it through the pipe or small
16430 trough, <lb></lb>and the portion which sinks and settles in the middle of the
16431 head compart­<lb></lb>ment he stirs with a wooden scrubber,—this is
16432 what we will henceforth call <lb></lb>the implement made of a stick to which is
16433 fixed a piece of wood a foot long <lb></lb>and a palm broad. </s>
16434
16435 <s>The water is made turbid by this stirring, and carries <lb></lb>the mud and sand
16436 and small particles of metal into the buddle below. <lb></lb></s>
16437
16438 <s>Together with the broken rock, the larger metallic particles remain in the
16439 <lb></lb>head compartment, and when these have been removed, boys throw them
16440 upon <lb></lb>the platform of a washing tank or the short strake, and separate
16441 them from <lb></lb>the broken rock. </s>
16442
16443 <s>When the buddle is full of mud and sand, the washer closes <lb></lb>the pipe
16444 through which the water flows into the head; very soon the <lb></lb>water which
16445 remains in the buddle flows away, and when this has taken </s>
16446 </p>
16447 <figure></figure>
16448 <p type="caption">
16449
16450 <s>A—HEAD OF BUDDLE. B—PIPE. C—BUDDLE. D—BOARD.
16451 E—TRANSVERSE BUDDLE. <lb></lb>F—SHOVEL. G—SCRUBBER.<pb pagenum="302"></pb>place, he removes with a shovel the mud and sand which
16452 are mixed with <lb></lb>minute particles of metal, and washes them on a canvas
16453 strake. </s>
16454
16455 <s>Sometimes <lb></lb>before the buddles have been filled full, the boys throw the
16456 material into a <lb></lb>bowl and carry it to the strakes and wash it.</s>
16457 </p>
16458 <p type="main">
16459
16460 <s>Pulverized ore is washed in the head of this kind of a buddle; but usually
16461 <lb></lb>when tin-stone is washed in it, interlacing fir boughs are put into the
16462 buddle, in <lb></lb>the same manner as in the sluice when wet ore is crushed
16463 with stamps. </s>
16464
16465 <s>The <lb></lb>larger tin-stone particles, which sink in the upper part of the
16466 buddle, <lb></lb>are washed separately in a strake; those particles which are of
16467 medium <lb></lb>size, and settle in the middle part, are washed separately in
16468 the same way; <lb></lb>and the mud mixed with minute particles of tin-stone,
16469 which has settled in <lb></lb>the lowest part of the buddle below the fir
16470 boughs, is washed separately on <lb></lb>the canvas strakes.</s>
16471 </p>
16472 <p type="main">
16473
16474 <s>The divided buddle differs from the last one by having several
16475 cross­<lb></lb>boards, which, being placed inside it, divide it off like
16476 steps; if the buddle <lb></lb>is twelve feet long, four of them are placed
16477 within; if nine feet long, three. <lb></lb></s>
16478
16479 <s>The nearer each one is to the head, the greater is its height; the further
16480 from <lb></lb>the head, the lower it is; and so when the highest is a foot and a
16481 palm high, </s>
16482 </p>
16483 <figure></figure>
16484 <p type="caption">
16485
16486 <s>A—PIPE. B—CROSS LAUNDER. C—SMALL TROUGHS. D—HEAD OF
16487 THE BUDDLE. <lb></lb>E—WOODEN SCRUBBER. F—DIVIDING BOARDS.
16488 G—SHORT STRAKE.<pb pagenum="303"></pb>the second is usually a foot and
16489 three digits high, the third a foot and two <lb></lb>digits, and the lowest a
16490 foot and one digit. </s>
16491
16492 <s>In this buddle is generally washed <lb></lb>that metalliferous material which has
16493 been sifted through the large sieve <lb></lb>into the tub containing water. </s>
16494
16495 <s>This material is continuously thrown with <lb></lb>an iron shovel into the head
16496 of the buddle, and the water which has been <lb></lb>let in is stirred up by a
16497 wooden scrubber, until the buddle is full, then the <lb></lb>cross-boards are
16498 taken out by the washer, and the water is drained off; next <lb></lb>the
16499 metalliferous material which has settled in the compartments is again
16500 <lb></lb>washed, either on a short strake or on the canvas strakes or in the
16501 jigging <lb></lb>sieves. </s>
16502
16503 <s>Since a short strake is often united with the upper part of this buddle,
16504 <lb></lb>a pipe in the first place carries the water into a cross launder, from
16505 which it <lb></lb>flows down through one little launder into the buddle, and
16506 through another <lb></lb>into the short strake.</s>
16507 </p>
16508 <p type="main">
16509
16510 <s>An ordinary strake, so far as the planks are concerned, is not unlike the
16511 <lb></lb>last two. </s>
16512
16513 <s>The head of this, as of the others, is first made of earth stamped <lb></lb>down,
16514 then covered with planks; and where it is necessary, earth is <lb></lb>thrown in
16515 and beaten down a second time, so that no crevice may remain <lb></lb>through
16516 which water carrying the particles of metal can escape. </s>
16517
16518 <s>The water <lb></lb>ought to fall straight down into the strake, which has a
16519 length of eight feet </s>
16520 </p>
16521 <figure></figure>
16522 <p type="caption">
16523
16524 <s>A—HEAD B—STRAKE. C—TROWEL. D—SCRUBBER. E—CANVAS
16525 F—ROD BY <lb></lb>WHICH THE CANVAS IS MADE SMOOTH.<pb pagenum="304"></pb>and a
16526 breadth of a foot and a half; it is connected with a transverse launder,
16527 <lb></lb>which then extends to a settling pit outside the building. </s>
16528
16529 <s>A boy with <lb></lb>a shovel or a ladle takes the impure concentrates or impure
16530 tin-stone from a <lb></lb>heap, and throws them into the head of the strake or
16531 spreads them over it. <lb></lb></s>
16532
16533 <s>A washer with a wooden scrubber then agitates them in the strake, whereby
16534 <lb></lb>the mud mixed with water flows away into the transverse launder, and
16535 the <lb></lb>concentrates or the tin-stone settle on the strake. </s>
16536
16537 <s>Since sometimes the <lb></lb>concentrates or fine tin-stone flow down together
16538 with the mud into the <lb></lb>transverse launder, a second washer closes it,
16539 after a distance of about six feet, <lb></lb>with a cross-board and frequently
16540 stirs the mud with a shovel, in order that <lb></lb>when mixed with water it may
16541 flow out into the settling-pit; and there <lb></lb>remains in the launder only
16542 the concentrates or tin-stone. </s>
16543
16544 <s>The tin-stuff <lb></lb>of Schlackenwald and Erbisdroff is washed in this kind of
16545 a strake once <lb></lb>or twice; those of Altenberg three or four times; those
16546 of Geyer often <lb></lb>seven times; for in the ore at Schlackenwald and
16547 Erbisdorff the tin-stone <lb></lb>particles are of a fair size, and are crushed
16548 with stamps; at Altenberg they <lb></lb>are of much smaller size, and in the
16549 broken ore at Geyer only a few particles <lb></lb>of tin-stone can be seen
16550 occasionally.</s>
16551 </p>
16552 <p type="main">
16553
16554 <s>This method of washing was first devised by the miners who treated <lb></lb>tin
16555 ore, whence it passed on from the works of the tin workers to those of the
16556 <lb></lb>silver workers and others; this system is even more reliable than
16557 <lb></lb>washing in jigging-sieves. </s>
16558
16559 <s>Near this ordinary strake there is generally a <lb></lb>canvas strake.</s>
16560 </p>
16561 <p type="main">
16562
16563 <s>In modern times two ordinary strakes, similarly made, are generally
16564 <lb></lb>joined together; the head of one is three feet distant from that of the
16565 other, <lb></lb>while the bodies are four feet distant from each other, and
16566 there is only one <lb></lb>cross launder under the two strakes. </s>
16567
16568 <s>One boy shovels, from the heap into the <lb></lb>head of each, the concentrates
16569 or tin-stone mixed with mud. </s>
16570
16571 <s>There are <lb></lb>two washers, one of whom sits at the right side of one strake,
16572 and the <lb></lb>other at the left of the other strake, and each pursues his
16573 task, using the <lb></lb>following sort of implement. </s>
16574
16575 <s>Under each strake is a sill, from a socket in <lb></lb>which a round pole rises,
16576 and is held by half an iron ring in a beam of the <lb></lb>building, so that it
16577 may revolve; this pole is nine feet long and a palm <lb></lb>thick. </s>
16578
16579 <s>Penetrating the pole is a small round piece of wood, three palms <lb></lb>long
16580 and as many digits thick, to which is affixed a small board two feet
16581 <lb></lb>long and five digits wide, in an opening of which one end of a small
16582 axle <lb></lb>revolves, and to this axle is fixed the handle of a little
16583 scrubber. </s>
16584
16585 <s>The other <lb></lb>end of this axle turns in an opening of a second board, which
16586 is likewise fixed <lb></lb>to a small round piece of wood; this round piece,
16587 like the first one, is three <lb></lb>palms long and as many digits thick, and
16588 is used by the washer as a handle. <lb></lb></s>
16589
16590 <s>The little scrubber is made of a stick three feet long, to the end of which
16591 is <lb></lb>fixed a small tablet of wood a foot long, six digits broad, and a
16592 digit and a <lb></lb>half thick. </s>
16593
16594 <s>The washer constantly moves the handle of this implement <lb></lb>with one hand;
16595 in this way the little scrubber stirs the concentrates or <lb></lb>the fine
16596 tin-stone mixed with mud in the head of the strake, and the mud, on
16597 <lb></lb>being stirred, flows on to the strake. </s>
16598
16599 <s>In the other hand he holds a second </s>
16600 </p>
16601 <pb pagenum="305"></pb>
16602 <figure></figure>
16603 <p type="caption">
16604
16605 <s>A—UPPER CROSS LAUNDER. B—SMALL LAUNDERS. C—HEADS OF
16606 STRAKES. <lb></lb>D—STRAKES. E—LOWER TRANSVERSE LAUNDER.
16607 F—SETTLING PIT. G—SOCKET <lb></lb>IN THE SILL. H—HALVED IRON
16608 RINGS FIXED TO BEAM. I—POLE. K—ITS LITTLE <lb></lb>SCRUBRER.
16609 L—SECOND SMALL SCRUBBER.<pb pagenum="306"></pb>little scrubber, which has
16610 a handle of half the length, and with this he cease­<lb></lb>lessly stirs
16611 the concentrates or tin-stone which have settled in the upper <lb></lb>part of
16612 the strake; in this way the mud and water flow down into the <lb></lb>transverse
16613 launder, and from it into the settling-pit which is outside the
16614 <lb></lb>building.</s>
16615 </p>
16616 <p type="main">
16617
16618 <s>Before the short strake and the jigging-sieve had been invented,
16619 metallifer­<lb></lb>ous ores, especially tin, were crushed dry with stamps
16620 and washed in a large <lb></lb>trough hollowed out of one or two tree trunks;
16621 and at the head of this trough <lb></lb>was a platform, on which the ore was
16622 thrown after being completely crushed. <lb></lb></s>
16623
16624 <s>The washer pulled it down into the trough with a wooden scrubber which
16625 <lb></lb>had a long handle, and when the water had been let into the trough, he
16626 stirred <lb></lb>the ore with the same scrubber.</s>
16627 </p>
16628 <figure></figure>
16629 <p type="caption">
16630
16631 <s>A—TROUGH. B—PLATFORM. C—WOODEN SCRUBBER.</s>
16632 </p>
16633 <p type="main">
16634
16635 <s>The short strake is narrow in the upper part where the water flows down
16636 <lb></lb>into it through the little launder; in fact it is only two feet wide;
16637 at the lower <lb></lb>end it is wider, being three feet and as many palms. </s>
16638
16639 <s>At the sides, which are <lb></lb>six feet long, are fixed boards two palms high. </s>
16640
16641 <s>In other respects the head <lb></lb>resembles the head of the simple buddle,
16642 except that it is not depressed in the <lb></lb>middle. </s>
16643
16644 <s>Beneath is a cross launder closed by a low board. </s>
16645
16646 <s>In this short <lb></lb>strake not only is ore agitated and washed with a wooden
16647 scrubber, but boys <pb pagenum="307"></pb>also separate the concentrates from
16648 the broken rock in them and collect them <lb></lb>in tubs. </s>
16649
16650 <s>The short strake is now rarely employed by miners, owing to the
16651 <lb></lb>carelessness of the boys, which has been frequently detected; for this
16652 <lb></lb>reason, the jigging-sieve has taken its place. </s>
16653
16654 <s>The mud which settles in the <lb></lb>launder, if the ore is rich, is taken up
16655 and washed in a jigging-sieve or on a <lb></lb>canvas strake.</s>
16656 </p>
16657 <figure></figure>
16658 <p type="caption">
16659
16660 <s>A—SHORT STRAKE. B—SMALL LAUNDER. C—TRANSVERSE LAUNDER.
16661 D—WOODEN <lb></lb>SCRUBBER.</s>
16662 </p>
16663 <p type="main">
16664
16665 <s>A canvas strake is made in the following way. </s>
16666
16667 <s>Two beams, eighteen feet <lb></lb>long and half a foot broad and three palms
16668 thick, are placed on a slope; one <lb></lb>half of each of these beams is
16669 partially cut away lengthwise, to allow the ends <lb></lb>of planks to be
16670 fastened in them, for the bottom is covered by planks three <lb></lb>feet long,
16671 set crosswise and laid close together. </s>
16672
16673 <s>One half of each supporting <lb></lb>beam is left intact and rises a palm above
16674 the planks, in order that the water <lb></lb>that is running down may not escape
16675 at the sides, but shall flow straight <lb></lb>down. </s>
16676
16677 <s>The head of the strake is higher than the rest of the body, and slopes
16678 <lb></lb>so as to enable the water to flow away. </s>
16679
16680 <s>The whole strake is covered by six <lb></lb>stretched pieces of canvas, smoothed
16681 with a stick. </s>
16682
16683 <s>The first of them occupies <lb></lb>the lowest division, and the second is so
16684 laid as to slightly overlap it; on </s>
16685 </p>
16686 <pb pagenum="308"></pb>
16687 <figure></figure>
16688 <p type="caption">
16689
16690 <s>A—BEAMS. B—CANVAS. C—HEAD OF STRAKE. D—SMALL LAUNDER.
16691 E—SETTLING <lb></lb>PIT OR TANK. F—WOODEN SCRUBBER.
16692 G—TUBS.<lb></lb>the second division, the third is similarly laid, and so
16693 on, one on the other. <lb></lb></s>
16694
16695 <s>If they are laid in the opposite way, the water flowing down carries the
16696 <lb></lb>concentrates or particles of tin-stone under the canvas, and a useless
16697 task <lb></lb>is attempted. </s>
16698
16699 <s>Boys or men throw the concentrates or tin-stuff mixed with <lb></lb>mud into the
16700 head of the strake, after the canvas has been thus stretched, <lb></lb>and
16701 having opened the small launder they let the water flow in; then <lb></lb>they
16702 stir the concentrates or tin-stone with a wooden scrubber till the water
16703 <lb></lb>carries them all on to the canvas; next they gently sweep the linen
16704 with <lb></lb>the wooden scrubber until the mud flows into the settling-pit or
16705 into the <lb></lb>transverse launder. </s>
16706
16707 <s>As soon as there is little or no mud on the canvas, but <lb></lb>only
16708 concentrates or tin-stone, they carry the canvas away and wash it in a
16709 <lb></lb>tub placed close by. </s>
16710
16711 <s>The tin-stone settles in the tub, and the men return <lb></lb>immediately to the
16712 same task. </s>
16713
16714 <s>Finally, they pour the water out of the tub, <lb></lb>and collect the
16715 concentrates or tin-stone. </s>
16716
16717 <s>However, if either concentrates <lb></lb>or tin-stone have washed down from the
16718 canvas and settled in the settling­<lb></lb>pit or in the transverse
16719 launder, they wash the mud again.</s>
16720 </p>
16721 <p type="main">
16722
16723 <s>Some neither remove the canvas nor wash it in the tubs, but place over <pb pagenum="309"></pb>it on each edge narrow strips, of no great thickness, and
16724 fix them to the beams <lb></lb>with nails. </s>
16725
16726 <s>They agitate the metalliferous material with wooden scrubbers <lb></lb>and wash
16727 it in a similar way. </s>
16728
16729 <s>As soon as little or no mud remains on the <lb></lb>canvas, but only concentrates
16730 or fine tin-stone, they lift one beam so that <lb></lb>the whole strake rests on
16731 the other, and dash it with water, which has been <lb></lb>drawn with buckets
16732 out of the small tank, and in this way all the sediment <lb></lb>which clings to
16733 the canvas falls into the trough placed underneath. </s>
16734
16735 <s>This <lb></lb>trough is hewn out of a tree and placed in a ditch dug in the
16736 ground; the <lb></lb>interior of the trough is a foot wide at the top, but
16737 narrower in the bottom, <lb></lb>because it is rounded out. </s>
16738
16739 <s>In the middle of this trough they put a cross­<lb></lb>board, in order that
16740 the fairly large particles of concentrates or fairly large­<lb></lb>sized
16741 tin-stone may remain in the forepart into which they have fallen, and
16742 <lb></lb>the fine concentrates or fine tin-stone in the lower part, for the
16743 water flows <lb></lb>from one into the other, and at last flows down through an
16744 opening into the <lb></lb>pit. </s>
16745
16746 <s>As for the fairly large-sized concentrates or tin-stone which have been
16747 <lb></lb>removed from the trough, they are washed again on the ordinary strake.
16748 </s>
16749 </p>
16750 <figure></figure>
16751 <p type="caption">
16752
16753 <s>A—CANVAS STRAKE. B—MAN DASHING WATER ON THE CANVAS.
16754 C—BUCKET. <lb></lb>D—BUCKET OF ANOTHER KIND. E—MAN REMOVING
16755 CONCENTRATES OR TIN-STONE <lb></lb>FROM THE TROUGH.<pb pagenum="310"></pb>The fine
16756 concentrates and fine tin-stone are washed again on this canvas <lb></lb>strake. </s>
16757
16758 <s>By this method, the canvas lasts longer because it remains fixed, <lb></lb>and
16759 nearly double the work is done by one washer as quickly as can be done
16760 <lb></lb>by two washers by the other method.</s>
16761 </p>
16762 <p type="main">
16763
16764 <s>The jigging sieve has recently come into use by miners. </s>
16765
16766 <s>The <lb></lb>metalliferous material is thrown into it and sifted in a tub nearly
16767 full of water. <lb></lb></s>
16768
16769 <s>The sieve is shaken up and down, and by this movement all the material
16770 <lb></lb>below the size of a pea passes through into the tub, and the rest
16771 remains on the <lb></lb>bottom of the sieve. </s>
16772
16773 <s>This residue is of two kinds, the metallic particles, <lb></lb>which occupy the
16774 lower place, and the particles of rock and earth, which <lb></lb>take the higher
16775 place, because the heavy substance always settles, and the <lb></lb>light is
16776 borne upward by the force of the water. </s>
16777
16778 <s>This light material is taken <lb></lb>away with a limp, which is a thin tablet of
16779 wood almost semicircular in <lb></lb>shape, three-quarters of a foot long, and
16780 half a foot wide. </s>
16781
16782 <s>Before the <lb></lb>lighter portion is taken away the contents of the sieve are
16783 generally divided <lb></lb>crosswise with a limp, to enable the water to
16784 penetrate into it more quickly. <lb></lb></s>
16785
16786 <s>Afterward fresh material is again thrown into the sieve and shaken up and
16787 <lb></lb>down, and when a great quantity of metallic particles have settled in
16788 the sieve, <lb></lb>they are taken out and put into a tray close by. </s>
16789
16790 <s>But since there fall into <lb></lb>the tub with the mud, not only particles of
16791 gold or silver, but also of sand, <lb></lb>pyrites, <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> galena, quartz, and other
16792 substances, and since the <lb></lb>water cannot separate these from the metallic
16793 particles because they are all <lb></lb>heavy, this muddy mixture is washed a
16794 second time, and the part which is <lb></lb>useless is thrown away. </s>
16795
16796 <s>To prevent the sieve passing this sand again too <lb></lb>quickly, the washer
16797 lays small stones or gravel in the bottom of the sieve. <lb></lb></s>
16798
16799 <s>However, if the sieve is not shaken straight up and down, but is tilted to
16800 one <lb></lb>side, the small stones or broken ore move from one part to another,
16801 and the <lb></lb>metallic material again falls into the tub, and the operation
16802 is frustrated. <lb></lb></s>
16803
16804 <s>The miners of our country have made an even finer sieve, which does not
16805 <lb></lb>fail even with unskilled washers; in washing with this sieve they have
16806 no <lb></lb>need for the bottom to be strewn with small stones. </s>
16807
16808 <s>By this method the mud <lb></lb>settles in the tub with the very fine metallic
16809 particles, and the larger sizes of <lb></lb>metal remain in the sieve and are
16810 covered with the valueless sand, and this <lb></lb>is taken away with a limp. </s>
16811
16812 <s>The concentrates which have been collected <lb></lb>are smelted together with
16813 other things. </s>
16814
16815 <s>The mud mixed with the very fine <lb></lb>metallic particles is washed for a
16816 third time and in the finest sieve, whose <lb></lb>bottom is woven of hair. </s>
16817
16818 <s>If the ore is rich in metal, all the material which <lb></lb>has been removed by
16819 the limp is washed on the canvas strakes, or if the ore <lb></lb>is poor it is
16820 thrown away.</s>
16821 </p>
16822 <p type="main">
16823
16824 <s>I have explained the methods of washing which are used in common for <lb></lb>the
16825 ores of many metals. </s>
16826
16827 <s>I now come to another method of crushing ore, <lb></lb>for I ought to speak of
16828 this before describing those methods of washing which <lb></lb>are peculiar to
16829 ores of particular metals.</s>
16830 </p>
16831 <p type="main">
16832
16833 <s>In the year 1512, George, the illustrious Duke of Saxony<emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, gave the over­</s>
16834 </p>
16835 <pb pagenum="311"></pb>
16836 <figure></figure>
16837 <p type="caption">
16838
16839 <s>A—FINE SIEVES. B—LIMP. C—FINER SIEVE. D—FINEST
16840 SIEVE<pb pagenum="312"></pb>lordship of all the dumps ejected from the mines
16841 in Meissen to the noble <lb></lb>and wise Sigismund Maltitz, father of John,
16842 Bishop of Meissen. </s>
16843
16844 <s>Reject­<lb></lb>ing the dry stamps, the large sieve, and the stone mills of
16845 Dippolds­<lb></lb>walde and Altenberg, in which places are dug the small
16846 black stones <lb></lb>from which tin is smelted, he invented a machine which
16847 could crush the ore <lb></lb>wet under iron-shod stamps. </s>
16848
16849 <s>That is called “wet ore” which is softened by <lb></lb>water which
16850 flows into the mortar box, and they are sometimes called “wet
16851 <lb></lb>stamps” because they are drenched by the same water; and on the
16852 other hand, the <lb></lb>other kinds are called “dry stamps” or
16853 “dry ore,” because no water is used <lb></lb>to soften the ore when
16854 the stamps are crushing. </s>
16855
16856 <s>But to return to our subject. <lb></lb></s>
16857
16858 <s>This machine is not dissimilar to the one which crushes the ore with dry
16859 <lb></lb>iron-shod stamps, but the heads of the wet stamps are larger by half
16860 than the <lb></lb>heads of the others. </s>
16861
16862 <s>The mortar-box, which is made of oak or beech timber, is <lb></lb>set up in the
16863 space between the upright posts; it does not open in front, but <lb></lb>at one
16864 end, and it is three feet long, three-quarters of a foot wide, and one foot
16865 <lb></lb>and six digits deep. </s>
16866
16867 <s>If it has no bottom, it is set up in the same way over a <lb></lb>slab of hard,
16868 smooth rock placed in the ground, which has been dug down a <lb></lb>little. </s>
16869
16870 <s>The joints are stopped up all round with moss or cloth rags. </s>
16871
16872 <s>If <lb></lb>the mortar has a bottom, then an iron sole-plate, three feet long,
16873 three­<lb></lb>quarters of a foot wide, and a palm thick, is placed in it. </s>
16874
16875 <s>In the opening <lb></lb>in the end of the mortar there is fixed an iron plate
16876 full of holes, in such a <lb></lb>way that there is a space of two digits
16877 between it and the shoe of the nearest <lb></lb>stamp, and the same distance
16878 between this screen and the upright post, in <lb></lb>an opening through which
16879 runs a small but fairly long launder. </s>
16880
16881 <s>The crushed <lb></lb>particles of silver ore flow through this launder with the
16882 water into a settling­<lb></lb>pit, while the material which settles in the
16883 launder is removed with an iron <lb></lb>shovel to the nearest planked floor;
16884 that material which has settled in the <lb></lb>pit is removed with an iron
16885 shovel on to another floor. </s>
16886
16887 <s>Most people make <lb></lb>two launders, in order that while the workman empties
16888 one of them of the <lb></lb>accumulation which has settled in it, a fresh
16889 deposit may be settling in the <lb></lb>other. </s>
16890
16891 <s>The water flows in through a small launder at the other end of the
16892 <lb></lb>mortar that is near the water-wheel which turns the machine. </s>
16893
16894 <s>The workman <lb></lb>throws the ore to be crushed into the mortar in such a way
16895 that the pieces, <lb></lb>when they are thrown in among the stamps, do not
16896 impede the work. </s>
16897
16898 <s>By <lb></lb>this method a silver or gold ore is crushed very fine by the
16899 stamps.</s>
16900 </p>
16901 <p type="main">
16902
16903 <s>When tin ore is crushed by this kind of iron-shod stamps, as soon as
16904 <lb></lb>crushing begins, the launder which extends from the screen discharges
16905 the <lb></lb>water carrying the fine tin-stone and fine sand into a transverse
16906 trough, <lb></lb>from which the water flows down through the spouts, which
16907 pierce the side of <lb></lb>the trough, into the one or other of the large
16908 buddles set underneath. </s>
16909
16910 <s>The <lb></lb>reason why there are two is that, while the washer empties the one
16911 which is <lb></lb>filled with fine tin-stone and sand, the material may flow
16912 into the other. <lb></lb></s>
16913
16914 <s>Each buddle is twelve feet long, one cubit deep, and a foot and a half broad.
16915 <lb></lb></s>
16916
16917 <s>The tin-stone which settles in the upper part of the buddles is called the
16918 <lb></lb>large size; these are frequently stirred with a shovel, in order that
16919 the <lb></lb>medium sized particles of tin-stone, and the mud mixed with the
16920 very fine </s>
16921 </p>
16922 <pb pagenum="313"></pb>
16923 <figure></figure>
16924 <p type="caption">
16925
16926 <s>A—MORTAR. B—OPEN END OF MORTAR. C—SLAB OF ROCK.
16927 D—IRON SOLE PLATES. <lb></lb>E—SCREEN. F—LAUNDER.
16928 G—WOODEN SHOVEL. H—SETTLING PIT. I—IRON <lb></lb>SHOVEL.
16929 K—HEAP OF MATERIAL WHICH HAS SETTLED. L—ORE WHICH REQUIRES
16930 <lb></lb>CRUSHING. M—SMALL LAUNDER.<pb pagenum="314"></pb>particles of the
16931 stones may flow away. </s>
16932
16933 <s>The particles of medium size generally <lb></lb>settle in the middle part of the
16934 buddle, where they are arrested by interwoven <lb></lb>fir twigs. </s>
16935
16936 <s>The mud which flows down with the water settles between the <lb></lb>twigs and
16937 the board which closes the lower end of the buddle. </s>
16938
16939 <s>The tin-stone <lb></lb>of large size is removed separately from the buddle with a
16940 shovel; those <lb></lb>of medium size are also removed separately, and likewise
16941 the mud is removed <lb></lb>separately, for they are separately washed on the
16942 canvas strakes and on <lb></lb>the ordinary strake, and separately roasted and
16943 smelted. </s>
16944
16945 <s>The tin-stone <lb></lb>which has settled in the middle part of the buddle, is
16946 also always washed <lb></lb>separately on the canvas strakes; but if the
16947 particles are nearly equal in size <lb></lb>to those which have settled in the
16948 upper part of the buddle, they are washed <lb></lb>with them in the ordinary
16949 strake and are roasted and smelted with them. <lb></lb></s>
16950
16951 <s>However, the mud is never washed with the others, either on the canvas
16952 <lb></lb>strakes or on the ordinary strake, but separately, and the fine
16953 tin-stone which <lb></lb>is obtained from it is roasted and smelted separately. </s>
16954
16955 <s>The two large buddles <lb></lb>discharge into a cross trough, and it again
16956 empties through a launder into <lb></lb>a settling-pit which is outside the
16957 building.</s>
16958 </p>
16959 <figure></figure>
16960 <p type="caption">
16961
16962 <s>A—LAUNDER REACHING TO THE SCREEN. B—TRANSVERSE TROUGH.
16963 C—SPOUTS. <lb></lb>D—LARGE BUDDLES. E—SHOVEL.
16964 F—INTERWOVEN TWIGS. G—BOARDS CLOSING <lb></lb>THE BUDDLES.
16965 H—CROSS TROUGH.</s>
16966 </p>
16967 <pb pagenum="315"></pb>
16968 <p type="main">
16969
16970 <s>This method of washing has lately undergone a considerable change; for
16971 <lb></lb>the launder which carries the water, mixed with the crushed tin-stone
16972 and <lb></lb>fine sand which flow from the openings of the screen, does not
16973 reach to a <lb></lb>transverse trough which is inside the same room, but runs
16974 straight through <lb></lb>a partition into a small settling-pit. </s>
16975
16976 <s>A boy draws a three-toothed rake <lb></lb>through the material which has settled
16977 in the portion of the launder outside <lb></lb>the room, by which means the
16978 larger sized particles of tin-stone settle at the <lb></lb>bottom, and these the
16979 washer takes out with the wooden shovel and carries <lb></lb>into the room; this
16980 material is thrown into an ordinary strake and swept <lb></lb>with a wooden
16981 scrubber and washed. </s>
16982
16983 <s>As for those tin-stone particles which <lb></lb>the water carries off from the
16984 strake, after they have been brought back on to <lb></lb>the strake, he washes
16985 them again until they are clean.</s>
16986 </p>
16987 <p type="main">
16988
16989 <s>The remaining tin-stone, mixed with sand, flows into the small settling-pit
16990 <lb></lb>which is within the building, and this discharges into two large
16991 buddles. </s>
16992
16993 <s>The <lb></lb>tin-stone of moderate size, mixed with those of fairly large size,
16994 settle in the <lb></lb>upper part, and the small size in the lower part; but
16995 both are impure, and <lb></lb>for this reason they are taken out separately and
16996 the former is washed twice, </s>
16997 </p>
16998 <figure></figure>
16999 <p type="caption">
17000
17001 <s>A—FIRST LAUNDER. B—THREE-TOOTHED RAKE. C—SMALL SETTLING
17002 PIT. D—LARGE <lb></lb>BUDDLE. E—BUDDLE RESEMBLING THE SIMPLE BUDDLE.
17003 F—SMALL ROLLER. </s>
17004
17005 <s>G— <lb></lb>BOARDS. H—THEIR HOLES. I—SHOVEL. K—BUILDING.
17006 L—STOVE. (THIS PICTURE <lb></lb>DOES NOT ENTIRELY AGREE WITH THE TEXT).<pb pagenum="316"></pb>first in a buddle like the simple buddle, and afterward
17007 on an ordinary <lb></lb>strake. </s>
17008
17009 <s>Likewise the latter is washed twice, first on a canvas strake and
17010 <lb></lb>afterward on an ordinary strake. </s>
17011
17012 <s>This buddle, which is like the simple <lb></lb>buddle, differs from it in the
17013 head, the whole of which in this case is sloping, <lb></lb>while in the case of
17014 the other it is depressed in the centre. </s>
17015
17016 <s>In order that the <lb></lb>boy may be able to rest the shovel with which he
17017 cleanses the tin-stone, <lb></lb>this sluice has a small wooden roller which
17018 turns in holes in two thick <lb></lb>boards fixed to the sides of the buddle; if
17019 he did not do this, he would become <lb></lb>over-exhausted by his task, for he
17020 spends whole days standing over these <lb></lb>labours. </s>
17021
17022 <s>The large buddle, the one like the simple buddle, the ordinary <lb></lb>strake,
17023 and the canvas strakes, are erected within a special building. </s>
17024
17025 <s>In <lb></lb>this building there is a stove that gives out heat through the
17026 earthen tiles <lb></lb>or iron plates of which it is composed, in order that the
17027 washers can pursue <lb></lb>their labours even in winter, if the rivers are not
17028 completely frozen over.</s>
17029 </p>
17030 <p type="main">
17031
17032 <s>On the canvas strakes are washed the very fine tin-stone mixed with <lb></lb>mud
17033 which has settled in the lower end of the large buddle, as well as <lb></lb>in
17034 the lower end of the simple buddle and of the ordinary strake. </s>
17035
17036 <s>The canvas <lb></lb>is cleaned in a trough hewn out of one tree trunk and
17037 partitioned off with <lb></lb>two boards, so that three compartments are made. </s>
17038
17039 <s>The first and second pieces <lb></lb>of canvas are washed in the first
17040 compartment, the third and fourth in the <lb></lb>second compartment, the fifth
17041 and sixth in the third compartment. </s>
17042
17043 <s>Since <lb></lb>among the very fine tin-stone there are usually some grains of
17044 stone, rock, <lb></lb>or marble, the master cleanses them on the ordinary
17045 strake, lightly brushing <lb></lb>the top of the material with a broom, the
17046 twigs of which do not all run the <lb></lb>same way, but some straight and some
17047 crosswise. </s>
17048
17049 <s>In this way the water <lb></lb>carries off these impurities from the strake into
17050 the settling-pit because they <lb></lb>are lighter, and leaves the tin-stone on
17051 the table because it is heavier.</s>
17052 </p>
17053 <p type="main">
17054
17055 <s>Below all buddles or strakes, both inside and outside the building, there
17056 <lb></lb>are placed either settling-pits or cross-troughs into which they
17057 discharge, <lb></lb>in order that the water may carry on down into the stream
17058 but very few <lb></lb>of the most minute particles of tin-stone. </s>
17059
17060 <s>The large settling-pit which is <lb></lb>outside the building is generally made
17061 of joined flooring, and is eight feet in <lb></lb>length, breadth and depth. </s>
17062
17063 <s>When a large quantity of mud, mixed with <lb></lb>very fine tin-stone, has
17064 settled in it, first of all the water is let out by with­<lb></lb>drawing a
17065 plug, then the mud which is taken out is washed outside the house <lb></lb>on
17066 the canvas strakes, and afterward the concentrates are washed on the
17067 <lb></lb>strake which is inside the building. </s>
17068
17069 <s>By these methods the very finest tin­<lb></lb>stone is made clean.</s>
17070 </p>
17071 <p type="main">
17072
17073 <s>The mud mixed with the very fine tin-stone, which has neither settled <lb></lb>in
17074 the large settling-pit nor in the transverse launder which is outside the
17075 <lb></lb>room and below the canvas strakes, flows away and settles in the bed of
17076 the <lb></lb>stream or river. </s>
17077
17078 <s>In order to recover even a portion of the fine tin-stone, <lb></lb>many miners
17079 erect weirs in the bed of the stream or river, very much like <lb></lb>those
17080 that are made above the mills, to deflect the current into the races
17081 <lb></lb>through which it flows to the water-wheels. </s>
17082
17083 <s>At one side of each weir there <lb></lb>is an area dug out to a depth of five or
17084 six or seven feet, and if the nature of </s>
17085 </p>
17086 <pb pagenum="317"></pb>
17087 <figure></figure>
17088 <p type="caption">
17089
17090 <s>A—LAUNDER FROM THE SCREEN OF THE MORTAR-BOX. B—THREE-TOOTHED
17091 RAKE. <lb></lb>C—SMALI. SETTLING-PIT. D—CANVAS. E—STRAKES.
17092 F—BROOMS.<pb pagenum="318"></pb>the place will permit, extending in
17093 every direction more than sixty feet. <lb></lb></s>
17094
17095 <s>Thus, when the water of the river or stream in autumn and winter inundates
17096 <lb></lb>the land, the gates of the weir are closed, by which means the current
17097 carries <lb></lb>the mud mixed with fine tin-stone into the area. </s>
17098
17099 <s>In spring and summer <lb></lb>this mud is washed on the canvas strakes or on the
17100 ordinary strake, and <lb></lb>even the finest black-tin is collected. </s>
17101
17102 <s>Within a distance of four thousand <lb></lb>fathoms along the bed of the stream
17103 or river below the buildings in which <lb></lb>the tin-stuff is washed, the
17104 miners do not make such weirs, but put inclined <lb></lb>fences in the meadows,
17105 and in front of each fence they dig a ditch of the <lb></lb>same length, so that
17106 the mud mixed with the fine tin-stone, carried along by the <lb></lb>stream or
17107 river when in flood, may settle in the ditch and cling to the fence.
17108 <lb></lb></s>
17109
17110 <s>When this mud is collected, it is likewise washed on canvas strakes and on
17111 <lb></lb>the ordinary strake, in order that the fine tin-stone may be separated
17112 from <lb></lb>it. </s>
17113
17114 <s>Indeed we may see many such areas and fences collecting mud of this <lb></lb>kind
17115 in Meissen below Altenberg in the river Moglitz,—which is always of a
17116 <lb></lb>reddish colour when the rock containing the black tin is being crushed
17117 under <lb></lb>the stamps.</s>
17118 </p>
17119 <figure></figure>
17120 <p type="caption">
17121
17122 <s>A—RIVER. B—WEIR. C—GATE. D—AREA. E—MEADOW.
17123 F—FENCE. G—DITCH.</s>
17124 </p>
17125 <pb pagenum="319"></pb>
17126 <p type="main">
17127
17128 <s>But to return to the stamping machines. </s>
17129
17130 <s>Some usually set up four <lb></lb>machines of this kind in one place, that is to
17131 say, two above and the same <lb></lb>number below. </s>
17132
17133 <s>By this plan it is necessary that the current which has been <lb></lb>diverted
17134 should fall down from a greater height upon the upper water­<lb></lb>wheels,
17135 because these turn axles whose cams raise heavier stamps. </s>
17136
17137 <s>The <lb></lb>stamp-stems of the upper machines should be nearly twice as long as
17138 the stems <lb></lb>of the lower ones, because all the mortar-boxes are placed on
17139 the same level. <lb></lb></s>
17140
17141 <s>These stamps have their tappets near their upper ends, not as in the case of
17142 <lb></lb>the lower stamps, which are placed just above the bottom. </s>
17143
17144 <s>The water flowing <lb></lb>down from the two upper water-wheels is caught in two
17145 broad races, from <lb></lb>which it falls on to the two lower water-wheels. </s>
17146
17147 <s>Since all these machines <lb></lb>have the stamps very close together, the stems
17148 should be somewhat cut away, <lb></lb>to prevent the iron shoes from rubbing
17149 each other at the point where they are <lb></lb>set into the stems. </s>
17150
17151 <s>Where so many machines cannot be constructed, by <lb></lb>reason of the
17152 narrowness of the valley, the mountain is excavated and <lb></lb>levelled in two
17153 places, one of which is higher than the other, and in this case <lb></lb>two
17154 machines are constructed and generally placed in one building. </s>
17155
17156 <s>A <lb></lb>broad race receives in the same way the water which flows down from
17157 the <lb></lb>upper water-wheel, and similarly lets it fall on the lower
17158 water-wheel. </s>
17159
17160 <s>The <lb></lb>mortar-boxes are not then placed on one level, but each on the level
17161 which <lb></lb>is appropriate to its own machine, and for this reason, two
17162 workmen are then <lb></lb>required to throw ore into the mortar-boxes. </s>
17163
17164 <s>When no stream can be <lb></lb>diverted which will fall from a higher place upon
17165 the top of the water-wheel, <lb></lb>one is diverted which will turn the foot of
17166 the wheel; a great quantity of <lb></lb>water from the stream is collected in
17167 one pool capable of holding it, and <lb></lb>from this place, when the gates are
17168 raised, the water is discharged against <lb></lb>the wheel which turns in the
17169 race. </s>
17170
17171 <s>The buckets of a water-wheel of this <lb></lb>kind are deeper and bent back,
17172 projecting upward; those of the former <lb></lb>are shallower and bent forward,
17173 inclining downward.</s>
17174 </p>
17175 <p type="main">
17176
17177 <s>Further, in the Julian and Rhaetian Alps<emph type="sup"></emph>15<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> and in the Carpathian <lb></lb>Mountains, gold or even silver
17178 ore is now put under stamps, which are <lb></lb>sometimes placed more than
17179 twenty in a row, and crushed wet in a long mortar­<lb></lb>box. </s>
17180
17181 <s>The mortar has two plates full of holes through which the ore, after
17182 <lb></lb>being crushed, flows out with the water into the transverse launder
17183 placed <lb></lb>underneath, and from there it is carried down by two spouts into
17184 the heads of <lb></lb>the canvas strakes. </s>
17185
17186 <s>Each head is made of a thick broad plank, which can be <lb></lb>raised and set
17187 upright, and to which on each side are fixed pieces projecting <lb></lb>upward. </s>
17188
17189 <s>In this plank there are many cup-like depressions equal in size and
17190 <lb></lb>similar in shape, in each of which an egg could be placed. </s>
17191
17192 <s>Right down in <lb></lb>these depressions are small crevices which can retain the
17193 concentrates of gold <lb></lb>or silver, and when the hollows are nearly filled
17194 with these materials, the <lb></lb>plank is raised on one side so that the
17195 concentrates will fall into a large bowl. <lb></lb></s>
17196
17197 <s>The cup-like depressions are washed out by dashing them with water. </s>
17198
17199 <s>These </s>
17200 </p>
17201 <pb pagenum="320"></pb>
17202 <figure></figure>
17203 <p type="caption">
17204
17205 <s>A—FIRST MACHINE. B—ITS STAMPS. C—ITS MORTAR-BOX.
17206 D—SECOND MACHINE. <lb></lb>E—ITS STAMPS. F—ITS MORTAR-BOX.
17207 G—THIRD MACHINE. H—ITS STAMPS. I—ITS <lb></lb>MORTAR-BOX.
17208 K—FOURTH MACHINE. L—ITS STAMPS. M—ITS MORTAR-BOX.<pb pagenum="321"></pb>concentrates are washed separately in different bowls
17209 from those which have <lb></lb>settled on the canvas. </s>
17210
17211 <s>This bowl is smooth and two digits wide and deep, <lb></lb>being in shape very
17212 similar to a small boat; it is broad in the fore part, <lb></lb>narrow in the
17213 back, and in the middle of it there is a cross groove, in which <lb></lb>the
17214 particles of pure gold or silver settle, while the grains of sand, since
17215 they <lb></lb>are lighter, flow out of it.</s>
17216 </p>
17217 <p type="main">
17218
17219 <s>In some parts of Moravia, gold ore, which consists of quartz mixed with
17220 <lb></lb>gold, is placed under the stamps and crushed wet. </s>
17221
17222 <s>When crushed fine it <lb></lb>flows out through a launder into a trough, is there
17223 stirred by a wooden <lb></lb>scrubber, and the minute particles of gold which
17224 settle in the upper end of <lb></lb>the trough are washed in a black bowl.</s>
17225 </p>
17226 <figure></figure>
17227 <p type="caption">
17228
17229 <s>A—STAMPS. B—MORTAR. C—PLATES FULL OF HOLES.
17230 D—TRANSVERSE LAUNDER. <lb></lb>E—PLANKS FULL OF CUP-LIKE
17231 DEPRESSIONS. F—SPOUT. G—BOWL INTO WHICH THE <lb></lb>CONCENTRATES
17232 FALL. H—CANVAS STRAKE. I—BOWLS SHAPED LIKE A SMALL BOAT.
17233 <lb></lb>K—SETTLING-PIT UNDER THE CANVAS STRAKE.</s>
17234 </p>
17235 <p type="main">
17236
17237 <s>So far I have spoken of machines which crush wet ore with iron-shod
17238 <lb></lb>stamps. </s>
17239
17240 <s>I will now explain the methods of washing which are in a measure
17241 <lb></lb>peculiar to the ore of certain metals, beginning with gold. </s>
17242
17243 <s>The ore which <lb></lb>contains particles of this metal, and the sand of streams
17244 and rivers which <pb pagenum="322"></pb>contains grains of it, are washed in
17245 frames or bowls; the sands especially <lb></lb>are also washed in troughs. </s>
17246
17247 <s>More than one method is employed for washing <lb></lb>on frames, for these frames
17248 either pass or retain the particles or concentrates <lb></lb>of gold; they pass
17249 them if they have holes, and retain them if they have <lb></lb>no holes. </s>
17250
17251 <s>But either the frame itself has holes, or a box is substituted for <lb></lb>it;
17252 if the frame itself is perforated it passes the particles or concentrates
17253 <lb></lb>of gold into a trough; if the box has them, it passes the gold material
17254 into <lb></lb>the long sluice. </s>
17255
17256 <s>I will first speak of these two methods of washing. </s>
17257
17258 <s>The <lb></lb>frame is made of two planks joined together, and is twelve feet long
17259 and <lb></lb>three feet wide, and is full of holes large enough for a pea to
17260 pass. </s>
17261
17262 <s>To prevent <lb></lb>the ore or sand with which the gold is mixed from falling out
17263 at the sides, <lb></lb>small projecting edge-boards are fixed to it. </s>
17264
17265 <s>This frame is set upon two <lb></lb>stools, the first of which is higher than the
17266 second, in order that the gravel <lb></lb>and small stones can roll down it. </s>
17267
17268 <s>The washer throws the ore or sand into <lb></lb>the head of the frame, which is
17269 higher, and opening the small launder, lets <lb></lb>the water into it, and then
17270 agitates it with a wooden scrubber. </s>
17271
17272 <s>In this way, <lb></lb>the gravel and small stones roll down the frame on to the
17273 ground, while the </s>
17274 </p>
17275 <figure></figure>
17276 <p type="caption">
17277
17278 <s>A—HEAD OF FRAME. B—FRAME. C—HOLES. D—EDGE-BOARDS.
17279 E—STOOLS <lb></lb>F—SCRUBBER. G—TROUGH. H—LAUNDER.
17280 I—BOWL.<pb pagenum="323"></pb>particles or concentrates of gold,
17281 together with the sand, pass through the <lb></lb>holes into the trough which is
17282 placed under the frame, and after being <lb></lb>collected are washed in the
17283 bowl.</s>
17284 </p>
17285 <p type="main">
17286
17287 <s>A box which has a bottom made of a plate full of holes, is placed over
17288 <lb></lb>the upper end of a sluice, which is fairly long but of moderate width. </s>
17289
17290 <s>The <lb></lb>gold material to be washed is thrown into this box, and a great
17291 quantity of <lb></lb>water is let in. </s>
17292
17293 <s>The lumps, if ore is being washed, are mashed with an iron <lb></lb>shovel. </s>
17294
17295 <s>The fine portions fall through the bottom of the box into the sluice,
17296 <lb></lb>but the coarse pieces remain in the box, and these are removed with a
17297 scraper <lb></lb>through an opening which is nearly in the middle of one side. </s>
17298
17299 <s>Since a large <lb></lb>amount of water is necessarily let into the box, in order
17300 to prevent it from <lb></lb>sweeping away any particles of gold which have
17301 fallen into the sluice, the <lb></lb>sluice is divided off by ten, or if it is
17302 as long again, by fifteen riffles. </s>
17303
17304 <s>These <lb></lb>riffles are placed equidistant from one another, and each is
17305 higher than the one <lb></lb>next toward the lower end of the sluice. </s>
17306
17307 <s>The little compartments which are <lb></lb>thus made are filled with the material
17308 and the water which flows through </s>
17309 </p>
17310 <figure></figure>
17311 <p type="caption">
17312
17313 <s>A—SLUICE. B—BOX. C—BOTTOM OF INVERTED BOX. D—OPEN
17314 PART OF IT. E—IRON <lb></lb>HOE. F—RIFFLES. G—SMALL LAUNDER.
17315 H—BOWL WITH WHICH SETTLINGS ARE TAKEN <lb></lb>AWAY. I—BLACK BOWL IN
17316 WHICH THEY ARE WASHED.<pb pagenum="324"></pb>the box; as soon as these
17317 compartments are full and the water has begun <lb></lb>to flow over clear, the
17318 little launder through which this water enters into the <lb></lb>box is closed,
17319 and the water is turned in another direction. </s>
17320
17321 <s>Then the <lb></lb>lowest riffle is removed from the sluice, and the sediment
17322 which has <lb></lb>accumulated flows out with the water and is caught in a bowl. </s>
17323
17324 <s>The <lb></lb>riffles are removed one by one and the sediment from each is taken
17325 into a <lb></lb>separate bowl, and each is separately washed and cleansed in a
17326 bowl. </s>
17327
17328 <s>The <lb></lb>larger particles of gold concentrates settle in the higher
17329 compartments, the <lb></lb>smaller size, in the lower compartments. </s>
17330
17331 <s>This bowl is shallow and smooth, <lb></lb>and smeared with oil or some other
17332 slippery substance, so that the tiny particles <lb></lb>of gold may not cling to
17333 it, and it is painted black, that the gold may be more <lb></lb>easily
17334 discernible; on the exterior, on both sides and in the middle, it is
17335 <lb></lb>slightly hollowed out in order that it may be grasped and held firmly
17336 in the <lb></lb>hands when shaken. </s>
17337
17338 <s>By this method the particles or concentrates of gold <lb></lb>settle in the back
17339 part of the bowl; for if the back part of the bowl is <lb></lb>tapped or shaken
17340 with one hand, as is usual, the contents move toward the <lb></lb>fore part. </s>
17341
17342 <s>In this way the Moravians, especially, wash gold ore.</s>
17343 </p>
17344 <p type="main">
17345
17346 <s>The gold particles are also caught on frames which are either bare or
17347 <lb></lb>covered. </s>
17348
17349 <s>If bare, the particles are caught in pockets; if covered, they </s>
17350 </p>
17351 <figure></figure>
17352 <p type="caption">
17353
17354 <s>A—PLANK. B—SIDE-BOARDS. C—IRON WIRE. D—HANDLES.<pb pagenum="325"></pb>cling to the coverings. </s>
17355
17356 <s>Pockets are made in various ways, either with iron <lb></lb>wire or small
17357 cross-boards fixed to the frame, or by holes which are sunk <lb></lb>into the
17358 sluice itself or into its head, but which do not quite go through. <lb></lb></s>
17359
17360 <s>These holes are round or square, or are grooves running crosswise. </s>
17361
17362 <s>The <lb></lb>frames are either covered with skins, pieces of cloth, or turf,
17363 which I will <lb></lb>deal with one by one in turn.</s>
17364 </p>
17365 <p type="main">
17366
17367 <s>In order to prevent the sand which contains the particles of gold from
17368 <lb></lb>spilling out, the washer fixes side-boards to the edges of a plank
17369 which is six <lb></lb>feet long and one and a quarter wide. </s>
17370
17371 <s>He then lays crosswise many iron <lb></lb>wires a digit apart, and where they
17372 join he fixes them to the bottom plank <lb></lb>with iron nails. </s>
17373
17374 <s>Then he makes the head of the frame higher, and into this <lb></lb>he throws the
17375 sand which needs washing, and taking in his hands the handles <lb></lb>which are
17376 at the head of the frame, he draws it backward and forward <lb></lb>several
17377 times in the river or stream. </s>
17378
17379 <s>In this way the small stones and gravel <lb></lb>flow down along the frame, and
17380 the sand mixed with particles of gold remains <lb></lb>in the pockets between
17381 the strips. </s>
17382
17383 <s>When the contents of the pockets have <lb></lb>been shaken out and collected in
17384 one place, he washes them in a bowl and <lb></lb>thus cleans the gold dust.</s>
17385 </p>
17386 <p type="main">
17387
17388 <s>Other people, among whom are the Lusitanians<emph type="sup"></emph>16<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, fix to the sides of a <lb></lb>sluice, which is about six feet
17389 long and a foot and a half broad, many cross­<lb></lb>strips or riffles,
17390 which project backward and are a digit apart. </s>
17391
17392 <s>The washer <lb></lb>or his wife lets the water into the head of the sluice, where
17393 he throws the sand <lb></lb>which contains the particles of gold. </s>
17394
17395 <s>As it flows down he agitates it with a <lb></lb>wooden scrubber, which he moves
17396 transversely to the riffles. </s>
17397
17398 <s>He constantly <lb></lb>removes with a pointed wooden stick the sediment which
17399 settles in the pockets <lb></lb>between the riffles, and in this way the
17400 particles of gold settle in them, <lb></lb>while the sand and other valueless
17401 materials are carried by the water into a <lb></lb>tub placed below the sluice. </s>
17402
17403 <s>He removes the particles of metal with a small <lb></lb>wooden shovel into a
17404 wooden bowl. </s>
17405
17406 <s>This bowl does not exceed a foot and a <lb></lb>quarter in breadth, and by moving
17407 it up and down in the stream he cleanses <lb></lb>the gold dust, for the
17408 remaining sand flows out of the dish, and the gold dust <lb></lb>settles in the
17409 middle of it, where there is a cup-like depression. </s>
17410
17411 <s>Some make <lb></lb>use of a bowl which is grooved inside like a shell, but with a
17412 smooth lip where <lb></lb>the water flows out. </s>
17413
17414 <s>This smooth place, however, is narrower where the <lb></lb>grooves run into it,
17415 and broader where the water flows out.</s>
17416 </p>
17417 <pb pagenum="326"></pb>
17418 <figure></figure>
17419 <p type="caption">
17420
17421 <s>A—HEAD OF THE SLUICE. B—RIFFLES. C—WOODEN SCRUBBER.
17422 D—POINTED STICK. <lb></lb>E—DISH. F—ITS CUP-LIKE DEPRESSION.
17423 G—GROOVED DISH.</s>
17424 </p>
17425 <p type="main">
17426
17427 <s>The cup-like pockets and grooves are cut or burned at the same time into
17428 <lb></lb>the bottom of the sluice; the bottom is composed of three planks ten
17429 feet <lb></lb>long, and is about four feet wide; but the lower end, through
17430 which the water <lb></lb>is discharged, is narrower. </s>
17431
17432 <s>This sluice, which likewise has side-boards fixed <lb></lb>to its edges, is full
17433 of rounded pockets and of grooves which lead to them, <lb></lb>there being two
17434 grooves to one pocket, in order that the water mixed with <lb></lb>sand may flow
17435 into each pocket through the upper groove, and that after the <lb></lb>sand has
17436 partly settled, the water may again flow out through the lower <lb></lb>groove. </s>
17437
17438 <s>The sluice is set in the river or stream or on the bank, and placed <lb></lb>on
17439 two stools, of which the first is higher than the second in order that the
17440 <lb></lb>gravel and small stones may roll down the sluice. </s>
17441
17442 <s>The washer throws sand <lb></lb>into the head with a shovel, and opening the
17443 launder, lets in the water, which <lb></lb>carries the particles of metal with a
17444 little sand down into the pockets, while <lb></lb>the gravel and small stones
17445 with the rest of the sand falls into a tub placed <lb></lb>below the sluice. </s>
17446
17447 <s>As soon as the pockets are filled, he brushes out the <lb></lb>concentrates and
17448 washes them in a bowl. </s>
17449
17450 <s>He washes again and again <lb></lb>through this sluice.</s>
17451 </p>
17452 <pb pagenum="327"></pb>
17453 <figure></figure>
17454 <p type="caption">
17455
17456 <s>A—HEAD OF THE SLUICE. B—SIDE-BOARDS. C—LOWER END OF THE
17457 SLUICE. <lb></lb>D—POCKETS. E—GROOVES. F—STOOLS.
17458 G—SHOVEL. H—TUB SET BELOW. <lb></lb>I—LAUNDER.</s>
17459 </p>
17460 <p type="main">
17461
17462 <s>Some people cut a number of cross-grooves, one palm distant from each
17463 <lb></lb>other, in a sluice similarly composed of three planks eight feet long. </s>
17464
17465 <s>The <lb></lb>upper edge of these grooves is sloping, that the particles of gold
17466 may slip into <lb></lb>them when the washer stirs the sand with a wooden shovel;
17467 but their lower <lb></lb>edge is vertical so that the gold particles may thus be
17468 unable to slide <lb></lb>out of them. </s>
17469
17470 <s>As soon as these grooves are full of gold particles mixed <lb></lb>with fine
17471 sand, the sluice is removed from the stools and raised up on its <lb></lb>head. </s>
17472
17473 <s>The head in this case is nothing but the upper end of the planks <lb></lb>of
17474 which the sluice is composed. </s>
17475
17476 <s>In this way the metallic particles, being <lb></lb>turned over backward, fall
17477 into another tub, for the small stones and gravel <lb></lb>have rolled down the
17478 sluice. </s>
17479
17480 <s>Some people place large bowls under the <lb></lb>sluice instead of tubs, and as
17481 in the other cases, the unclean concentrates are <lb></lb>washed in the small
17482 bowl.</s>
17483 </p>
17484 <p type="main">
17485
17486 <s>The Thuringians cut rounded pockets, a digit in diameter and depth, in
17487 <lb></lb>the head of the sluice, and at the same time they cut grooves reaching
17488 from <lb></lb>one to another. </s>
17489
17490 <s>The sluice itself they cover with canvas. </s>
17491
17492 <s>The sand which </s>
17493 </p>
17494 <pb pagenum="328"></pb>
17495 <figure></figure>
17496 <p type="caption">
17497
17498 <s>A—CROSS GROOVES. B—TUB SET UNDER THE SLUICE. C—ANOTHER
17499 TUB.<lb></lb>is to be washed, is thrown into the head and stirred with a wooden
17500 scrubber; <lb></lb>in this way the water carries the light particles of gold on
17501 to the canvas, <lb></lb>and the heavy ones sink in the pockets, and when these
17502 hollows are full, the <lb></lb>head is removed and turned over a tub, and the
17503 concentrates are collected <lb></lb>and washed in a bowl. </s>
17504
17505 <s>Some people make use of a sluice which has square <lb></lb>pockets with short
17506 vertical recesses which hold the particles of gold. </s>
17507
17508 <s>Other <lb></lb>workers use a sluice made of planks, which are rough by reason of
17509 the very <lb></lb>small shavings which still cling to them; these sluices are
17510 used instead of <lb></lb>those with coverings, of which this sluice is bare, and
17511 when the sand is washed, <lb></lb>the particles of gold cling no less to these
17512 shavings than to canvas, or skins, or <lb></lb>cloths, or turf. </s>
17513
17514 <s>The washer sweeps the sluice upward with a broom, and <lb></lb>when he has washed
17515 as much of the sand as he wishes, he lets a more abundant <lb></lb>supply of
17516 water into the sluice again to wash out the concentrates, which he
17517 <lb></lb>collects in a tub set below the sluice, and then washes again in a
17518 bowl. </s>
17519
17520 <s>Just <lb></lb>as Thuringians cover the sluice with canvas, so some people cover
17521 it with <lb></lb>the skins of oxen or horses. </s>
17522
17523 <s>They push the auriferous sand upward with a <lb></lb>wooden scrubber, and by this
17524 system the light material flows away with the <lb></lb>water, while the
17525 particles of gold settle among the hairs; the skins are <lb></lb>afterward
17526 washed in a tub; and the concentrates are colleced in a bowl.</s>
17527 </p>
17528 <pb pagenum="329"></pb>
17529 <figure></figure>
17530 <p type="caption">
17531
17532 <s>A—SLUICE COVERED WITH CANVAS. B—ITS HEAD FULL OF POCKETS AND
17533 GROOVES. <lb></lb>C—HEAD REMOVED AND WASHED IN A TUB. D—SLUICE WHICH
17534 HAS SQUARE POCKETS. <lb></lb>E—SLUICE TO WHOSE PLANKS SMALL SHAVINGS
17535 CLING. F—BROOM. G—SKINS OF OXEN. <lb></lb>H—WOODEN
17536 SCRUBBER.</s>
17537 </p>
17538 <pb pagenum="330"></pb>
17539 <p type="main">
17540
17541 <s>The Colchians<emph type="sup"></emph>17<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> placed the skins of
17542 animals in the pools of springs; and <lb></lb>since many particles of gold had
17543 clung to them when they were removed, </s>
17544 </p>
17545 <figure></figure>
17546 <p type="caption">
17547
17548 <s>A—SPRING. B—SKIN. C—ARGONAUTS.<lb></lb>the poets invented the
17549 “golden fleece” of the Colchians. </s>
17550
17551 <s>In like manner, <lb></lb>it can be contrived by the methods of miners that skins
17552 should take up, not <lb></lb>only particles of gold, but also of silver and
17553 gems.</s>
17554 </p>
17555 <pb pagenum="331"></pb>
17556 <p type="main">
17557
17558 <s>Many people cover the frame with a green cloth as long and wide as the
17559 <lb></lb>frame itself, and fasten it with iron nails in such a way that they can
17560 easily </s>
17561 </p>
17562 <figure></figure>
17563 <p type="caption">
17564
17565 <s>A—HEAD OF FRAME. B—FRAME. C—CLOTH. D—SMALL LAUNDER.
17566 E—TUB SET <lb></lb>BELOW THE FRAME. F—TUB IN WHICH CLOTH IS
17567 WASHED.<lb></lb>draw them out and remove the cloth. </s>
17568
17569 <s>When the cloth appears to be golden <lb></lb>because of the particles which
17570 adhere to it, it is washed in a special tub and <lb></lb>the particles are
17571 collected in a bowl. </s>
17572
17573 <s>The remainder which has run down into <lb></lb>the tub is again washed on the
17574 frame.</s>
17575 </p>
17576 <pb pagenum="332"></pb>
17577 <p type="main">
17578
17579 <s>Some people, in place of a green cloth, use a cloth of tightly woven
17580 <lb></lb>horsehair, which has a rough knotty surface. </s>
17581
17582 <s>Since these knots stand out </s>
17583 </p>
17584 <figure></figure>
17585 <p type="caption">
17586
17587 <s>A—CLOTH FULL OF SMALL KNOTS, SPREAD OUT. B—SMALL KNOTS MORE
17588 CONSPICUOUSLY <lb></lb>SHOWN. C—TUB IN WHICH CLOTH IS WASHED.<lb></lb>and the
17589 cloth is rough, even the very small particles of gold adhere to it;
17590 <lb></lb>these cloths are likewise washed in a tub with water.</s>
17591 </p>
17592 <pb pagenum="333"></pb>
17593 <p type="main">
17594
17595 <s>Some people construct a frame not unlike the one covered with canvas,
17596 <lb></lb>but shorter. </s>
17597
17598 <s>In place of the canvas they set pieces of turf in rows. </s>
17599
17600 <s>They </s>
17601 </p>
17602 <figure></figure>
17603 <p type="caption">
17604
17605 <s>A—HEAD OF FRAME. B—SMALL LAUNDER THROUGH WHICH WATER FLOWS INTO
17606 HEAD OF <lb></lb>FRAME. C—PIECES OF TURF. D—TROUGH PLACED UNDER
17607 FRAME. E—TUB IN WHICH <lb></lb>PIECES OF TURF ARE WASHED.<lb></lb>wash the
17608 sand, which has been thrown into the head of the frame, by letting <lb></lb>in
17609 water. </s>
17610
17611 <s>In this way the particles of gold settle in the turf, the mud and <lb></lb>sand,
17612 together with the water, are carried down into the settling-pit or trough
17613 <lb></lb>below, which is opened when the work is finished. </s>
17614
17615 <s>After all the water has <lb></lb>passed out of the settling-pit, the sand and mud
17616 are carried away and washed <lb></lb>over again in the same manner. </s>
17617
17618 <s>The particles which have clung to the turf <lb></lb>are afterward washed down
17619 into the settling-pit or trough by a stronger <lb></lb>current of the water,
17620 which is let into the frame through a small launder. <lb></lb></s>
17621
17622 <s>The concentrates are finally collected and washed in a bowl. </s>
17623
17624 <s>Pliny was not <lb></lb>ignorant of this method of washing gold. </s>
17625
17626 <s>“The ulex,” he says, “after being <lb></lb>dried, is burnt, and
17627 its ashes are washed over a grassy turf, that the gold <lb></lb>may settle on
17628 it.”</s>
17629 </p>
17630 <pb pagenum="334"></pb>
17631 <figure></figure>
17632 <p type="caption">
17633
17634 <s>A—TRAY. B—BOWL-LIKE DEPRESSION. C—HANDLES.</s>
17635 </p>
17636 <p type="main">
17637
17638 <s>Sand mixed with particles of gold is also washed in a tray, or in a trough
17639 <lb></lb>or bowl. </s>
17640
17641 <s>The tray is open at the further end, is either hewn out of a <lb></lb>squared
17642 trunk of a tree or made out of a thick plank to which side-boards <lb></lb>are
17643 fixed, and is three feet long, a foot and a half wide, and three digits
17644 <lb></lb>deep. </s>
17645
17646 <s>The bottom is hollowed out into the shape of an elongated bowl whose
17647 <lb></lb>narrow end is turned toward the head, and it has two long handles, by
17648 which <lb></lb>it is drawn backward and forward in the river. </s>
17649
17650 <s>In this way the fine sand <lb></lb>is washed, whether it contains particles of
17651 gold or the little black stones from <lb></lb>which tin is made.</s>
17652 </p>
17653 <p type="main">
17654
17655 <s>The Italians who come to the German mountains seeking gold, in order <lb></lb>to
17656 wash the river sand which contains gold-dust and garnets,<emph type="sup"></emph>19<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> use a fairly <lb></lb>long shallow trough hewn
17657 out of a tree, rounded within and without, open <lb></lb>at one end and closed
17658 at the other, which they turn in the bed of the stream <lb></lb>in such a way
17659 that the water does not dash into it, but flows in gently. <lb></lb></s>
17660
17661 <s>They stir the sand, which they throw into it, with a wooden hoe, also
17662 <lb></lb>rounded. </s>
17663
17664 <s>To prevent the particles of gold or garnets from running out with <lb></lb>the
17665 light sand, they close the end with a board similarly rounded, but lower
17666 <lb></lb>than the sides of the trough. </s>
17667
17668 <s>The concentrates of gold or garnets which, </s>
17669 </p>
17670 <pb pagenum="335"></pb>
17671 <figure></figure>
17672 <p type="caption">
17673
17674 <s>A—TROUGH. B—ITS OPEN END. C—END THAT MAY BE CLOSED.
17675 D—STREAM. <lb></lb>E—HOE. F—END-BOARD. G—BAG.<lb></lb>with a
17676 small quantity of heavy sand, have settled in the trough, they wash <lb></lb>in
17677 a bowl and collect in bags and carry away with them.</s>
17678 </p>
17679 <p type="main">
17680
17681 <s>Some people wash this kind of sand in a large bowl which can easily be
17682 <lb></lb>shaken, the bowl being suspended by two ropes from a beam in a
17683 building. <lb></lb></s>
17684
17685 <s>The sand is thrown into it, water is poured in, then the bowl is shaken, and
17686 <lb></lb>the muddy water is poured out and clear water is again poured in, this
17687 being <lb></lb>done again and again. </s>
17688
17689 <s>In this way, the gold particles settle in the back part <lb></lb>of the bowl
17690 because they are heavy, and the sand in the front part because it <lb></lb>is
17691 light; the latter is thrown away, the former kept for smelting. </s>
17692
17693 <s>The one <lb></lb>who does the washing then returns immediately to his task. </s>
17694
17695 <s>This method <lb></lb>of washing is rarely used by miners, but frequently by
17696 coiners and goldsmiths <lb></lb>when they wash gold, silver, or copper. </s>
17697
17698 <s>The bowl they employ has only <lb></lb>three handles, one of which they grasp in
17699 their hands when they shake the <lb></lb>bowl, and in the other two is fastened
17700 a rope by which the bowl is hung from <lb></lb>a beam, or from a cross-piece
17701 which is upheld by the forks of two upright <lb></lb>posts fixed in the ground. </s>
17702
17703 <s>Miners frequently wash ore in a small bowl to test </s>
17704 </p>
17705 <pb pagenum="336"></pb>
17706 <figure></figure>
17707 <p type="caption">
17708
17709 <s>A—LARGE BOWL B—ROPES. C—BEAM. D—OTHER LARGE BOWL
17710 WHICH COINERS <lb></lb>USE. E—SMALL BOWL.<lb></lb>it. </s>
17711
17712 <s>This bowl, when shaken, is held in one hand and thumped with the other
17713 <lb></lb>hand. </s>
17714
17715 <s>In other respects this method of washing does not differ from the
17716 <lb></lb>last.</s>
17717 </p>
17718 <p type="main">
17719
17720 <s>I have spoken of the various methods of washing sand which contains
17721 <lb></lb>grains of gold; I will now speak of the methods of washing the material
17722 in <lb></lb>which are mixed the small black stones from which tin is made<emph type="sup"></emph>20<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
17723
17724 <s>Eight <lb></lb>such methods are in use, and of these two have been invented
17725 lately. </s>
17726
17727 <s>Such <lb></lb>metalliferous material is usually found torn away from veins and
17728 stringers <lb></lb>and scattered far and wide by the impetus of water, although
17729 sometimes <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> are composed of it. </s>
17730
17731 <s>The miners dig out the latter material <lb></lb>with a broad mattock, while they
17732 dig the former with a pick. </s>
17733
17734 <s>But they dig <lb></lb>out the little stones, which are not rare in this kind of
17735 ore, with an instrument <lb></lb>like the bill of a duck. </s>
17736
17737 <s>In districts which contain this material, if there is <lb></lb>an abundant supply
17738 of water, and if there are valleys or gentle slopes and <lb></lb>hollows, so
17739 that rivers can be diverted into them, the washers in summer­</s>
17740 </p>
17741 <pb pagenum="337"></pb>
17742 <figure></figure>
17743 <p type="caption">
17744
17745 <s>A—STREAM. B—DITCH. C—MATTOCK. D—PIECES OF TURF.
17746 E—SEVEN-PRONGED FORK. <lb></lb>F—IRON SHOVEL. G—TROUGH.
17747 H—ANOTHER TROUGH BELOW IT. I—SMALL WOODEN TROWEL.<pb pagenum="338"></pb>time first of all dig a long ditch sloping so that the
17748 water will run through <lb></lb>it rapidly. </s>
17749
17750 <s>Into the ditch is thrown the metallic material, together with the
17751 <lb></lb>surface material, which is six feet thick, more or less, and often
17752 contains moss, <lb></lb>roots of plants, shrubs, trees, and earth; they are all
17753 thrown in with a broad <lb></lb>mattock, and the water flows through the ditch. </s>
17754
17755 <s>The sand and tin-stone, as <lb></lb>they are heavy, sink to the bottom of the
17756 ditch, while the moss and roots, as <lb></lb>they are light, are carried away by
17757 the water which flows through the ditch. <lb></lb></s>
17758
17759 <s>The bottom of the ditch is obstructed with turf and stones in order to
17760 prevent <lb></lb>the water from carrying away the tin-stone at the same time. </s>
17761
17762 <s>The washers, <lb></lb>whose feet are covered with high boots made of hide, though
17763 not of rawhide, <lb></lb>themselves stand in the ditch and throw out of it the
17764 roots of the trees, <lb></lb>shrubs, and grass with seven-pronged wooden forks,
17765 and push back the tin­<lb></lb>stone toward the head of the ditch. </s>
17766
17767 <s>After four weeks, in which they have <lb></lb>devoted much work and labour, they
17768 raise the tin-stone in the following <lb></lb>way; the sand with which it is
17769 mixed is repeatedly lifted from the ditch </s>
17770 </p>
17771 <figure></figure>
17772 <p type="caption">
17773
17774 <s>A—TROUGH. B—WOODEN SHOVEL. C—TUB. D—LAUNDER.
17775 E—WOODEN TROWEL. <lb></lb>F—TRANSVERSE TROUGH. G—PLUG.
17776 H—FALLING WATER. I—DITCH. K—BARROW <lb></lb>CONVEYING MATERIAL
17777 TO BE WASHED. L—PICK LIKE THE BEAK OF A DUCK WITH WHICH <lb></lb>THE MINER
17778 DIGS OUT THE MATERIAL FROM WHICH THE SMALL STONES ARE OBTAINED.<pb pagenum="339"></pb>with an iron shovel and agitated hither and thither in
17779 the water, until the <lb></lb>sand flows away and only the tin-stone remains on
17780 the shovel. </s>
17781
17782 <s>The tin­<lb></lb>stone is all collected together and washed again in a trough
17783 by pushing it <lb></lb>up and turning it over with a wooden trowel, in order
17784 that the remaining <lb></lb>sand may separate from it. </s>
17785
17786 <s>Afterward they return to their task, which they <lb></lb>continue until the
17787 metalliferous material is exhausted, or until the water can <lb></lb>no longer
17788 be diverted into the ditches.</s>
17789 </p>
17790 <p type="main">
17791
17792 <s>The trough which I mentioned is hewn out of the trunk of a tree and the
17793 <lb></lb>interior is five feet long, three-quarters of a foot deep, and six
17794 digits wide. <lb></lb></s>
17795
17796 <s>It is placed on an incline and under it is put a tub which contains
17797 interwoven <lb></lb>fir twigs, or else another trough is put under it, the
17798 interior of which is three <lb></lb>feet long and one foot wide and deep; the
17799 fine tin-stone, which has run out <lb></lb>with the water, settles in the
17800 bottom. </s>
17801
17802 <s>Some people, in place of a trough, <lb></lb>put a square launder underneath, and
17803 in like manner they wash the tin­<lb></lb>stone in this by agitating it up
17804 and down and turning it over with a small <lb></lb>wooden trowel. </s>
17805
17806 <s>A transverse trough is put under the launder, which is <lb></lb>either open on
17807 one end and drains off into a tub or settling-pit, or else is <lb></lb>closed
17808 and perforated through the bottom; in this case, it drains into a <lb></lb>ditch
17809 beneath, where the water falls when the plug has been partly removed.
17810 <lb></lb></s>
17811
17812 <s>The nature of this ditch I will now describe.</s>
17813 </p>
17814 <p type="main">
17815
17816 <s>If the locality does not supply an abundance of water, the washers dig a
17817 <lb></lb>ditch thirty or thirty-six feet long, and cover the bottom, the full
17818 length, with <lb></lb>logs joined together and hewn on the side which lies flat
17819 on the ground. </s>
17820
17821 <s>On <lb></lb>each side of the ditch, and at its head also, they place four logs,
17822 one above <lb></lb>the other, all hewn smooth on the inside. </s>
17823
17824 <s>But since the logs are laid <lb></lb>obliquely along the sides, the upper end of
17825 the ditch is made four feet wide <lb></lb>and the tail end, two feet. </s>
17826
17827 <s>The water has a high drop from a launder and <lb></lb>first of all it falls into
17828 interlaced fir twigs, in order that it shall fall straight <lb></lb>down for the
17829 most part in an unbroken stream and thus break up the lumps <lb></lb>by its
17830 weight. </s>
17831
17832 <s>Some do not place these twigs under the end of the launder, <lb></lb>but put a
17833 plug in its mouth, which, since it does not entirely close the launder,
17834 <lb></lb>nor altogether prevent the discharge from it, nor yet allow the water
17835 to <lb></lb>spout far afield, makes it drop straight down. </s>
17836
17837 <s>The workman brings in a <lb></lb>wheelbarrow the material to be washed, and
17838 throws it into the ditch. </s>
17839
17840 <s>The <lb></lb>washer standing in the upper end of the ditch breaks the lumps with
17841 a seven­<lb></lb>pronged fork, and throws out the roots of trees, shrubs,
17842 and grass with the <lb></lb>same instrument, and thereby the small black stones
17843 settle down. </s>
17844
17845 <s>When a <lb></lb>large quantity of the tin-stone has accumulated, which generally
17846 happens <lb></lb>when the washer has spent a day at this work, to prevent it
17847 from being <lb></lb>washed away he places it upon the bank, and other material
17848 having been <lb></lb>again thrown into the upper end of the ditch, he continues
17849 the task of washing. <lb></lb></s>
17850
17851 <s>A boy stands at the lower end of the ditch, and with a thin pointed hoe
17852 <lb></lb>stirs up the sediment which has settled at the lower end, to prevent
17853 the <lb></lb>washed tin-stone from being carried further, which occurs when the
17854 sediment <lb></lb>has accumulated to such an extent that the fir branches at the
17855 outlet of the <lb></lb>ditch are covered.</s>
17856 </p>
17857 <pb pagenum="340"></pb>
17858 <figure></figure>
17859 <p type="caption">
17860
17861 <s>A—LAUNDER. B—INTERLACING FIR TWIGS. C—LOGS; THREE ON ONE
17862 SIDE, FOR THE <lb></lb>FOURTH CANNOT BE SEEN BECAUSE THE DITCH IS SO FULL WITH
17863 MATERIAL NOW BEING <lb></lb>WASHED. D—LOGS AT THE HEAD OF THE DITCH.
17864 E—BARROW. F—SEVEN-PRONGED <lb></lb>FORK. G—HOE</s>
17865 </p>
17866 <p type="main">
17867
17868 <s>The third method of washing materials of this kind follows. </s>
17869
17870 <s>Two <lb></lb>strakes are made, each of which is twelve feet long and a foot and a
17871 <lb></lb>half wide and deep. </s>
17872
17873 <s>A tank is set at their head, into which the water flows <lb></lb>through a little
17874 launder. </s>
17875
17876 <s>A boy throws the ore into one strake; if it is of <lb></lb>poor quality he puts
17877 in a large amount of it, if it is rich he puts in less. </s>
17878
17879 <s>The <lb></lb>water is let in by removing the plug, the ore is stirred with a
17880 wooden shovel, <lb></lb>and in this way the tin-stone, mixed with the heavier
17881 material, settles <lb></lb>in the bottom of the strake, and the water carries
17882 the light material into the <lb></lb>launder, through which it flows on to a
17883 canvas strake. </s>
17884
17885 <s>The very fine tin­<lb></lb>stone, carried by the water, settles on to the
17886 canvas and is cleansed. </s>
17887
17888 <s>A low <lb></lb>cross-board is placed in the strake near the head, in order that
17889 the largest <lb></lb>sized tin-stone may settle there. </s>
17890
17891 <s>As soon as the strake is filled with the <lb></lb>material which has been washed,
17892 he closes the mouth of the tank and continues <lb></lb>washing in the other
17893 strake, and then the plug is withdrawn and the <lb></lb>water and tin-stone flow
17894 down into a tank below. </s>
17895
17896 <s>Then he pounds the sides </s>
17897 </p>
17898 <pb pagenum="341"></pb>
17899 <figure></figure>
17900 <p type="caption">
17901
17902 <s>A—STRAKES. B—TANK. C—LAUNDER. D—PLUG. E—WOODEN
17903 SHOVEL. <lb></lb>F—WOODEN MALLET. G—WOODEN SHOVEL WITH SHORT HANDLE.
17904 H—THE PLUG <lb></lb>IN THE STRAKE. I—TANK PLACED UNDER THE
17905 PLUG.<lb></lb>of the loaded strake with a wooden mallet, in order that the
17906 tin-stone clinging <lb></lb>to the sides may fall off; all that has settled in
17907 it, he throws out with a <lb></lb>wooden shovel which has a short handle. </s>
17908
17909 <s>Silver slags which have been <lb></lb>crushed under the stamps, also fragments of
17910 silver-lead alloy and of cakes <lb></lb>melted from pyrites, are washed in a
17911 strake of this kind.</s>
17912 </p>
17913 <p type="main">
17914
17915 <s>Material of this kind is also washed while wet, in a sieve whose bottom
17916 <lb></lb>is made of woven iron wire, and this is the fourth method of washing. </s>
17917
17918 <s>The <lb></lb>sieve is immersed in the water which is contained in a tub, and is
17919 violently <lb></lb>shaken. </s>
17920
17921 <s>The bottom of this tub has an opening of such size that as much <lb></lb>water,
17922 together with tailings from the sieve, can flow continuously out of it as
17923 <lb></lb>water flows into it. </s>
17924
17925 <s>The material which settles in the strake, a boy either <lb></lb>digs over with a
17926 three-toothed iron rake or sweeps with a wooden scrubber; <lb></lb>in this way
17927 the water carries off a great part of both sand and mud. </s>
17928
17929 <s>The <lb></lb>tin-stone or metalliferous concentrates settle in the strake and are
17930 afterward <lb></lb>washed in another strake.</s>
17931 </p>
17932 <p type="main">
17933
17934 <s>These are ancient methods of washing material which contains
17935 tin­<lb></lb>stone; there follow two modern methods. </s>
17936
17937 <s>If the tin-stone mixed with </s>
17938 </p>
17939 <pb pagenum="342"></pb>
17940 <figure></figure>
17941 <p type="caption">
17942
17943 <s>A—SIEVE. B—TUB. C—WATER FLOWING OUT OF THE BOTTOM OF IT.
17944 D—STRAKE. <lb></lb>E—THREE-TOOTHED RAKE. F—WOODEN
17945 SCRUBBER.<lb></lb>earth or sand is found on the slopes of mountains or hills, or
17946 in the level fields <lb></lb>which are either devoid of streams or into which a
17947 stream cannot be diverted, <lb></lb>miners have lately begun to employ the
17948 following method of washing, even <lb></lb>in the winter months. </s>
17949
17950 <s>An open box is constructed of planks, about six <lb></lb>feet long, three feet
17951 wide, and two feet and one palm deep. </s>
17952
17953 <s>At the upper <lb></lb>end on the inside, an iron plate three feet long and wide
17954 is fixed, at a depth <lb></lb>of one foot and a half from the top; this plate is
17955 very full of holes, through <lb></lb>which tin-stone about the size of a pea can
17956 fall. </s>
17957
17958 <s>A trough hewn from a tree <lb></lb>is placed under the box, and this trough is
17959 about twenty-four feet long and <lb></lb>three-quarters of a foot wide and deep;
17960 very often three cross-boards are <lb></lb>placed in it, dividing it off into
17961 compartments, each one of which is lower <lb></lb>than the next. </s>
17962
17963 <s>The turbid waters discharge into a settling-pit.</s>
17964 </p>
17965 <p type="main">
17966
17967 <s>The metalliferous material is sometimes found not very deep beneath <lb></lb>the
17968 surface of the earth, but sometimes so deep that it is necessary to drive
17969 <lb></lb>tunnels and sink shafts. </s>
17970
17971 <s>It is transported to the washing-box in wheel­<lb></lb>barrows, and when the
17972 washers are about to begin they lay a small launder, </s>
17973 </p>
17974 <pb pagenum="343"></pb>
17975 <figure></figure>
17976 <p type="caption">
17977
17978 <s>A—BOX. B—PERFORATED PLATE. C—TROUGH. D—CROSS-BOARDS.
17979 E—POOL. <lb></lb>F—LAUNDER. G—SHOVEL. H—RAKE.<pb pagenum="344"></pb>through which there flows on to the iron plate so much
17980 water as is necessary <lb></lb>for this washing. </s>
17981
17982 <s>Next, a boy throws the metalliferous material on to the <lb></lb>iron plate with
17983 an iron shovel and breaks the small lumps, stirring them this <lb></lb>way and
17984 that with the same implement. </s>
17985
17986 <s>Then the water and sand penetra­<lb></lb>ting the holes of the plate, fall
17987 into the box, while all the coarse gravel remains <lb></lb>on the plate, and
17988 this he throws into a wheelbarrow with the same shovel. <lb></lb></s>
17989
17990 <s>Meantime, a younger boy continually stirs the sand under the plate with a
17991 <lb></lb>wooden scrubber nearly as wide as the box, and drives it to the upper
17992 end of <lb></lb>the box; the lighter material, as well as a small amount of
17993 tin-stone, is <lb></lb>carried by the water down into the underlying trough. </s>
17994
17995 <s>The boys carry on <lb></lb>this labour without intermission until they have
17996 filled four wheelbarrows <lb></lb>with the coarse and worthless residues, which
17997 they carry off and throw away, or <lb></lb>three wheelbarrows if the material is
17998 rich in black tin. </s>
17999
18000 <s>Then the foreman <lb></lb>has the plank removed which was in front of the iron
18001 plate, and on which the <lb></lb>boy stood. </s>
18002
18003 <s>The sand, mixed with the tin-stone, is frequently pushed backward <lb></lb>and
18004 forward with a scrubber, and the same sand, because it is lighter, takes
18005 <lb></lb>the upper place, and is removed as soon as it appears; that which takes
18006 the <lb></lb>lower place is turned over with a spade, in order that any that is
18007 light <lb></lb>can flow away; when all the tin-stone is heaped together, he
18008 shovels it out <lb></lb>of the box and carries it away. </s>
18009
18010 <s>While the foreman does this, one boy with <lb></lb>an iron hoe stirs the sand
18011 mixed with fine tin-stone, which has run out of the <lb></lb>box and has settled
18012 in the trough and pushes it back to the uppermost part <lb></lb>of the trough,
18013 and this material, since it contains a very great amount of
18014 tin­<lb></lb>stone, is thrown on to the plate and washed again. </s>
18015
18016 <s>The material which has <lb></lb>settled in the lowest part of the trough is taken
18017 out separately and piled in a <lb></lb>heap, and is washed on the ordinary
18018 strake; that which has settled in the <lb></lb>pool is washed on the canvas
18019 strake. </s>
18020
18021 <s>In the summer-time this fruitful <lb></lb>labour is repeated more often, in fact
18022 ten or eleven times. </s>
18023
18024 <s>The tin-stone <lb></lb>which the foreman removes from the box, is afterward
18025 washed in a jigging <lb></lb>sieve, and lastly in a tub, where at length all the
18026 sand is separated out. <lb></lb></s>
18027
18028 <s>Finally, any material in which are mixed particles of other metals, can be
18029 <lb></lb>washed by all these methods, whether it has been disintegrated from
18030 veins or <lb></lb>stringers, or whether it originated from <emph type="italics"></emph>venae dílatatae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or from streams and
18031 <lb></lb>rivers.</s>
18032 </p>
18033 <p type="main">
18034
18035 <s>The sixth method of washing material of this kind is even more modern
18036 <lb></lb>and more useful than the last. </s>
18037
18038 <s>Two boxes are constructed, into each of <lb></lb>which water flows through spouts
18039 from a cross trough into which it has been <lb></lb>discharged through a pipe or
18040 launder. </s>
18041
18042 <s>When the material has been agitated <lb></lb>and broken up with iron shovels by
18043 two boys, part of it runs down and falls <lb></lb>through the iron plates full
18044 of holes, or through the iron grating, and flows <lb></lb>out of the box over a
18045 sloping surface into another cross trough, and from <lb></lb>this into a strake
18046 seven feet long and two and a half feet wide. </s>
18047
18048 <s>Then <lb></lb>the foreman again stirs it with a wooden scrubber that it may
18049 become <lb></lb>clean. </s>
18050
18051 <s>As for the material which has flowed down with the water and settled <lb></lb>in
18052 the third cross trough, or in the launder which leads from it, a third boy
18053 <lb></lb>rakes it with a two-toothed rake; in this way the fine tin-stone
18054 settles down </s>
18055 </p>
18056 <pb pagenum="345"></pb>
18057 <figure></figure>
18058 <p type="caption">
18059
18060 <s>A—LAUNDER. B—CROSS TROUGH. C—TWO SPOUTS. D—BOXES.
18061 E—PLATE. </s>
18062
18063 <s>F— <lb></lb>GRATING. G—SHOVELS. H—SECOND CROSS TROUGH.
18064 I—STRAKE. K—WOODEN <lb></lb>SCRUBBER. L—THIRD CROSS TROUGH.
18065 M—LAUNDER. N—THREE-TOOTHED RAKE.<lb></lb>and the water carries off
18066 the valueless sand into the creek. </s>
18067
18068 <s>This method <lb></lb>of washing is most advantageous, for four men can do the
18069 work of washing <lb></lb>in two boxes, while the last method, if doubled,
18070 requires six men, for it requires <lb></lb>two boys to throw the material to be
18071 washed on to the plate and to stir it <lb></lb>with iron shovels; two more are
18072 required with wooden scrubbers to keep <lb></lb>stirring the sand, mixed with
18073 the tin-stone, under the plate, and to push it <lb></lb>toward the upper end of
18074 the box; further, two foremen are required <lb></lb>to clean the tin-stone in
18075 the way I have described. </s>
18076
18077 <s>In the place of a plate <lb></lb>full of holes, they now fix in the boxes a
18078 grating made of iron wire as <lb></lb>thick as the stalks of rye; that these may
18079 not be depressed by the weight <lb></lb>and become bent, three iron bars support
18080 them, being laid crosswise under­<lb></lb>neath. </s>
18081
18082 <s>To prevent the grating from being broken by the iron shovels with <lb></lb>which
18083 the material is stirred in washing, five or six iron rods are placed on
18084 <lb></lb>top in cross lines, and are fixed to the box so that the shovels may
18085 rub them <lb></lb>instead of the grating; for this reason the grating lasts
18086 longer than the <pb pagenum="346"></pb>plates, because it remains intact, while
18087 the rods, when worn by rubbing, can <lb></lb>easily be replaced by others.</s>
18088 </p>
18089 <p type="main">
18090
18091 <s>Miners use the seventh method of washing when there is no stream of
18092 <lb></lb>water in the part of the mountain which contains the black tin, or
18093 particles of <lb></lb>gold, or of other metals. </s>
18094
18095 <s>In this case they frequently dig more than fifty <lb></lb>ditches on the slope
18096 below, or make the same number of pits, six feet long, <lb></lb>three feet wide,
18097 and three-quarters of a foot deep, not any great distance <lb></lb>from each
18098 other. </s>
18099
18100 <s>At the season when a torrent rises from storms of <lb></lb>great violence or long
18101 duration, and rushes down the mountain, some of <lb></lb>the miners dig the
18102 metalliferous material in the woods with broad hoes and </s>
18103 </p>
18104 <figure></figure>
18105 <p type="caption">
18106
18107 <s>A—PITS. B—TORRENT. C—SEVEN-PRONGED FORK.
18108 D—SHOVEL.<lb></lb>drag it to the torrent. </s>
18109
18110 <s>Other miners divert the torrent into the ditches or <lb></lb>pits, and others
18111 throw the roots of trees, shrubs, and grass out of the ditches <lb></lb>or pits
18112 with seven-pronged wooden forks. </s>
18113
18114 <s>When the torrent has run down, <lb></lb>they remove with shovels the uncleansed
18115 tin-stone or particles of metal which <lb></lb>have settled in the ditches or
18116 pits, and cleanse it.</s>
18117 </p>
18118 <p type="main">
18119
18120 <s>The eighth method is also employed in the regions which the Lusitanians
18121 <lb></lb>hold in their power and sway, and is not dissimilar to the last. </s>
18122
18123 <s>They drive <pb pagenum="347"></pb>a great number of deep ditches in rows in the
18124 gullies, slopes, and hollows of <lb></lb>the mountains. </s>
18125
18126 <s>Into these ditches the water, whether flowing down from <lb></lb>snow melted by
18127 the heat of the sun or from rain, collects and carries together <lb></lb>with
18128 earth and sand, sometimes tin-stone, or, in the case of the Lusitanians,
18129 <lb></lb>the particles of gold loosened from veins and stringers. </s>
18130
18131 <s>As soon as the <lb></lb>waters of the torrent have all run away, the miners throw
18132 the material out <lb></lb>of the ditches with iron shovels, and wash it in a
18133 common sluice box.</s>
18134 </p>
18135 <figure></figure>
18136 <p type="caption">
18137
18138 <s>A—GULLY. B—DITCH. C—TORRENT. D—SLUICE BOX EMPLOYED BY
18139 THE <lb></lb>LUSITANIANS.</s>
18140 </p>
18141 <p type="main">
18142
18143 <s>The Poles wash the impure lead from <emph type="italics"></emph>venae
18144 dílatatae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in a trough ten <lb></lb>feet
18145 long, three feet wide, and one and one-quarter feet deep. </s>
18146
18147 <s>It is mixed <lb></lb>with moist earth and is covered by a wet and sandy clay, and
18148 so <lb></lb>first of all the clay, and afterward the ore, is dug out. </s>
18149
18150 <s>The ore is carried <lb></lb>to a stream or river, and thrown into a trough into
18151 which water is admitted <lb></lb>by a little launder, and the washer standing at
18152 the lower end of the trough <lb></lb>drags the ore out with a narrow and nearly
18153 pointed hoe, whose wooden handle <lb></lb>is nearly ten feet long. </s>
18154
18155 <s>It is washed over again once or twice in the same <lb></lb>way and thus made
18156 pure. </s>
18157
18158 <s>Afterward when it has been dried in the sun <pb pagenum="348"></pb>they throw it
18159 into a copper sieve, and separate the very small pieces which <lb></lb>pass
18160 through the sieve from the larger ones. </s>
18161
18162 <s>of these the former are smelted <lb></lb>in a faggot pile and the latter in the
18163 furnace. </s>
18164
18165 <s>Of such a number then are <lb></lb>the methods of washing.</s>
18166 </p>
18167 <figure></figure>
18168 <p type="caption">
18169
18170 <s>A—TROUGH. B—LAUNDER. C—HOE. D—SIEVE.</s>
18171 </p>
18172 <p type="main">
18173
18174 <s>One method of burning is principally employed, and two of roasting. <lb></lb></s>
18175
18176 <s>The black tin is burned by a hot fire in a furnace similar to an oven<emph type="sup"></emph>21<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; it <lb></lb>is burned if it is a
18177 dark-blue colour, or if pyrites and the stone from which <lb></lb>iron is made
18178 are mixed with it, for the dark blue colour if not burnt, consumes <lb></lb>the
18179 tin. </s>
18180
18181 <s>If pyrites and the other stone are not volatilised into fumes in a
18182 <lb></lb>furnace of this kind, the tin which is made from the tin-stone is
18183 impure. <lb></lb></s>
18184
18185 <s>The tin-stone is thrown either into the back part of the furnace, or into one
18186 <lb></lb>side of it; but in the former case the wood is placed in front, in the
18187 latter <lb></lb>case alongside, in such a manner, however, that neither
18188 firebrands nor <lb></lb>coals may fall upon the tin-stone itself or touch it. </s>
18189
18190 <s>The fuel is manipulated <lb></lb>by a poker made of wood. </s>
18191
18192 <s>The tin-stone is now stirred with a rake with two <pb pagenum="349"></pb>teeth,
18193 and now again levelled down with a hoe, both of which are made of iron.
18194 <lb></lb></s>
18195
18196 <s>The very fine tin-stone requires to be burned less than that of moderate
18197 size, <lb></lb>and this again less than that of the largest size. </s>
18198
18199 <s>While the tin-stone is being <lb></lb>thus burned, it frequently happens that
18200 some of the material runs together. </s>
18201 </p>
18202 <figure></figure>
18203 <p type="caption">
18204
18205 <s>A—FURNACE. B—ITS MOUTH. C—POKER. D—RAKE WITH TWO
18206 TEETH. E—HOE.<lb></lb>The burned tin-stone should then be washed again on
18207 the strake, for in this <lb></lb>way the material which has been run together is
18208 carried away by the water <lb></lb>into the cross-trough, where it is gathered
18209 up and worked over, and again <lb></lb>washed on the strake. </s>
18210
18211 <s>By this method the metal is separated from that <lb></lb>which is devoid of
18212 metal.</s>
18213 </p>
18214 <p type="main">
18215
18216 <s>Cakes from pyrites, or <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or cupriferous stones, are roasted in
18217 quad­<lb></lb>rangular pits, of which the front and top are open, and these
18218 pits are generally <lb></lb>twelve feet long, eight feet wide, and three feet
18219 deep. </s>
18220
18221 <s>The cakes of melted <lb></lb>pyrites are usually roasted twice over, and those of
18222 <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> once. </s>
18223
18224 <s>These latter <lb></lb>are first rolled in mud moistened with vinegar, to prevent
18225 the fire from con­<lb></lb>suming too much of the copper with the bitumen,
18226 or sulphur, or orpiment, or <lb></lb>realgar. </s>
18227
18228 <s>The cakes of pyrites are first roasted in a slow fire and afterward in <lb></lb>a
18229 fierce one, and in both cases, during the whole following night, water is
18230 let in, <pb pagenum="350"></pb>in order that, if there is in the cakes any alum
18231 or vitriol or saltpetre capable <lb></lb>of injuring the metals, although it
18232 rarely does injure them, the water may <lb></lb>remove it and make the cakes
18233 soft. </s>
18234
18235 <s>The solidified juices are nearly all <lb></lb>harmful to the metal, when cakes or
18236 ore of this kind are smelted. </s>
18237
18238 <s>The cakes <lb></lb>which are to be roasted are placed on wood piled up in the
18239 form of a crate, <lb></lb>and this pile is fired<emph type="sup"></emph>22<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
18240 </p>
18241 <figure></figure>
18242 <p type="caption">
18243
18244 <s>A—PITS. B—WOOD. C—CAKES. D—LAUNDER.</s>
18245 </p>
18246 <p type="main">
18247
18248 <s>The cakes which are made of copper smelted from schist are first thrown
18249 <lb></lb>upon the ground and broken, and then placed in the furnace on bundles
18250 of <lb></lb>faggots, and these are lighted. </s>
18251
18252 <s>These cakes are generally roasted seven <lb></lb>times and occasionally nine
18253 times. </s>
18254
18255 <s>While this is being done, if they are <pb pagenum="351"></pb>bituminous, then the
18256 bitumen burns and can be smelled. </s>
18257
18258 <s>These furnaces have <lb></lb>a structure like the structure of the furnaces in
18259 which ore is smelted, except <lb></lb>that they are open in front; they are six
18260 feet high and four feet wide. </s>
18261
18262 <s>As <lb></lb>for this kind of furnace, three of them are required for one of those
18263 in which <lb></lb>the cakes are melted. </s>
18264
18265 <s>First of all they are roasted in the first furnace, then <lb></lb>when they are
18266 cooled, they are transferred into the second furnace and again <lb></lb>roasted;
18267 later they are carried to the third, and afterward back to the first,
18268 <lb></lb>and this order is preserved until they have been roasted seven or nine
18269 times.</s>
18270 </p>
18271 <figure></figure>
18272 <p type="caption">
18273
18274 <s>A—CAKES. B—BUNDLES OF FAGGOTS. C—FURNACES.</s>
18275 </p>
18276 <p type="head">
18277
18278 <s>END OF BOOK VIII.</s>
18279 </p>
18280 <pb></pb>
18281 <figure></figure>
18282 <pb></pb>
18283 <p type="head">
18284
18285 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>BOOK IX.<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
18286 </p>
18287 <p type="main">
18288
18289 <s>Since I have written of the varied work of pre­<lb></lb>paring the ores, I
18290 will now write of the various <lb></lb>methods of smelting them. </s>
18291
18292 <s>Although those who <lb></lb>burn, roast and calcine<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> the ore, take from it some­<lb></lb>thing which is mixed or
18293 combined with the metals; <lb></lb>and those who crush it with stamps take away
18294 much; <lb></lb>and those who wash, screen and sort it, take away <lb></lb>still
18295 more; yet they cannot remove all which con­<lb></lb>ceals the metal from the
18296 eye and renders it crude <lb></lb>and unformed. </s>
18297
18298 <s>Wherefore smelting is necessary, for by this means earths, <lb></lb>solidified
18299 juices, and stones are separated from the metals so that they <lb></lb>obtain
18300 their proper colour and become pure, and may be of great use to <lb></lb>mankind
18301 in many ways. </s>
18302
18303 <s>When the ore is smelted, those things which <lb></lb>were mixed with the metal
18304 before it was melted are driven forth, because <lb></lb>the metal is perfected
18305 by fire in this manner. </s>
18306
18307 <s>Since metalliferous ores <lb></lb>differ greatly amongst themselves, first as to
18308 the metals which they con­<lb></lb>tain, then as to the quantity of the
18309 metal which is in them, and then by <lb></lb>the fact that some are rapidly
18310 melted by fire and others slowly, there are, <lb></lb>therefore, many methods of
18311 smelting. </s>
18312
18313 <s>Constant practice has taught the <lb></lb><pb pagenum="354"></pb>smelters by which of
18314 these methods they can obtain the most metal from <lb></lb>any one ore. </s>
18315
18316 <s>Moreover, while sometimes there are many methods of <lb></lb>smelting the same
18317 ore, by which an equal weight of metal is melted out, yet <lb></lb>one is done
18318 at a greater cost and labour than the others. </s>
18319
18320 <s>Ore is either melted <lb></lb>with a furnace or without one; if smelted with a
18321 furnace the tap-hole is either <lb></lb>temporarily closed or always open, and
18322 if smelted without a furnace, it is done <lb></lb>either in pots or in trenches. </s>
18323
18324 <s>But in order to make this matter clearer, I will <lb></lb>describe each in
18325 detail, beginning with the buildings and the furnaces.</s>
18326 </p>
18327 <pb pagenum="355"></pb>
18328 <p type="main">
18329
18330 <s>A wall which will be called the “second wall” is constructed of
18331 brick <lb></lb>or stone, two feet and as many palms thick, in order that it may
18332 be strong <lb></lb>enough to bear the weight. </s>
18333
18334 <s>It is built fifteen feet high, and its length depends <lb></lb>on the number of
18335 furnaces which are put in the works; there are usually <lb></lb>six furnaces,
18336 rarely more, and often less. </s>
18337
18338 <s>There are three furnace walls, a <lb></lb>back one which is against the
18339 “second” wall, and two side ones, of which I <lb></lb>will speak
18340 later. </s>
18341
18342 <s>These should be made of natural stone, as this is more <lb></lb>serviceable than
18343 burnt bricks, because bricks soon become defective and <lb></lb>crumble away,
18344 when the smelter or his deputy chips off the accretions which <lb></lb>adhere to
18345 the walls when the ore is smelted. </s>
18346
18347 <s>Natural stone resists injury <lb></lb>by the fire and lasts a long time,
18348 especially that which is soft and devoid <lb></lb>of cracks; but, on the
18349 contrary, that which is hard and has many cracks <lb></lb>is burst asunder by
18350 the fire and destroyed. </s>
18351
18352 <s>For this reason, furnaces which <lb></lb>are made of the latter are easily
18353 weakened by the fire, and when the accretions <lb></lb>are chipped off they
18354 crumble to pieces. </s>
18355
18356 <s>The front furnace wall should be <lb></lb>made of brick, and there should be in
18357 the lower part a mouth three palms <lb></lb>wide and one and a half feet high,
18358 when the hearth is completed. </s>
18359
18360 <s>A hole <lb></lb>slanting upward, three palms long, is made through the back
18361 furnace wall, at <lb></lb>the height of a cubit, before the hearth has been
18362 prepared; through this <lb></lb>hole and a hole one foot long in the
18363 “second” wall—as the back of this wall <lb></lb>has an
18364 arch—is inserted a pipe of iron or bronze, in which are fixed the
18365 nozzles <pb pagenum="356"></pb>of the bellows. </s>
18366
18367 <s>The whole of the front furnace wall is not more than five feet <lb></lb>high, so
18368 that the ore may be conveniently put into the furnace, together with
18369 <lb></lb>those things which the master needs for his work of smelting. </s>
18370
18371 <s>Both the side <lb></lb>walls of the furnace are six feet high, and the back one
18372 seven feet, and they <lb></lb>are three palms thick. </s>
18373
18374 <s>The interior of the furnace is five palms wide, six <lb></lb>palms and a digit
18375 long, the width being measured by the space which lies <lb></lb>between the two
18376 side walls, and the length by the space between the front and <lb></lb>the back
18377 walls; however, the upper part of the furnace widens out somewhat.</s>
18378 </p>
18379 <p type="main">
18380
18381 <s>There are two doors in the second wall if there are six furnaces, one <lb></lb>of
18382 the doors being between the second and third furnaces and the other
18383 <lb></lb>between the fourth and fifth furnaces. </s>
18384
18385 <s>They are a cubit wide and six feet <lb></lb>high, in order that the smelters may
18386 not have mishaps in coming and going. <lb></lb></s>
18387
18388 <s>It is necessary to have a door to the right of the first furnace, and
18389 similarly <lb></lb>one to the left of the last, whether the wall is longer or
18390 not. </s>
18391
18392 <s>The second <lb></lb>wall is carried further when the rooms for the cupellation
18393 furnaces, or any <lb></lb>other building, adjoin the rooms for the blast
18394 furnaces, these buildings being <lb></lb>only divided by a partition. </s>
18395
18396 <s>The smelter, and the ones who attend to the <lb></lb>first and the last furnaces,
18397 if they wish to look at the bellows or to do anything <lb></lb>else, go out
18398 through the doors at the end of the wall, and the other people go
18399 <lb></lb>through the other doors, which are the common ones. </s>
18400
18401 <s>The furnaces are placed <lb></lb>at a distance of six feet from one another, in
18402 order that the smelters and their <lb></lb>assistants may more easily sustain
18403 the fierceness of the heat. </s>
18404
18405 <s>Inasmuch as <lb></lb>the interior of each furnace is five palms wide and each is
18406 six feet distant <lb></lb>from the other, and inasmuch as there is a space of
18407 four feet three palms at <lb></lb>the right side of the first furnace and as
18408 much at the left side of the last <lb></lb>furnace, and there are to be six
18409 furnaces in one building, then it is necessary <lb></lb>to make the second wall
18410 fifty-two feet long; because the total of the widths <lb></lb>of all of the
18411 furnaces is seven and a half feet, the total of the spaces between <lb></lb>the
18412 furnaces is thirty feet, the space on the outer sides of the first and last
18413 <lb></lb>furnaces is nine feet and two palms, and the thickness of the two
18414 transverse <lb></lb>walls is five feet, which make a total measurement of
18415 fifty-two feet.<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
18416 </p>
18417 <p type="main">
18418
18419 <s>Outside each furnace hearth there is a small pit full of powder which is
18420 <lb></lb>compressed by ramming, and in this manner is made the forehearth which
18421 <lb></lb>receives the metal flowing from the furnaces. </s>
18422
18423 <s>Of this I will speak later.</s>
18424 </p>
18425 <p type="main">
18426
18427 <s>Buried about a cubit under the forehearth and the hearth of the furnace
18428 <lb></lb>is a transverse water-tank, three feet long, three palms wide and a
18429 cubit deep. <lb></lb></s>
18430
18431 <s>It is made of stone or brick, with a stone cover, for if it were not covered,
18432 the <lb></lb>heat would draw the moisture from below and the vapour might be
18433 blown <lb></lb>into the hearth of the furnace as well as into the forehearth,
18434 and would <lb></lb>dampen the blast. </s>
18435
18436 <s>The moisture would vitiate the blast, and part of the <lb></lb>metal would be
18437 absorbed and part would be mixed with the slags, and in <lb></lb>this manner the
18438 melting would be greatly damaged. </s>
18439
18440 <s>From each water-tank <lb></lb>is built a walled vent, to the same depth as the
18441 tank, but six digits wide; </s>
18442 </p>
18443 <pb pagenum="357"></pb>
18444 <figure></figure>
18445 <p type="caption">
18446
18447 <s>A—FURNACES. B—FOREHEARTHS.<pb pagenum="358"></pb>this vent slopes
18448 upward, and sooner or later penetrates through to the other <lb></lb>side of the
18449 wall, against which the furnace is built. </s>
18450
18451 <s>At the end of this vent <lb></lb>there is an opening where the steam, into which
18452 the water has been converted, <lb></lb>is exhausted through a copper or iron
18453 tube or pipe. </s>
18454
18455 <s>This method of making <lb></lb>the tank and the vent is much the best. </s>
18456
18457 <s>Another kind has a similar vent <lb></lb>but a different tank, for it does not
18458 lie transversely under the forehearth, <lb></lb>but lengthwise; it is two feet
18459 and a palm long, and a foot and three palms <lb></lb>wide, and a foot and a palm
18460 deep. </s>
18461
18462 <s>This method of making tanks is not <lb></lb>condemned by us, as is the
18463 construction of those tanks without a vent; <lb></lb>the latter, which have no
18464 opening into the air through which the vapour may <lb></lb>discharge freely, are
18465 indeed to be condemned.</s>
18466 </p>
18467 <figure></figure>
18468 <p type="caption">
18469
18470 <s>A—FURNACES. B—FOREHEARTH. C—DOOR. D—WATER TANK.
18471 E—STONE WHICH <lb></lb>COVERS IT. F—MATERIAL OF THE VENT WALLS.
18472 G—STONE WHICH COVERS IT. H—PIPE <lb></lb>EXHALING THE VAPOUR.</s>
18473 </p>
18474 <p type="main">
18475
18476 <s>Fifteen feet behind the second wall is constructed the first wall, thirteen
18477 <lb></lb>feet high. </s>
18478
18479 <s>In both of these are fixed roof beams<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, which are a foot wide and <pb pagenum="359"></pb><figure id="fig3"></figure><pb pagenum="360"></pb>thick, and nineteen feet and a palm long; these are
18480 placed three feet distant <lb></lb>from one another. </s>
18481
18482 <s>As the second wall is two feet higher than the first wall, <lb></lb>recesses are
18483 cut in the back of it two feet high, one foot wide, and a palm deep,
18484 <lb></lb>and in these recesses, as it were in mortises, are placed one end of
18485 each of <lb></lb>the beams. </s>
18486
18487 <s>Into these ends are mortised the bottoms of just as many posts; <lb></lb>these
18488 posts are twenty-four feet high, three palms wide and thick, and from
18489 <lb></lb>the tops of the posts the same number of rafters stretch downward to
18490 the <lb></lb>ends of the beams superimposed on the first wall; the upper ends of
18491 the <lb></lb>rafters are mortised into the posts and the lower ends are mortised
18492 into the <lb></lb>ends of the beams laid on the first wall; the rafters support
18493 the roof, <lb></lb>which consists of burnt tiles. </s>
18494
18495 <s>Each separate rafter is propped up by a <lb></lb>separate timber, which is a
18496 cross-beam, and is joined to its post. </s>
18497
18498 <s>Planks <lb></lb>close together are affixed to the posts above the furnaces; these
18499 planks are <lb></lb>about two digits thick and a palm wide, and they, together
18500 with the wicker <lb></lb>work interposed between the timbers, are covered with
18501 lute so that there may <lb></lb>be no risk of fire to the timbers and
18502 wicker-work. </s>
18503
18504 <s>In this practical manner <lb></lb>is constructed the back part of the works,
18505 which contains the bellows, their <lb></lb>frames, the mechanism for compressing
18506 the bellows, and the instrument for <lb></lb>distending them, of all of which I
18507 will speak hereafter.</s>
18508 </p>
18509 <p type="main">
18510
18511 <s>In front of the furnaces is constructed the third long wall and likewise
18512 <lb></lb>the fourth. </s>
18513
18514 <s>Both are nine feet high, but of the same length and thickness as <lb></lb>the
18515 other two, the fourth being nine feet distant from the third; the <lb></lb>third
18516 is twenty-one and a half feet from the second. </s>
18517
18518 <s>At a distance of <lb></lb>twelve feet from the second wall, four posts seven and
18519 a half feet high, a cubit <lb></lb>wide and thick, are set upon rock laid
18520 underneath. </s>
18521
18522 <s>Into the tops of the <lb></lb>posts the roof beam is mortised; this roof beam is
18523 two feet and as many <lb></lb>palms longer than the distance between the second
18524 and the fifth transverse <lb></lb>walls, in order that its ends may rest on the
18525 transverse walls. </s>
18526
18527 <s>If there should <lb></lb>not be so long a beam at hand, two are substituted for
18528 it. </s>
18529
18530 <s>As the length of <lb></lb>the long beam is as above, and as the posts are
18531 equidistant, it is necessary <lb></lb>that the posts should be a distance of
18532 nine feet, one palm, two and two-fifths <lb></lb>digits from each other, and the
18533 end ones this distance from the transverse <lb></lb>walls. </s>
18534
18535 <s>On this longitudinal beam and to the third and fourth walls are fixed
18536 <lb></lb>twelve secondary beams twenty-four feet long, one foot wide, three
18537 palms <lb></lb>thick, and distant from each other three feet, one palm, and two
18538 digits. </s>
18539
18540 <s>In <lb></lb>these secondary beams, where they rest on the longitudinal beams, are
18541 mortised <lb></lb>the ends of the same number of rafters as there are posts
18542 which stand on the <lb></lb>second wall. </s>
18543
18544 <s>The ends of the rafters do not reach to the tops of the posts, <lb></lb>but are
18545 two feet away from them, that through this opening, which is like <lb></lb>the
18546 open part of a forge, the furnaces can emit their fumes. </s>
18547
18548 <s>In order that <lb></lb>the rafters should not fall down, they are supported
18549 partly by iron rods, <lb></lb>which extend from each rafter to the opposite
18550 post, and partly supported <lb></lb>by a few tie-beams, which in the same manner
18551 extend from some rafters to <lb></lb>the posts opposite, and give them
18552 stability. </s>
18553
18554 <s>To these tie-beams, as well as <lb></lb>to the rafters which face the posts, a
18555 number of boards, about two digits thick <lb></lb>and a palm wide, are fixed at
18556 a distance of a palm from each other, and are <pb pagenum="361"></pb>covered
18557 with lute so that they do not catch fire. </s>
18558
18559 <s>In the secondary beams, <lb></lb>where they are laid on the fourth wall, are
18560 mortised the lower ends of the <lb></lb>same number of rafters as those in a set
18561 of rafters<emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> opposite them. </s>
18562
18563 <s>From <lb></lb>the third long wall these rafters are joined and tied to the ends
18564 of the opposite <lb></lb>rafters, so that they may not slip, and besides they
18565 are strengthened with <lb></lb>substructures which are made of cross and oblique
18566 timbers. </s>
18567
18568 <s>The rafters <lb></lb>support the roof.</s>
18569 </p>
18570 <figure></figure>
18571 <p type="caption">
18572
18573 <s>THE FOUR LONG WALLS: A—FIRST. B—SECOND. C—THIRD.
18574 D—FOURTH. THE <lb></lb>SEVEN TRANSVERSE WALLS: E—FIRST.
18575 F—SECOND. G—THIRD. H—FOURTH. <lb></lb>I—FIFTH.
18576 K—SIXTH. L—SEVENTH, OR MIDDLE.</s>
18577 </p>
18578 <p type="main">
18579
18580 <s>In this manner the front part of the building is made, and is divided into
18581 <lb></lb>three parts; the first part is twelve feet wide and is under the hood,
18582 which <lb></lb>consists of two walls, one vertical and one inclined. </s>
18583
18584 <s>The second part is the <lb></lb>same number of feet wide and is for the reception
18585 of the ore to be smelted, <lb></lb>the fluxes, the charcoal, and other things
18586 which are needed by the smelter. <lb></lb></s>
18587
18588 <s>The third part is nine feet wide and contains two separate rooms of equal
18589 <lb></lb>size, in one of which is the assay furnace, while the other contains
18590 the metal <lb></lb>to be melted in the cupellation furnaces. </s>
18591
18592 <s>It is thus necessary that in the <pb pagenum="362"></pb>building there should be,
18593 besides the four long walls, seven transverse walls, <lb></lb>of which the first
18594 is constructed from the upper end of the first long wall to <lb></lb>the upper
18595 end of the second long wall; the second proceeds from the end <lb></lb>of this
18596 to the end of the third long wall; the third likewise from this end of
18597 <lb></lb>the last extends to the end of the fourth long wall; the fourth leads
18598 from <lb></lb>the lower end of the first long wall to the lower end of the
18599 second long wall; <lb></lb>the fifth extends from the end of this to the end of
18600 the third long wall; the <lb></lb>sixth extends from this last end to the end of
18601 the fourth long wall; the <lb></lb>seventh divides into two parts the space
18602 between the third and fourth long <lb></lb>walls.</s>
18603 </p>
18604 <p type="main">
18605
18606 <s>To return to the back part of the building, in which, as I said, are the
18607 <lb></lb>bellows<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, their frames, the
18608 machinery for compressing them, and the instru­<lb></lb>ment for distending
18609 them. </s>
18610
18611 <s>Each bellows consists of a body and a head. <lb></lb></s>
18612
18613 <s>The body is composed of two “boards,” two bows, and two hides. </s>
18614
18615 <s>The <lb></lb>upper board is a palm thick, five feet and three palms long, and two
18616 and a half <lb></lb>feet wide at the back part, where each of the sides is a
18617 little curved, and it is <lb></lb>a cubit wide at the front part near the head. </s>
18618
18619 <s>The whole of the body of the <lb></lb>bellows tapers toward the head. </s>
18620
18621 <s>That which we now call the “board” <lb></lb>consists of two pieces of
18622 pine, joined and glued together, and of two strips of <lb></lb>linden wood which
18623 bind the edges of the board, these being seven digits <lb></lb>wide at the back,
18624 and in front near the head of the bellows one and a half <lb></lb>digits wide. </s>
18625
18626 <s>These strips are glued to the boards, so that there shall be less <lb></lb>damage
18627 from the iron nails driven through the hide. </s>
18628
18629 <s>There are some people <lb></lb>who do not surround the boards with strips, but
18630 use boards only, which <lb></lb>are very thick. </s>
18631
18632 <s>The upper board has an aperture and a handle; the <lb></lb>aperture is in the
18633 middle of the board and is one foot three palms distant <lb></lb>from where the
18634 board joins the head of the bellows, and is six digits long and <lb></lb>four
18635 wide. </s>
18636
18637 <s>The lid for this aperture is two palms and a digit long and wide, <lb></lb>and
18638 three digits thick; toward the back of the lid is a little notch cut
18639 <lb></lb>into the surface so that it may be caught by the hand; a groove is cut
18640 out <lb></lb>of the top of the front and sides, so that it may engage in
18641 mouldings a palm <lb></lb>wide and three digits thick, which are also cut out in
18642 a similar manner under <lb></lb>the edges. </s>
18643
18644 <s>Now, when the lid is drawn forward the hole is closed, and <lb></lb>when drawn
18645 back it is opened; the smelter opens the aperture a little so that <lb></lb>the
18646 air may escape from the bellows through it, if he fears the hides might be
18647 <lb></lb>burst when the bellows are too vigorously and quickly inflated; he,
18648 however, <lb></lb>closes the aperture if the hides are ruptured and the air
18649 escapes. </s>
18650
18651 <s>Others <lb></lb>perforate the upper board with two or three round holes in the
18652 same place as <lb></lb>the rectangular one, and they insert plugs in them which
18653 they draw out <pb pagenum="363"></pb>when it is necessary. </s>
18654
18655 <s>The wooden handle is seven palms long, or even longer, <lb></lb>in order that it
18656 may extend outside; one-half of this handle, two palms <lb></lb>wide and one
18657 thick, is glued to the end of the board and fastened with pegs <lb></lb>covered
18658 with glue; the other half projects beyond the board, and is rounded <lb></lb>and
18659 seven digits thick. </s>
18660
18661 <s>Besides this, to the handle and to the board is fixed <lb></lb>a cleat two feet
18662 long, as many palms wide and one palm thick, and to the under <lb></lb>side of
18663 the same board, at a distance of three palms from the end, is fixed
18664 <lb></lb>another cleat two feet long, in order that the board may sustain the
18665 force <lb></lb>of distension and compression; these two cleats are glued to the
18666 board, and <lb></lb>are fastened to it with pegs covered with glue.</s>
18667 </p>
18668 <p type="main">
18669
18670 <s>The lower bellows-board, like the upper, is made of two pieces of pine
18671 <lb></lb>and of two strips of linden wood, all glued together; it is of the same
18672 width <lb></lb>and thickness as the upper board, but is a cubit longer, this
18673 extension being <lb></lb>part of the head of which I have more to say a little
18674 later. </s>
18675
18676 <s>This lower bellows­<lb></lb>board has an air-hole and an iron ring. </s>
18677
18678 <s>The air-hole is about a cubit distant <lb></lb>from the posterior end, and it is
18679 midway between the sides of the bellows­<lb></lb>board, and is a foot long
18680 and three palms wide; it is divided into equal <lb></lb>parts by a small rib
18681 which forms part of the board, and is not cut from it; <lb></lb>this rib is a
18682 palm long and one-third of a digit wide. </s>
18683
18684 <s>The flap of the air­<lb></lb>hole is a foot and three digits long, three
18685 palms and as many digits wide; <lb></lb>it is a thin board covered with goat
18686 skin, the hairy part of which is turned <lb></lb>toward the ground. </s>
18687
18688 <s>There is fixed to one end of the flap, with small iron <lb></lb>nails, one-half
18689 of a doubled piece of leather a palm wide and as long as the <lb></lb>flap is
18690 wide; the other half of the leather, which is behind the flap, is twice
18691 <lb></lb>perforated, as is also the bellows-board, and these perforations are
18692 seven <lb></lb>digits apart. </s>
18693
18694 <s>Passing through these a string is tied on the under side of the <lb></lb>board;
18695 and thus the flap when tied to the board does not fall away. </s>
18696
18697 <s>In this <lb></lb>manner are made the flap and the air-hole, so when the bellows
18698 are distended <lb></lb>the flap opens, when compressed it closes. </s>
18699
18700 <s>At a distance of about a foot <lb></lb>beyond the air-hole a slightly elliptical
18701 iron ring, two palms long and one <lb></lb>wide, is fastened by means of an iron
18702 staple to the under part of the bellows­<lb></lb>board; it is at a distance
18703 of three palms from the back of the bellows. </s>
18704
18705 <s>In <lb></lb>order that the lower bellows-board may remain stationary, a wooden
18706 bolt is <lb></lb>driven into the ring, after it penetrates through the hole in
18707 the transverse <lb></lb>supporting plank which forms part of the frame for the
18708 bellows. </s>
18709
18710 <s>There are <lb></lb>some who dispense with the ring and fasten the bellows-board
18711 to the frame <lb></lb>with two iron screws something like nails.</s>
18712 </p>
18713 <p type="main">
18714
18715 <s>The bows are placed between the two boards and are of the same length <lb></lb>as
18716 the upper board. </s>
18717
18718 <s>They are both made of four pieces of linden wood three <lb></lb>digits thick, of
18719 which the two long ones are seven digits wide at the back and <lb></lb>two and a
18720 half at the front; the third piece, which is at the back, is two <lb></lb>palms
18721 wide. </s>
18722
18723 <s>The ends of the bows are a little more than a digit thick, and are
18724 <lb></lb>mortised to the long pieces, and both having been bored through, wooden
18725 <lb></lb>pegs covered with glue are fixed in the holes; they are thus joined and
18726 glued <lb></lb>to the long pieces. </s>
18727
18728 <s>Each of the ends is bowed (<emph type="italics"></emph>arcuatur<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>) to meet the end of <lb></lb>the long part of the bow,
18729 whence its name “bow” originated. </s>
18730
18731 <s>The fourth <pb pagenum="364"></pb>piece keeps the ends of the bow distended, and
18732 is placed a cubit distant from <lb></lb>the head of the bellows; the ends of
18733 this piece are mortised into the ends <lb></lb>of the bow and are joined and
18734 glued to them; its length without the tenons <lb></lb>is a foot, and its width a
18735 palm and two digits. </s>
18736
18737 <s>There are, besides, two other <lb></lb>very small pieces glued to the head of the
18738 bellows and to the lower board, <lb></lb>and fastened to them by wooden pegs
18739 covered with glue, and they are three <lb></lb>palms and two digits long, one
18740 palm high, and a digit thick, one half being <lb></lb>slightly cut away. </s>
18741
18742 <s>These pieces keep the ends of the bow away from the <lb></lb>hole in the
18743 bellows-head, for if they were not there, the ends, forced inward <lb></lb>by
18744 the great and frequent movement, would be broken.</s>
18745 </p>
18746 <p type="main">
18747
18748 <s>The leather is of ox-hide or horse-hide, but that of the ox is far preferable
18749 <lb></lb>to that of the horse. </s>
18750
18751 <s>Each of these hides, for there are two, is three and a <lb></lb>half feet wide
18752 where they are joined at the back part of the bellows. </s>
18753
18754 <s>A <lb></lb>long leathern thong is laid along each of the bellows-boards and each
18755 of the <lb></lb>bows, and fastened by T-shaped iron nails five digits long; each
18756 of the <lb></lb>horns of the nails is two and a half digits long and half a
18757 digit wide. </s>
18758
18759 <s>The <lb></lb>hide is attached to the bellows-boards by means of these nails, so
18760 that a horn <lb></lb>of one nail almost touches the horn of the next; but it is
18761 different with the <lb></lb>bows, for the hide is fastened to the back piece of
18762 the bow by only two nails, <lb></lb>and to the two long pieces by four nails. </s>
18763
18764 <s>In this practical manner they put <lb></lb>ten nails in one bow and the same
18765 number in the other. </s>
18766
18767 <s>Sometimes when the <lb></lb>smelter is afraid that the vigorous motion of the
18768 bellows may pull or tear <lb></lb>the hide from the bows, he also fastens it
18769 with little strips of pine by means of <lb></lb>another kind of nail, but these
18770 strips cannot be fastened to the back pieces of <lb></lb>the bow, because these
18771 are somewhat bent. </s>
18772
18773 <s>Some people do not fix the <lb></lb>hide to the bellows-boards and bows by iron
18774 nails, but by iron screws, <lb></lb>screwed at the same time through strips laid
18775 over the hide. </s>
18776
18777 <s>This method <lb></lb>of fastening the hide is less used than the other, although
18778 there is no doubt <lb></lb>that it surpasses it in excellence.</s>
18779 </p>
18780 <p type="main">
18781
18782 <s>Lastly, the head of the bellows, like the rest of the body, consists of two
18783 <lb></lb>boards, and of a nozzle besides. </s>
18784
18785 <s>The upper board is one cubit long, one and a <lb></lb>half palms thick. </s>
18786
18787 <s>The lower board is part of the whole of the lower bellows­<lb></lb>board; it
18788 is of the same length as the upper piece, but a palm and a digit <lb></lb>thick. </s>
18789
18790 <s>From these two glued together is made the head, into which, when it <lb></lb>has
18791 been perforated, the nozzle is fixed. </s>
18792
18793 <s>The back part of the head, where <lb></lb>it is attached to the rest of the
18794 bellows-body, is a cubit wide, but three palms <lb></lb>forward it becomes two
18795 digits narrower. </s>
18796
18797 <s>Afterward it is somewhat cut <lb></lb>away so that the front end may be rounded,
18798 until it is two palms and as <lb></lb>many digits in diameter, at which point it
18799 is bound with an iron ring three <lb></lb>digits wide.</s>
18800 </p>
18801 <p type="main">
18802
18803 <s>The nozzle is a pipe made of a thin plate of iron; the diameter in front is
18804 <lb></lb>three digits, while at the back, where it is encased in the head of the
18805 bellows, <lb></lb>it is a palm high and two palms wide. </s>
18806
18807 <s>It thus gradually widens out, especially <lb></lb>at the back, in order that a
18808 copious wind can penetrate into it; the whole <lb></lb>nozzle is three feet
18809 long.</s>
18810 </p>
18811 <pb></pb>
18812 <figure></figure>
18813 <p type="caption">
18814
18815 <s>A—UPPER BELLOWS-BOARD. B—LOWER BELLOWS-BOARD. C—THE TWO
18816 PIECES OF WOOD <lb></lb>OF WHICH EACH CONSISTS. D—POSTERIOR ARCHED PART OF
18817 EACH. E—TAPERED FRONT <lb></lb>PART OF EACH. F—PIECES OF LINDEN
18818 WOOD. G—APERTURE IN THE UPPER BOARD. <lb></lb>H—LID. I—LITTLE
18819 MOULDINGS OF WOOD. K—HANDLE. L—CLEAT ON THE OUTSIDE. <lb></lb>THE
18820 CLEAT INSIDE I AM NOT ABLE TO DEPICT. M—INTERIOR OF THE LOWER
18821 BELLOWS­<lb></lb>BOARD. N—PART OF THE HEAD. O—AIR-HOLE.
18822 P—SUPPORTING BAR. Q—FLAP. <lb></lb>R—HIDE. S—THONG.
18823 T—EXTERIOR OF THE LOWER BOARD. V—STAPLE. X—RING.
18824 <lb></lb>Y—BOW. Z—ITS LONG PIECES. AA—BACK PIECE OF THE BOW.
18825 BB—THE BOWED <lb></lb>ENDS. CC—CROSSBAR DISTENDING THE BOW.
18826 DD—THE TWO LITTLE PIECES. <lb></lb>EE—HIDE. FF—NAIL.
18827 GG—HORN OF THE NAIL. HH—A SCREW. II—LONG THONG.
18828 <lb></lb>KK—HEAD. LL—ITS LOWER BOARD. MM—ITS UPPER BOARD.
18829 NN—NOZZLE. <lb></lb><gap></gap></s>
18830 </p>
18831 <pb pagenum="366"></pb>
18832 <p type="main">
18833
18834 <s>The upper bellows-board is joined to the head of the bellows in the
18835 <lb></lb>following way. </s>
18836
18837 <s>An iron plate<emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, a palm wide and one
18838 and a half palms long, <lb></lb>is first fastened to the head at a distance of
18839 three digits from the end; from <lb></lb>this plate there projects a piece three
18840 digits long and two wide, curved <lb></lb>in a small circle. </s>
18841
18842 <s>The other side has a similar plate. </s>
18843
18844 <s>Then in the same <lb></lb>part of the upper board are fixed two other iron
18845 plates, distant two digits <lb></lb>from the edge, each of which are six digits
18846 wide and seven long; in each <lb></lb>of these plates the middle part is cut
18847 away for a little more than three <lb></lb>digits in length and for two in
18848 depth, so that the curved part of the plates <lb></lb>on the head corresponding
18849 to them may fit into this cut out part. </s>
18850
18851 <s>From <lb></lb>both sides of each plate there project pieces, three digits long
18852 and two <lb></lb>digits wide, similarly curved into small circles. </s>
18853
18854 <s>A little iron pin is passed <lb></lb>through these curved pieces of the plates,
18855 like a little axle, so that the upper <lb></lb>board of the bellows may turn
18856 upon it. </s>
18857
18858 <s>The little axle is six digits long and a <lb></lb>little more than a digit thick,
18859 and a small groove is cut out of the upper <lb></lb>board, where the plates are
18860 fastened to it, in such a manner that the little axle <lb></lb>when fixed to the
18861 plates may not fall out. </s>
18862
18863 <s>Both plates fastened to the <lb></lb>bellows-board are affixed by four iron
18864 nails, of which the heads are on the <lb></lb>inner part of the board, whereas
18865 the points, clinched at the top, are <lb></lb>transformed into heads, so to
18866 speak. </s>
18867
18868 <s>Each of the other plates is fastened <lb></lb>to the head of the bellows by means
18869 of a nail with a wide head, and by two <lb></lb>other nails of which the heads
18870 are on the edge of the bellows-head. </s>
18871
18872 <s>Midway <lb></lb>between the two plates on the bellows-board there remains a space
18873 two <lb></lb>palms wide, which is covered by an iron plate fastened to the board
18874 by <lb></lb>little nails; and another plate corresponding to this is fastened to
18875 the head <lb></lb>between the other two plates; they are two palms and the same
18876 number <lb></lb>of digits wide.</s>
18877 </p>
18878 <p type="main">
18879
18880 <s>The hide is common to the head as to all the other parts of the body;
18881 <lb></lb>the plates are covered with it, as well as the front part of the upper
18882 bellows­<lb></lb>board, and both the bows and the back of the head of the
18883 bellows, so that the <lb></lb>wind may not escape from that part of the bellows. </s>
18884
18885 <s>It is three palms and as <lb></lb>many digits wide, and long enough to extend
18886 from one of the sides of the <lb></lb>lower board over the back of the upper; it
18887 is fastened by many T-headed <lb></lb>nails on one side to the upper board, and
18888 on the other side to the head of <lb></lb>the bellows, and both ends are
18889 fastened to the lower bellows-board.</s>
18890 </p>
18891 <p type="main">
18892
18893 <s>In the above manner the bellows is made. </s>
18894
18895 <s>As two are required for each <lb></lb>furnace, it is necessary to have twelve
18896 bellows, if there are to be six furnaces <lb></lb>in one works.</s>
18897 </p>
18898 <p type="main">
18899
18900 <s>Now it is time to describe their framework. </s>
18901
18902 <s>First, two sills a little <lb></lb>shorter than the furnace wall are placed on
18903 the ground. </s>
18904
18905 <s>The front one of <lb></lb>these is three palms wide and thick, and the back one
18906 three palms and two <lb></lb>digits. </s>
18907
18908 <s>The front one is two feet distant from the back wall of the furnace, and
18909 <lb></lb>the back one is six feet three palms distant from the front one. </s>
18910
18911 <s>They are set into <lb></lb>the earth, that they may remain firm; there are some
18912 who accomplish this by <lb></lb>means of pegs which, through several holes,
18913 penetrate deeply into the ground.</s>
18914 </p>
18915 <pb pagenum="367"></pb>
18916 <p type="main">
18917
18918 <s>Then twelve short posts are erected, whose lower ends are mortised into
18919 <lb></lb>the sill that is near the back of the furnace wall; these posts are two
18920 feet <lb></lb>high, exclusive of the tenons, and are three palms and the same
18921 number of <lb></lb>digits wide, and two palms thick. </s>
18922
18923 <s>A slot one and a half palms wide is cut <lb></lb>through them, beginning two
18924 palms from the bottom and extending for a <lb></lb>height of three palms. </s>
18925
18926 <s>All the posts are not placed at the same intervals, the <lb></lb>first being at a
18927 distance of three feet five digits from the second, and likewise <lb></lb>the
18928 third from the fourth, but the second is two feet one palm and three
18929 <lb></lb>digits from the third; the intervals between the other posts are
18930 arranged in <lb></lb>the same manner, equal and unequal, of which each four
18931 pertain to two <lb></lb>furnaces. </s>
18932
18933 <s>The upper ends of these posts are mortised into a transverse <lb></lb>beam which
18934 is twelve feet, two palms, and three digits long, and projects <lb></lb>five
18935 digits beyond the first post and to the same distance beyond the fourth;
18936 <lb></lb>it is two palms and the same number of digits wide, and two palms
18937 thick. <lb></lb></s>
18938
18939 <s>Since each separate transverse beam supports four bellows, it is necessary to
18940 <lb></lb>have three of them.</s>
18941 </p>
18942 <p type="main">
18943
18944 <s>Behind the twelve short posts the same number of higher posts are
18945 <lb></lb>erected, of which each has the middle part of the lower end cut out, so
18946 that <lb></lb>its two resulting lower ends are mortised into the back sill;
18947 these posts, <lb></lb>exclusive of the tenons, are twelve feet and two palms
18948 high, and are five palms <lb></lb>wide and two palms thick. </s>
18949
18950 <s>They are cut out from the bottom upward, the <lb></lb>slot being four feet and
18951 five digits high and six digits wide. </s>
18952
18953 <s>The upper ends of <lb></lb>these posts are mortised into a long beam imposed upon
18954 them; this long <lb></lb>beam is placed close under the timbers which extend
18955 from the wall at the <lb></lb>back of the furnace to the first long wall; the
18956 beam is three palms wide <lb></lb>and two palms thick, and forty-three feet
18957 long. </s>
18958
18959 <s>If such a long one is <lb></lb>not at hand, two or three may be substituted for
18960 it, which when joined together <lb></lb>make up that length. </s>
18961
18962 <s>These higher posts are not placed at equal distances, <lb></lb>but the first is
18963 at a distance of two feet three palms one digit from the second, <lb></lb>and
18964 the third is at the same distance from the fourth; while the second is at a
18965 <lb></lb>distance of one foot three palms and the same number of digits from the
18966 <lb></lb>third, and in the same manner the rest of the posts are arranged at
18967 equal <lb></lb>and unequal intervals. </s>
18968
18969 <s>Moreover, there is in every post, where it faces the <lb></lb>shorter post, a
18970 mortise at a foot and a digit above the slot; in these mortises <lb></lb>of the
18971 four posts is tenoned a timber which itself has four mortises. </s>
18972
18973 <s>Tenons <lb></lb>are enclosed in mortises in order that they may be better joined,
18974 and they <lb></lb>are transfixed with wooden pins. </s>
18975
18976 <s>This timber is thirteen feet three palms <lb></lb>one digit long, and it projects
18977 beyond the first post a distance of two palms <lb></lb>and two digits, and to
18978 the same number of palms and digits beyond the <lb></lb>fourth post. </s>
18979
18980 <s>It is two palms and as many digits wide, and also two palms <lb></lb>thick. </s>
18981
18982 <s>As there are twelve posts it is necessary to have three timbers of this
18983 <lb></lb>kind.</s>
18984 </p>
18985 <p type="main">
18986
18987 <s>On each of these timbers, and on each of the cross-beams which are laid
18988 <lb></lb>upon the shorter posts, are placed four planks, each nine feet long,
18989 two palms <lb></lb>three digits wide, and two palms one digit thick. </s>
18990
18991 <s>The first plank is five feet <lb></lb>one palm one digit distant from the second,
18992 at the front as well as at the back. <pb pagenum="368"></pb>for each separate
18993 plank is placed outside of the posts. </s>
18994
18995 <s>The third is at the <lb></lb>same distance from the fourth, but the second is one
18996 foot and three digits <lb></lb>distant from the third. </s>
18997
18998 <s>In the same manner the rest of the eight planks are <lb></lb>arranged at
18999 intervals, the fifth from the sixth and the seventh from the eighth <lb></lb>are
19000 at the same distances as the first from the second and the third from the
19001 <lb></lb>fourth; the sixth is at the same distance from the seventh as the
19002 second <lb></lb>from the third.</s>
19003 </p>
19004 <p type="main">
19005
19006 <s>Two planks support one transverse plank six feet long, one foot wide, one
19007 <lb></lb>palm thick, placed at a distance of three feet and two palms from the
19008 back <lb></lb>posts. </s>
19009
19010 <s>When there are six of these supporting planks, on each separate one <lb></lb>are
19011 placed two bellows; the lower bellows-boards project a palm beyond
19012 <lb></lb>them. </s>
19013
19014 <s>From each of the bellows-boards an iron ring descends through a hole <lb></lb>in
19015 its supporting plank, and a wooden peg is driven into the ring, so that the
19016 <lb></lb>bellows-board may remain stationary, as I stated above.</s>
19017 </p>
19018 <p type="main">
19019
19020 <s>The two bellows communicate, each by its own plank, to the back of a
19021 <lb></lb>copper pipe in which are set both of the nozzles, and their ends are
19022 tightly </s>
19023 </p>
19024 <figure></figure>
19025 <p type="caption">
19026
19027 <s>A—FRONT SILL. B—BACK SILL. C—FRONT POSTS. D—THEIR
19028 SLOTS. E—BEAM <lb></lb>IMPOSED UPON THEM. F—HIGHER POSTS.
19029 G—THEIR SLOTS. H—BEAM IMPOSED UPON <lb></lb>THEM. I—TIMBER
19030 JOINED IN THE MORTISES OF THE POSTS. K—PLANKS. L—TRANSVERSE
19031 <lb></lb>SUPPORTING PLANKS. M—THE HOLES IN THEM. N—PIPE. O—ITS
19032 FRONT END. P—ITS <lb></lb>REAR END.<pb pagenum="369"></pb>fastened in it. </s>
19033
19034 <s>The pipe is made of a rolled copper or iron plate, a foot and <lb></lb>two palms
19035 and the same number of digits long; the plate is half a digit <lb></lb>thick,
19036 but a digit thick at the back. </s>
19037
19038 <s>The interior of the pipe is three digits <lb></lb>wide, and two and a half digits
19039 high in the front, for it is not absolutely round; <lb></lb>and at the back it
19040 is a foot and two palms and three digits in diameter. </s>
19041
19042 <s>The <lb></lb>plate from which the pipe is made is not entirely joined up, but at
19043 the front <lb></lb>there is left a crack half a digit wide, increasing at the
19044 back to three digits. <lb></lb></s>
19045
19046 <s>This pipe is placed in the hole in the furnace, which, as I said, was in the
19047 <lb></lb>middle of the wall and the arch. </s>
19048
19049 <s>The nozzles of the bellows, placed in this <lb></lb>pipe, are a distance of five
19050 digits from its front end.</s>
19051 </p>
19052 <p type="main">
19053
19054 <s>The levers are of the same number as the bellows, and when depressed <lb></lb>by
19055 the cams of the long axle they compress the bellows. </s>
19056
19057 <s>These levers <lb></lb>are eight feet three palms long, one palm wide and thick,
19058 and the ends are <lb></lb>inserted in the slots of the posts; they project
19059 beyond the front posts to a <lb></lb>distance of two palms, and the same
19060 distance beyond the back posts in order <lb></lb>that each may have its end
19061 depressed by its two cams on the axle. </s>
19062
19063 <s>The <lb></lb>cams not only penetrate into the slots of the back posts, but
19064 project three <lb></lb>digits beyond them. </s>
19065
19066 <s>An iron pin is set in round holes made through both <lb></lb>sides of the slot of
19067 each front post, at three palms and as many digits from the <lb></lb>bottom; the
19068 pin penetrates the lever, which turns about it when depressed <lb></lb>or
19069 raised. </s>
19070
19071 <s>The back of the lever for the length of a cubit is a palm and a <lb></lb>digit
19072 wider than the rest, and is perforated; in this hole is engaged a bar
19073 <lb></lb>six feet and two palms long, three digits wide, and about one and
19074 one-half <lb></lb>digits thick; it is somewhat hooked at the upper end, and
19075 approaches the <lb></lb>handle of the bellows. </s>
19076
19077 <s>Under the lever there is a nail, which penetrates <lb></lb>through a hole in the
19078 bar, so that the lever and bar may move together. </s>
19079
19080 <s>The <lb></lb>bar is perforated in the upper end at a distance of six digits from
19081 the top; <lb></lb>this hole is two palms long and a digit wide, and in it is
19082 engaged the hook of <lb></lb>an iron implement which is a digit thick. </s>
19083
19084 <s>At the upper part this implement <lb></lb>has either a round or square opening,
19085 like a link, and at the lower end is <lb></lb>hooked; the link is two digits
19086 high and wide and the hook is three digits long; <lb></lb>the middle part
19087 between the link and the hook is three palms and two <lb></lb>digits long. </s>
19088
19089 <s>The link of this implement engages either the handle of the <lb></lb>bellows, or
19090 else a large ring which does engage it. </s>
19091
19092 <s>This iron ring is a digit thick, <lb></lb>two palms wide on the inside of the
19093 upper part, and two digits in the <lb></lb>lower part, and this iron ring, not
19094 unlike the first one, engages the <lb></lb>handle of the bellows. </s>
19095
19096 <s>The iron ring either has its narrower part turned <lb></lb>upward, and in it is
19097 engaged the ring of another iron implement, similar <lb></lb>to the first, whose
19098 hook, extending upward, grips the rope fastened to the <lb></lb>iron ring
19099 holding the end of the second lever, of which I will speak <lb></lb>presently;
19100 or else the iron ring grips this lever, and then in its hook is <lb></lb>engaged
19101 the ring of the other implement whose ring engages the handle of the
19102 <lb></lb>bellows, and in this case the rope is dispensed with.</s>
19103 </p>
19104 <p type="main">
19105
19106 <s>Resting on beams fixed in the two walls is a longitudinal beam, at a
19107 <lb></lb>distance of four and a half feet from the back posts; it is two palms
19108 wide, </s>
19109 </p>
19110 <pb pagenum="370"></pb>
19111 <figure></figure>
19112 <p type="caption">
19113
19114 <s>A—LEVER WHICH WHEN DEPRESSED BY MEANS OF A CAM COMPRESSES THE BELLOWS.
19115 <lb></lb>B—SLOTS THROUGH THE POSTS. C—BAR. D—IRON IMPLEMENT
19116 WITH A RECTANGULAR <lb></lb>LINK. E—IRON INSTRUMENT WITH ROUND RING.
19117 F—HANDLE OF BELLOWS. G—UPPER <lb></lb>POST. H—UPPER LEVER.
19118 I—BOX WITH EQUAL SIDES. K—BOX NARROW AT THE <lb></lb>BOTTOM.
19119 L—PEGS DRIVEN INTO THE UPPER LEVER.<lb></lb>one and a half palms thick. </s>
19120
19121 <s>There are mortised into this longitudinal beam <lb></lb>the lower ends of upper
19122 posts three palms wide and two thick, which are six <lb></lb>feet two palms
19123 high, exclusive of their tenons. </s>
19124
19125 <s>The upper ends of these <lb></lb>posts are mortised into an upper longitudinal
19126 beam, which lies close under <lb></lb>the rafters of the building; this upper
19127 longitudinal beam is two palms <lb></lb>wide and one thick. </s>
19128
19129 <s>The upper posts have a slot cut out upward from a <lb></lb>point two feet from
19130 the bottom, and the slot is two feet high and six digits <lb></lb>wide. </s>
19131
19132 <s>Through these upper posts a round hole is bored from one side to <lb></lb>the
19133 other at a point three feet one palm from the bottom, and a small iron axle
19134 <lb></lb>penetrates through the hole and is fastened there. </s>
19135
19136 <s>Around this small iron <lb></lb>axle turns the second lever when it is depressed
19137 and raised. </s>
19138
19139 <s>This lever is <lb></lb>eight feet long, and its other end is three digits wider
19140 than the rest of the <lb></lb>lever; at this widest point is a hole two digits
19141 wide and three high, in which <lb></lb>is fixed an iron ring, to which is tied
19142 the rope I have mentioned; it is five <lb></lb>palms long, its upper loop is two
19143 palms and as many digits wide, and the <pb pagenum="371"></pb>lower one is one
19144 palm one digit wide. </s>
19145
19146 <s>This half of the second lever, the end <lb></lb>of which I have just mentioned,
19147 is three palms high and one wide; it projects <lb></lb>three feet beyond the
19148 slot of the post on which it turns; the other end, which <lb></lb>faces the back
19149 wall of the furnaces, is one foot and a palm high and a foot wide.</s>
19150 </p>
19151 <p type="main">
19152
19153 <s>On this part of the lever stands and is fixed a box three and a half feet
19154 <lb></lb>long, one foot and one palm wide, and half a foot deep; but these
19155 measure­<lb></lb>ments vary; sometimes the bottom of this box is narrower,
19156 sometimes <lb></lb>equal in width to the top. </s>
19157
19158 <s>In either case, it is filled with stones and earth <lb></lb>to make it heavy, but
19159 the smelters have to be on their guard and <lb></lb>make provision against the
19160 stones falling out, owing to the constant <lb></lb>motion; this is prevented by
19161 means of an iron band which is placed over <lb></lb>the top, both ends being
19162 wedge-shaped and driven into the lever so that the <lb></lb>stones can be held
19163 in. </s>
19164
19165 <s>Some people, in place of the box, drive four or more <lb></lb>pegs into the lever
19166 and put mud between them, the required amount being <lb></lb>added to the weight
19167 or taken away from it.</s>
19168 </p>
19169 <p type="main">
19170
19171 <s>There remains to be considered the method of using this machine. </s>
19172
19173 <s>The <lb></lb>lower lever, being depressed by the cams, compresses the bellows,
19174 and the <lb></lb>compression drives the air through the nozzle. </s>
19175
19176 <s>Then the weight of the box <lb></lb>on the other end of the upper lever raises
19177 the upper bellows-board, and the <lb></lb>air is drawn in, entering through the
19178 air-hole.</s>
19179 </p>
19180 <p type="main">
19181
19182 <s>The machine whose cams depress the lower lever is made as follows. <lb></lb></s>
19183
19184 <s>First there is an axle, on whose end outside the building is a water-wheel;
19185 <lb></lb>at the other end, which is inside the building, is a drum made of
19186 rundles. <lb></lb></s>
19187
19188 <s>This drum is composed of two double hubs, a foot apart, which are five digits
19189 <lb></lb>thick, the radius all round being a foot and two digits; but they are
19190 double, <lb></lb>because each hub is composed of two discs, equally thick,
19191 fastened together <lb></lb>with wooden pegs glued in. </s>
19192
19193 <s>These hubs are sometimes covered above and <lb></lb>around by iron plates. </s>
19194
19195 <s>The rundles are thirty in number, a foot and two <lb></lb>palms and the same
19196 number of digits long, with each end fastened into a hub; <lb></lb>they are
19197 rounded, three digits in diameter, and the same number of digits <lb></lb>apart. </s>
19198
19199 <s>In this practical manner is made the drum composed of rundles.</s>
19200 </p>
19201 <p type="main">
19202
19203 <s>There is a toothed wheel, two palms and a digit thick, on the end <lb></lb>of
19204 another axle; this wheel is composed of a double disc<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
19205
19206 <s>The inner disc <lb></lb>is composed of four segments a palm thick, everywhere two
19207 palms and a <lb></lb>digit wide. </s>
19208
19209 <s>The outer disc, like the inner, is made of four segments, and is <lb></lb>a palm
19210 and a digit thick; it is not equally wide, but where the head of the
19211 <lb></lb>spokes are inserted it is a foot and a palm and digit wide, while on
19212 each side <lb></lb>of the spokes it becomes a little narrower, until the
19213 narrowest part is only <lb></lb>two palms and the same number of digits wide. </s>
19214
19215 <s>The outer segments are joined <lb></lb>to the inner ones in such a manner that,
19216 on the one hand, an outer segment <lb></lb>ends in the middle of an inner one,
19217 and, on the other hand, the ends of the <lb></lb>inner segments are joined in
19218 the middle of the outer ones; there is no doubt <lb></lb>that by this kind of
19219 joining the wheel is made stronger. </s>
19220
19221 <s>The outer segments <lb></lb>are fastened to the inner by means of a large number
19222 of wooden pegs. </s>
19223
19224 <s>Each </s>
19225 </p>
19226 <pb pagenum="372"></pb>
19227 <figure></figure>
19228 <p type="caption">
19229
19230 <s>A—AXLE. B—WATER-WHEEL. C—DRUM COMPOSED OF RUNDLES.
19231 D—OTHER AXLE. <lb></lb>E—TOOTHED WHEEL. F—ITS SPOKES.
19232 G—ITS SEGMENTS. H—ITS TEETH. I—CAMS <lb></lb>OF THE
19233 AXLE.<lb></lb>segment, measured over its round back, is four feet and three
19234 palms long. <lb></lb></s>
19235
19236 <s>There are four spokes, each two palms wide and a palm and a digit thick;
19237 their <lb></lb>length, excluding the tenons, being two feet and three digits. </s>
19238
19239 <s>One end of the <lb></lb>spoke is mortised into the axle, where it is firmly
19240 fastened with pegs; the <lb></lb>wide part of the other end, in the shape of a
19241 triangle, is mortised into the <lb></lb>outer segment opposite it, keeping the
19242 shape of the same as far as the segment <lb></lb>ascends. </s>
19243
19244 <s>They also are joined together with wooden pegs glued in, and these <lb></lb>pegs
19245 are driven into the spokes under the inner disc. </s>
19246
19247 <s>The parts of the spokes <lb></lb>in the shape of the triangle are on the inside;
19248 the outer part is simple. </s>
19249
19250 <s>This <lb></lb>triangle has two sides equal, the erect ones as is evident, which
19251 are a palm <lb></lb>long; the lower side is not of the same length, but is five
19252 digits long, and a <lb></lb>mortise of the same shape is cut out of the
19253 segments. </s>
19254
19255 <s>The wheel has sixty <lb></lb>teeth, since it is necessary that the rundle drum
19256 should revolve twice while <lb></lb>the toothed wheel revolves once. </s>
19257
19258 <s>The teeth are a foot long, and project one <lb></lb>palm from the inner disc of
19259 the wheel, and three digits from the outer disc; <pb pagenum="373"></pb>they are
19260 a palm wide and two and a half digits thick, and it is necessary <lb></lb>that
19261 they should be three digits apart, as were the rundles.</s>
19262 </p>
19263 <p type="main">
19264
19265 <s>The axle should have a thickness in proportion to the spokes and the
19266 <lb></lb>segments. </s>
19267
19268 <s>As it has two cams to depress each of the levers, it is necessary that
19269 <lb></lb>it should have twenty-four cams, which project beyond it a foot and a
19270 palm and <lb></lb>a digit. </s>
19271
19272 <s>The cams are of almost semicircular shape, of which the widest part is
19273 <lb></lb>three palms and a digit wide, and they are a palm thick; they are
19274 <lb></lb>distributed according to the four sides of the axle, on the upper, the
19275 lower <lb></lb>and the two lateral sides. </s>
19276
19277 <s>The axle has twelve holes, of which the first <lb></lb>penetrates through from
19278 the upper side to the lower, the second from one <lb></lb>lateral side to the
19279 other; the first hole is four feet two palms distant from <lb></lb>the second;
19280 each alternate one of these holes is made in the same direc­<lb></lb>tion,
19281 and they are arranged at equal intervals. </s>
19282
19283 <s>Each single cam must <lb></lb>be opposite another; the first is inserted into the
19284 upper part of the first <lb></lb>hole, the second into the lower part of the
19285 same hole, and so fixed by <lb></lb>pegs that they do not fall out; the third
19286 cam is inserted into that part <lb></lb>of the second hole which is on the right
19287 side, and the fourth into that <lb></lb>part on the left. </s>
19288
19289 <s>In like manner all the cams are inserted into the consecutive <lb></lb>holes, for
19290 which reason it happens that the cams depress the levers of the </s>
19291 </p>
19292 <figure></figure>
19293 <p type="caption">
19294
19295 <s>A—CHARCOAL. B—MORTAR-BOX. C—STAMPS.<pb pagenum="374"></pb>bellows in rotation. </s>
19296
19297 <s>Finally we must not omit to state that this is only one <lb></lb>of many such
19298 axles having cams and a water-wheel.</s>
19299 </p>
19300 <p type="main">
19301
19302 <s>I have arrived thus far with many words, and yet it is not unseasonable
19303 <lb></lb>that I have in this place pursued the subject minutely, since the
19304 smelting of all <lb></lb>the metals, to which I am about to proceed, could not
19305 be undertaken without <lb></lb>it.</s>
19306 </p>
19307 <p type="main">
19308
19309 <s>The ores of gold, silver, copper, and lead, are smelted in a furnace by
19310 <lb></lb>four different methods. </s>
19311
19312 <s>The first method is for the rich ores of gold or silver, <lb></lb>the second for
19313 the mediocre ores, the third for the poor ores, and the fourth <lb></lb>method
19314 is for those ores which contain copper or lead, whether they contain
19315 <lb></lb>precious metals or are wanting in them. </s>
19316
19317 <s>The smelting of the first ores is <lb></lb>performed in the furnace of which the
19318 tap-hole is intermittently closed; the <lb></lb>other three ores are melted in
19319 furnaces of which the tap-holes are always <lb></lb>open.</s>
19320 </p>
19321 <p type="main">
19322
19323 <s>First, I will speak of the manner in which the furnaces are prepared for
19324 <lb></lb>the smelting of the ores, and of the first method of smelting. </s>
19325
19326 <s>The powder <lb></lb>from which the hearth and forehearth should be made is
19327 composed of char­<lb></lb>coal and earth (clay?). The charcoal is crushed by
19328 the stamps in a mortar­<lb></lb>box, the front of which is closed by a board
19329 at the top, while the charcoal, </s>
19330 </p>
19331 <figure></figure>
19332 <p type="caption">
19333
19334 <s>A—TUB. B—SIEVE. C—RODS. D—BENCH-FRAME.<pb pagenum="375"></pb>crushed to powder, is removed through the open part
19335 below; the stamps are <lb></lb>not shod with iron, but are made entirely of
19336 wood, although at the lower <lb></lb>part they are bound round at the wide part
19337 by an iron band.</s>
19338 </p>
19339 <p type="main">
19340
19341 <s>The powder into which the charcoal is crushed is thrown on to a sieve
19342 <lb></lb>whose bottom consists of interwoven withes of wood. </s>
19343
19344 <s>The sieve is drawn <lb></lb>backward and forward over two wooden or iron rods
19345 placed in a triangular <lb></lb>position on a tub, or over a bench-frame set on
19346 the floor of the building; <lb></lb>the powder which falls into the tub or on to
19347 the floor is of suitable size, <lb></lb>but the pieces of small charcoal which
19348 remain in the sieve are emptied out <lb></lb>and thrown back under the
19349 stamps.</s>
19350 </p>
19351 <p type="main">
19352
19353 <s>When the earth is dug up it is first exposed to the sun that it may dry.
19354 <lb></lb></s>
19355
19356 <s>Later on it is thrown with a shovel on to a screen—set up obliquely and
19357 <lb></lb>supported by poles,—made of thick, loosely woven hazel withes,
19358 and in this <lb></lb>way the fine earth and its small lumps pass through the
19359 holes of the screen, but <lb></lb>the clods and stones do not pass through, but
19360 run down to the ground. </s>
19361
19362 <s>The <lb></lb>earth which passes through the screen is conveyed in a two-wheeled
19363 cart to <lb></lb>the works and there sifted. </s>
19364
19365 <s>This sieve, which is not dissimilar to the one </s>
19366 </p>
19367 <figure></figure>
19368 <p type="caption">
19369
19370 <s>A—SCREEN. B—POLES. C—SHOVEL. D—TWO-WHEELED CART.
19371 E—HAND-SIEVE. <lb></lb>F—NARROW BOARDS. G—BOX. H—COVERED
19372 PIT.<pb pagenum="376"></pb>described above, is drawn backward and forward
19373 upon narrow boards of <lb></lb>equal length placed over a long box; the powder
19374 which falls through the <lb></lb>sieve into the box is suitable for the mixture;
19375 the lumps that remain in the <lb></lb>sieve are thrown away by some people, but
19376 by others they are placed under <lb></lb>the stamps. </s>
19377
19378 <s>This powdered earth is mixed with powdered charcoal, moist­<lb></lb>ened, and
19379 thrown into a pit, and in order that it may remain good for a long
19380 <lb></lb>time, the pit is covered up with boards so that the mixture may not
19381 <lb></lb>become contaminated.</s>
19382 </p>
19383 <p type="main">
19384
19385 <s>They take two parts of pulverised charcoal and one part of powdered
19386 <lb></lb>earth, and mix them well together with a rake; the mixture is moistened
19387 by <lb></lb>pouring water over it so that it may easily be made into shapes
19388 resembling <lb></lb>snowballs; if the powder be light it is moistened with more
19389 water, if heavy <lb></lb>with less. </s>
19390
19391 <s>The interior of the new furnace is lined with lute, so that the <lb></lb>cracks
19392 in the walls, if there are any, may be filled up, but especially in order
19393 <lb></lb>to preserve the rock from injury by fire. </s>
19394
19395 <s>In old furnaces in which ore has <lb></lb>been melted, as soon as the rocks have
19396 cooled the assistant chips away, with <lb></lb>a spatula, the accretions which
19397 adhere to the walls, and then breaks them <lb></lb>up with an iron hoe or a rake
19398 with five teeth. </s>
19399
19400 <s>The cracks of the furnace are <lb></lb>first filled in with fragments of rock or
19401 brick, which he does by passing his <lb></lb>hand into the furnace through its
19402 mouth, or else, having placed a ladder against <lb></lb>it, he mounts by the
19403 rungs to the upper open part of the furnace. </s>
19404
19405 <s>To the <lb></lb>upper part of the ladder a board is fastened that he may lean and
19406 recline <lb></lb>against it. </s>
19407
19408 <s>Then standing on the same ladder, with a wooden spatula, he <lb></lb>smears the
19409 furnace walls over with lute; this spatula is four feet long, a digit
19410 <lb></lb>thick, and for a foot upward from the bottom it is a palm wide, or even
19411 <lb></lb>wider, generally two and a half digits. </s>
19412
19413 <s>He spreads the lute equally over the <lb></lb>inner walls of the furnace. </s>
19414
19415 <s>The mouth of the copper pipe<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> should
19416 not pro­<lb></lb>trude from the lute, lest sows<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> form round about it and thus impede the <lb></lb>melting, for
19417 the furnace bellows could not force a blast through them. </s>
19418
19419 <s>Then <lb></lb>the same assistant throws a little powdered charcoal into the pit
19420 of the fore­<lb></lb>hearth and sprinkles it with pulverised earth. </s>
19421
19422 <s>Afterward, with a bucket <lb></lb>he pours water into it and sweeps this all over
19423 the forehearth pit, and with the <lb></lb>broom drives the turbid water into the
19424 furnace hearth and likewise sweeps <lb></lb>it out. </s>
19425
19426 <s>Next he throws the mixed and moistened powder into the furnace, <lb></lb>and then
19427 a second time mounting the steps of the ladder, he introduces the
19428 <lb></lb>rammer into the furnace and pounds the powder so that the hearth is
19429 made <lb></lb>solid. </s>
19430
19431 <s>The rammer is rounded and three palms long; at the bottom it is five
19432 <lb></lb>digits in diameter, at the top three and a half, therefore it is made
19433 in the form <lb></lb>of a truncated cone; the handle of the rammer is round and
19434 five feet long and <lb></lb></s>
19435 </p>
19436 <pb pagenum="377"></pb>
19437 <figure></figure>
19438 <p type="caption">
19439
19440 <s>A—FURNACE. B—LADDER. C—BOARD FIXED TO IT. D—HOE.
19441 E—FIVE­<lb></lb>TOOTHED RAKE. F—WOODEN SPATULA. G—BROOM.
19442 H—RAMMER. I—RAMMER, SAME <lb></lb>DIAMETER. K—TWO WOODEN
19443 SPATULAS. L—CURVED BLADE. M—BRONZE RAMMER. <lb></lb>N—ANOTHER
19444 BRONZE RAMMER. O—WIDE SPATULA. P—ROD. Q—WICKER BASKET.
19445 <lb></lb>R—TWO BUCKETS OF LEATHER IN WHICH WATER IS CARRIED FOR PUTTING
19446 OUT A CON­<lb></lb>FLAGRATION, SHOULD THE <emph type="italics"></emph>officina<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> CATCH FIRE. S—BRASS PUMP WITH
19447 WHICH THE WATER <lb></lb>IS SQUIRTED OUT. T—TWO HOOKS. V—RAKE.
19448 X—WORKMAN BEATING THE CLAY WITH <lb></lb>AN IRON IMPLEMENT.<lb></lb>two and a
19449 half digits thick; the upper part of the rammer, where the handle <lb></lb>is
19450 inserted, is bound with an iron band two digits wide. </s>
19451
19452 <s>There are some who, <lb></lb>instead, use two rounded rammers three and a half
19453 digits in diameter, the <lb></lb>same at the bottom as at the top. </s>
19454
19455 <s>Some people prefer two wooden <lb></lb>spatulas, or a rammer spatula.</s>
19456 </p>
19457 <p type="main">
19458
19459 <s>In a similar manner, mixed and moistened powder is thrown and pounded
19460 <lb></lb>with a rammer in the forehearth pit, which is outside the furnace. </s>
19461
19462 <s>When <lb></lb>this is nearly completed, powder is again put in, and pushed with
19463 the rammer <lb></lb>up toward the protruding copper pipe, so that from a point a
19464 digit under the <lb></lb>mouth of the copper pipe the hearth slopes down into
19465 the crucible of the fore­<lb></lb>hearth,<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> and the metal can run down. </s>
19466
19467 <s>The same is repeated until the <pb pagenum="378"></pb>forehearth pit is full,
19468 then afterward this is hollowed out with a curved <lb></lb>blade; this blade is
19469 of iron, two palms and as many digits long, three digits <lb></lb>wide, blunt at
19470 the top and sharp at the bottom. </s>
19471
19472 <s>The crucible of the fore­<lb></lb>hearth must be round, a foot in diameter
19473 and two palms deep if it has to <lb></lb>contain a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead, or if only
19474 seventy <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then
19475 three palms <lb></lb>in diameter and two palms deep like the other. </s>
19476
19477 <s>When the forehearth has <lb></lb>been hollowed out it is pounded with a round
19478 bronze rammer. </s>
19479
19480 <s>This is <lb></lb>five digits high and the same in diameter, having a curved round
19481 handle <lb></lb>one and a half digits thick; or else another bronze rammer is
19482 used, which <lb></lb>is fashioned in the shape of a cone, truncated at the top,
19483 on which is <lb></lb>imposed another cut away at the bottom, so that the middle
19484 part of the <lb></lb>rammer may be grasped by the hand; this is six digits high,
19485 and five digits <lb></lb>in diameter at the lower end and four at the top. </s>
19486
19487 <s>Some use in its place a <lb></lb>wooden spatula two and a half palms wide at the
19488 lower end and one palm <lb></lb>thick.</s>
19489 </p>
19490 <p type="main">
19491
19492 <s>The assistant, having prepared the forehearth, returns to the furnace and
19493 <lb></lb>besmears both sides as well as the top of the mouth with simple lute. </s>
19494
19495 <s>In the <lb></lb>lower part of the mouth he places lute that has been dipped in
19496 charcoal <lb></lb>dust, to guard against the risk of the lute attracting to
19497 itself the powder <lb></lb>of the hearth and vitiating it. </s>
19498
19499 <s>Next he lays in the mouth of the furnace a <lb></lb>straight round rod three
19500 quarters of a foot long and three digits in diameter. <lb></lb></s>
19501
19502 <s>Afterward he places a piece of charcoal on the lute, of the same length and
19503 <lb></lb>width as the mouth, so that it is entirely closed up; if there be not
19504 at hand <lb></lb>one piece of charcoal so large, he takes two instead. </s>
19505
19506 <s>When the mouth is thus <lb></lb>closed up, he throws into the furnace a wicker
19507 basket full of charcoal, and in <lb></lb>order that the piece of charcoal with
19508 which the mouth of the furnace is closed <lb></lb>should not then fall out, the
19509 master holds it in with his hand. </s>
19510
19511 <s>The pieces <lb></lb>of charcoal which are thrown into the furnace should be of
19512 medium size, for <lb></lb>if they are large they impede the blast of the bellows
19513 and prevent it from <lb></lb>blowing through the tap-hole of the furnace into
19514 the forehearth to heat it. <lb></lb></s>
19515
19516 <s>Then the master covers over the charcoal, placed at the mouth of the furnace,
19517 <lb></lb>with lute and extracts the wooden rod, and thus the furnace is
19518 prepared. <lb></lb></s>
19519
19520 <s>Afterward the assistant throws four or five larger baskets full of charcoal
19521 <lb></lb>into the furnace, filling it right up; he also throws a little charcoal
19522 <lb></lb>into the forehearth, and places glowing coals upon it in order that it
19523 may <lb></lb>be kindled, but in order that the flames of this fire should not
19524 enter through <lb></lb>the tap-hole of the furnace and fire the charcoal inside,
19525 he covers the tap-hole <lb></lb>with lute or closes it with fragments of
19526 pottery. </s>
19527
19528 <s>Some do not warm the <lb></lb>forehearth the same evening, but place large
19529 charcoals round the edge of it, one <lb></lb>leaning on the other; those who
19530 follow the first method sweep out the <lb></lb>forehearth in the morning, and
19531 clean out the little pieces of charcoal and <lb></lb>cinders, while those who
19532 follow the latter method take, early in the morning, <lb></lb>burning
19533 firebrands, which have been prepared by the watchman of the works, <lb></lb>and
19534 place them on the charcoal.</s>
19535 </p>
19536 <p type="main">
19537
19538 <s>At the fourth hour the master begins his work. </s>
19539
19540 <s>He first inserts a <lb></lb>small piece of glowing coal into the furnace, through
19541 the bronze nozzle-pipe <pb pagenum="379"></pb>of the bellows, and blows up the
19542 fire with the bellows; thus within the space <lb></lb>of half an hour the
19543 forehearth, as well as the hearth, becomes warmed, and <lb></lb>of course more
19544 quickly if on the preceding day ores have been smelted in the <lb></lb>same
19545 furnace, but if not then it warms more slowly. </s>
19546
19547 <s>If the hearth and <lb></lb>forehearth are not warmed before the ore to be smelted
19548 is thrown in, the furnace <lb></lb>is injured and the metals lost; or if the
19549 powder from which both are made <lb></lb>is damp in summer or frozen in winter,
19550 they will be cracked, and, giving <lb></lb>out a sound like thunder, they will
19551 blow out the metals and other substances <lb></lb>with great peril to the
19552 workmen. </s>
19553
19554 <s>After the furnace has been warmed, the <lb></lb>master throws in slags, and
19555 these, when melted, flow out through the tap­<lb></lb>hole into the
19556 forehearth. </s>
19557
19558 <s>Then he closes up the tap-hole at once with <lb></lb>mixed lute and charcoal
19559 dust; this plug he fastens with his hand to a <lb></lb>round wooden rammer that
19560 is five digits thick, two palms high, with a handle <lb></lb>three feet long. </s>
19561
19562 <s>The smelter extracts the slags from the forehearth with a <lb></lb>hooked bar; if
19563 the ore to be smelted is rich in gold or silver he puts into the
19564 <lb></lb>forehearth a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead, or half as much if the ore is poor,
19565 <lb></lb>because the former requires much lead, the latter little; he
19566 immediately <lb></lb>throws burning firebrands on to the lead so that it melts. </s>
19567
19568 <s>Afterward he <lb></lb>performs everything according to the usual manner and
19569 order, whereby he <lb></lb>first throws into the furnace as many cakes melted
19570 from pyrites<emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, as he <lb></lb>requires
19571 to smelt the ore; then he puts in two wicker baskets full of ore <lb></lb>with
19572 litharge and hearth-lead<emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, and
19573 stones which fuse easily by fire of the <lb></lb>second order, all mixed
19574 together; then one wicker basket full of charcoal, <lb></lb>and lastly the
19575 slags. </s>
19576
19577 <s>The furnace now being filled with all the things I <lb></lb>have mentioned, the
19578 ore is slowly smelted; he does not put too much of it <lb></lb>against the back
19579 wall of the furnace, lest sows should form around the nozzles <lb></lb>of the
19580 bellows and the blast be impeded and the fire burn less fiercely.</s>
19581 </p>
19582 <p type="main">
19583
19584 <s>This, indeed, is the custom of many most excellent smelters, who know
19585 <lb></lb>how to govern the four elements<emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
19586
19587 <s>They combine in right proportion the <lb></lb>ores, which are part earth, placing
19588 no more than is suitable in the furnaces; <lb></lb>they pour in the needful
19589 quantity of water; they moderate with skill the air <lb></lb>from the bellows;
19590 they throw the ore into that part of the fire which burns <lb></lb>fiercely. </s>
19591
19592 <s>The master sprinkles water into each part of the furnace to dampen <lb></lb>the
19593 charcoal slightly, so that the minute parts of ore may adhere to it,
19594 <lb></lb>which otherwise the blast of the bellows and the force of the fire
19595 would agitate <lb></lb>and blow away with the fumes. </s>
19596
19597 <s>But as the nature of the ores to be smelted <lb></lb>varies, the smelters have to
19598 arrange the hearth now high, now low, and to <lb></lb>place the pipe in which
19599 the nozzles of the bellows are inserted sometimes on a <lb></lb>great and
19600 sometimes at a slight angle, so that the blast of the bellows may
19601 <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="380"></pb>blow into the furnace in either a mild or a
19602 vigorous manner. </s>
19603
19604 <s>For those ores <lb></lb>which heat and fuse easily, a low hearth is necessary for
19605 the work of the <lb></lb>smelters, and the pipe must be placed at a gentle angle
19606 to produce a mild <lb></lb>blast from the bellows. </s>
19607
19608 <s>On the contrary, those ores that heat and fuse <lb></lb>slowly must have a high
19609 hearth, and the pipe must be placed at a steep incline <lb></lb>in order to blow
19610 a strong blast of the bellows, and it is necessary, for this <lb></lb>kind of
19611 ore, to have a very hot furnace in which slags, or cakes melted from
19612 <lb></lb>pyrites, or stones which melt easily in the fire<emph type="sup"></emph>15<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, are first melted, so that the <lb></lb>ore
19613 should not settle in the hearth of the furnace and obstruct and choke up
19614 <lb></lb>the tap-hole, as the minute metallic particles that have been washed
19615 from <lb></lb>the ores are wont to do. </s>
19616
19617 <s>Large bellows have wide nozzles, for if they were <lb></lb>narrow the copious and
19618 strong blast would be too much compressed and too <lb></lb>acutely blown into
19619 the furnace, and then the melted material would be <lb></lb>chilled, and would
19620 form sows around the nozzle, and thus obstruct the opening <lb></lb>into the
19621 furnace, which would cause great damage to the proprietors&#039; <lb></lb>property. </s>
19622
19623 <s>If the ores agglomerate and do not fuse, the smelter, mounting <lb></lb>on the
19624 ladder placed against the side of the furnace, divides the charge with
19625 <lb></lb>a pointed or hooked bar, which he also pushes down into the pipe in <pb pagenum="381"></pb>which the nozzle of the bellows is placed, and by a
19626 downward movement <lb></lb>dislodges the ore and the sows from around it.</s>
19627 </p>
19628 <p type="main">
19629
19630 <s>After a quarter of an hour, when the lead which the assistant has placed
19631 <lb></lb>in the forehearth is melted, the master opens the tap-hole of the
19632 furnace <lb></lb>with a tapping-bar. </s>
19633
19634 <s>This bar is made of iron, is three and a half feet long, <lb></lb>the forward end
19635 pointed and a little curved, and the back end hollow so that <lb></lb>into it
19636 may be inserted a wooden handle, which is three feet long and thick
19637 <lb></lb>enough to be well grasped by the hand. </s>
19638
19639 <s>The slag first flows from the furnace <lb></lb>into the forehearth, and in it are
19640 stones mixed with metal or with the metal <lb></lb>adhering to them partly
19641 altered, the slag also containing earth and solidified <lb></lb>juices. </s>
19642
19643 <s>After this the material from the melted pyrites flows out, and then the
19644 <lb></lb>molten lead contained in the forehearth absorbs the gold and silver. </s>
19645
19646 <s>When <lb></lb>that which has run out has stood for some time in the forehearth,
19647 in order <lb></lb>to be able to separate one from the other, the master first
19648 either skims off <lb></lb>the slags with the hooked bar or else lifts them off
19649 with an iron fork; the <lb></lb>slags, as they are very light, float on the top. </s>
19650
19651 <s>He next draws off the cakes of <lb></lb>melted pyrites, which as they are of
19652 medium weight hold the middle place; <lb></lb>he leaves in the forehearth the
19653 alloy of gold or silver with the lead, for these <lb></lb>being the heaviest,
19654 sink to the bottom. </s>
19655
19656 <s>As, however, there is a difference <pb pagenum="382"></pb>in slags, the uppermost
19657 containing little metal, the middle more, and the <lb></lb>lowest much, he puts
19658 these away separately, each in its own place, in <lb></lb>order that to each
19659 heap, when it is re-smelted, he may add the proper <lb></lb>fluxes, and can put
19660 in as much lead as is demanded for the metal in the <lb></lb>slag; when the slag
19661 is re-melted, if it emits much odour, there is some <lb></lb>metal in it; if it
19662 emits no odour, then it contains none. </s>
19663
19664 <s>He puts the cakes <lb></lb>of melted pyrites away separately, as they were
19665 nearest in the forehearth to <lb></lb>the metal, and contain a little more of it
19666 than the slags; from all these <lb></lb>cakes a conical mound is built up, by
19667 always placing the widest of them <lb></lb>at the bottom. </s>
19668
19669 <s>The hooked bar has a hook on the end, hence its name; <lb></lb>otherwise it is
19670 similar to other bars.</s>
19671 </p>
19672 <p type="main">
19673
19674 <s>Afterward the master closes up the tap-hole and fills the furnace with
19675 <lb></lb>the same materials I described above, and again, the ores having been
19676 melted, <lb></lb>he opens the tap-hole, and with a hooked bar extracts the slags
19677 and the cakes <lb></lb>melted from pyrites, which have run down into the
19678 forehearth. </s>
19679
19680 <s>He repeats <lb></lb>the same operation until a certain and definite part of the
19681 ore has been <lb></lb>smelted, and the day&#039;s work is at an end; if the ore was
19682 rich the work is <lb></lb>finished in eight hours; if poor, it takes a longer
19683 time. </s>
19684
19685 <s>But if the ore was <lb></lb>so rich as to be smelted in less than eight hours,
19686 another operation is in the <lb></lb>meanwhile combined with the first, and both
19687 are performed in the space of ten <lb></lb>hours. </s>
19688
19689 <s>When all the ore has been smelted, he throws into the furnace a <lb></lb>basket
19690 full of litharge or hearth-lead, so that the metal which has remained
19691 <lb></lb>in the accretions may run out with these when melted. </s>
19692
19693 <s>When he has finally <lb></lb>drawn out of the forehearth the slags and the cakes
19694 melted from pyrites, <lb></lb>he takes out, with a ladle, the lead alloyed with
19695 gold or silver and pours it into <lb></lb>little iron or copper pans, three
19696 palms wide and as many digits deep, but <lb></lb>first lined on the inside with
19697 lute and dried by warming, lest the glowing molten <lb></lb>substances should
19698 break through. </s>
19699
19700 <s>The iron ladle is two palms wide, and in <lb></lb>other respects it is similar to
19701 the others, all of which have a sufficiently long <lb></lb>iron shaft, so that
19702 the fire should not burn the wooden part of the handle. <lb></lb></s>
19703
19704 <s>When the alloy has been poured out of the forehearth, the smelter foreman
19705 <lb></lb>and the mine captain weigh the cakes.</s>
19706 </p>
19707 <p type="main">
19708
19709 <s>Then the master breaks out the whole of the mouth of the furnace with a
19710 <lb></lb>crowbar, and with that other hooked bar, the rabble and the
19711 five-toothed rake, <lb></lb>he extracts the accretions and the charcoal. </s>
19712
19713 <s>This crowbar is not unlike <lb></lb>the other hooked one, but larger and wider;
19714 the handle of the rabble is six feet <lb></lb>long and is half of iron and half
19715 of wood. </s>
19716
19717 <s>The furnace having cooled, the <lb></lb>master chips off the accretions clinging
19718 to the walls with a rectangular <lb></lb>spatula six digits long, a palm broad,
19719 and sharp on the front edge; it has <lb></lb>a round handle four feet long, half
19720 of it being of iron and half of wood. </s>
19721
19722 <s>This <lb></lb>is the first method of smelting ores.</s>
19723 </p>
19724 <p type="main">
19725
19726 <s>Because they generally consist of unequal constituents, some of which melt
19727 <lb></lb>rapidly and others slowly, the ores rich in gold and silver cannot be
19728 smelted as <lb></lb>rapidly or as easily by the other methods as they can by the
19729 first method, for <lb></lb>three important reasons. </s>
19730
19731 <s>The first reason is that, as often as the closed <lb></lb>tap-hole of the furnace
19732 is opened with a tapping-bar, so often can the </s>
19733 </p>
19734 <pb pagenum="383"></pb>
19735 <figure></figure>
19736 <p type="caption">
19737
19738 <s>A, B, C—THREE FURNACES. AT THE FIRST STANDS THE SMELTER, WHO WITH A
19739 LADLE <lb></lb>POURS THE ALLOY OUT OF THE FOREHEARTH INTO THE MOULDS.
19740 D—FOREHEARTH. <lb></lb>E—LADLE. F—MOULDS. G—ROUND WOODEN
19741 RAMMER. H—TAPPING-BAR. AT THE <lb></lb>SECOND FURNACE STANDS THE SMELTER.
19742 WHO OPENS THE TAP-HOLE WITH HIS TAPPING-BAR.<pb pagenum="384"></pb>smelter
19743 observe whether the ore is melting too quickly or too slowly, or
19744 <lb></lb>whether it is flaming in scattered bits, and not uniting in one mass;
19745 in the <lb></lb>first case the ore is smelting too slowly and not without great
19746 expense; in <lb></lb>the second case the metal mixes with the slag which flows
19747 out of the <lb></lb>furnace into the forehearth, wherefore there is the expense
19748 of melting it again; <lb></lb>in the third case, the metal is consumed by the
19749 violence of the fire. </s>
19750
19751 <s>Each of <lb></lb>these evils has its remedy; if the ore melts slowly or does not
19752 come together, <lb></lb>it is necessary to add some amount of fluxes which melt
19753 the ore; or if they <lb></lb>melt too readily, to decrease the amount.</s>
19754 </p>
19755 <p type="main">
19756
19757 <s>The second reason is that each time that the furnace is opened with a
19758 <lb></lb>tapping-bar, it flows out into the forehearth, and the smelter is able
19759 to test <lb></lb>the alloy of gold and lead or of silver with lead, which is
19760 called <emph type="italics"></emph>stannum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>16<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. <lb></lb></s>
19761
19762 <s>When the tap-hole is opened the second or third time, this test shows us
19763 <lb></lb>whether the alloy of gold or silver has become richer, or whether the
19764 lead is <lb></lb>too debilitated and wanting in strength to absorb any more gold
19765 or silver. </s>
19766
19767 <s>If <lb></lb>it has become richer, some portion of lead added to it should renew
19768 its <lb></lb>strength; if it has not become richer, it is poured out of the
19769 forehearth that <lb></lb>it may be replaced with fresh lead.</s>
19770 </p>
19771 <p type="main">
19772
19773 <s>The third reason is that if the tap-hole of the furnace is always open
19774 <lb></lb>when the ore and other things are being smelted, the fluxes, which are
19775 easily <lb></lb>melted, run out of the furnace before the rich gold and silver
19776 ores, for these <lb></lb>are sometimes of a kind that oppose and resist melting
19777 by the fire for a longer <lb></lb>period. </s>
19778
19779 <s>It follows in this case, that some part of the ore is either
19780 con­<lb></lb>sumed or is mixed with the accretions, and as a result little
19781 lumps of ore <lb></lb>not yet melted are now and then found in the accretions. </s>
19782
19783 <s>Therefore when <lb></lb>these ores are being smelted, the tap-hole of the furnace
19784 should be closed <lb></lb>for a time, as it is necessary to heat and mix the ore
19785 and the fluxes at the <lb></lb>same time; since the fluxes fuse more rapidly
19786 than the ore, when the <lb></lb>molten fluxes are held in the furnace, they thus
19787 melt the ore which does not <lb></lb>readily fuse or mix with the lead. </s>
19788
19789 <s>The lead absorbs the gold or silver, just <lb></lb>as tin or lead when melted in
19790 the forehearth absorbs the other unmelted <lb></lb>metal which has been thrown
19791 into it. </s>
19792
19793 <s>But if the molten matter is poured <lb></lb>upon that which is not molten, it
19794 runs off on all sides and consequently does <lb></lb>not melt it. </s>
19795
19796 <s>It follows from all this that ores rich in gold or silver, when put <lb></lb>into
19797 a furnace with its tap-hole always open, cannot for that reason be smelted
19798 <lb></lb>so successfully as in one where the tap-hole is closed for a time, so
19799 that during <lb></lb>this time the ore may be melted by the molten fluxes. </s>
19800
19801 <s>Afterward, when the <lb></lb>tap-hole has been opened, they flow into the
19802 forehearth and mix there with <lb></lb>the molten lead. </s>
19803
19804 <s>This method of smelting the ores is used by us and by the <lb></lb>Bohemians.</s>
19805 </p>
19806 <p type="main">
19807
19808 <s>The three remaining methods of smelting ores are similar to each other
19809 <lb></lb>in that the tap-holes of the furnaces always remain open, so that the
19810 molten <lb></lb>metals may continually run out. </s>
19811
19812 <s>They differ greatly from each other, </s>
19813 </p>
19814 <pb pagenum="385"></pb>
19815 <figure></figure>
19816 <p type="caption">
19817
19818 <s>A, B—TWO FURNACES. C—FOREHEARTHS. D—DIPPING-POT. THE
19819 SMELTER STANDING <lb></lb>BY THE FIRST FURNACE DRAWS OFF THE SLAGS WITH A HOOKED
19820 BAR. E—HOOKED BAR. <lb></lb>F—SLAGS. G—THE ASSISTANT DRAWING A
19821 BUCKET OF WATER WHICH HE POURS OVER THE <lb></lb>GLOWING SLAGS TO QUENCH THEM.
19822 H—BASKET MADE OF TWIGS OF WOOD INTERTWINED. <lb></lb>I—RABBLE.
19823 K—ORE TO BE SMELTED. THE MASTER STANDS AT THE OTHER FURNACE
19824 <lb></lb><gap></gap><pb pagenum="386"></pb>however, for the tap-hole of the first of
19825 this kind is deeper in the furnace and <lb></lb>narrower than that of the third,
19826 and besides it is invisible and concealed. <lb></lb></s>
19827
19828 <s>It easily discharges into the forehearth, which is one and a half feet higher
19829 <lb></lb>than the floor of the building, in order that below it to the left a
19830 dipping-pot <lb></lb>can be made. </s>
19831
19832 <s>When the forehearth is nearly full of the slags, which well up <lb></lb>from the
19833 invisible tap-hole of the furnace, they are skimmed off from the top
19834 <lb></lb>with a hooked bar; then the alloy of gold or silver with lead and the
19835 melted <lb></lb>pyrites, being uncovered, flow into the dipping-pot, and the
19836 latter are made into <lb></lb>cakes; these cakes are broken and thrown back into
19837 the furnace so that all <lb></lb>their metal may be smelted out. </s>
19838
19839 <s>The alloy is poured into little iron moulds.</s>
19840 </p>
19841 <p type="main">
19842
19843 <s>The smelter, besides lead and cognate things, uses fluxes which combine
19844 <lb></lb>with the ore, of which I gave a sufficient account in Book VII. </s>
19845
19846 <s>The metals <lb></lb>which are melted from ores that fuse readily in the fire, are
19847 profitable because <lb></lb>they are smelted in a short time, while those which
19848 are difficult to fuse are <lb></lb>not as profitable, because they take a long
19849 time. </s>
19850
19851 <s>When fluxes remain in the <lb></lb>furnace and do not melt, they are not
19852 suitable; for this reason, accretions and <lb></lb>slags are the most convenient
19853 for smelting, because they melt quickly. </s>
19854
19855 <s>It is <lb></lb>necessary to have an industrious and experienced smelter, who in
19856 the first <lb></lb>place takes care not to put into the furnace more ores mixed
19857 with fluxes than <lb></lb>it can accommodate.</s>
19858 </p>
19859 <p type="main">
19860
19861 <s>The powder out of which this furnace hearth and the adjoining
19862 fore­<lb></lb>hearth and the dipping-pot are usually made, consists mostly
19863 of equal pro­<lb></lb>portions of charcoal dust and of earth, or of equal
19864 parts of the same and of <lb></lb>ashes. </s>
19865
19866 <s>When the hearth of the furnace is prepared, a rod that will reach to the
19867 <lb></lb>forehearth is put into it, higher up if the ore to be smelted readily
19868 fuses, and <lb></lb>lower down if it fuses with difficulty. </s>
19869
19870 <s>When the dipping-pot and forehearth <lb></lb>are finished, the rod is drawn out
19871 of the furnace so that the tap-hole is open, <lb></lb>and through it the molten
19872 material flows continuously into the forehearth, <lb></lb>which should be very
19873 near the furnace in order that it may keep very hot and <lb></lb>the alloy thus
19874 be made purer. </s>
19875
19876 <s>If the ore to be smelted does not melt easily, the <lb></lb>hearth of the furnace
19877 must not be made too sloping, lest the molten fluxes <lb></lb>should run down
19878 into the forehearth before the ore is smelted, and the metal <lb></lb>thus
19879 remain in the accretions on the sides of the furnace. </s>
19880
19881 <s>The smelter must <lb></lb>not ram the hearth so much that it becomes too hard,
19882 nor make the mistake <lb></lb>of ramming the lower part of the mouth to make it
19883 hard, for it could not <lb></lb>breathe<emph type="sup"></emph>17<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, nor could the molten matter flow freely out of the furnace. <lb></lb></s>
19884
19885 <s>The ore which does not readily melt is thrown as much as possible to the
19886 <lb></lb>back of the furnace, and toward that part where the fire burns very
19887 <lb></lb>fiercely, so that it may be smelted longer. </s>
19888
19889 <s>In this way the smelter may direct <lb></lb>it whither he wills. </s>
19890
19891 <s>Only when it glows at the part near the bellows&#039; nozzle <lb></lb>does it signify
19892 that all the ore is smelted which has been thrown to the side of <lb></lb>the
19893 furnace in which the nozzles are placed. </s>
19894
19895 <s>If the ore is easily melted, one <lb></lb>or two wicker baskets full are thrown
19896 into the front part of the furnace so that <lb></lb>the fire, being driven back
19897 by it, may also smelt the ore and the sows that </s>
19898 </p>
19899 <pb pagenum="387"></pb>
19900 <figure></figure>
19901 <p type="caption">
19902
19903 <s>A, B—TWO FURNACES. C—FOREHEARTH. D—DIPPING-POTS. THE MASTER
19904 STANDS AT <lb></lb>THE ONE FURNACE AND DRAWS AWAY THE SLAGS WITH AN IRON FORK.
19905 E—IRON FORK. <lb></lb>F—WOODEN HOE WITH WHICH THE CAKES OF MELTED
19906 PYRITES ARE DRAWN OUT. G—THE <lb></lb>FOREHEARTH CRUCIBLE: ONE-HALF INSIDE
19907 IS TO BE SEEN OPEN IN THE OTHER FURNACE. <lb></lb>H—THE H<gap></gap> OUTSIDE
19908 THE <gap></gap> J—THE ASSISTANT <gap></gap> THE FOR<gap></gap><pb pagenum="388"></pb>form
19909 round about the nozzles of the bellows. </s>
19910
19911 <s>This process of smelting is very <lb></lb>ancient among the Tyrolese<emph type="sup"></emph>18<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, but not so old among the
19912 Bohemians.</s>
19913 </p>
19914 <p type="main">
19915
19916 <s>The second method of smelting ores stands in a measure midway between
19917 <lb></lb>that one performed in a furnace of which the tap-hole is closed
19918 intermittently, <lb></lb>and the first of the methods performed in a furnace
19919 where the tap-hole is <lb></lb>always open. </s>
19920
19921 <s>In this manner are smelted the ores of gold and silver that are <lb></lb>neither
19922 very rich nor very poor, but mediocre, which fuse easily and are
19923 <lb></lb>readily absorbed by the lead. </s>
19924
19925 <s>It was found that in this way a large quantity <lb></lb>of ore could be smelted
19926 at one operation without much labour or great expense, <lb></lb>and could thus
19927 be alloyed with lead. </s>
19928
19929 <s>This furnace has two crucibles, one of <lb></lb>which is half inside the furnace
19930 and half outside, so that the lead being put <lb></lb>into this crucible, the
19931 part of the lead which is in the furnace absorbs <lb></lb>the metals of the ores
19932 which easily fuse; the other crucible is lower, and <lb></lb>the alloy and the
19933 molten pyrites run into it. </s>
19934
19935 <s>Those who make use of this <lb></lb>method of smelting, tap the alloy of gold or
19936 silver with lead from the upper <lb></lb>crucible once or twice if need be, and
19937 throw in other lead or litharge, and <lb></lb>each absorbs that flux which is
19938 nearest. </s>
19939
19940 <s>This method of smelting is in use <lb></lb>in Styria<emph type="sup"></emph>19<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
19941 </p>
19942 <p type="main">
19943
19944 <s>The furnace in the third method of smelting ores has the tap-hole
19945 like­<lb></lb>wise open, but the furnace is higher and wider than the
19946 others, and its bellows <lb></lb>are larger; for these reasons a larger charge
19947 of the ore can be thrown into <lb></lb>it. </s>
19948
19949 <s>When the mines yield a great abundance of ore for the smelter, they
19950 <lb></lb>smelt in the same furnace continuously for three days and three nights,
19951 <lb></lb>providing there be no defect either in the hearth or in the forehearth. </s>
19952
19953 <s>In this <lb></lb>kind of a furnace almost every kind of accretion will be found. </s>
19954
19955 <s>The fore­<lb></lb>hearth of the furnace is not unlike the forehearth of the
19956 first furnace of all, <lb></lb>except that it has a tap-hole. </s>
19957
19958 <s>However, because large charges of ore <lb></lb>are smelted uninterruptedly, and
19959 the melted material runs out and the slags <lb></lb>are skimmed off, there is
19960 need for a second forehearth crucible, into which the <lb></lb>molten material
19961 runs through an opened tap-hole when the first is full. </s>
19962
19963 <s>When <lb></lb>a smelter has spent twelve hours&#039; labour on this work, another
19964 always takes his <lb></lb>place. </s>
19965
19966 <s>The ores of copper and lead and the poorest ores of gold and silver <lb></lb>are
19967 smelted by this method, because they cannot be smelted by the other
19968 <lb></lb>three methods on account of the greater expense occasioned. </s>
19969
19970 <s>Yet by this <lb></lb>method a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of ore containing only one or two <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>gold, or only a half to one
19971 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
19972 silver,<emph type="sup"></emph>20<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> can be smelted;
19973 because there <lb></lb>is a large amount of ore in each charge, smelting is
19974 continuous, and without <lb></lb>expensive fluxes such as lead, litharge, and
19975 hearth-lead. </s>
19976
19977 <s>In this method <lb></lb>of smelting we must use only cupriferous pyrites which
19978 easily melt in the <lb></lb>fire, in truth the cakes melted out from this, if
19979 they no longer absorb <lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
19980 </p>
19981 <pb pagenum="389"></pb>
19982 <figure></figure>
19983 <p type="caption">
19984
19985 <s>A, B—TWO FURNACES. C—TAP-HOLES OF FURNACES. D—FOREHEARTHS.
19986 E—THEIR <lb></lb>TAP-HOLES. F—DIPPING-POTS. G—AT THE ONE
19987 FURNACE STANDS THE SMELTER CARRYING <lb></lb>A WICKER BASKET FULL OF CHARCOAL.
19988 AT THE OTHER FURNACE STANDS A SMELTER WHO <lb></lb>WITH THE THIRD HOOKED BAR
19989 BREAKS AWAY THE MATERIAL WHICH HAS FROZEN THE TAP­<lb></lb>HOLE OF THE
19990 FURNACE. H—HOOKED BAR. I—HEAP OF CHARCOAL. K—BARROW ON
19991 <lb></lb><gap></gap><pb pagenum="390"></pb>much gold or silver, are replenished again
19992 from crude pyrites alone. </s>
19993
19994 <s>If <lb></lb>from this poor ore, with melted pyrites alone, material for cakes
19995 cannot <lb></lb>be made, there are added other fluxes which have not previously
19996 been <lb></lb>melted. </s>
19997
19998 <s>These fluxes are, namely, lead ore, stones easily fused by fire <lb></lb>of the
19999 second order and sand made from them, limestone, <emph type="italics"></emph>tophus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> white <lb></lb>schist, and iron
20000 stone<emph type="sup"></emph>21<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
20001 </p>
20002 <p type="main">
20003
20004 <s>Although this method of smelting ores is rough and might not seem to <lb></lb>be
20005 of great use, yet it is clever and useful; for a great weight of ores, in
20006 <lb></lb>which the gold, silver, or copper are in small quantities, may be
20007 reduced into <lb></lb>a few cakes containing all the metal. </s>
20008
20009 <s>If on being first melted they are too <lb></lb>crude to be suitable for the
20010 second melting, in which the lead absorbs the <lb></lb>precious metals that are
20011 in the cakes, or in which the copper is melted out of <lb></lb>them, yet they
20012 can be made suitable if they are repeatedly roasted, some­<lb></lb>times as
20013 often as seven or eight times, as I have explained in the last book.
20014 <lb></lb></s>
20015
20016 <s>Smelters of this kind are so clever and expert, that in smelting they take
20017 out <lb></lb>all the gold and silver which the assayer in assaying the ores has
20018 stated to be <lb></lb>contained in them, because if during the first operation,
20019 when he makes the <lb></lb>cakes, there is a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold or half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver lost from the
20020 ores, <lb></lb>the smelter obtains it from the slags by the second smelting. </s>
20021
20022 <s>This method of <lb></lb>smelting ores is old and very common to most of those who
20023 use other methods.</s>
20024 </p>
20025 <p type="main">
20026
20027 <s>Although lead ores are usually smelted in the third furnace—whose
20028 tap­<lb></lb>hole is always open,—yet not a few people melt them in
20029 special furnaces by a <lb></lb>method which I will briefly explain. </s>
20030
20031 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>Carni<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>22<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> first burn such lead ores, <lb></lb>and afterward
20032 break and crush them with large round mallets. </s>
20033
20034 <s>Between <lb></lb>the two low walls of a hearth, which is inside a furnace made of
20035 and vaulted <lb></lb>with a rock that resists injury by the fire and does not
20036 burn into chalk, they <lb></lb>place green wood with a layer of dry wood on the
20037 top of it; then they throw <lb></lb>the ore on to this, and when the wood is
20038 kindled the lead drips down and <lb></lb>runs on to the underlying sloping
20039 hearth<emph type="sup"></emph>23<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
20040
20041 <s>This hearth is made of pulverised <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="391"></pb>charcoal and
20042 earth, as is also a large crucible, one-half of which lies under the
20043 <lb></lb>furnace and the other half outside it, into which runs the lead. </s>
20044
20045 <s>The <lb></lb>smelter, having first skimmed off the slags and other things with a
20046 hoc, pours <lb></lb>the lead with a ladle into moulds, taking out the cakes
20047 after they have <lb></lb>cooled. </s>
20048
20049 <s>At the back of the furnace is a rectangular hole, so that the fire <lb></lb>may
20050 be allowed more draught, and so that the smelter can crawl through it
20051 <lb></lb>into the furnace if necessity demands.</s>
20052 </p>
20053 <p type="main">
20054
20055 <s>The Saxons who inhabit Gittelde, when smelting lead ore in a furnace <lb></lb>not
20056 unlike a baking oven, put the wood in through a hole at the back of the
20057 <lb></lb>furnace, and when it begins to burn vigorously the lead trickles out of
20058 the <lb></lb>ore into a forehearth. </s>
20059
20060 <s>When this is full, the smelting being accomplished, <lb></lb>the tap-hole is
20061 opened with a bar, and in this way the lead, together with the <lb></lb>slags,
20062 runs into the dipping-pots below. </s>
20063
20064 <s>Afterward the cakes of lead, when <lb></lb>they are cold, are taken from the
20065 moulds.</s>
20066 </p>
20067 <p type="main">
20068
20069 <s>In Westphalia they heap up ten wagon-loads of charcoal on some
20070 hill­<lb></lb>side which adjoins a level place, and the top of the heap
20071 being made flat, <lb></lb>straw is thrown upon it to the thickness of three or
20072 four digits. </s>
20073
20074 <s>On the top of <pb pagenum="392"></pb>this is laid as much pure lead ore as the
20075 heap can bear; then the charcoal is <lb></lb>kindled, and when the wind blows,
20076 it fans the fire so that the ore is smelted. <lb></lb></s>
20077
20078 <s>In this wise the lead, trickling down from the heap, flows on to the level
20079 and <lb></lb>forms broad thin slabs. </s>
20080
20081 <s>A few hundred pounds of lead ore are kept at hand, <lb></lb>which, if things go
20082 well, are scattered over the heap. </s>
20083
20084 <s>These broad slabs are <lb></lb>impure and are laid upon dry wood which in turn is
20085 placed on green wood <lb></lb>laid over a large crucible, and the former having
20086 been kindled, the lead is <lb></lb>re-melted.</s>
20087 </p>
20088 <p type="main">
20089
20090 <s>The Poles use a hearth of bricks four feet high, sloping on both sides and
20091 <lb></lb>plastered with lute. </s>
20092
20093 <s>On the upper level part of the hearth large pieces of <lb></lb>wood are piled,
20094 and on these is placed small wood with lute put in between; <lb></lb>over the
20095 top are laid wood shavings, and upon these again pure lead ore <lb></lb>covered
20096 with large pieces of wood. </s>
20097
20098 <s>When these are kindled, the ore melts and </s>
20099 </p>
20100 <pb pagenum="393"></pb>
20101 <figure></figure>
20102 <p type="caption">
20103
20104 <s>A—FURNACE OF THE CARNI. B—LOW WALL. C—WOOD. D—ORE
20105 DRIPPING LEAD. <lb></lb>E—LARGE CRUCIBLE. F—MOULDS. G—LADLE.
20106 H—SLABS OF LEAD. I—RECTANGULAR <lb></lb>HOLE AT THE BACK OF THE
20107 FURNACE. K—SAXON FURNACE. L—OPENING IN THE BACK <lb></lb>OF THE
20108 FURNACE. M—WOOD. N—UPPER CRUCIBLE. O—DIPPING-POT.
20109 P—WESTPHALIAN <lb></lb>METHOD OF MELTING. Q—HEAPS OF CHARCOAL.
20110 R—STRAW. S—WIDE SLABS. <lb></lb><gap></gap><pb pagenum="394"></pb>runs down
20111 on to the lower layer of wood; and when this is consumed by <lb></lb>the fire,
20112 the metal is collected. </s>
20113
20114 <s>If necessity demand, it is melted over and <lb></lb>over again in the same
20115 manner, but it is finally melted by means of wood <lb></lb>laid over the large
20116 crucible, the slabs of lead being placed upon it.</s>
20117 </p>
20118 <p type="main">
20119
20120 <s>The concentrates from washing are smelted together with slags (fluxes?)
20121 <lb></lb>in a third furnace, of which the tap-hole is always open.</s>
20122 </p>
20123 <p type="main">
20124
20125 <s>It is worth while to build vaulted dust-chambers over the furnaces,
20126 <lb></lb>especially over those in which the precious ores are to be smelted, in
20127 order <lb></lb>that the thicker part of the fumes, in which metals are not
20128 wanting, may be <lb></lb>caught and saved. </s>
20129
20130 <s>In this way two or more furnaces are combined under the <lb></lb>same vaulted
20131 ceiling, which is supported by the wall, against which the <lb></lb>furnaces are
20132 built, and by four columns. </s>
20133
20134 <s>Under this the smelters of the <lb></lb>ore perform their work. </s>
20135
20136 <s>There are two openings through which the fumes <lb></lb>rise from the furnaces
20137 into the wide vaulted chamber, and the wider this is the <lb></lb>more fumes it
20138 collects; in the middle of this chamber over the arch is an opening
20139 <lb></lb>three palms high and two wide. </s>
20140
20141 <s>This catches the fumes of both furnaces, <lb></lb>which have risen up from both
20142 sides of the vaulted chamber to its arch, and <lb></lb>have fallen again because
20143 they could not force their way out; and they thus <lb></lb>pass out through the
20144 opening mentioned, into the chimney which the Greeks <lb></lb>call <foreign lang="grc">καπνοδόχη,</foreign> the name being taken from the object. </s>
20145
20146 <s>The chimney has <lb></lb>thin iron plates fastened into the walls, to which the
20147 thinner metallic sub­<lb></lb>stances adhere when ascending with the fumes. </s>
20148
20149 <s>The thicker metallic <lb></lb>substances, or <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>25<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> adhere to the vaulted chamber, and often <lb></lb>harden into
20150 stalactites. </s>
20151
20152 <s>On one side of the chamber is a window in which <lb></lb>are set panes of glass,
20153 so that the light may be transmitted, but the fumes <lb></lb>kept in; on the
20154 other side is a door, which is kept entirely closed while the <lb></lb>ores are
20155 being smelted in the furnaces, so that none of the fumes may escape.
20156 <lb></lb></s>
20157
20158 <s>It is opened in order that the workman, passing through it, may be enabled
20159 <lb></lb>to enter the chamber and remove the soot and <emph type="italics"></emph>pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>26<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> and chip off <lb></lb></s>
20160 </p>
20161 <pb pagenum="395"></pb>
20162 <figure></figure>
20163 <p type="caption">
20164
20165 <s>A—FURNACES. B—VAULTED ROOF. C—COLUMNS.
20166 D—DUST-CHAMBER. E—OPENING. <lb></lb>F—CHIMNEY. G—WINDOW.
20167 H—DOOR. I—CHUTE.<pb pagenum="396"></pb>the <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmía;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> this sweeping is done twice a
20168 year. </s>
20169
20170 <s>The soot mixed with <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> being chipped off, is thrown down through <lb></lb>a long
20171 chute made of four boards joined in the shape of a rectangle, <lb></lb>that they
20172 should not fly away. </s>
20173
20174 <s>They fall on to the floor, and are sprinkled <lb></lb>with salt water, and are
20175 again smelted with ore and litharge, and become <lb></lb>an emolument to the
20176 proprietors. </s>
20177
20178 <s>Such chambers, which catch the metallic <lb></lb>substances that rise with the
20179 fumes, are profitable for all metalliferous <lb></lb>ores; but especially for
20180 the minute metallic particles collected by washing <lb></lb>crushed ores and
20181 rock, because these usually fly out with the fire of the <lb></lb>furnaces.</s>
20182 </p>
20183 <p type="main">
20184
20185 <s>I have explained the four general methods of smelting ores; now I <lb></lb>will
20186 state how the ores of each metal are smelted, or how the metal is obtained
20187 <lb></lb>from the ore. </s>
20188
20189 <s>I will begin with gold. </s>
20190
20191 <s>Its sand, the concentrates from <lb></lb>washing, or the gold dust collected in
20192 any other manner, should very often <lb></lb>not be smelted, but should be mixed
20193 with quicksilver and washed with tepid <lb></lb>water, so that all the
20194 impurities may be eliminated. </s>
20195
20196 <s>This method I ex­<lb></lb>plained in Book VII. </s>
20197
20198 <s>Or they are placed in the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which separates <lb></lb>gold from silver, for this also separates its
20199 impurities. </s>
20200
20201 <s>In this method we <lb></lb>see the gold sink in the glass ampulla, and after all
20202 the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> has been drained
20203 <lb></lb>from the particles, it frequently remains as a gold-coloured residue at
20204 the <lb></lb>bottom; this powder, when it has been moistened with oil made from
20205 <lb></lb>argol<emph type="sup"></emph>27<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, is then dried and
20206 placed in a crucible, where it is melted with borax <lb></lb>or with saltpetre
20207 and salt; or the same very fine dust is thrown into molten <lb></lb>silver,
20208 which absorbs it, and from this it is again parted by <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>28<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
20209 </p>
20210 <p type="main">
20211
20212 <s>It is necessary to smelt gold ore either outside the blast furnace in a
20213 <lb></lb>crucible, or inside the blast furnace; in the former case a small
20214 charge of ore <lb></lb>is used, in the latter a large charge of it. <emph type="italics"></emph>Rudís<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> gold, of whatever
20215 colour <lb></lb>it is, is crushed with a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each of sulphur and salt, a
20216 third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20217 copper, <lb></lb><pb pagenum="397"></pb>and a quarter of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of argol; they should be melted
20218 in a crucible on a <lb></lb>slow fire for three hours, then the alloy is put
20219 into molten silver that it <lb></lb>may melt more rapidly. </s>
20220
20221 <s>Or a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the same
20222 crude gold, crushed up, is <lb></lb>mixed together with half a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> likewise
20223 crushed, and put <lb></lb>into a crucible with half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper filings, and heated
20224 until they <lb></lb>melt, then a sixth part of granulated lead is thrown into
20225 the same crucible. <lb></lb></s>
20226
20227 <s>As soon as the mixture emits an odour, iron-filings are added to it, or if
20228 these <lb></lb>are not at hand, iron hammer-scales, for both of these break the
20229 strength of <lb></lb>the <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
20230 <s> When the fire consumes it, not alone with it is some strength <lb></lb>of the
20231 <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
20232 consumed, but some particles of gold and also of silver, if it <lb></lb>be mixed
20233 with the gold<emph type="sup"></emph>29<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
20234
20235 <s>When the button has been taken out of the <lb></lb>crucible and cooled, it is
20236 melted in a cupel, first until the antimony is exhaled, <lb></lb>and thereafter
20237 until the lead is separated from it.</s>
20238 </p>
20239 <p type="main">
20240
20241 <s>Crushed pyrites which contains gold is smelted in the same way; it <lb></lb>and
20242 the <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
20243 should be of equal weight and in truth the gold may be <lb></lb>made from them
20244 in a number of different ways<emph type="sup"></emph>30<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
20245
20246 <s>One part of crushed <lb></lb>material is mixed with six parts of copper, one part
20247 of sulphur, half a part of <lb></lb>salt, and they are all placed in a pot and
20248 over them is poured wine distilled <lb></lb>by heating liquid argol in an
20249 ampulla. </s>
20250
20251 <s>The pot is covered and smeared <lb></lb>over with lute and is put in a hot place,
20252 so that the mixture moistened with <lb></lb>wine may dry for the space of six
20253 days, then it is heated for three hours over <lb></lb>a gentle fire that it may
20254 combine more rapidly with the lead. </s>
20255
20256 <s>Finally it is put <lb></lb>into a cupel and the gold is separated from the
20257 lead<emph type="sup"></emph>31<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
20258 </p>
20259 <p type="main">
20260
20261 <s>Or else one <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20262 the concentrates from washing pyrites, or other stones <lb></lb>to which gold
20263 adheres, is mixed with half a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of salt, half a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of argol, <lb></lb>a third of a
20264 <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20265 glass-galls, a sixth of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold or silver slags, and a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>sicílícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20266 copper. </s>
20267
20268 <s>The crucible into which these are put, after it has been <lb></lb>covered with a
20269 lid, is sealed with lute and placed in a small furnace that is <lb></lb>provided
20270 with small holes through which the air is drawn in, and then it is
20271 <lb></lb>heated until it turns red and the substances put in have alloyed; this
20272 should <lb></lb>take place within four or five hours. </s>
20273
20274 <s>The alloy having cooled, it is again <lb></lb>crushed to powder and a pound of
20275 litharge is added to it; then it is heated <lb></lb>again in another crucible
20276 until it melts. </s>
20277
20278 <s>The button is taken out, purged of <lb></lb>slag, and placed in a cupel, where
20279 the gold is separated from the lead.<lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
20280 </p>
20281 <pb pagenum="398"></pb>
20282 <p type="main">
20283
20284 <s>Or to a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the
20285 powder prepared from such metalliferous <lb></lb>concentrates, is added a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each of salt, of
20286 saltpetre, of argol, and of <lb></lb>glass-galls, and it is heated until it
20287 melts. </s>
20288
20289 <s>When cooled and crushed, it is washed, <lb></lb>then to it is added a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, a third of
20290 copper filings, a sixth of litharge, <lb></lb>and it is likewise heated again
20291 until it melts. </s>
20292
20293 <s>After the button has been <lb></lb>purged of slag, it is put into the cupel, and
20294 the gold and silver are separated <lb></lb>from the lead; the gold is parted
20295 from the silver with <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua valens.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
20296 <s> Or else <lb></lb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
20297 of the powder prepared from such metalliferous concentrates, <lb></lb>a quarter
20298 of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper
20299 filings, and two <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20300 that second powder<emph type="sup"></emph>32<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>which fuses
20301 ores, are heated until they melt. </s>
20302
20303 <s>The mixture when cooled is again <lb></lb>reduced to powder, roasted and washed,
20304 and in this manner a blue powder is <lb></lb>obtained. </s>
20305
20306 <s>Of this, and silver, and that second powder which fuses ores, a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each are taken, together
20307 with three <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead,
20308 and a quarter of a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper, and they are heated together until they melt; then the
20309 <lb></lb>button is treated as before. </s>
20310
20311 <s>Or else a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the powder
20312 prepared from <lb></lb>such metalliferous concentrates, half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of saltpetre, and a
20313 quarter of a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of salt are heated until they melt. </s>
20314
20315 <s>The alloy when cooled is again <lb></lb>crushed to powder, one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which is absorbed by
20316 four pounds of molten <lb></lb>silver. </s>
20317
20318 <s>Or else a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the
20319 powder made from that kind of concentrates, <lb></lb>together with a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of sulphur, a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a half of salt, a
20320 third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20321 <lb></lb>salt made from argol, and a third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper resolved into powder
20322 <lb></lb>with sulphur, are heated until they melt. </s>
20323
20324 <s>Afterward the lead is re-melted, <lb></lb>and the gold is separated from the
20325 other metals. </s>
20326
20327 <s>Or else a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the
20328 <lb></lb>powder of this kind of concentrates, together with two <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of salt, half a
20329 <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20330 sulphur, and one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20331 litharge, are heated, and from these the <lb></lb>gold is melted out. </s>
20332
20333 <s>By these and similar methods concentrates containing <lb></lb>gold, if there be a
20334 small quantity of them or if they are very rich, can be <lb></lb>smelted outside
20335 the blast furnace.</s>
20336 </p>
20337 <p type="main">
20338
20339 <s>If there be much of them and they are poor, then they are smelted in the
20340 <lb></lb>blast furnace, especially the ore which is not crushed to powder, and
20341 particularly <lb></lb>when the gold mines yield an abundance of it<emph type="sup"></emph>33<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
20342
20343 <s>The gold concentrates mixed <lb></lb>with litharge and hearth-lead, to which are
20344 added iron-scales, are smelted in the <lb></lb>blast furnace whose tap-hole is
20345 intermittently closed, or else in the first or the <lb></lb>second furnaces in
20346 which the tap-hole is always open. </s>
20347
20348 <s>In this manner an <lb></lb><pb pagenum="399"></pb>alloy of gold and lead is obtained
20349 which is put into the cupellation furnace. <lb></lb></s>
20350
20351 <s>Two parts of roasted pyrites or <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which contain gold, are put with <lb></lb>one part of
20352 unroasted, and are smelted together in the third furnace whose <lb></lb>tap-hole
20353 is always open, and are made into cakes. </s>
20354
20355 <s>When these cakes have <lb></lb>been repeatedly roasted, they are re-smelted in
20356 the furnace whose tap­<lb></lb>hole is temporarily closed, or in one of the
20357 two others whose tap-holes are <lb></lb>always open. </s>
20358
20359 <s>In this manner the lead absorbs the gold, whether pure or <lb></lb>argentiferous
20360 or cupriferous, and the alloy is taken to the cupellation <lb></lb>furnace. </s>
20361
20362 <s>Pyrites, or other gold ore which is mixed with much material that <lb></lb>is
20363 consumed by fire and flies out of the furnace, is melted with stone from
20364 <lb></lb>which iron is melted, if this is at hand. </s>
20365
20366 <s>Six parts of such pyrites, or of gold <lb></lb>ore reduced to powder and sifted,
20367 four of stone from which iron is made, like­<lb></lb>wise crushed, and three
20368 of slaked lime, are mixed together and moistened <lb></lb>with water; to these
20369 are added two and a half parts of the cakes which <lb></lb>contain some copper,
20370 together with one and a half parts of slag. </s>
20371
20372 <s>A basket­<lb></lb>ful of fragments of the cakes is thrown into the furnace,
20373 then the mixture <lb></lb>of other things, and then the slag. </s>
20374
20375 <s>Now when the middle part of the <lb></lb>forehearth is filled with the molten
20376 material which runs down from the <lb></lb>furnace, the slags are first skimmed
20377 off, and then the cakes made of pyrites; <lb></lb>afterward the alloy of copper,
20378 gold and silver, which settles at the bottom, <lb></lb>is taken out. </s>
20379
20380 <s>The cakes are gently roasted and re-smelted with lead, and <lb></lb>made into
20381 cakes, which are carried to other works. </s>
20382
20383 <s>The alloy of copper, <lb></lb>gold, and silver is not roasted, but is re-melted
20384 again in a crucible with an <lb></lb>equal portion of lead. </s>
20385
20386 <s>Cakes are also made much richer in copper and gold <lb></lb>than those I spoke
20387 of. </s>
20388
20389 <s>In order that the alloy of gold and silver may be <pb pagenum="400"></pb>made
20390 richer, to eighteen <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of it are added forty-eight <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of crude <lb></lb>ore, three <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the stone
20391 from which iron is made, and three-quarters <lb></lb>of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the cakes made from pyrites,
20392 and mixed with lead, all are <lb></lb>heated together in the crucible until they
20393 melt. </s>
20394
20395 <s>When the slag and the <lb></lb>cakes melted from pyrites have been skimmed off,
20396 the alloy is carried to <lb></lb>other furnaces.</s>
20397 </p>
20398 <p type="main">
20399
20400 <s>There now follows silver, of which the native silver or the lumps of <emph type="italics"></emph>rudís<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>silver<emph type="sup"></emph>34<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> obtained from the mines are not
20401 smelted in the blast furnaces, but in <lb></lb>small iron pans, of which I will
20402 speak at the proper place; these lumps <lb></lb>are heated and thrown into
20403 molten silver-lead alloy in the cupellation furnace <lb></lb>when the silver is
20404 being separated from the lead, and refined. </s>
20405
20406 <s>The tiny flakes <lb></lb>or tiny lumps of silver adhering to stones or marble or
20407 rocks, or again the <lb></lb>same little lumps mixed with earth, or silver not
20408 pure enough, should be <lb></lb>smelted in the furnace of which the tap-hole is
20409 only closed for a short time, <lb></lb>together with cakes melted from pyrites,
20410 with silver slags, and with stones <lb></lb>which easily fuse in fire of the
20411 second order.</s>
20412 </p>
20413 <p type="main">
20414
20415 <s>In order that particles of silver should not fly away<emph type="sup"></emph>35<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> from the lumps <lb></lb>of ore consisting of
20416 minute threads of pure silver and twigs of native silver, <lb></lb>they are
20417 enclosed in a pot, and are placed in the same furnace where the rest of
20418 <lb></lb>the silver ores are being smelted. </s>
20419
20420 <s>Some people smelt lumps of native silver <lb></lb>not sufficiently pure, in pots
20421 or triangular crucibles, whose lids are sealed with <lb></lb>lute. </s>
20422
20423 <s>They do not place these pots in the blast furnace, but arrange them in
20424 <lb></lb>the assay furnace into which the draught of the air blows through small
20425 holes. <lb></lb></s>
20426
20427 <s>To one part of the native silver they add three parts of powdered litharge,
20428 as <lb></lb>many parts of hearth-lead, half a part of galena<emph type="sup"></emph>36<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, and a small quantity of <lb></lb>salt and
20429 iron-scales. </s>
20430
20431 <s>The alloy which settles at the bottom of the other <lb></lb>substances in the pot
20432 is carried to the cupellation furnace, and the slags are <lb></lb>re-melted with
20433 the other silver slags. </s>
20434
20435 <s>They crush under the stamps and <lb></lb>wash the pots or crucibles to which
20436 silver-lead alloy or slags adhere, and <lb></lb>having collected the
20437 concentrates they smelt them together with the slags. <lb></lb></s>
20438
20439 <s>This method of smelting <emph type="italics"></emph>rudis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
20440 silver, if there is a small quantity of it, is the <lb></lb>best, because the
20441 smallest portion of silver does not fly out of the pot or the <lb></lb>crucible,
20442 and get lost.</s>
20443 </p>
20444 <p type="main">
20445
20446 <s>If bismuth ore or antimony ore or lead ore<emph type="sup"></emph>37<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> contains silver, it is <lb></lb>smelted with the other ores of
20447 silver; likewise galena or pyrites, if there is <lb></lb>a small amount of it. </s>
20448
20449 <s>If there be much galena, whether it contain a large <lb></lb>or a small amount of
20450 silver, it is smelted separately from the others; <lb></lb>which process I will
20451 explain a little further on.<lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
20452 </p>
20453 <pb pagenum="401"></pb>
20454 <p type="main">
20455
20456 <s>Because lead and copper ores and their metals have much in common <lb></lb>with
20457 silver ores, it is fitting that I should say a great deal concerning them,
20458 <lb></lb>both now and later on. </s>
20459
20460 <s>Also in the same manner, pyrites are smelted separ­<lb></lb>ately if there be
20461 much of them. </s>
20462
20463 <s>To three parts of roasted lead or copper <lb></lb>ore and one part of crude ore,
20464 are added concentrates if they were made by <lb></lb>washing the same ore,
20465 together with slags, and all are put in the third furnace <lb></lb>whose
20466 tap-hole is always open. </s>
20467
20468 <s>Cakes are made from this charge, which, <lb></lb>when they have been quenched
20469 with water, are roasted. </s>
20470
20471 <s>Of these roasted <lb></lb>cakes generally four parts are again mixed with one
20472 part of crude pyrites <lb></lb>and re-melted in the same furnace. </s>
20473
20474 <s>Cakes are again made from this charge, <lb></lb>and if there is a large amount of
20475 copper in these cakes, copper is made <lb></lb>immediately after they have been
20476 roasted and re-melted; if there is little <lb></lb>copper in the cakes they are
20477 also roasted, but they are re-smelted with a little <lb></lb>soft slag. </s>
20478
20479 <s>In this method the molten lead in the forehearth absorbs the <lb></lb>silver. </s>
20480
20481 <s>From the pyritic material which floats on the top of the forehearth <lb></lb>are
20482 made cakes for the third time, and from them when they have been
20483 <lb></lb>roasted and re-smelted is made copper. </s>
20484
20485 <s>Similarly, three parts of roasted <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>38<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> in which
20486 there is silver, are mixed with one part of crude pyrites, <lb></lb>together
20487 with slag, and this charge is smelted and cakes are made from it; <lb></lb>these
20488 cakes having been roasted are re-smelted in the same furnace. </s>
20489
20490 <s>By this <lb></lb>method the lead contained in the forehearth absorbs the silver,
20491 and the silver­<lb></lb>lead is taken to the cupellation furnace. </s>
20492
20493 <s>Crude quartz and stones which <lb></lb>easily fuse in fire of the third order,
20494 together with other ores in which there <lb></lb>is a small amount of silver,
20495 ought to be mixed with crude roasted pyrites or <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>cadmía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> because the roasted cakes of
20496 pyrites or <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
20497 cannot be <lb></lb>profitably smelted separately. </s>
20498
20499 <s>In a similar manner earths which contain <lb></lb>little silver are mixed with
20500 the same; but if pyrites and <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> are not <lb></lb>available to the smelter, he smelts such
20501 silver ores and earths with litharge, <lb></lb>hearth-lead, slags, and stones
20502 which easily melt in the fire. </s>
20503
20504 <s>The concentrates<emph type="sup"></emph>39<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>originating
20505 from the washing of <emph type="italics"></emph>rudis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
20506 silver, after first being roasted<emph type="sup"></emph>40<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
20507 until <lb></lb>they melt, are smelted with mixed litharge and hearth-lead, or
20508 else, after <lb></lb>being moistened with water, they are smelted with cakes
20509 made from pyrites <lb></lb>and <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
20510 <s> By neither of these methods do (the concentrates) fall <lb></lb>back in the
20511 furnace, or fly out of it, driven by the blast of the bellows and the
20512 <lb></lb>agitation of the fire. </s>
20513
20514 <s>If the concentrates originated from galena they are <lb></lb>smelted with it
20515 after having been roasted; and if from pyrites, then with <lb></lb>pyrites.</s>
20516 </p>
20517 <p type="main">
20518
20519 <s>Pure copper ore, whether it is its own colour or is tinged with chrysocolla
20520 <lb></lb>or azure, and copper glance, or grey or black <emph type="italics"></emph>rudis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> copper, is smelted in a <lb></lb>furnace
20521 of which the tap-hole is closed for a very short time, or else is always
20522 <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="402"></pb>open<emph type="sup"></emph>41<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
20523
20524 <s>If there is a large amount of silver in the ore it is run into the
20525 fore­<lb></lb>hearth, and the greater part of the silver is absorbed by the
20526 molten lead, and <lb></lb>the remainder is sold with the copper to the
20527 proprietor of the works in which <lb></lb>silver is parted from copper<emph type="sup"></emph>42<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
20528
20529 <s>If there is a small amount of silver in the ore, <lb></lb>no lead is put into the
20530 forehearth to absorb the silver, and the above­<lb></lb><pb pagenum="403"></pb>mentioned proprietors buy it in with the copper; if there be no silver,
20531 copper <lb></lb>is made direct. </s>
20532
20533 <s>If such copper ore contains some minerals which do not <lb></lb>easily melt, as
20534 pyrites or <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmía metallíca
20535 fossilís<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>43<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, or stone from which iron <lb></lb>is melted, then crude
20536 pyrites which easily fuse are added to it, together <lb></lb>with slag. </s>
20537
20538 <s>From this charge, when smelted, they make cakes; and from <pb pagenum="404"></pb>these, when they have been roasted as much as is necessary and re-smelted,
20539 <lb></lb>the copper is made. </s>
20540
20541 <s>But if there be some silver in the cakes, for which an <lb></lb>outlay of lead
20542 has to be made, then it is first run into the forehearth, and <lb></lb>the
20543 molten lead absorbs the silver.</s>
20544 </p>
20545 <p type="main">
20546
20547 <s>Indeed, <emph type="italics"></emph>rudis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> copper ore of
20548 inferior quality, whether ash-coloured or <lb></lb>purple, blackish and
20549 occasionally in parts blue, is smelted in the first <lb></lb>furnace whose
20550 tap-hole is always open. </s>
20551
20552 <s>This is the method of the Tyrolese. <lb></lb></s>
20553
20554 <s>To as much <emph type="italics"></emph>rudis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> copper ore
20555 as will fill eighteen vessels, each of which holds <pb pagenum="405"></pb>almost
20556 as much as seven Roman <emph type="italics"></emph>moduli<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>44<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, the first
20557 smelter—for there are <lb></lb>three—adds three cartloads of lead
20558 slags, one cartload of schist, one fifth of <lb></lb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of stones which easily fuse in
20559 the fire, besides a small <lb></lb>quantity of concentrates collected from
20560 copper slag and accretions, all of <lb></lb>which he smelts for the space of
20561 twelve hours, and from which he makes six <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of primary cakes and
20562 one-half of a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
20563 of alloy. <lb></lb></s>
20564
20565 <s>One half of the latter consists of copper and silver, and it settles to the
20566 bottom <lb></lb>of the forehearth. </s>
20567
20568 <s>In every <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the
20569 cakes there is half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of silver and sometimes half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> besides; in the half of a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><pb pagenum="406"></pb>of the alloy
20570 there is a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or
20571 three-quarters of silver. </s>
20572
20573 <s>In this way every week, <lb></lb>if the work is for six days, thirty-six <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of cakes are made
20574 and <lb></lb>three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
20575 of alloy, in all of which there is often almost twenty-four <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
20576
20577 <s>The second smelter separates from the primary cakes the <lb></lb>greater part of
20578 the silver by absorbing it in lead. </s>
20579
20580 <s>To eighteen <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of cakes made from crude copper ore, he adds twelve <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20581 hearth­<lb></lb>lead and litharge, three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of stones from which lead is
20582 smelted, <lb></lb>five <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of hard cakes rich in silver, and two <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20583 <lb></lb>exhausted liquation cakes<emph type="sup"></emph>45<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; he
20584 adds besides, some of the slags resulting <lb></lb>from smelting crude copper,
20585 together with a small quantity of concentrates <lb></lb>made from accretions,
20586 all of which he melts for the space of twelve hours, <lb></lb>and makes eighteen
20587 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20588 secondary cakes, and twelve <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper-lead-silver
20589 alloy; in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the latter <lb></lb>there is half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
20590
20591 <s>After he has taken off the cakes with a <lb></lb>hooked bar, he pours the alloy
20592 out into copper or iron moulds; by this <lb></lb>method they make four cakes of
20593 alloy, which are carried to the works in <lb></lb>which silver is parted from
20594 copper. </s>
20595
20596 <s>On the following day, the same smelter, <lb></lb>taking eighteen <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the secondary
20597 cakes, again adds twelve <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of hearth-lead and litharge, three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of stones <lb></lb>from which lead
20598 is smelted, five <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of hard cakes rich in silver, <lb></lb>together with slags
20599 from the smelting of the primary cakes, and with concen­<lb></lb>trates
20600 washed from the accretions which are usually made at that time. <lb></lb></s>
20601
20602 <s>This charge is likewise smelted for the space of twelve hours, and he makes
20603 as <lb></lb>many as thirteen <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of tertiary cakes and eleven <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of copper-lead-silver
20604 alloy, each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20605 which contains one­<lb></lb>third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
20606
20607 <s>When he has skimmed off the <lb></lb>tertiary cakes with a hooked bar, the alloy
20608 is poured into copper moulds, and <lb></lb>by this method four cakes of alloy
20609 are made, which, like the preceding four <lb></lb>cakes of alloy, are carried to
20610 the works in which silver is parted from copper. <lb></lb></s>
20611
20612 <s>By this method the second smelter makes primary cakes on alternate days
20613 <lb></lb>and secondary cakes on the intermediate days. </s>
20614
20615 <s>The third smelter takes <lb></lb>eleven cartloads of the tertiary cakes and adds
20616 to them three cartloads of <lb></lb>hard cakes poor in silver, together with the
20617 slag from smelting the secondary <lb></lb>cakes, and the concentrates from the
20618 accretions which are usually made <lb></lb>at that time. </s>
20619
20620 <s>From this charge when smelted, he makes twenty <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of quaternary
20621 cakes, which are called “hard cakes,” and also <lb></lb>fifteen
20622 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20623 those “hard cakes rich in silver,” each <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which contains a
20624 third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
20625
20626 <s>These latter cakes the <lb></lb>second smelter, as I said before, adds to the
20627 primary and secondary cakes <lb></lb>when he re-melts them. </s>
20628
20629 <s>In the same way, from eleven cartloads of qua­<lb></lb>ternary cakes thrice
20630 roasted, he makes the “final” cakes, of which one <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondinm<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> contains only
20631 half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
20632
20633 <s>In this operation he <lb></lb>also makes fifteen <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of “hard cakes poor in
20634 silver,” in each <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which is a sixth of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
20635
20636 <s>These hard cakes the <pb pagenum="407"></pb>third smelter, as I have said, adds
20637 to the tertiary cakes when he re-smelts <lb></lb>them, while from the
20638 “final” cakes, thrice roasted and re-smelted, is made <lb></lb>black
20639 copper<emph type="sup"></emph>46<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
20640 </p>
20641 <p type="main">
20642
20643 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>rudis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> copper from which
20644 pure copper is made, if it contains little <lb></lb>silver or if it does not
20645 easily melt, is first smelted in the third furnace of which <lb></lb>the
20646 tap-hole is always open; and from this are made cakes, which after
20647 <lb></lb>being seven times roasted are re-smelted, and from these copper is
20648 melted <lb></lb>out; the cakes of copper are carried to a furnace of another
20649 kind, in which <lb></lb>they are melted for the third time, in order that in the
20650 copper “bottoms” <lb></lb>there may be more silver, while in the
20651 “tops” there may be less, which <lb></lb>process is explained in
20652 Book XI.</s>
20653 </p>
20654 <pb pagenum="408"></pb>
20655 <p type="main">
20656
20657 <s>Pyrites, when they contain not only copper, but also silver, are smelted
20658 <lb></lb>in the manner I described when I treated of ores of silver. </s>
20659
20660 <s>But if they are <lb></lb>poor in silver, and if the copper which is melted out of
20661 them cannot easily be <lb></lb>treated, they are smelted according to the method
20662 which I last explained.</s>
20663 </p>
20664 <p type="main">
20665
20666 <s>Finally, the copper schists containing bitumen or sulphur are roasted,
20667 <lb></lb>and then smelted with stones which easily fuse in a fire of the second
20668 order, <lb></lb>and are made into cakes, on the top of which the slags float. </s>
20669
20670 <s>From <lb></lb>these cakes, usually roasted seven times and re-melted, are melted
20671 out <lb></lb>slags and two kinds of cakes; one kind is of copper and occupies
20672 the <lb></lb>bottom of the crucible, and these are sold to the proprietors of
20673 the works in <lb></lb>which silver is parted from copper; the other kind of
20674 cakes are usually <lb></lb>re-melted with primary cakes. </s>
20675
20676 <s>If the schist contains but a small amount of <lb></lb>copper, it is burned,
20677 crushed under the stamps, washed and sieved, and <lb></lb>the concentrates
20678 obtained from it are melted down; from this are made <lb></lb>cakes from which,
20679 when roasted, copper is made. </s>
20680
20681 <s>If either chrysocolla or azure, <lb></lb>or yellow or black earth containing
20682 copper and silver, adheres to the schist, <lb></lb>it is not washed, but is
20683 crushed and smelted with stones which easily <lb></lb>fuse in fire of the second
20684 order.</s>
20685 </p>
20686 <p type="main">
20687
20688 <s>Lead ore, whether it be <emph type="italics"></emph>molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>47<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, pyrites,
20689 (galena?) or stone from <lb></lb>which it is melted, is often smelted in a
20690 special furnace, of which I have <lb></lb>spoken above, but no less often in the
20691 third furnace of which the tap-hole <lb></lb>is always open. </s>
20692
20693 <s>The hearth and forehearth are made from powder containing <lb></lb>a small
20694 portion of iron hammer-scales; iron slag forms the principal flux <lb></lb>for
20695 such ores; both of these the expert smelters consider useful and to <lb></lb>the
20696 owner&#039;s advantage, because it is the nature of iron to attract lead. </s>
20697
20698 <s>If <lb></lb>it is <emph type="italics"></emph>molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or
20699 the stone from which lead is smelted, then the lead runs <lb></lb>down from the
20700 furnace into the forehearth, and when the slags have been <lb></lb>skimmed off,
20701 the lead is poured out with a ladle. </s>
20702
20703 <s>If pyrites are smelted, <lb></lb>the first to flow from the furnace into the
20704 forehearth, as may be seen at <lb></lb>Goslar, is a white molten substance,
20705 injurious and noxious to silver, for it <lb></lb>consumes it. </s>
20706
20707 <s>For this reason the slags which float on the top having been <lb></lb>skimmed
20708 off, this substance is poured out; or if it hardens, then it is taken
20709 <lb></lb>out with a hooked bar; and the walls of the furnace exude the same
20710 substance<emph type="sup"></emph>48<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. <lb></lb><pb pagenum="409"></pb>Then the <emph type="italics"></emph>stannum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> runs out of the furnace into the forehearth; this is an
20711 alloy <lb></lb>of lead and silver. </s>
20712
20713 <s>From the silver-lead alloy they first skim off the slags, <lb></lb>not rarely
20714 white, as some pyrites<emph type="sup"></emph>49<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> are, and
20715 afterward they skim off the <lb></lb>cakes of pyrites, if there are any. </s>
20716
20717 <s>In these cakes there is usually some copper; <lb></lb>but since there is usually
20718 but a very small quantity, and as the forest <pb pagenum="410"></pb>charcoal is
20719 not abundant, no copper is made from them. </s>
20720
20721 <s>From the silver­<lb></lb>lead poured into iron moulds they likewise make
20722 cakes: when these cakes <lb></lb>have been melted in the cupellation furnace,
20723 the silver is parted from the <lb></lb>lead, because part of the lead is
20724 transformed into litharge and part into <lb></lb>hearth-lead, from which in the
20725 blast furnace on re-melting they make <pb pagenum="411"></pb>de-silverized lead,
20726 for in this lead each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> contains only a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, when before the silver
20727 was parted from it each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpon­<lb></lb>dium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> contained more or
20728 less than three <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
20729 silver<emph type="sup"></emph>50<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
20730 </p>
20731 <p type="main">
20732
20733 <s>The little black stones<emph type="sup"></emph>51<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> and others
20734 from which tin is made, are smelted <lb></lb>in their own kind of furnace, which
20735 should be narrower than the other <lb></lb>furnaces, that there may be only the
20736 small fire which is necessary for this <lb></lb>ore. </s>
20737
20738 <s>These furnaces are higher, that the height may compensate for the
20739 <lb></lb>narrowness and make them of almost the same capacity as the other
20740 furnaces. <lb></lb></s>
20741
20742 <s>At the top, in front, they are closed and on the other side they are open,
20743 where <lb></lb>there are steps, because they cannot have the steps in front on
20744 account of the <lb></lb>forehearth; the smelters ascend by these steps to put
20745 the tin-stone into the <lb></lb>furnace. </s>
20746
20747 <s>The hearth of the furnace is not made of powdered earth and
20748 char­<lb></lb>coal, but on the floor of the works are placed sandstones
20749 which are not too <lb></lb>hard; these are set on a slight slope, and are two
20750 and three-quarters feet <lb></lb>long, the same number of feet wide, and two
20751 feet thick, for the thicker they are <lb></lb>the longer they last in the fire. </s>
20752
20753 <s>Around them is constructed a rectangular <lb></lb>furnace eight or nine feet
20754 high, of broad sandstones, or of those common <lb></lb>substances which by
20755 nature are composed of diverse materials<emph type="sup"></emph>52<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
20756
20757 <s>On the <lb></lb>inside the furnace is everywhere evenly covered with lute. </s>
20758
20759 <s>The upper part <lb></lb>of the interior is two feet long and one foot wide, but
20760 below it is not so long <lb></lb>and wide. </s>
20761
20762 <s>Above it are two hood-walls, between which the fumes ascend <lb></lb>from the
20763 furnace into the dust chamber, and through this they escape by a <lb></lb>narrow
20764 opening in the roof. </s>
20765
20766 <s>The sandstones are sloped at the bed of the <lb></lb>furnace, so that the tin
20767 melted from the tin-stone may flow through the tap­<lb></lb>hole of the
20768 furnace into the forehearth.<emph type="sup"></emph>53<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
20769 </p>
20770 <pb pagenum="412"></pb>
20771 <p type="main">
20772
20773 <s>As there is no need for the smelters to have a fierce fire, it is not
20774 necessary <lb></lb>to place the nozzles of the bellows in bronze or iron pipes,
20775 but only through a <lb></lb>hole in the furnace wall. </s>
20776
20777 <s>They place the bellows higher at the back so that <lb></lb>the blast from the
20778 nozzles may blow straight toward the tap-hole of the <lb></lb>furnace. </s>
20779
20780 <s>That it may not be too fierce, the nozzles are wide, for if the fire
20781 <lb></lb>were fiercer, tin could not be melted out from the tin-stone, as it
20782 would be <lb></lb>consumed and turned into ashes. </s>
20783
20784 <s>Near the steps is a hollowed stone, <lb></lb>in which is placed the tin-stone to
20785 be smelted; as often as the smelter <lb></lb>throws into the furnace an iron
20786 shovel-ful of this tin-stone, he puts on char­<lb></lb>coal that was first
20787 put into a vat and washed with water to be cleansed from the <lb></lb>grit and
20788 small stones which adhere to it, lest they melt at the same time as the
20789 <lb></lb>tin-stone and obstruct the tap-hole and impede the flow of tin from the
20790 <lb></lb>furnace. </s>
20791
20792 <s>The tap-hole of the furnace is always open; in front of it is a
20793 fore­<lb></lb>hearth a little more than half a foot deep, three-quarters of
20794 two feet long and <lb></lb>one foot wide; this is lined with lute, and the tin
20795 from the tap-hole flows into it. <lb></lb></s>
20796
20797 <s>On one side of the forehearth is a low wall, three-quarters of a foot wider
20798 <lb></lb>and one foot longer than the forehearth, on which lies charcoal powder.
20799 <lb></lb></s>
20800
20801 <s>On the other side the floor of the building slopes, so that the slags may
20802 con­<lb></lb>veniently run down and be carried away. </s>
20803
20804 <s>As soon as the tin begins to run <lb></lb>from the tap-hole of the furnace into
20805 the forehearth, the smelter scrapes <pb pagenum="413"></pb>down some of the
20806 powdered charcoal into it from the wall, so that the slags <lb></lb>may be
20807 separated from the hot metal, and so that it may be covered, lest <lb></lb>any
20808 part of it, being very hot, should fly away with the fumes. </s>
20809
20810 <s>If after <lb></lb>the slag has been skimmed off, the powder does not cover up the
20811 whole of the <lb></lb>tin, the smelter draws a little more charcoal off the wall
20812 with a scraper. </s>
20813
20814 <s>After <lb></lb>he has opened the tap-hole of the forehearth with a tapping-bar,
20815 in order <lb></lb>that the tin can flow into the tapping-pot, likewise smeared
20816 with lute, he <lb></lb>again closes the tap-hole with pure lute or lute mixed
20817 with powdered charcoal. <lb></lb></s>
20818
20819 <s>The smelter, if he be diligent and experienced, has brooms at hand with which
20820 <lb></lb>he sweeps down the walls above the furnace; to these walls and to the
20821 <lb></lb>dust chamber minute tin-stones sometimes adhere with part of the fumes.
20822 <lb></lb></s>
20823
20824 <s>If he be not sufficiently experienced in these matters and has melted at the
20825 <lb></lb>same time all of the tin-stone,—which is commonly of three sizes,
20826 large, <lb></lb>medium, and very small,—not a little waste of the
20827 proprietor&#039;s tin results; <lb></lb>because, before the large or the medium sizes
20828 have melted, the small have either <lb></lb>been burnt up in the furnace, or
20829 else, flying up from it, they not only adhere to <lb></lb>the walls but also
20830 fall in the dust chamber. </s>
20831
20832 <s>The owner of the works has <lb></lb>the sweepings by right from the owner of the
20833 ore. </s>
20834
20835 <s>For the above reasons <lb></lb>the most experienced smelter melts them down
20836 separately; indeed, he <lb></lb>melts the very small size in a wider furnace,
20837 the medium in a medium-sized <lb></lb>furnace, and the largest size in the
20838 narrowest furnace. </s>
20839
20840 <s>When he melts down <lb></lb>the small size he uses a gentle blast from the
20841 bellows, with the medium-sized <lb></lb>a moderate one, with the large size a
20842 violent blast; and when he smelts <lb></lb>the first size he needs a slow fire,
20843 for the second a medium one, and for the <lb></lb>third a fierce one; yet he
20844 uses a much less fierce fire than when he smelts <lb></lb>the ores of gold,
20845 silver, or copper. </s>
20846
20847 <s>When the workmen have spent three <lb></lb>consecutive days and nights in this
20848 work, as is usual, they have finished <lb></lb>their labours; in this time they
20849 are able to melt out a large weight of small <pb pagenum="414"></pb>sized
20850 tin-stone which melts quickly, but less of the large ones which melt
20851 <lb></lb>slowly, and a moderate quantity of the medium-sized which holds the
20852 middle <lb></lb>course. </s>
20853
20854 <s>Those who do not smelt the tin-stone in furnaces made sometimes <lb></lb>wide,
20855 sometimes medium, or sometimes narrow, in order that great loss <lb></lb>should
20856 not be occasioned, throw in first the smallest size, then the medium,
20857 <lb></lb>then the large size, and finally those which are not quite pure; and
20858 the blast <lb></lb>of the bellows is altered as required. </s>
20859
20860 <s>In order that the tin-stone thrown <lb></lb>into the furnace should not roll off
20861 from the large charcoal into the forehearth <lb></lb>before the tin is melted
20862 out of it, the smelter uses small charcoal; first some <lb></lb>of this
20863 moistened with water is placed in the furnace, and then he frequently
20864 <lb></lb>repeats this succession of charcoal and tin-stone.</s>
20865 </p>
20866 <p type="main">
20867
20868 <s>The tin-stone, collected from material which during the summer was
20869 <lb></lb>washed in a ditch through which a stream was diverted, and during the
20870 winter <lb></lb>was screened on a perforated iron plate, is smelted in a furnace
20871 a palm wider <lb></lb>than that in which the fine tin-stone dug out of the earth
20872 is smelted. </s>
20873
20874 <s>For <lb></lb>the smelting of these, a more vigorous blast of the bellows and a
20875 fiercer fire <lb></lb>is needed than for the smelting of the large tin-stone. </s>
20876
20877 <s>Whichever kind of <lb></lb>tin-stone is being smelted, if the tin first flows
20878 from the furnace, much of it is <lb></lb>made, and if slags first flow from the
20879 furnace, then only a little. </s>
20880
20881 <s>It happens <lb></lb>that the tin-stone is mixed with the slags when it is either
20882 less pure or <lb></lb>ferruginous—that is, not enough roasted—and is
20883 imperfect when put into <lb></lb>the furnace, or when it has been put in in a
20884 larger quantity than was neces­<lb></lb>sary; then, although it may be pure
20885 and melt easily, the ore either runs <lb></lb>out of the furnace at the same
20886 time, mixed with the slags, or else it settles <lb></lb>so firmly at the bottom
20887 of the furnace that the operation of smelting being <lb></lb>necessarily
20888 interrupted, the furnace freezes up.</s>
20889 </p>
20890 <p type="main">
20891
20892 <s>The tap-hole of the forehearth is opened and the tin is diverted into the
20893 <lb></lb>dipping-pot, and as often as the slags flow down the sloping floor of
20894 the build­<lb></lb>ing they are skimmed off with a rabble; as soon as the
20895 tin has run out of <lb></lb>the forehearth, the tap-hole is again closed up with
20896 lute mixed with powdered <lb></lb>charcoal. </s>
20897
20898 <s>Glowing coals are put in the dipping-pot so that the tin, after it <lb></lb>has
20899 run out, should not get chilled. </s>
20900
20901 <s>If the metal is so impure that nothing <lb></lb>can be made from it, the material
20902 which has run out is made into cakes to be <lb></lb>re-smelted in the hearth, of
20903 which I shall have something to say later; if the <lb></lb>metal is pure, it is
20904 poured immediately upon thick copper plates, at first in <lb></lb>straight lines
20905 and then transversely over these to make a lattice. </s>
20906
20907 <s>Each of <lb></lb>these lattice bars is impressed with an iron die; if the tin was
20908 melted out <lb></lb>of ore excavated from mines, then one stamp only, namely,
20909 that of the <lb></lb>Magistrate, is usually imprinted, but if it is made from
20910 tin-stone collected on <lb></lb>the ground after washing, then it is impressed
20911 with two seals, one the <lb></lb>Magistrate&#039;s and the other a fork which the
20912 washers use. </s>
20913
20914 <s>Generally, three <lb></lb>of this kind of lattice bars are beaten and amalgamated
20915 into one mass with a <lb></lb>wooden mallet.</s>
20916 </p>
20917 <p type="main">
20918
20919 <s>The slags that are skimmed off are afterward thrown with an iron shovel
20920 <lb></lb>into a small trough hollowed from a tree, and are cleansed from
20921 charcoal </s>
20922 </p>
20923 <pb pagenum="415"></pb>
20924 <figure></figure>
20925 <p type="caption">
20926
20927 <s>A—FURNACE. B—ITS TAP-HOLE. C—FOREHEARTH. D—ITS
20928 TAP-HOLE. E—SLAGS. <lb></lb>F—SCRAPER. G—DIPPING-POT.
20929 H—WALLS OF THE CHIMNEY. I—BROOM. <lb></lb>K—COPPER PLATE.
20930 L—LATTICEWORK BARS. M—IRON SEAL OR DIE. N—HAMMER.<pb pagenum="416"></pb>by agitation; when taken out they are broken up with a
20931 square iron mallet, <lb></lb>and then they are re-melted with the fine tin-stone
20932 next smelted. </s>
20933
20934 <s>There <lb></lb>are some who crush the slags three times under wet stamps and
20935 re-melt them <lb></lb>three times; if a large quantity of this be smelted while
20936 still wet, little <lb></lb>tin is melted from it, because the slag, soon melted
20937 again, flows from the <lb></lb>furnace into the forehearth. </s>
20938
20939 <s>Under the wet stamps are also crushed the <lb></lb>lute and broken rock with
20940 which such furnaces are lined, and also the <lb></lb>accretions, which often
20941 contain fine tin-stone, either not melted or half­<lb></lb>melted, and also
20942 prills of tin. </s>
20943
20944 <s>The tin-stone not yet melted runs out <lb></lb>through the screen into a trough,
20945 and is washed in the same way as tin­<lb></lb>stone, while the partly melted
20946 and the prills of tin are taken from the mortar­<lb></lb>box and washed in
20947 the sieve on which not very minute particles remain, and <lb></lb>thence to the
20948 canvas strake. </s>
20949
20950 <s>The soot which adheres to that part of the <lb></lb>chimney which emits the
20951 smoke, also often contains very fine tin-stone which <lb></lb>flies from the
20952 furnace with the fumes, and this is washed in the strake which <lb></lb>I have
20953 just mentioned, and in other sluices. </s>
20954
20955 <s>The prills of tin and the partly <lb></lb>melted tin-stone that are contained in
20956 the lute and broken rock with which <lb></lb>the furnace is lined, and in the
20957 remnants of the tin from the forehearth and <lb></lb>the dipping-pot, are
20958 smelted together with the tin-stone.</s>
20959 </p>
20960 <p type="main">
20961
20962 <s>When tin-stone has been smelted for three days and as many nights in a
20963 <lb></lb>furnace prepared as I have said above, some little particles of the
20964 rock from <lb></lb>which the furnace is constructed become loosened by the fire
20965 and fall down; <lb></lb>and then the bellows being taken away, the furnace is
20966 broken through at the <lb></lb>back, and the accretions are first chipped off
20967 with hammers, and afterward <lb></lb>the whole of the interior of the furnace is
20968 re-fitted with the prepared sand­<lb></lb>stone, and again evenly lined with
20969 lute. </s>
20970
20971 <s>The sandstone placed on the bed <lb></lb>of the furnace, if it has become faulty,
20972 is taken out, and another is laid down <lb></lb>in its place; those rocks which
20973 are too large the smelter chips off and fits <lb></lb>with a sharp pick.</s>
20974 </p>
20975 <p type="main">
20976
20977 <s>Some build two furnaces against the wall just like those I have described,
20978 <lb></lb>and above them build a vaulted ceiling supported by the wall and by
20979 four <lb></lb>pillars. </s>
20980
20981 <s>Through holes in the vaulted ceiling the fumes from the furnaces <lb></lb>ascend
20982 into a dust chamber, similar to the one described before, except that
20983 <lb></lb>there is a window on each side and there is no door. </s>
20984
20985 <s>The smelters, when <lb></lb>they have to clear away the flue-dust, mount by the
20986 steps at the side of the <lb></lb>furnaces, and climb by ladders into the dust
20987 chamber through the apertures <lb></lb>in the vaulted ceilings over the
20988 furnaces. </s>
20989
20990 <s>They then remove the flue-dust <lb></lb>from everywhere and collect it in
20991 baskets, which are passed from one to the <lb></lb>other and emptied. </s>
20992
20993 <s>This dust chamber differs from the other described, in <lb></lb>the fact that the
20994 chimneys, of which it has two, are not dissimilar to those <lb></lb>of a house;
20995 they receive the fumes which, being unable to escape through the <lb></lb>upper
20996 part of the chamber, are turned back and re-ascend and release the <lb></lb>tin;
20997 thus the tin set free by the fire and turned to ash, and the little
20998 tin­<lb></lb>stones which fly up with the fumes, remain in the dust chamber
20999 or else adhere <lb></lb>to copper plates in the chimney.</s>
21000 </p>
21001 <pb pagenum="417"></pb>
21002 <figure></figure>
21003 <p type="caption">
21004
21005 <s>A—FURNACES. B—FOREHEARTHS. C—THEIR TAP-HOLES.
21006 D—DIPPING-POTS. E—PILLARS. <lb></lb>F—DUST-CHAMBER.
21007 G—WINDOW. H—CHIMNEYS. I—TUB IN WHICH THE COALS ARE
21008 <lb></lb>WASHED.</s>
21009 </p>
21010 <pb pagenum="418"></pb>
21011 <p type="main">
21012
21013 <s>If the tin is so impure that it cracks when struck with the hammer, it
21014 <lb></lb>is not immediately made into lattice-like bars, but into the cakes
21015 which I have <lb></lb>spoken of before, and these are refined by melting again
21016 on a hearth. </s>
21017
21018 <s>This <lb></lb>hearth consists of sandstones, which slope toward the centre and a
21019 little <lb></lb>toward a dipping-pot; at their joints they are covered with
21020 lute. </s>
21021
21022 <s>Dry <lb></lb>logs are arranged on each side, alternately upright and lengthwise,
21023 and more <lb></lb>closely in the middle; on this wood are placed five or six
21024 cakes of tin which <lb></lb>all together weigh about six <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> the wood having been kindled,
21025 </s>
21026 </p>
21027 <figure></figure>
21028 <p type="caption">
21029
21030 <s>A—HEARTHS. B—DIPPING-POTS. C—WOOD. D—CAKES.
21031 E—LADLE. F—COPPER <lb></lb>PLATE. G—LATTICE-SHAPED BARS.
21032 H—IRON DIES. I—WOODEN MALLET. K—MASS <lb></lb>OF TIN BARS.
21033 L—SHOVEL.<lb></lb>the tin drips down and flows continuously into the
21034 dipping-pot which <lb></lb>is on the floor. </s>
21035
21036 <s>The impure tin sinks to the bottom of this dipping-pot <lb></lb>and the pure tin
21037 floats on the top; then both are ladled out by the master, <lb></lb>who first
21038 takes out the pure tin, and by pouring it over thick plates of copper
21039 <lb></lb>makes lattice-like bars. </s>
21040
21041 <s>Afterward he takes out the impure tin from which <lb></lb>he makes cakes; he
21042 discriminates between them, when he ladles and pours, <lb></lb>by the ease or
21043 difficulty of the flow. </s>
21044
21045 <s>One <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the
21046 lattice-like <lb></lb>bare sells for more than a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of cakes, for the price of the
21047 former <pb pagenum="419"></pb>exceeds the price of the latter by a gold
21048 coin<emph type="sup"></emph>54<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
21049
21050 <s>These lattice-like bars are <lb></lb>lighter than the others, and when five of
21051 them are pounded and amalgamated <lb></lb>with a wooden mallet, a mass is made
21052 which is stamped with an iron die. <lb></lb></s>
21053
21054 <s>There are some who do not make a dipping-pot on the floor for the tin to run
21055 <lb></lb>into, but in the hearth itself; out of this the master, having removed
21056 the <lb></lb>charcoal, ladles the tin and pours it over the copper-plate. </s>
21057
21058 <s>The dross which <lb></lb>adheres to the wood and the charcoal, having been
21059 collected, is re-smelted <lb></lb>in the furnace.</s>
21060 </p>
21061 <figure></figure>
21062 <p type="caption">
21063
21064 <s>A—FURNACE. B—BELLOWS. C—IRON DISC. D—NOZZLE.
21065 E—WOODEN DISC. <lb></lb>F—BLOW-HOLE. G—HANDLE. H—HAFT.
21066 I—HOOPS. K—MASSES OF TIN.</s>
21067 </p>
21068 <p type="main">
21069
21070 <s>Some of the Lusitanians melt tin from tin-stone in small furnaces. </s>
21071
21072 <s>They <lb></lb>use round bellows made of leather, of which the fore end is a round
21073 iron disc <lb></lb>and the rear end a disc of wood; in a hole in the former is
21074 fixed the nozzle, <lb></lb>in the middle of the latter the blow-hole. </s>
21075
21076 <s>Above this is the handle or haft, <lb></lb>which draws open the round bellows and
21077 lets in the air, or compresses it and <lb></lb>drives the air out. </s>
21078
21079 <s>Between the discs are several iron hoops to which the <lb></lb>leather is
21080 fastened, making such folds as are to be seen in paper lanterns that <pb pagenum="420"></pb>are folded together. </s>
21081
21082 <s>Since this kind of bellows does not give a vigorous blast, <lb></lb>because they
21083 are drawn apart and compressed slowly, the smelter is not <lb></lb>able during a
21084 whole day to smelt much more than half a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>tin.</s>
21085 </p>
21086 <p type="main">
21087
21088 <s>Very good iron ore is smelted<emph type="sup"></emph>55<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> in a
21089 furnace almost like the cupellation <lb></lb>furnace. </s>
21090
21091 <s>The hearth is three and a half feet high, and five feet long and <lb></lb>wide;
21092 in the centre of it is a crucible a foot deep and one and a half feet
21093 <lb></lb>wide, but it may be deeper or shallower, wider or narrower, according
21094 to whether <lb></lb>more or less ore is to be made into iron. </s>
21095
21096 <s>A certain quantity of iron ore is <lb></lb>given to the master, out of which he
21097 may smelt either much or little iron. <lb></lb></s>
21098
21099 <s>He being about to expend his skill and labour on this matter, first throws
21100 <lb></lb>charcoal into the crucible, and sprinkles over it an iron shovel-ful of
21101 crushed <lb></lb>iron ore mixed with unslaked lime. </s>
21102
21103 <s>Then he repeatedly throws on charcoal <lb></lb>and sprinkles it with ore, and
21104 continues this until he has slowly built up a <lb></lb>heap; it melts when the
21105 charcoal has been kindled and the fire violently <lb></lb>stimulated by the
21106 blast of the bellows, which are skilfully fixed in a pipe. <pb pagenum="421"></pb>He is able to complete this work sometimes in eight hours, sometimes in
21107 ten, <lb></lb>and again sometimes in twelve. </s>
21108
21109 <s>In order that the heat of the fire should not <lb></lb>burn his face, he covers
21110 it entirely with a cap, in which, however, there are <lb></lb>holes through
21111 which he may see and breathe. </s>
21112
21113 <s>At the side of the hearth is a <lb></lb>bar which he raises as often as is
21114 necessary, when the bellows blow too violent <lb></lb>a blast, or when he adds
21115 more ore and charcoal. </s>
21116
21117 <s>He also uses the bar <lb></lb>to draw off the slags, or to open or close the
21118 gates of the sluice, through <lb></lb>which the waters flow down on to the wheel
21119 which turns the axle that com­<lb></lb>presses the bellows. </s>
21120
21121 <s>In this sensible way, iron is melted out and a mass <lb></lb>weighing two or
21122 three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> may be
21123 made, providing the iron ore <lb></lb>was rich. </s>
21124
21125 <s>When this is done the master opens the slag-vent with the
21126 tapping­<lb></lb>bar, and when all has run out he allows the iron mass to
21127 cool. </s>
21128
21129 <s>Afterward <lb></lb>he and his assistant stir the iron with the bar, and then in
21130 order to chip off <lb></lb>the slags which had until then adhered to it, and to
21131 condense and flatten it, <lb></lb>they take it down from the furnace to the
21132 floor, and boat it with large wooden <lb></lb>mallets having slender handles
21133 five feet long. </s>
21134
21135 <s>Thereupon it is immediately </s>
21136 </p>
21137 <pb pagenum="422"></pb>
21138 <figure></figure>
21139 <p type="caption">
21140
21141 <s>A—HEARTH. B—HEAP. C—SLAG-VENT. D—IRON MASS.
21142 E—WOODEN MALLETS. <lb></lb>F—HAMMER. G—ANVIL.<pb pagenum="423"></pb>placed on the anvil, and repeatedly beaten by the large iron hammer that
21143 is <lb></lb>raised by the cams of an axle turned by a water-wheel. </s>
21144
21145 <s>Not long afterward <lb></lb>it is taken up with tongs and placed under the same
21146 hammer, and cut up with <lb></lb>a sharp iron into four, five, or six pieces,
21147 according to whether it is large or <lb></lb>small. </s>
21148
21149 <s>These pieces, after they have been re-heated in the blacksmith&#039;s forge
21150 <lb></lb>and again placed on the anvil, are shaped by the smith into square bars
21151 or into <lb></lb>ploughshares or tyres, but mainly into bars. </s>
21152
21153 <s>Four, six, or eight of these bars <lb></lb>weigh one-fifth of a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and from these
21154 they make various imple­<lb></lb>ments. </s>
21155
21156 <s>During the blows from the hammer by which it is shaped by the smith, <lb></lb>a
21157 youth pours water with a ladle on to the glowing iron, and this is why the
21158 <lb></lb>blows make such a loud sound that they may be heard a long distance
21159 from <lb></lb>the works. </s>
21160
21161 <s>The masses, if they remain and settle in the crucible of the <lb></lb>furnace in
21162 which the iron is smelted, become hard iron which can only be <lb></lb>hammered
21163 with difficulty, and from these they make the iron-shod heads for <lb></lb>the
21164 stamps, and such-like very hard articles.</s>
21165 </p>
21166 <p type="main">
21167
21168 <s>But to iron ore which is cupriferous, or which when heated<emph type="sup"></emph>56<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> melts <lb></lb>with difficulty, it is necessary
21169 for us to give a fiercer fire and more labour; <lb></lb>because not only must we
21170 separate the parts of it in which there is metal from <lb></lb>those in which
21171 there is no metal, and break it up by dry stamps, but we must <lb></lb>also
21172 roast it, so that the other metals and noxious juices may be exhaled;
21173 <lb></lb>and we must wash it, so that the lighter parts may be separated from
21174 it. <lb></lb></s>
21175
21176 <s>Such ores are smelted in a furnace similar to the blast furnace, but much
21177 <lb></lb>wider and higher, so that it may hold a great quantity of ore and much
21178 <lb></lb>charcoal; mounting the stairs at the side of the furnace, the smelters
21179 fill <lb></lb>it partly with fragments of ore not larger than nuts, and partly
21180 with <lb></lb>charcoal; and from this kind of ore once or twice smelted they
21181 make iron <lb></lb>which is suitable for re-heating in the blacksmith&#039;s forge,
21182 after it is flattened <lb></lb>out with the large iron hammer and cut into
21183 pieces with the sharp iron.</s>
21184 </p>
21185 <p type="main">
21186
21187 <s>By skill with fire and fluxes is made that kind of iron from which steel
21188 <lb></lb>is made, which the Greeks call <foreign lang="grc">στόμωμα.</foreign> Iron should be selected which <lb></lb>is easy to melt,
21189 is hard and malleable. </s>
21190
21191 <s>Now although iron may be <lb></lb>smelted from ore which contains other metals,
21192 yet it is then either soft <lb></lb>or brittle; such (iron) must be broken up
21193 into small pieces when it is </s>
21194 </p>
21195 <pb pagenum="424"></pb>
21196 <figure></figure>
21197 <p type="caption">
21198
21199 <s>A—FURNACE. B—STAIRS. C—ORE. D—CHARCOAL.</s>
21200 </p>
21201 <pb pagenum="425"></pb>
21202 <figure></figure>
21203 <p type="caption">
21204
21205 <s>A—FORGE. B—BELLOWS. C—TONGS. D—HAMMER. E—COLD
21206 STREAM.<pb pagenum="426"></pb>hot, and then mixed with crushed stone which
21207 melts. </s>
21208
21209 <s>Then a crucible <lb></lb>is made in the hearth of the smith&#039;s furnace, from the
21210 same moistened <lb></lb>powder from which are made the forehearths in front of
21211 the furnaces in <lb></lb>which ores of gold or silver are smelted; the width of
21212 this crucible is <lb></lb>about one and a half feet and the depth one foot. </s>
21213
21214 <s>The bellows are so <lb></lb>placed that the blast may be blown through the nozzle
21215 into the middle <lb></lb>of the crucible. </s>
21216
21217 <s>Then the whole of the crucible is filled with the best <lb></lb>charcoal, and it
21218 is surrounded by fragments of rock to hold in place the pieces <lb></lb>of iron
21219 and the superimposed charcoal. </s>
21220
21221 <s>As soon as all the charcoal <lb></lb>is kindled and the crucible is glowing, a
21222 blast is blown from the bellows <lb></lb>and the master pours in gradually as
21223 much of the mixture of iron and flux <lb></lb>as he wishes. </s>
21224
21225 <s>Into the middle of this, when it is melted, he puts four iron <lb></lb>masses
21226 each weighing thirty pounds, and heats them for five or six hours in a
21227 <lb></lb>fierce fire; he frequently stirs the melted iron with a bar, so that
21228 the small <lb></lb>pores in each mass absorb the minute particles, and these
21229 particles by their <lb></lb>own strength consume and expand the thick particles
21230 of the masses, which they <lb></lb>render soft and similar to dough. </s>
21231
21232 <s>Afterward the master, aided by his <lb></lb>assistant, takes out a mass with the
21233 tongs and places it on the anvil, where <lb></lb>it is pounded by the hammer
21234 which is alternately raised and dropped by <lb></lb>means of the water-wheel;
21235 then, without delay, while it is still hot, he <lb></lb>throws it into water and
21236 tempers it; when it is tempered, he places it again <lb></lb>on the anvil, and
21237 breaks it with a blow from the same hammer. </s>
21238
21239 <s>Then at <lb></lb>once examining the fragments, he decides whether the iron in
21240 some part or <lb></lb>other, or as a whole, appears to be dense and changed into
21241 steel; if so, he seizes <lb></lb>one mass after another with the tongs, and
21242 taking them out he breaks them <lb></lb>into pieces. </s>
21243
21244 <s>Afterward he heats the mixture up again, and adds a portion <lb></lb>afresh to
21245 take the place of that which has been absorbed by the masses. </s>
21246
21247 <s>This <lb></lb>restores the energy of that which is left, and the pieces of the
21248 masses are again <lb></lb>put back into the crucible and made purer. </s>
21249
21250 <s>Each of these, after having <lb></lb>been heated, is seized with the tongs, put
21251 under the hammer and shaped <lb></lb>into a bar. </s>
21252
21253 <s>While they are still glowing, he at once throws them into the very
21254 <lb></lb>coldest nearby running water, and in this manner, being suddenly
21255 condensed, <lb></lb>they are changed into pure steel, which is much harder and
21256 whiter than iron.</s>
21257 </p>
21258 <p type="main">
21259
21260 <s>The ores of the other metals are not smelted in furnaces. </s>
21261
21262 <s>Quicksilver <lb></lb>ores and also antimony are melted in pots, and bismuth in
21263 troughs.</s>
21264 </p>
21265 <p type="main">
21266
21267 <s>I will first speak of quicksilver. </s>
21268
21269 <s>This is collected when found in pools <lb></lb>formed from the outpourings of the
21270 veins and stringers; it is cleansed with <lb></lb>vinegar and salt, and then it
21271 is poured into canvas or soft leather, through <lb></lb>which, when squeezed and
21272 compressed, the quicksilver runs out into a pot or <lb></lb>pan. </s>
21273
21274 <s>The ore of quicksilver is reduced in double or single pots. </s>
21275
21276 <s>If in double <lb></lb>pots, then the upper one is of a shape not very dissimilar
21277 to the glass ampullas <lb></lb>used by doctors, but they taper downward toward
21278 the bottom, and the <lb></lb>lower ones are little pots similar to those in
21279 which men and women make <lb></lb>cheese, but both are larger than these; it is
21280 necessary to sink the lower <lb></lb>pots up to the rims in earth, sand, or
21281 ashes. </s>
21282
21283 <s>The ore, broken up into small <lb></lb>pieces is put into the upper pots; these
21284 having been entirely closed up <pb pagenum="427"></pb>with moss, are placed
21285 upside down in the openings of the lower pots, where they <lb></lb>are joined
21286 with lute, lest the quicksilver which takes refuge in them should <lb></lb>be
21287 exhaled. </s>
21288
21289 <s>There are some who, after the pots have been buried, do not fear <lb></lb>to
21290 leave them uncemented, and who boast that they are able to produce no
21291 <lb></lb>less weight of quicksilver than those who do cement them, but
21292 nevertheless <lb></lb>cementing with lute is the greatest protection against
21293 exhalation. </s>
21294
21295 <s>In this <lb></lb>manner seven hundred pairs of pots are set together in the
21296 ground or on a <lb></lb>hearth. </s>
21297
21298 <s>They must be surrounded on all sides with a mixture consisting of
21299 <lb></lb>crushed earth and charcoal, in such a way that the upper pots protrude
21300 to a <lb></lb>height of a palm above it. </s>
21301
21302 <s>On both sides of the hearth rocks are first laid, <lb></lb>and upon them poles,
21303 across which the workmen place other poles transversely; <lb></lb>these poles do
21304 not touch the pots, nevertheless the fire heats the quick­<lb></lb>silver,
21305 which fleeing from the heat is forced to run down through the moss <lb></lb>into
21306 the lower pots. </s>
21307
21308 <s>If the ore is being reduced in the upper pots, it flees <lb></lb>from them,
21309 wherever there is an exit, into the lower pots, but if the ore on <lb></lb>the
21310 contrary is put in the lower pots the quicksilver rises into the upper pot
21311 <lb></lb>or into the operculum, which, together with the gourd-shaped vessels,
21312 are <lb></lb>cemented to the upper pots.</s>
21313 </p>
21314 <figure></figure>
21315 <p type="caption">
21316
21317 <s>A—HEARTH. B—POLES. C—HEARTH WITHOUT FIRE IN WHICH THE POTS
21318 ARE PLACED. <lb></lb>D—ROCKS. E—ROWS OF POTS. F—UPPER POTS.
21319 G—LOWER POTS.</s>
21320 </p>
21321 <pb pagenum="428"></pb>
21322 <p type="main">
21323
21324 <s>The pots, lest they should become defective, are moulded from the best
21325 <lb></lb>potters&#039; clay, for if there are defects the quicksilver flies out in
21326 the fumes. <lb></lb></s>
21327
21328 <s>If the fumes give out a very sweet odour it indicates that the quicksilver is
21329 <lb></lb>being lost, and since this loosens the teeth, the smelters and others
21330 standing by, <lb></lb>warned of the evil, turn their backs to the wind, which
21331 drives the fumes in <lb></lb>the opposite direction; for this reason, the
21332 building should be open around <lb></lb>the front and the sides, and exposed to
21333 the wind. </s>
21334
21335 <s>If these pots are made <lb></lb>of cast copper they last a long time in the fire. </s>
21336
21337 <s>This process for reducing the <lb></lb>ores of quicksilver is used by most
21338 people.</s>
21339 </p>
21340 <p type="main">
21341
21342 <s>In a similar manner the antimony ore,<emph type="sup"></emph>57<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> if free from other metals, is reduced <lb></lb>in upper pots which are twice
21343 as large as the lower ones. </s>
21344
21345 <s>Their size, however, <lb></lb>depends on the cakes, which have not the same
21346 weight everywhere; for in <lb></lb>some places they are made to weigh six <emph type="italics"></emph>librae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in other places ten,
21347 and else­<lb></lb>where twenty. </s>
21348
21349 <s>When the smelter has concluded his operation, he extin­<lb></lb>guishes the
21350 fire with water, removes the lids from the pots, throws earth mixed
21351 <lb></lb>with ash around and over them, and when they have cooled, takes out the
21352 <lb></lb>cakes from the pots.</s>
21353 </p>
21354 <pb pagenum="429"></pb>
21355 <p type="main">
21356
21357 <s>Other methods for reducing quicksilver are given below. </s>
21358
21359 <s>Big-bellied <lb></lb>pots, having been placed in the upper rectangular open part
21360 of a furnace, <lb></lb>are filled with the crushed ore. </s>
21361
21362 <s>Each of these pots is covered with a lid <lb></lb>with a long
21363 nozzle—commonly called a <emph type="italics"></emph>campana<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>—in the shape of a bell, and <lb></lb>they are
21364 cemented. </s>
21365
21366 <s>Each of the small earthenware vessels shaped like a <lb></lb>gourd receives two
21367 of these nozzles, and these are likewise cemented. </s>
21368
21369 <s>Dried </s>
21370 </p>
21371 <figure></figure>
21372 <p type="caption">
21373
21374 <s>A—POTS. B—OPERCULA. C—NOZZLES. D—GOURD-SHAPED
21375 EARTHENWARE VESSELS.<lb></lb>wood having been placed in the lower part of the
21376 furnace and kindled, the <lb></lb>ore is heated until all the quicksilver has
21377 risen into the operculum which is <lb></lb>over the pot; it then flows from the
21378 nozzle and is caught in the earthenware <lb></lb>gourd-shaped vessel.</s>
21379 </p>
21380 <pb pagenum="430"></pb>
21381 <p type="main">
21382
21383 <s>Others build a hollow vaulted chamber, of which the paved floor is made
21384 <lb></lb>concave toward the centre. </s>
21385
21386 <s>Inside the thick walls of the chamber are the <lb></lb>furnaces. </s>
21387
21388 <s>The doors through which the wood is put are in the outer part of the
21389 <lb></lb>same wall. </s>
21390
21391 <s>They place the pots in the furnaces and fill them with crushed <lb></lb>ore, then
21392 they cement the pots and the furnaces on all sides with lute, so that
21393 <lb></lb>none of the vapour may escape from them, and there is no entrance to
21394 the </s>
21395 </p>
21396 <figure></figure>
21397 <p type="caption">
21398
21399 <s>A—ENCLOSED CHAMBER. B—DOOR. C—LITTLE WINDOWS.
21400 D—MOUTHS THROUGH THE <lb></lb>WALLS. E—FURNACE IN THE ENCLOSED
21401 CHAMBER. F—POTS.<lb></lb>furnaces except through their mouths. </s>
21402
21403 <s>Between the dome and the paved <lb></lb>floor they arrange green trees, then they
21404 close the door and the little windows, <lb></lb>and cover them on all sides with
21405 moss and lute, so that none of the quick­<lb></lb>silver can exhale from the
21406 chamber. </s>
21407
21408 <s>After the wood has been kindled the <pb pagenum="431"></pb>ore is heated, and
21409 exudes the quicksilver; whereupon, impatient with the <lb></lb>heat, and liking
21410 the cold, it escapes to the leaves of the trees, which <lb></lb>have a cooling
21411 power. </s>
21412
21413 <s>When the operation is completed the smelter <lb></lb>extinguishes the fire, and
21414 when all gets cool he opens the door and the <lb></lb>windows, and collects the
21415 quicksilver, most of which, being heavy, falls of <lb></lb>its own accord from
21416 the trees, and flows into the concave part of the floor; <lb></lb>if all should
21417 not have fallen from the trees, they are shaken to make it fall.</s>
21418 </p>
21419 <p type="main">
21420
21421 <s>The following is the fourth method of reducing ores of quicksilver. </s>
21422
21423 <s>A <lb></lb>larger pot standing on a tripod is filled with crushed ore, and over
21424 the ore is <lb></lb>put sand or ashes to a thickness of two digits, and tamped;
21425 then in <lb></lb>the mouth of this pot is inserted the mouth of another smaller
21426 pot and <lb></lb>cemented with lute, lest the vapours are emitted. </s>
21427
21428 <s>The ore heated by the fire <lb></lb>exhales the quicksilver, which, penetrating
21429 through the sand or the ashes, <lb></lb>takes refuge in the upper pot, where
21430 condensing into drops it falls back into <lb></lb>the sand or the ashes, from
21431 which the quicksilver is washed and collected.</s>
21432 </p>
21433 <figure></figure>
21434 <p type="caption">
21435
21436 <s>A—LARGER POT. B—SMALLER. C—TRIPOD. D—TUB IN WHICH THE
21437 SAND IS WASHED.</s>
21438 </p>
21439 <p type="main">
21440
21441 <s>The fifth method is not very unlike the fourth. </s>
21442
21443 <s>In the place of these <lb></lb>pots are set other pots, likewise of earthenware,
21444 having a narrow bottom <lb></lb>and a wide mouth. </s>
21445
21446 <s>These are nearly filled with crushed ore, which is likewise <lb></lb>covered with
21447 ashes to a depth of two digits and tamped in. </s>
21448
21449 <s>The pots are <pb pagenum="432"></pb>covered with lids a digit thick, and they are
21450 smeared over on the inside with <lb></lb>liquid litharge, and on the lid are
21451 placed heavy stones. </s>
21452
21453 <s>The pots are set on <lb></lb>the furnace, and the ore is heated and similarly
21454 exhales quicksilver, which <lb></lb>fleeing from the heat takes refuge in the
21455 lid; on congealing there, it falls <lb></lb>back into the ashes, from which,
21456 when washed, the quicksilver is collected.</s>
21457 </p>
21458 <figure></figure>
21459 <p type="caption">
21460
21461 <s>A—POTS. B—LIDS. C—STONES. D—FURNACE.</s>
21462 </p>
21463 <p type="main">
21464
21465 <s>By these five methods quicksilver may be made, and of these not one is
21466 <lb></lb>to be despised or repudiated; nevertheless, if the mine supplies a
21467 great <lb></lb>abundance of ore, the first is the most expeditious and
21468 practical, because a <lb></lb>large quantity of ore can be reduced at the same
21469 time without great expense.<emph type="sup"></emph>58<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
21470 </p>
21471 <pb pagenum="433"></pb>
21472 <p type="main">
21473
21474 <s>Bismuth<emph type="sup"></emph>59<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> ore, free from every kind
21475 of silver, is smelted by various <lb></lb>methods. </s>
21476
21477 <s>First a small pit is dug in the dry ground; into this pulverised
21478 <lb></lb>charcoal is thrown and tamped in, and then it is dried with burning
21479 charcoal. <lb></lb></s>
21480
21481 <s>Afterward, thick dry pieces of beech wood are placed over the pit, and the
21482 <lb></lb>bismuth ore is thrown on it. </s>
21483
21484 <s>As soon as the kindled wood burns, the heated <lb></lb>ore drips with bismuth,
21485 which runs down into the pit, from which when cooled <lb></lb>the cakes are
21486 removed. </s>
21487
21488 <s>Because pieces of burnt wood, or often charcoal <lb></lb>and occasionally slag,
21489 drop into the bismuth which collects in the pit, and <lb></lb>make it impure, it
21490 is put back into another kind of crucible to be melted, <lb></lb>so that pure
21491 cakes may be made. </s>
21492
21493 <s>There are some who, bearing these things <lb></lb>in mind, dig a pit on a sloping
21494 place and below it put a forehearth, into <lb></lb>which the bismuth continually
21495 flows, and thus remains clean; then they <lb></lb>take it out with ladles and
21496 pour it into iron pans lined inside with lute, and <lb></lb>make cakes of it. </s>
21497
21498 <s>They cover such pits with flat stones, whose joints are <lb></lb>besmeared with a
21499 lute of mixed dust and crushed charcoal, lest the joints <lb></lb>should absorb
21500 the molten bismuth. </s>
21501
21502 <s>Another method is to put the ore in <lb></lb>troughs made of fir-wood and placed
21503 on sloping ground; they place small <lb></lb>firewood over it, kindling it when
21504 a gentle wind blows, and thus the ore is <lb></lb>heated. </s>
21505
21506 <s>In this manner the bismuth melts and runs down from the troughs <lb></lb>into a
21507 pit below, while there remains slag, or stones, which are of a yellow
21508 <lb></lb>colour, as is also the wood laid across the pit. </s>
21509
21510 <s>These are also sold.</s>
21511 </p>
21512 <pb pagenum="434"></pb>
21513 <figure></figure>
21514 <p type="caption">
21515
21516 <s>A—PIT ACROSS WHICH WOOD IS PLACED. B—FOREHEARTH. C—LADLE.
21517 D—IRON <lb></lb>MOULD. E—CAKES. F—EMPTY POT LINED WITH STONES
21518 IN LAYERS. G—TROUGHS. <lb></lb>H—PITS DUG AT THE FOOT OF THE
21519 TROUGHS. I—SMALL WOOD LAID OVER THE TROUGHS. <lb></lb>K—WIND.</s>
21520 </p>
21521 <pb pagenum="435"></pb>
21522 <p type="main">
21523
21524 <s>Others reduce the ore in iron pans as next described. </s>
21525
21526 <s>They lay small <lb></lb>pieces of dry wood alternately straight and transversely
21527 upon bricks, one and <lb></lb>a half feet apart, and set fire to it. </s>
21528
21529 <s>Near it they put small iron pans lined <lb></lb>on the inside with lute, and full
21530 of broken ore; then when the wind <lb></lb>blows the flame of the fierce fire
21531 over the pans, the bismuth drips out of the <lb></lb>ore; wherefore, in order
21532 that it may run, the ore is stirred with the tongs; but <lb></lb>when they
21533 decide that all the bismuth is exuded, they seize the pans with <lb></lb>the
21534 tongs and remove them, and pour out the bismuth into empty pans, and <lb></lb>by
21535 turning many into one they make cakes. </s>
21536
21537 <s>Others reduce the ore, when it is <lb></lb>not mixed with <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>60<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> in a furnace similar to the iron furnace. </s>
21538
21539 <s>In this <lb></lb>case they make a pit and a crucible of crushed earth mixed with
21540 pulverised </s>
21541 </p>
21542 <figure></figure>
21543 <p type="caption">
21544
21545 <s>A—WOOD. B—BRICKS. C—PANS. D—FURNACE.
21546 E—CRUCIBLE. F—PIPE. <lb></lb>G—DIPPING-POT.<lb></lb>charcoal, and
21547 into it they put the broken ore, or the concentrates from <lb></lb>washing, from
21548 which they make more bismuth. </s>
21549
21550 <s>If they put in ore, <lb></lb>they reduce it with charcoal and small dried wood
21551 mixed, and if concentrates, <lb></lb>they use charcoal only; they blow both
21552 materials with a gentle blast from <pb pagenum="436"></pb>a bellows. </s>
21553
21554 <s>From the crucible is a small pipe through which the molten <lb></lb>bismuth runs
21555 down into a dipping-pot, and from this cakes are made.</s>
21556 </p>
21557 <p type="main">
21558
21559 <s>On a dump thrown up from the mines, other people construct a hearth
21560 <lb></lb>exposed to the wind, a foot high, three feet wide, and four and a half
21561 feet <lb></lb>long. </s>
21562
21563 <s>It is held together by four boards, and the whole is thickly coated at
21564 <lb></lb>the top with lute. </s>
21565
21566 <s>On this hearth they first put small dried sticks of fir wood, <lb></lb>then over
21567 them they throw broken ore; then they lay more wood over it, <lb></lb>and when
21568 the wind blows they kindle it. </s>
21569
21570 <s>In this manner the bismuth drips <lb></lb>out of the ore, and afterward the ashes
21571 of the wood consumed by the fire and <lb></lb>the charcoals are swept away. </s>
21572
21573 <s>The drops of bismuth which fall down into <lb></lb>the hearth are congealed by
21574 the cold, and they are taken away with the <lb></lb>tongs and thrown into a
21575 basket. </s>
21576
21577 <s>From the melted bismuth they make <lb></lb>cakes in iron pans.</s>
21578 </p>
21579 <figure></figure>
21580 <p type="caption">
21581
21582 <s>A—HEARTH IN WHICH ORE IS MELTED. B—HEARTH ON WHICH LIE DROPS OF
21583 BISMUTH. <lb></lb>C—TONGS. D—BASKET. E—WIND.</s>
21584 </p>
21585 <p type="main">
21586
21587 <s>Others again make a box eight feet long, four feet wide, and two feet high,
21588 <lb></lb>which they fill almost full of sand and cover with bricks, thus making
21589 <lb></lb>the hearth. </s>
21590
21591 <s>The box has in the centre a wooden pivot, which turns in a hole <lb></lb>in two
21592 beams laid transversely one upon the other; these beams are hard and
21593 <lb></lb>thick, are sunk into the ground, both ends are perforated, and through
21594 <pb pagenum="437"></pb>these holes wedge-shaped pegs are driven, in order
21595 that the beams may remain <lb></lb>fixed, and that the box may turn round, and
21596 may be turned toward the wind <lb></lb>from whichever quarter of the sky it may
21597 blow. </s>
21598
21599 <s>In such a hearth they put </s>
21600 </p>
21601 <figure></figure>
21602 <p type="caption">
21603
21604 <s>A—BOX. B—PIVOT. C—TRANSVERSE WOOD BEAMS. D—GRATE.
21605 E—ITS FEET. <lb></lb>F—BURNING WOOD. G—STICK. H—PANS IN
21606 WHICH THE BISMUTH IS MELTED. <lb></lb>I—PANS FOR MOULDS. K—CAKES.
21607 L—FORK. M—BRUSH.<lb></lb>an iron grate, as long and wide as the box
21608 and threequarters of a foot high; <lb></lb>it has six feet, and there are so
21609 many transverse bars that they almost touch <lb></lb>one another. </s>
21610
21611 <s>On the grate they lay pine-wood and over it broken ore, and over <lb></lb>this
21612 they again lay pine-wood. </s>
21613
21614 <s>When it has been kindled the ore melts, out <lb></lb>of which the bismuth drips
21615 down; since very little wood is burned, this is the <lb></lb>most profitable
21616 method of smelting the bismuth. </s>
21617
21618 <s>The bismuth drips through <lb></lb>the grate on to the hearth, while the other
21619 things remain upon the grate with <lb></lb>the charcoal. </s>
21620
21621 <s>When the work is finished, the workman takes a stick from the <lb></lb>hearth and
21622 overturns the grate, and the things which have accumulated on <lb></lb>it; with
21623 a brush he sweeps up the bismuth and collects it in a basket, and <lb></lb>then
21624 he melts it in an iron pan and makes cakes. </s>
21625
21626 <s>As soon as possible after <lb></lb>it is cool, he turns the pans over, so that
21627 the cakes may fall out, using for <lb></lb>this purpose a two-pronged fork of
21628 which one prong is again forked. </s>
21629
21630 <s>And <lb></lb>immediately afterward he returns to his labours.</s>
21631 </p>
21632 <p type="head">
21633
21634 <s>END OF BOOK IX.</s>
21635 </p>
21636 <pb></pb>
21637 <figure></figure>
21638 <pb></pb>
21639 <p type="head">
21640
21641 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>BOOK X.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
21642 </p>
21643 <p type="main">
21644
21645 <s>Questions as to the methods of smelting ores and <lb></lb>of obtaining metals I
21646 discussed in Book IX. <lb></lb></s>
21647
21648 <s>Following this, I should explain in what manner the <lb></lb>precious metals are
21649 parted from the base metals, or <lb></lb>on the other hand the base metals from
21650 the precious<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. <lb></lb></s>
21651
21652 <s>Frequently two metals, occasionally more than <lb></lb>two, are melted out of one
21653 ore, because in <lb></lb>nature generally there is some amount of gold in
21654 <lb></lb>silver and in copper, and some silver in gold, copper, <lb></lb>lead, and
21655 iron; likewise some copper in gold, silver, lead, and iron, and <lb></lb>some
21656 lead in silver; and lastly, some iron in copper<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
21657
21658 <s>But I will begin with <lb></lb>gold.</s>
21659 </p>
21660 <p type="main">
21661
21662 <s>Gold is parted from silver, or likewise the latter from the former, whether
21663 <lb></lb>it be mixed by nature or by art, by means of <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua
21664 valens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, and by powders <lb></lb>which consist of almost the same things as this
21665 <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
21666 <s> In order to preserve the <lb></lb>sequence, I will first speak of the
21667 ingredients of which this <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is made, then <lb></lb>of the method of making it, then of the manner in
21668 which gold is parted from <lb></lb>silver or silver from gold. </s>
21669
21670 <s>Almost all these ingredients contain vitriol or <lb></lb>alum, which, by
21671 themselves, but much more when joined with saltpetre, are <lb></lb>powerful to
21672 part silver from gold. </s>
21673
21674 <s>As to the other things that are added to <lb></lb>them, they cannot individually
21675 by their own strength and nature separate <lb></lb>those metals, but joined they
21676 are very powerful. </s>
21677
21678 <s>Since there are many <lb></lb>combinations, I will set out a few. </s>
21679
21680 <s>In the first, the use of which is common <lb></lb>and general, there is one <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol and as
21681 much salt, added to a third of a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of spring water. </s>
21682
21683 <s>The second contains two <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol, one of salt­<lb></lb>petre, and as much
21684 spring or river water by weight as will pass away whilst <lb></lb>the vitriol is
21685 being reduced to powder by the fire. </s>
21686
21687 <s>The third consists of four <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol, two and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of saltpetre, half a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of alum, and one
21688 <lb></lb>and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of spring water. </s>
21689
21690 <s>The fourth consists of two <emph type="italics"></emph>líibrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol, <lb></lb>as many <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of saltpetre, one quarter of a
21691 <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of alum,
21692 and three-quarters <lb></lb>of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of spring water. </s>
21693
21694 <s>The fifth is composed of one <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of saltpetre, <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="440"></pb>three <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of alum, half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of brick dust, and
21695 three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of spring water. </s>
21696
21697 <s>The sixth consists of four <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol, three <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>saltpetre, one of alum, one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> likewise of stones which
21698 when thrown into a <lb></lb>fierce furnace are easily liquefied by fire of the
21699 third order, and one and a <lb></lb>half <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of spring water. </s>
21700
21701 <s>The seventh is made of two <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol, one <lb></lb>and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of saltpetre, half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of alum, and one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of stones <lb></lb>which
21702 when thrown into a glowing furnace are easily liquefied by fire of the
21703 <lb></lb>third order, and five-sixths of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of spring water. </s>
21704
21705 <s>The eighth is made of <lb></lb>two <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol, the same number of <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of saltpetre, one and a <lb></lb>half
21706 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of alum, one
21707 <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the lees of the
21708 <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which parts gold
21709 from <lb></lb>silver; and to each separate <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> a sixth of urine is poured over
21710 it. </s>
21711
21712 <s>The <lb></lb>ninth contains two <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of powder of baked bricks, one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol, <lb></lb>likewise one <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of saltpetre, a
21713 handful of salt, and three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of spring water. </s>
21714
21715 <s>Only the tenth lacks vitriol and alum, but it contains three <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of saltpetre, two <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of stones which when
21716 thrown into a hot furnace <lb></lb>are easily liquefied by fire of the third
21717 order, half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each of
21718 verdigris<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, <lb></lb>of <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of iron scales and
21719 filings, and of asbestos<emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, and one
21720 and one-sixth <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
21721 spring water.</s>
21722 </p>
21723 <p type="main">
21724
21725 <s>All the vitriol from which the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is usually made is first reduced to <lb></lb>powder in the
21726 following way. </s>
21727
21728 <s>It is thrown into an earthen crucible lined on <lb></lb>the inside with litharge,
21729 and heated until it melts; then it is stirred with a <lb></lb>copper wire, and
21730 after it has cooled it is pounded to powder. </s>
21731
21732 <s>In the same <lb></lb>manner saltpetre melted by the fire is pounded to powder
21733 when it has cooled. <lb></lb></s>
21734
21735 <s>Some indeed place alum upon an iron plate, roast it, and make it into
21736 powder.</s>
21737 </p>
21738 <p type="main">
21739
21740 <s>Although all these <emph type="italics"></emph>aquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
21741 cleanse gold concentrates or dust from <lb></lb>impurities, yet there are
21742 certain compositions which possess singular power. <lb></lb><pb pagenum="441"></pb>The first of these consists of one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of verdigris and three-quarters of <lb></lb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol. </s>
21743
21744 <s>For each <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> there is
21745 poured over it one-sixth of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of spring or river water, as to which, since this
21746 pertains to all these com­<lb></lb>pounds, it is sufficient to have
21747 mentioned once for all. </s>
21748
21749 <s>The second com­<lb></lb>position is made from one <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of each of the following,
21750 artificial orpiment, <lb></lb>vitriol, lime, alum, ash which the dyers of wool
21751 use, one quarter of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of verdigris, and one and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
21752 <s> The third consists of three <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol, one of saltpetre, half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of asbestos, and half a
21753 <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>baked
21754 bricks. </s>
21755
21756 <s>The fourth consists of one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of saltpetre, one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of alum, <lb></lb>and half a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of sal-ammoniac.<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
21757 </p>
21758 <p type="main">
21759
21760 <s>The furnace in which <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is made<emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> is
21761 built of bricks, rectangular, <lb></lb>two feet long and wide, and as many feet
21762 high and a half besides. </s>
21763
21764 <s>It is <lb></lb>covered with iron plates supported with iron rods; these plates
21765 are smeared <lb></lb>on the top with lute, and they have in the centre a round
21766 hole, large enough to <lb></lb>hold the earthen vessel in which the glass
21767 ampulla is placed, and on each side of <lb></lb>the centre hole are two small
21768 round air-holes. </s>
21769
21770 <s>The lower part of the furnace, <lb></lb>in order to hold the burning charcoal,
21771 has iron plates at the height of a palm, <lb></lb>likewise supported by iron
21772 rods. </s>
21773
21774 <s>In the middle of the front there is the <lb></lb>mouth, made for the purpose of
21775 putting the fire into the furnace; this mouth <lb></lb>is half a foot high and
21776 wide, and rounded at the top, and under it is the <lb></lb>draught opening. </s>
21777
21778 <s>Into the earthen vessel set over the hole is placed clean <lb></lb>sand a digit
21779 deep, and in it the glass ampulla is set as deeply as it is smeared
21780 <lb></lb>with lute. </s>
21781
21782 <s>The lower quarter is smeared eight or ten times with nearly liquid <lb></lb>lute,
21783 each time to the thickness of a blade, and each time it is dried again,
21784 <lb></lb>until it has become as thick as the thumb; this kind of lute is well
21785 beaten <lb></lb>with an iron rod, and is thoroughly mixed with hair or cotton
21786 thread, or with <lb></lb>wool and salt, that it should not crackle. </s>
21787
21788 <s>The many things of which the <lb></lb>compounds are made must not fill the
21789 ampulla completely, lest when boiling <lb></lb>they rise into the operculum. </s>
21790
21791 <s>The operculum is likewise made of glass, <lb></lb>and is closely joined to the
21792 ampulla with linen, cemented with wheat flour <lb></lb>and white of egg
21793 moistened with water, and then lute free from salt is spread <lb></lb>over that
21794 part of it. </s>
21795
21796 <s>In a similar way the spout of the operculum is joined <lb></lb>by linen covered
21797 with lute to another glass ampulla which receives the distilled <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>aqua.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
21798 <s> A kind of thin iron nail or small wooden peg, a little thicker than a
21799 <lb></lb>needle, is fixed in this joint, in order that when air seems necessary
21800 to the <lb></lb>artificer distilling by this process he can pull it out; this is
21801 necessary when <lb></lb>too much of the vapour has been driven into the upper
21802 part. </s>
21803
21804 <s>The four air­<lb></lb>holes which, as I have said, are on the top of the
21805 furnace beside the large <lb></lb>hole on which the ampulla is placed, are
21806 likewise covered with lute.<lb></lb></s>
21807 </p>
21808 <pb pagenum="442"></pb>
21809 <figure></figure>
21810 <p type="caption">
21811
21812 <s>A—FURNACE. B—ITS ROUND HOLE. C—AIR-HOLES. D—MOUTH OF
21813 THE FURNACE. <lb></lb>E—DRAUGHT OPENING UNDER IT. F—EARTHENWARE
21814 CRUCIBLE. G—AMPULLA. <lb></lb>H—OPERCULUM. I—ITS SPOUT.
21815 K—OTHER AMPULLA. L—BASKET IN WHICH THIS IS <lb></lb>USUALLY PLACED
21816 LEST IT SHOULD BE BROKEN.</s>
21817 </p>
21818 <p type="main">
21819
21820 <s>All this preparation having been accomplished in order, and the
21821 <lb></lb>ingredients placed in the ampulla, they are gradually heated over
21822 burning <lb></lb>charcoal until they begin to exhale vapour and the ampulla is
21823 seen to trickle <lb></lb>with moisture. </s>
21824
21825 <s>But when this, on account of the rising of the vapour, turns <lb></lb>red, and
21826 the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> distils through the
21827 spout of the operculum, then one must <lb></lb>work with the utmost care, lest
21828 the drops should fall at a quicker rate than <lb></lb>one for every five
21829 movements of the clock or the striking of its bell, and <lb></lb>not slower than
21830 one for every ten; for if it falls faster the glasses will be <lb></lb>broken,
21831 and if it drops more slowly the work begun cannot be completed <lb></lb>within
21832 the definite time, that is within the space of twenty-four hours. </s>
21833
21834 <s>To <lb></lb>prevent the first accident, part of the coals are extracted by means
21835 of an iron <lb></lb>implement similar to pincers; and in order to prevent the
21836 second happening, <lb></lb>small dry pieces of oak are placed upon the coals,
21837 and the substances in the <lb></lb>ampulla are heated with a sharper fire, and
21838 the air-holes on the furnace <lb></lb>are re-opened if need arise. </s>
21839
21840 <s>As soon as the drops are being distilled, <lb></lb>the glass ampulla which
21841 receives them is covered with a piece of linen <pb pagenum="443"></pb>moistened
21842 with water, in order that the powerful vapour which arises may be
21843 <lb></lb>repelled. </s>
21844
21845 <s>When the ingredients have been heated and the ampulla in which <lb></lb>they were
21846 placed is whitened with moisture, it is heated by a fiercer fire until
21847 <lb></lb>all the drops have been distilled<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
21848
21849 <s>After the furnace has cooled, the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is <lb></lb>filtered and poured into a small glass ampulla,
21850 and into the same is put half <lb></lb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>,
21851 which when dissolved makes the turbid <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> clear. <lb></lb></s>
21852
21853 <s>This is poured into the ampulla containing all the rest of the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and as <lb></lb>soon as the
21854 lees have sunk to the bottom the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is poured off, removed, and <lb></lb>reserved for use.</s>
21855 </p>
21856 <p type="main">
21857
21858 <s>Gold is parted from silver by the following method<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
21859
21860 <s>The alloy, with lead <lb></lb>added to it, is first heated in a cupel until all
21861 the lead is exhaled, and eight <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="444"></pb>ounces of the
21862 alloy contain only five <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper or at most six, for <lb></lb>if there is more
21863 copper in it, the silver separated from the gold soon unites <lb></lb>with it
21864 again. </s>
21865
21866 <s>Such molten silver containing gold is formed into granules, <lb></lb>being
21867 stirred by means of a rod split at the lower end, or else is poured into an
21868 <lb></lb>iron mould, and when cooled is made into thin leaves. </s>
21869
21870 <s>As the process of <lb></lb>making granules from argentiferous gold demands
21871 greater care and diligence than <lb></lb>making them from any other metals, I
21872 will now explain the method briefly. </s>
21873
21874 <s>The <lb></lb>alloy is first placed in a crucible, which is then covered with a
21875 lid and placed <lb></lb>in another earthen crucible containing a few ashes. </s>
21876
21877 <s>Then they are placed <lb></lb>in the furnace, and after they are surrounded by
21878 charcoal, the fire is blown <lb></lb>by the blast of a bellows, and lest the
21879 charcoal fall away it is surrounded <lb></lb>by stones or bricks. </s>
21880
21881 <s>Soon afterward charcoal is thrown over the upper <lb></lb>crucible and covered
21882 with live coals; these again are covered with charcoal, <lb></lb>so that the
21883 crucible is surrounded and covered on all sides with it. </s>
21884
21885 <s>It <lb></lb>is necessary to heat the crucibles with charcoal for the space of
21886 half an hour or <lb></lb>a little longer, and to provide that there is no
21887 deficiency of charcoal, lest the <lb></lb>alloy become chilled; after this the
21888 air is blown in through the nozzle of the <lb></lb>bellows, that the gold may
21889 begin to melt. </s>
21890
21891 <s>Soon afterward it is turned <lb></lb>round, and a test is quickly taken to see
21892 whether it be melted, and if it is <lb></lb>melted, fluxes are thrown into it;
21893 it is advisable to cover up the crucible <lb></lb>again closely that the
21894 contents may not be exhaled. </s>
21895
21896 <s>The contents are heated <lb></lb>together for as long as it would take to walk
21897 fifteen paces, and then the <lb></lb>crucible is seized with tongs and the gold
21898 is emptied into an oblong vessel <lb></lb>containing very cold water, by pouring
21899 it slowly from a height so that the <lb></lb>granules will not be too big; in
21900 proportion as they are lighter, more fine <lb></lb>and more irregular, the
21901 better they are, therefore the water is frequently <lb></lb>stirred with a rod
21902 split into four parts from the lower end to the middle.</s>
21903 </p>
21904 <p type="main">
21905
21906 <s>The leaves are cut into small pieces, and they or the silver granules are
21907 <lb></lb>put into a glass ampulla, and the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is poured over them to a height of a <lb></lb>digit above
21908 the silver. </s>
21909
21910 <s>The ampulla is covered with a bladder or with waxed <lb></lb>linen, lest the
21911 contents exhale. </s>
21912
21913 <s>Then it is heated until the silver is dissolved, <lb></lb>the indication of which
21914 is the bubbling of the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
21915 <s> The gold remains in the <lb></lb>bottom, of a blackish colour, and the silver
21916 mixed with the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> floats
21917 above. <lb></lb></s>
21918
21919 <s>Some pour the latter into a copper bowl and pour into it cold water, which
21920 <lb></lb>immediately congeals the silver; this they take out and dry, having
21921 poured <lb></lb>off the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
21922
21923 <s>They heat the dried silver in an earthenware crucible until <lb></lb>it melts,
21924 and when it is melted they pour it into an iron mould.</s>
21925 </p>
21926 <p type="main">
21927
21928 <s>The gold which remains in the ampulla they wash with warm water, <lb></lb>filter,
21929 dry, and heat in a crucible with a little <emph type="italics"></emph>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which is called <lb></lb>borax, and
21930 when it is melted they likewise pour it into an iron mould.</s>
21931 </p>
21932 <pb pagenum="445"></pb>
21933 <p type="main">
21934
21935 <s>Some workers, into an ampulla which contains gold and silver and the
21936 <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which
21937 separates them, pour two or three times as much of this <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua <lb></lb>valens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> warmed, and into the same
21938 ampulla or into a dish into which all is <lb></lb>poured, throw fine leaves of
21939 black lead and copper; by this means the gold <lb></lb>adheres to the lead and
21940 the silver to the copper, and separately the lead <lb></lb>from the gold, and
21941 separately the copper from the silver, are parted in a <lb></lb>cupel. </s>
21942
21943 <s>But no method is approved by us which loses the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> used to part <lb></lb>gold from silver, for
21944 it might be used again<emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
21945 </p>
21946 <p type="main">
21947
21948 <s>A glass ampulla, which bulges up inside at the bottom like a cone, is
21949 <lb></lb>covered on the lower part of the outside with lute in the way explained
21950 above, <lb></lb>and into it is put silver bullion weighing three and a half
21951 Roman <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
21952 <s> The <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which parts
21953 the one from the other is poured into it, and the ampulla is <lb></lb>placed in
21954 sand contained in an earthen vessel, or in a box, that it may be <lb></lb>warmed
21955 with a gentle fire. </s>
21956
21957 <s>Lest the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> should be
21958 exhaled, the top of the <lb></lb>ampulla is plastered on all sides with lute,
21959 and it is covered with a glass <lb></lb>operculum, under whose spout is placed
21960 another ampulla which receives the <lb></lb>distilled drops; this receiver is
21961 likewise arranged in a box containing sand. <lb></lb></s>
21962
21963 <s>When the contents are heated it reddens, but when the redness no <lb></lb>longer
21964 appears to increase, it is taken out of the vessel or box and shaken;
21965 <lb></lb>by this motion the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
21966 becomes heated again and grows red; if this is <lb></lb>done two or three times
21967 before other <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is added
21968 to it, the operation is sooner <lb></lb>concluded, and much less <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is consumed. </s>
21969
21970 <s>When the first charge has all <lb></lb>been distilled, as much silver as at first
21971 is again put into the ampulla, for if <lb></lb>too much were put in at once, the
21972 gold would be parted from it with difficulty. <lb></lb></s>
21973
21974 <s>Then the second <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is
21975 poured in, but it is warmed in order that it and the <lb></lb>ampulla may be of
21976 equal temperature, so that the latter may not be cracked <lb></lb>by the cold;
21977 also if a cold wind blows on it, it is apt to crack. </s>
21978
21979 <s>Then the third <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is
21980 poured in, and also if circumstances require it, the fourth, that is to
21981 <lb></lb>say more <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and again
21982 more is poured in until the gold assumes the colour <lb></lb>of burned brick. </s>
21983
21984 <s>The artificer keeps in hand two <emph type="italics"></emph>aquae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> one of which is <lb></lb>stronger than the other; the
21985 stronger is used at first, then the less strong, <lb></lb>then at the last again
21986 the stronger. </s>
21987
21988 <s>When the gold becomes of a reddish <lb></lb>yellow colour, spring water is poured
21989 in and heated until it boils. </s>
21990
21991 <s>The gold is <lb></lb>washed four times and then heated in the crucible until it
21992 melts. </s>
21993
21994 <s>The water <lb></lb>with which it was washed is put back, for there is a little
21995 silver in it; for <lb></lb>this reason it is poured into an ampulla and heated,
21996 and the drops first distilled <lb></lb>are received by one ampulla, while those
21997 which come later, that is to say <lb></lb>when the operculum begins to get red,
21998 fall into another. </s>
21999
22000 <s>This latter <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is
22001 <lb></lb>useful for testing the gold, the former for washing it; the former may
22002 also <lb></lb>be poured over the ingredients from which the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is made.</s>
22003 </p>
22004 <p type="main">
22005
22006 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> that was first
22007 distilled, which contains the silver, is poured into <lb></lb>an ampulla wide at
22008 the base, the top of which is also smeared with lute and <lb></lb>covered by an
22009 operculum, and is then boiled as before in order that it may be
22010 <lb></lb>separated from the silver. </s>
22011
22012 <s>If there be so much <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> that
22013 (when boiled) it </s>
22014 </p>
22015 <pb pagenum="446"></pb>
22016 <figure></figure>
22017 <p type="caption">
22018
22019 <s>A—AMPULLAE ARRANGED IN THE VESSELS. B—AN AMPULLA STANDING UPRIGHT
22020 BETWEEN <lb></lb>IRON RODS. C—AMPULLAE PLACED IN THE SAND WHICH IS
22021 CONTAINED IN A BOX, THE <lb></lb>SPOUTS OF WHICH REACH FROM THE OPERCULA INTO
22022 AMPULLAE PLACED UNDER THEM. <lb></lb>D—AMPULLAE LIKEWISE PLACED IN SAND
22023 WHICH IS CONTAINED IN A BOX, OF WHICH THE <lb></lb>SPOUT FROM THE OPERCULA
22024 EXTENDS CROSSWISE INTO AMPULLAE PLACED UNDER THEM. <lb></lb>E—OTHER
22025 AMPULLAE RECEIVING THE DISTILLED <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> AND LIKEWISE ARRANGED IN SAND <lb></lb>CONTAINED IN THE
22026 LOWER BOXES. F—IRON TRIPOD, IN WHICH THE AMPULLA IS USUALLY
22027 <lb></lb>PLACED WHEN THERE ARE NOT MANY PARTICLES OF GOLD TO BE PARTED FROM THE
22028 SILVER. <lb></lb>G—VESSEL.<lb></lb>rises into the operculum, there is put into
22029 the ampulla one lozenge or two; <lb></lb>these are made of soap, cut into small
22030 pieces and mixed together with <lb></lb>powdered argol, and then heated in a pot
22031 over a gentle fire; or else the <lb></lb>contents are stirred with a hazel twig
22032 split at the bottom, and in both cases <lb></lb>the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> effervesces, and soon after again
22033 settles. </s>
22034
22035 <s>When the powerful vapour <lb></lb>appears, the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> gives off a kind of oil, and the
22036 operculum becomes red. </s>
22037
22038 <s>But, <lb></lb>lest the vapours should escape from the ampulla and the operculum
22039 in that <lb></lb>part where their mouths communicate, they are entirely sealed
22040 all round. <lb></lb></s>
22041
22042 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is boiled
22043 continually over a fiercer fire, and enough charcoal must be <lb></lb>put into
22044 the furnace so that the live coals touch the vessel. </s>
22045
22046 <s>The ampulla is <lb></lb>taken out as soon as all the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> has been distilled, and the silver,
22047 which is dried <lb></lb>by the heat of the fire, alone remains in it; the silver
22048 is shaken out and put <lb></lb>in an earthenware crucible, and heated until it
22049 melts. </s>
22050
22051 <s>The molten glass is <lb></lb>extracted with an iron rod curved at the lower end,
22052 and the silver is made <pb pagenum="447"></pb>into cakes. </s>
22053
22054 <s>The glass extracted from the crucible is ground to powder, and <lb></lb>to this
22055 are added litharge, argol, glass-galls, and saltpetre, and they are
22056 <lb></lb>melted in an earthen crucible. </s>
22057
22058 <s>The button that settles is transferred to the <lb></lb>cupel and re-melted.</s>
22059 </p>
22060 <p type="main">
22061
22062 <s>If the silver was not sufficiently dried by the heat of the fire, that which
22063 <lb></lb>is contained in the upper part of the ampulla will appear black; this
22064 when <lb></lb>melted will be consumed. </s>
22065
22066 <s>When the lute, which was smeared round the <lb></lb>lower part of the ampulla,
22067 has been removed, it is placed in the crucible and <lb></lb>is re-melted, until
22068 at last there is no more appearance of black<emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
22069 </p>
22070 <p type="main">
22071
22072 <s>If to the first <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> the
22073 other which contains silver is to be added, it <lb></lb>must be poured in before
22074 the powerful vapours appear, and the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> gives off <lb></lb>the oily substance, and the operculum
22075 becomes red; for he who pours in the <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> after the vapour appears causes a loss,
22076 because the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> generally
22077 spurts <lb></lb>out and the glass breaks. </s>
22078
22079 <s>If the ampulla breaks when the gold is being parted <lb></lb>from the silver or
22080 the silver from the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
22081 the <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> will be absorbed by
22082 the <lb></lb>sand or the lute or the bricks, whereupon, without any delay, the
22083 red hot coals <lb></lb>should be taken out of the furnace and the fire
22084 extinguished. </s>
22085
22086 <s>The sand and <lb></lb>bricks after being crushed should be thrown into a copper
22087 vessel, warm water. <lb></lb></s>
22088
22089 <s>should be poured over them, and they should be put aside for the space of
22090 <lb></lb>twelve hours; afterward the water should be strained through a canvas,
22091 and <lb></lb>the canvas, since it contains silver, should be dried by the heat
22092 of the sun or <lb></lb>the fire, and then placed in an earthen crucible and
22093 heated until the silver <lb></lb>melts, this being poured out into an iron
22094 mould. </s>
22095
22096 <s>The strained water should <lb></lb>be poured into an ampulla and separated from
22097 the silver, of which it contains <lb></lb>a minute portion; the sand should be
22098 mixed with litharge, glass-galls, <lb></lb>argol, saltpetre, and salt, and
22099 heated in an earthen crucible. </s>
22100
22101 <s>The button <lb></lb>which settles at the bottom should be transferred to a cupel,
22102 and should <lb></lb>be re-melted, in order that the lead may be separated from
22103 the silver. </s>
22104
22105 <s>The <lb></lb>lute, with lead added, should be heated in an earthen crucible, then
22106 <lb></lb>re-melted in a cupel.</s>
22107 </p>
22108 <p type="main">
22109
22110 <s>We also separate silver from gold by the same method when we assay <lb></lb>them. </s>
22111
22112 <s>For this purpose the alloy is first rubbed against a touchstone, in
22113 <lb></lb>order to learn what proportion of silver there is in it; then as much
22114 silver <lb></lb>as is necessary is added to the argentiferous gold, in a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which there <lb></lb>must
22115 be less than a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> of copper. <lb></lb></s>
22116
22117 <s>After lead has been added, it is melted in a cupel until the lead and the
22118 <lb></lb>copper have exhaled, then the alloy of gold with silver is flattened
22119 out, and <lb></lb>little tubes are made of the leaves; these are put into a
22120 glass ampulla, <lb></lb>and strong <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is poured over them two or three times. </s>
22121
22122 <s>The tubes after <lb></lb>this are absolutely pure, with the exception of only a
22123 quarter of a <emph type="italics"></emph>siliqua,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>which is silver; for only this much silver remains in eight <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of gold<emph type="sup"></emph>15<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.<lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
22124 </p>
22125 <pb pagenum="448"></pb>
22126 <p type="main">
22127
22128 <s>As great expense is incurred in parting the metals by the methods that <lb></lb>I
22129 have explained, as night vigils are necessary when <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is made, <lb></lb>and as generally much
22130 labour and great pains have to be expended on this <lb></lb>matter, other
22131 methods for parting have been invented by clever men, which <lb></lb>are less
22132 costly, less laborious, and in which there is less loss if through
22133 care­<lb></lb>lessness an error is made. </s>
22134
22135 <s>There are three methods, the first performed with <lb></lb>sulphur, the second
22136 with antimony, the third by means of some compound <lb></lb>which consists of
22137 these or other ingredients.</s>
22138 </p>
22139 <p type="main">
22140
22141 <s>In the first method,<emph type="sup"></emph>16<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> the silver
22142 containing some gold is melted in a <lb></lb>crucible and made into granules. </s>
22143
22144 <s>For every <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of granules,
22145 there is taken <lb></lb>a sixth of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícilicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of sulphur (not exposed to the fire); this, <lb></lb>when
22146 crushed, is sprinkled over the moistened granules, and then they are put
22147 <lb></lb>into a new carthen pot of the capacity of four <emph type="italics"></emph>sextarií,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or into several of them
22148 <lb></lb>if there is an abundance of granules. </s>
22149
22150 <s>The pot, having been filled, is covered <lb></lb>with an earthen lid and smeared
22151 over, and placed within a circle of fire set one <lb></lb>and a half feet
22152 distant from the pot on all sides, in order that the sulphur <lb></lb>added to
22153 the silver should not be distilled when melted. </s>
22154
22155 <s>The pot is opened, </s>
22156 </p>
22157 <pb pagenum="449"></pb>
22158 <figure></figure>
22159 <p type="caption">
22160
22161 <s>A—POT. B—CIRCULAR FIRE. C—CRUCIBLES. D—THEIR LIDS.
22162 E—LID OF THE POT. <lb></lb>F—FURNACE. G—IRON ROD.<lb></lb>the
22163 black-coloured granules are taken out, and afterward thirty-three <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of these granules
22164 are placed in an earthen crucible, if it has such capacity. <lb></lb></s>
22165
22166 <s>For every <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22167 silver granules, weighed before they were sprinkled with <pb pagenum="450"></pb>sulphur, there is weighed out also a sixth of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>sicílícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>copper, if
22168 each <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> consists either
22169 of three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver and <lb></lb>a quarter of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper, or of three-quarters of a
22170 <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver
22171 and a sixth of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a
22172 <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
22173 of copper. </s>
22174
22175 <s>If, <lb></lb>however, the silver contains five-sixths of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver and a sixth of a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper, or
22176 five-sixths of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver and an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and a half of copper, then
22177 there are weighed out a quarter of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper <lb></lb>granules. </s>
22178
22179 <s>If a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> contains
22180 eleven-twelfths of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver and one <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of copper, or
22181 eleven-twelfths and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver and a
22182 <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22183 <lb></lb>copper, then are weighed out a quarter of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>sícílicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper granules. </s>
22184
22185 <s>Lastly, if there is only pure silver, then as much <lb></lb>as a third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22186 copper granules are added. </s>
22187
22188 <s>Half <lb></lb>of these copper granules are added soon afterward to the
22189 black-coloured <lb></lb>silver granules. </s>
22190
22191 <s>The crucible should be tightly covered and smeared over <lb></lb>with lute, and
22192 placed in a furnace, into which the air is drawn through the
22193 <lb></lb>draught-holes. </s>
22194
22195 <s>As soon as the silver is melted, the crucible is opened, and <lb></lb>there is
22196 placed in it a heaped ladleful more of granulated copper, and also <lb></lb>a
22197 heaped ladleful of a powder which consists of equal parts of litharge, of
22198 <lb></lb>granulated lead, of salt, and of glass-galls; then the crucible is
22199 again covered <lb></lb>with the lid. </s>
22200
22201 <s>When the copper granules are melted, more are put in, together <lb></lb>with the
22202 powder, until all have been put in.</s>
22203 </p>
22204 <p type="main">
22205
22206 <s>A little of the regulus is taken from the crucible, but not from the gold
22207 <lb></lb>lump which has settled at the bottom, and a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of it is put into each of <lb></lb>the
22208 cupels, which contain an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of molten lead; there should be many <lb></lb>of these cupels. </s>
22209
22210 <s>In this way half a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22211 silver is made. </s>
22212
22213 <s>As soon as <lb></lb>the lead and copper have been separated from the silver, a
22214 third of it is <lb></lb>thrown into a glass ampulla, and <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is poured over it. </s>
22215
22216 <s>By this <lb></lb>method is shown whether the sulphur has parted all the gold from
22217 the silver, <lb></lb>or not. </s>
22218
22219 <s>If one wishes to know the size of the gold lump which has settled <lb></lb>at the
22220 bottom of the crucible, an iron rod moistened with water is covered
22221 <lb></lb>with chalk, and when the rod is dry it is pushed down straight into the
22222 <lb></lb>crucible, and the rod remains bright to the height of the gold lump;
22223 the <lb></lb>remaining part of the rod is coloured black by the regulus, which
22224 adheres to <lb></lb>the rod if it is not quickly removed.</s>
22225 </p>
22226 <p type="main">
22227
22228 <s>If when the rod has been extracted the gold is observed to be
22229 <lb></lb>satisfactorily parted from the silver, the regulus is poured out, the
22230 gold <lb></lb>button is taken out of the crucible, and in some clean place the
22231 regulus is <lb></lb>chipped off from it, although it usually flies apart. </s>
22232
22233 <s>The lump itself is reduced <lb></lb>to granules, and for every <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of this gold they weigh
22234 out a quarter of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>each of crushed sulphur and of granular copper, and all are placed
22235 together <lb></lb>in an earthen crucible, not into a pot. </s>
22236
22237 <s>When they are melted, in order that <lb></lb>the gold may more quickly settle at
22238 the bottom, the powder which I have <lb></lb>mentioned is added.</s>
22239 </p>
22240 <p type="main">
22241
22242 <s>Although minute particles of gold appear to scintillate in the regulus
22243 <lb></lb>of copper and silver, yet if all that are in a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> do not weigh as much as a <lb></lb>single
22244 sesterce, then the sulphur has satisfactorily parted the gold from the <pb pagenum="451"></pb>silver; but if it should weigh a sesterce or more, then
22245 the regulus is thrown <lb></lb>back again into the earthen crucible, and it is
22246 not advantageous to add sulphur, <lb></lb>but only a little copper and powder,
22247 by which method a gold lump is again <lb></lb>made to settle at the bottom; and
22248 this one is added to the other button which <lb></lb>is not rich in gold.</s>
22249 </p>
22250 <p type="main">
22251
22252 <s>When gold is parted from sixty-six <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, the silver, copper,
22253 <lb></lb>and sulphur regulus weighs one hundred and thirty-two <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
22254 <s> To separate <lb></lb>the copper from the silver we require five hundred <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead, more or
22255 <lb></lb>less, with which the regulus is melted in the second furnace. </s>
22256
22257 <s>In this <lb></lb>manner litharge and hearth-lead are made, which are re-smelted
22258 in the first <lb></lb>furnace. </s>
22259
22260 <s>The cakes that are made from these are placed in the third furnace, <lb></lb>so
22261 that the lead may be separated from the copper and used again, for it
22262 <lb></lb>contains very little silver. </s>
22263
22264 <s>The crucibles and their covers are crushed, washed, <lb></lb>and the sediment is
22265 melted together with litharge and hearth-lead.</s>
22266 </p>
22267 <p type="main">
22268
22269 <s>Those who wish to separate all the silver from the gold by this method
22270 <lb></lb>leave one part of gold to three of silver, and then reduce the alloy to
22271 <lb></lb>granules. </s>
22272
22273 <s>Then they place it in an ampulla, and by pouring <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua
22274 valens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> over <lb></lb>it, part the gold from the
22275 silver, which process I explained in Book VII.</s>
22276 </p>
22277 <p type="main">
22278
22279 <s>If sulphur from the lye with which <emph type="italics"></emph>sal
22280 artíficiosus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is made, is strong
22281 <lb></lb>enough to float an egg thrown into it, and is boiled until it no longer
22282 emits <lb></lb>fumes, and melts when placed upon glowing coals, then, if such
22283 sulphur is <lb></lb>thrown into the melted silver, it parts the gold from
22284 it.</s>
22285 </p>
22286 <p type="main">
22287
22288 <s>Silver is also parted from gold by means of <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>17<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
22289
22290 <s>If in a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes of<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>gold there
22291 are seven, or six, or five double <emph type="italics"></emph>sextulae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, then three parts <lb></lb>of <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> are added to one part
22292 of gold; but in order that the <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> should <lb></lb>not consume the gold, it is melted with
22293 copper in a red hot earthern crucible. <lb></lb></s>
22294
22295 <s>If the gold contains some portion of copper, then to eight <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><pb pagenum="452"></pb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper is added;
22296 and if it contains no copper, then half an <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>uncia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> because copper must be added to <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in order to part gold
22297 from <lb></lb>silver. </s>
22298
22299 <s>The gold is first placed in a red hot earthen crucible, and when <lb></lb>melted
22300 it swells, and a little <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is added to it lest it run over; in a <lb></lb>short space
22301 of time, when this has melted, it likewise again swells, and <lb></lb>when this
22302 occurs it is advisable to put in all the remainder of the <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and to cover the
22303 crucible with a lid, and then to heat the mixture for the <lb></lb>time required
22304 to walk thirty-five paces. </s>
22305
22306 <s>Then it is at once poured out into <lb></lb>an iron pot, wide at the top and
22307 narrow at the bottom, which was first <lb></lb>heated and smeared over with
22308 tallow or wax, and set on an iron or wooden <lb></lb>block. </s>
22309
22310 <s>It is shaken violently, and by this agitation the gold lump settles <lb></lb>to
22311 the bottom, and when the pot has cooled it is tapped loose, and is again
22312 <lb></lb>melted four times in the same way. </s>
22313
22314 <s>But each time a less weight of <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>is added to the gold, until finally only twice as
22315 much <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is added as
22316 <lb></lb>there is gold, or a little more; then the gold lump is melted in a
22317 cupel. </s>
22318
22319 <s>The <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is melted
22320 again three or four times in an earthen crucible, and each <lb></lb>time a gold
22321 lump settles, so that there are three or four gold lumps, and <lb></lb>these are
22322 all melted together in a cupel.</s>
22323 </p>
22324 <p type="main">
22325
22326 <s>To two <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a
22327 half of such <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> are added two <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of argol <lb></lb>and one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of glass-galls, and they are melted in
22328 an earthen crucible, <lb></lb>where a lump likewise settles at the bottom; this
22329 lump is melted in the <lb></lb>cupel. </s>
22330
22331 <s>Finally, the <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> with a
22332 little lead added, is melted in the cupel, <lb></lb>in which, after all the rest
22333 has been consumed by the fire, the silver alone <lb></lb>remains. </s>
22334
22335 <s>If the <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is not
22336 first melted in an earthen crucible with argol <lb></lb>and glass-galls, before
22337 it is melted in the cupel, part of the silver is consumed, <lb></lb>and is
22338 absorbed by the ash and powder of which the cupel is made.</s>
22339 </p>
22340 <p type="main">
22341
22342 <s>The crucible in which the gold and silver alloy are melted with <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and
22343 also the cupel, are placed in a furnace, which is usually of the kind </s>
22344 </p>
22345 <pb pagenum="453"></pb>
22346 <figure></figure>
22347 <p type="caption">
22348
22349 <s>A—FURNACE IN WHICH THE AIR IS DRAWN IN THROUGH HOLES.
22350 B—GOLDSMITH&#039;S FORGE. <lb></lb>C—EARTHEN CRUCIBLES. D—IRON
22351 POTS. E—BLOCK.<lb></lb>in which the air is drawn in through holes; or else
22352 they are placed in a gold­<lb></lb>smith&#039;s forge.</s>
22353 </p>
22354 <p type="main">
22355
22356 <s>Just as <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> poured
22357 over silver, from which the sulphur has <lb></lb>parted the gold, shows us
22358 whether all has been separated or whether <lb></lb>particles of gold remain in
22359 the silver; so do certain ingredients, if placed in <lb></lb>the pot or crucible
22360 “alternately” with the gold, from which the silver has <lb></lb>been
22361 parted by <emph type="italics"></emph>stibíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
22362 and heated, show us whether all have been <lb></lb>separated or not.</s>
22363 </p>
22364 <p type="main">
22365
22366 <s>We use cements<emph type="sup"></emph>18<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> when, without <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> we part
22367 silver or copper or both <lb></lb>so ingeniously and admirably from gold. </s>
22368
22369 <s>There are various cements. </s>
22370
22371 <s>Some <pb pagenum="454"></pb>consist of half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of brick dust, a quarter of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of salt, an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22372 salt­<lb></lb>petre, half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of sal-ammoniac, and half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of rock salt. </s>
22373
22374 <s>The bricks <lb></lb>or tiles from which the dust is made must be composed of
22375 fatty clays, free from <lb></lb>sand, grit, and small stones, and must be
22376 moderately burnt and very old.</s>
22377 </p>
22378 <p type="main">
22379
22380 <s>Another cement is made of a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of brick dust, a third of rock salt, an <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of saltpetre, and half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of refined salt. </s>
22381
22382 <s>Another cement is made <lb></lb>of a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of brick dust, a quarter of refined salt, one and a
22383 half <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22384 <lb></lb>saltpetre, an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22385 sal-ammoniac, and half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of rock salt. </s>
22386
22387 <s>Another <lb></lb>has one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22388 brick dust, and half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
22389 of rock salt, to which some add a <lb></lb>sixth of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol. </s>
22390
22391 <s>Another is made of half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>brick dust, a third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of rock salt, an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a half of vitriol, and
22392 <lb></lb>one <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of saltpetre. </s>
22393
22394 <s>Another consists of a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22395 brick dust, a third of <lb></lb>refined salt, a sixth of white vitriol<emph type="sup"></emph>19<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of verdigris, and likewise <lb></lb>half
22396 an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of saltpetre. </s>
22397
22398 <s>Another is made of one and a third <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of brick <lb></lb>dust, a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of rock salt, a sixth of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of sal-ammoniac,
22399 <lb></lb>a sixth and half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol, and a sixth of saltpetre. </s>
22400
22401 <s>Another contains <lb></lb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
22402 of brick dust, a third of refined salt, and one and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol.</s>
22403 </p>
22404 <pb pagenum="455"></pb>
22405 <p type="main">
22406
22407 <s>Those ingredients above are peculiar to each cement, but what follows <lb></lb>is
22408 common to all. </s>
22409
22410 <s>Each of the ingredients is first separately crushed to <lb></lb>powder; the
22411 bricks are placed on a hard rock or marble, and crushed with an <lb></lb>iron
22412 implement; the other things are crushed in a mortar with a pestle; <lb></lb>each
22413 is separately passed through a sieve. </s>
22414
22415 <s>Then they are all mixed together, <lb></lb>and are moistened with vinegar in
22416 which a little sal-ammoniac has been <lb></lb>dissolved, if the cement does not
22417 contain any. </s>
22418
22419 <s>But some workers, however, <lb></lb>prefer to moisten the gold granules or
22420 gold-leaf instead.</s>
22421 </p>
22422 <p type="main">
22423
22424 <s>The cement should be placed, alternately with the gold, in new and clean
22425 <lb></lb>pots in which no water has ever been poured. </s>
22426
22427 <s>In the bottom the cement is <lb></lb>levelled with an iron implement, and
22428 afterward the gold granules or leaves <lb></lb>are placed one against the other,
22429 so that they may touch it on all sides; then, <lb></lb>again, a handful of the
22430 cement, or more if the pots are large, is thrown in and <lb></lb>levelled with
22431 an iron implement; the granules and leaves are laid over this <lb></lb>in the
22432 same manner, and this is repeated until the pot is filled. </s>
22433
22434 <s>Then it is <lb></lb>covered with a lid, and the place where they join is smeared
22435 over with <lb></lb>artificial lute, and when this is dry the pots are placed in
22436 the furnace.</s>
22437 </p>
22438 <p type="main">
22439
22440 <s>The furnace has three chambers, the lowest of which is a foot high; into
22441 <lb></lb>this lowest chamber the air penetrates through an opening, and into it
22442 the </s>
22443 </p>
22444 <figure></figure>
22445 <p type="caption">
22446
22447 <s>A—FURNACE. B—POT. C—LID. D—AIR-HOLES.<pb pagenum="456"></pb>ashes fall from the burnt wood, which is supported by
22448 iron rods, arranged to <lb></lb>form a grating. </s>
22449
22450 <s>The middle chamber is two feet high, and the wood is pushed <lb></lb>in through
22451 its mouth. </s>
22452
22453 <s>The wood ought to be oak, holmoak, or turkey-oak, <lb></lb>for from these the
22454 slow and lasting fire is made which is necessary for this <lb></lb>operation. </s>
22455
22456 <s>The upper chamber is open at the top so that the pots, for which <lb></lb>it has
22457 the depth, may be put into it; the floor of this chamber consists of iron
22458 <lb></lb>rods, so strong that they may bear the weight of the pots and the heat
22459 of the <lb></lb>fire; they are sufficiently far apart that the fire may
22460 penetrate well and may <lb></lb>heat the pots. </s>
22461
22462 <s>The pots are narrow at the bottom, so that the fire entering <lb></lb>into the
22463 space between them may heat them; at the top the pots are wide, <lb></lb>so that
22464 they may touch and hold back the heat of the fire. </s>
22465
22466 <s>The upper part <lb></lb>of the furnace is closed in with bricks not very thick,
22467 or with tiles and lute, <lb></lb>and two or three air-holes are left, through
22468 which the fumes and flames may <lb></lb>escape.</s>
22469 </p>
22470 <p type="main">
22471
22472 <s>The gold granules or leaves and the cement, alternately placed in the pots,
22473 <lb></lb>are heated by a gentle fire, gradually increasing for twenty-four
22474 hours, if the <lb></lb>furnace was heated for two hours before the full pots
22475 were stood in it, and if <lb></lb>this was not done, then for twenty-six hours. </s>
22476
22477 <s>The fire should be increased <lb></lb>in such a manner that the pieces of gold
22478 and the cement, in which is the <lb></lb>potency to separate the silver and
22479 copper from the gold, may not melt, for in <lb></lb>this case the labour and
22480 cost will be spent in vain; therefore, it is ample to <lb></lb>have the fire hot
22481 enough that the pots always remain red. </s>
22482
22483 <s>After so many <lb></lb>hours all the burning wood should be drawn out of the
22484 furnace. </s>
22485
22486 <s>Then the <lb></lb>refractory bricks or tiles are removed from the top of the
22487 furnace, and the <lb></lb>glowing pots are taken out with the tongs. </s>
22488
22489 <s>The lids are removed, and <lb></lb>if there is time it is well to allow the gold
22490 to cool by itself, for then there is <lb></lb>less loss; but if time cannot be
22491 spared for that operation, the pieces of gold <lb></lb>are immediately placed
22492 separately into a wooden or bronze vessel of water <lb></lb>and gradually
22493 quenched, lest the cement which absorbs the silver should <lb></lb>exhale it. </s>
22494
22495 <s>The pieces of gold, and the cement adhering to them, when cooled <lb></lb>or
22496 quenched, are rolled with a little mallet so as to crush the lumps and free
22497 <lb></lb>the gold from the cement. </s>
22498
22499 <s>Then they are sifted by a fine sieve, which is <lb></lb>placed over a bronze
22500 vessel; in this manner the cement containing the <lb></lb>silver or the copper
22501 or both, falls from the sieve into the bronze vessel, and the <lb></lb>gold
22502 granules or leaves remain on it. </s>
22503
22504 <s>The gold is placed in a vessel and <lb></lb>again rolled with the little mallet,
22505 so that it may be cleansed from the cement <lb></lb>which absorbs silver and
22506 copper.</s>
22507 </p>
22508 <p type="main">
22509
22510 <s>The particles of cement, which have dropped through the holes of the
22511 <lb></lb>sieve into the bronze vessel, are washed in a bowl, over a wooden tub,
22512 being <lb></lb>shaken about with the hands, so that the minute particles of gold
22513 which have <lb></lb>fallen through the sieve may be separated. </s>
22514
22515 <s>These are again washed in a <lb></lb>little vessel, with warm water, and scrubbed
22516 with a piece of wood or a twig <lb></lb>broom, that the moistened cement may be
22517 detached. </s>
22518
22519 <s>Afterward all the gold <lb></lb>is again washed with warm water, and collected
22520 with a bristle brush, and should <lb></lb>be washed in a copper full of holes,
22521 under which is placed a little vessel. <lb></lb></s>
22522
22523 <s>Then it is necessary to put the gold on an iron plate, under which is a
22524 vessel, <pb pagenum="457"></pb>and to wash it with warm water. </s>
22525
22526 <s>Finally, it is placed in a bowl, and, when <lb></lb>dry, the granules or leaves
22527 are rubbed against a touchstone at the same time <lb></lb>as a touch-needle, and
22528 considered carefully as to whether they be pure or <lb></lb>alloyed. </s>
22529
22530 <s>If they are not pure enough, the granules or the leaves, together <lb></lb>with
22531 the cement which attracts silver and copper, are arranged alternately
22532 <lb></lb>in layers in the same manner, and again heated; this is done as often
22533 as is <lb></lb>necessary, but the last time it is heated as many hours as are
22534 required to <lb></lb>cleanse the gold.</s>
22535 </p>
22536 <p type="main">
22537
22538 <s>Some people add another cement to the granules or leaves. </s>
22539
22540 <s>This cement <lb></lb>lacks the ingredients of metalliferous origin, such as
22541 verdigris and vitriol, for <lb></lb>if these are in the cement, the gold usually
22542 takes up a little of the base metal; <lb></lb>or if it does not do this, it is
22543 stained by them. </s>
22544
22545 <s>For this reason some very <lb></lb>rightly never make use of cements containing
22546 these things, because brick <lb></lb>dust and salt alone, especially rock salt,
22547 are able to extract all the silver and <lb></lb>copper from the gold and to
22548 attract it to themselves.</s>
22549 </p>
22550 <p type="main">
22551
22552 <s>It is not necessary for coiners to make absolutely pure gold, but to heat
22553 <lb></lb>it only until such a fineness is obtained as is needed for the gold
22554 money which <lb></lb>they are coining.</s>
22555 </p>
22556 <p type="main">
22557
22558 <s>The gold is heated, and when it shows the necessary golden yellow colour
22559 <lb></lb>and is wholly pure, it is melted and made into bars, in which case they
22560 are <lb></lb>either prepared by the coiners with <emph type="italics"></emph>chrysocolla,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which is called by the Moors
22561 <lb></lb>borax, or are prepared with salt of lye made from the ashes of ivy or
22562 of <lb></lb>other salty herbs.</s>
22563 </p>
22564 <p type="main">
22565
22566 <s>The cement which has absorbed silver or copper, after water has been
22567 <lb></lb>poured over it, is dried and crushed, and when mixed with hearth-lead
22568 and <lb></lb>de-silverized lead, is smelted in the blast furnace. </s>
22569
22570 <s>The alloy of silver and <lb></lb>lead, or of silver and copper and lead, which
22571 flows out, is again melted in the <lb></lb>cupellation furnace, in order that
22572 the lead and copper may be separated from <lb></lb>the silver. </s>
22573
22574 <s>The silver is finally thoroughly purified in the refining furnace, <lb></lb>and
22575 in this practical manner there is no silver lost, or only a minute
22576 quantity.</s>
22577 </p>
22578 <p type="main">
22579
22580 <s>There are besides this, certain other cements<emph type="sup"></emph>20<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> which part gold from <lb></lb>silver, composed of sulphur,
22581 <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and other
22582 ingredients. </s>
22583
22584 <s>One of these <lb></lb>compounds consists of half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of vitriol dried by the heat of
22585 the fire <lb></lb>and reduced to powder, a sixth of refined salt, a third of
22586 <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><pb pagenum="458"></pb>of
22587 prepared sulphur (not exposed to the fire), one <emph type="italics"></emph>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of glass, likewise <lb></lb>one <emph type="italics"></emph>sícilicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of saltpetre,
22588 and a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22589 sal-ammoniac.<emph type="sup"></emph>21<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> The sulphur
22590 <lb></lb>is prepared as follows: it is first crushed to powder, then it is
22591 heated <lb></lb>for six hours in sharp vinegar, and finally poured into a vessel
22592 and washed <lb></lb>with warm water; then that which settles at the bottom of
22593 the vessel is <lb></lb>dried. </s>
22594
22595 <s>To refine the salt it is placed in river water and boiled, and again
22596 <lb></lb>evaporated. </s>
22597
22598 <s>The second compound contains one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of sulphur (not exposed <lb></lb>to fire) and two <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of refined salt. </s>
22599
22600 <s>The third compound is made from one <pb pagenum="459"></pb><emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of sulphur (not exposed to the fire),
22601 half a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22602 refined salt, a quarter of <lb></lb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of sal-ammoniac, and one <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of red-lead. </s>
22603
22604 <s>The fourth compound <lb></lb>consists of one <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each of refined salt, sulphur
22605 (not exposed to the fire) and <lb></lb>argol, and half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <emph type="italics"></emph>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which the Moors call borax. </s>
22606
22607 <s>The fifth <lb></lb>compound has equal proportions of sulphur (not exposed to the
22608 fire), sal­<lb></lb>ammoniac, saltpetre, and verdigris.</s>
22609 </p>
22610 <p type="main">
22611
22612 <s>The silver which contains some portion of gold is first melted with <lb></lb>lead
22613 in an earthen crucible, and they are heated together until the silver
22614 <lb></lb>exhales the lead. </s>
22615
22616 <s>If there was a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22617 silver, there must be six <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>lead. </s>
22618
22619 <s>Then the silver is sprinkled with two <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of that powdered com-<pb pagenum="460"></pb>pound and is stirred; afterward it is poured into another
22620 crucible, first <lb></lb>warmed and lined with tallow, and then violently
22621 shaken. </s>
22622
22623 <s>The rest is per­<lb></lb>formed according to the process I have already
22624 explained.</s>
22625 </p>
22626 <p type="main">
22627
22628 <s>Gold may be parted without injury from silver goblets and from other
22629 <lb></lb>gilt vessels and articles<emph type="sup"></emph>22<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, by
22630 means of a powder, which consists of one part of <lb></lb>sal-ammoniac and half
22631 a part of sulphur. </s>
22632
22633 <s>The gilt goblet or other article <lb></lb>is smeared with oil, and the powder is
22634 dusted on; the article is seized in the <lb></lb>hand, or with tongs, and is
22635 carried to the fire and sharply tapped, and by this <lb></lb>means the gold
22636 falls into water in vessels placed underneath, while the <lb></lb>goblet remains
22637 uninjured.</s>
22638 </p>
22639 <pb pagenum="461"></pb>
22640 <p type="main">
22641
22642 <s>Gold is also parted from silver on gilt articles by means of quicksilver.
22643 <lb></lb></s>
22644
22645 <s>This is poured into an earthen crucible, and so warmed by the fire that the
22646 <lb></lb>finger can bear the heat when dipped into it; the silver-gilt objects
22647 are <lb></lb>placed in it, and when the quicksilver adheres to them they are
22648 taken out <lb></lb>and placed on a dish, into which, when cooled, the gold
22649 falls, together with the <lb></lb>quicksilver. </s>
22650
22651 <s>Again and frequently the same silver-gilt object is placed in <lb></lb>heated
22652 quicksilver, and the same process is continued until at last no <lb></lb>more
22653 gold is visible on the object; then the object is placed in the fire, and
22654 <lb></lb>the quicksilver which adheres to it is exhaled. </s>
22655
22656 <s>Then the artificer takes a hare&#039;s <lb></lb>foot, and brushes up into a dish the
22657 quicksilver and the gold which have <pb pagenum="462"></pb>fallen together from
22658 the silver article, and puts them into a cloth made of woven <lb></lb>cotton or
22659 into a soft leather; the quicksilver is squeezed through one or the
22660 <lb></lb>other into another dish.<emph type="sup"></emph>23<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> The
22661 gold remains in the cloth or the leather, and <lb></lb>when collected is placed
22662 in a piece of charcoal hollowed out, and is heated <lb></lb>until it melts, and
22663 a little button is made from it. </s>
22664
22665 <s>This button is heated with <lb></lb>a little <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in an earthen crucible
22666 and poured out into another little <lb></lb>vessel, by which method the gold
22667 settles at the bottom, and the <emph type="italics"></emph>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is <lb></lb>seen to be on
22668 the top; then the work is completed. </s>
22669
22670 <s>Finally, the gold <lb></lb>button is put in a hollowed-out brick and placed in
22671 the fire, and by this <lb></lb>method the gold is made pure. </s>
22672
22673 <s>By means of the above methods gold is parted <lb></lb>from silver and also silver
22674 from gold.</s>
22675 </p>
22676 <p type="main">
22677
22678 <s>Now I will explain the methods used to separate copper from gold<emph type="sup"></emph>24<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. <lb></lb><pb pagenum="463"></pb>The salt
22679 which we call <emph type="italics"></emph>sal-artíficíosus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>25<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> is made from
22680 a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each of
22681 vitriol, <lb></lb>alum, saltpetre, and sulphur not exposed to the fire, and half
22682 a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22683 sal­<lb></lb>ammoniac; these ingredients when crushed are heated with one
22684 part of lye made <lb></lb>from the ashes used by wool dyers, one part of
22685 unslaked lime, and four <lb></lb>parts of beech ashes. </s>
22686
22687 <s>The ingredients are boiled in the lye until the whole <lb></lb>has been
22688 dissolved. </s>
22689
22690 <s>Then it is immediately dried and kept in a hot place, <lb></lb>lest it turn into
22691 oil; and afterward when crushed, a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead-ash is mixed <lb></lb>with it. </s>
22692
22693 <s>With each <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22694 this powdered compound one and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of the copper is gradually
22695 sprinkled into a hot crucible, and it is stirred <lb></lb>rapidly and frequently
22696 with an iron rod. </s>
22697
22698 <s>When the crucible has cooled and <lb></lb>been broken up, the button of gold is
22699 found.</s>
22700 </p>
22701 <p type="main">
22702
22703 <s>The second method for parting is the following. </s>
22704
22705 <s>Two <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of sulphur
22706 <lb></lb>not exposed to the fire, and four <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of refined salt are crushed
22707 and mixed; <lb></lb>a sixth of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of this powder is added to a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of granules <lb></lb>made of lead, and twice
22708 as much copper containing gold; they are heated <lb></lb>together in an earthen
22709 crucible until they melt. </s>
22710
22711 <s>When cooled, the button is <lb></lb>taken out and purged of slag. </s>
22712
22713 <s>From this button they again make granules, <lb></lb>to a third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which is added half a
22714 <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of that
22715 powder of which I <lb></lb>have spoken, and they are placed in alternate layers
22716 in the crucible; it is <lb></lb>well to cover the crucible and to seal it up,
22717 and afterward it is heated over a <lb></lb>gentle fire until the granules melt. </s>
22718
22719 <s>Soon afterward, the crucible is taken off <lb></lb>the fire, and when it is cool
22720 the button is extracted. </s>
22721
22722 <s>From this, when purified <lb></lb>and again melted down, the third granules are
22723 made, to which, if they weigh <lb></lb>a sixth of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is added one half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the
22724 powder, <lb></lb>and they are heated in the same manner, and the button of gold
22725 settles at the <lb></lb>bottom of the crucible.</s>
22726 </p>
22727 <p type="main">
22728
22729 <s>The third method is as follows. </s>
22730
22731 <s>From time to time small pieces of <lb></lb>sulphur, enveloped in or mixed with
22732 wax, are dropped into six <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the <lb></lb>molten copper, and consumed; the sulphur
22733 weighs half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a
22734 <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>. </s>
22735
22736 <s>Then one and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>sicílici<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of powdered saltpetre are dropped <lb></lb>into the same
22737 copper and likewise consumed; then again half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of sulphur
22738 enveloped in wax; afterward one and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílící<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
22739 <lb></lb>lead-ash enveloped in wax, or of minium made from red-lead. </s>
22740
22741 <s>Then imme­<lb></lb>diately the copper is taken out, and to the gold button,
22742 which is now mixed <lb></lb>with only a little copper, they add <emph type="italics"></emph>stibíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> to dcuble the
22743 amount of the button; <lb></lb>these are heated together until the <emph type="italics"></emph>stibíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is driven off;
22744 then the button, <lb></lb>together with lead of half the weight of the button,
22745 are heated in a cupel. <pb pagenum="464"></pb>Finally, the gold is taken out of
22746 this and quenched, and if there is a <lb></lb>blackish colour settled in it, it
22747 is melted with a little of the <emph type="italics"></emph>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>which the Moors call borax; if too pale, it is
22748 melted with <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and
22749 <lb></lb>acquires its own golden-yellow colour. </s>
22750
22751 <s>There are some who take out the <lb></lb>molten copper with an iron ladle and
22752 pour it into another crucible, whose <lb></lb>aperture is sealed up with lute,
22753 and they place it over glowing charcoal, <lb></lb>and when they have thrown in
22754 the powders of which I have spoken, they <lb></lb>stir the whole mass rapidly
22755 with an iron rod, and thus separate the gold <lb></lb>from the copper; the
22756 former settles at the bottom of the crucible, the latter <lb></lb>floats on the
22757 top. </s>
22758
22759 <s>Then the aperture of the crucible is opened with the <lb></lb>red-hot tongs, and
22760 the copper runs out. </s>
22761
22762 <s>The gold which remains is re-heated <lb></lb>with <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and when this is exhaled the gold
22763 is heated for the third time <lb></lb>in a cupel with a fourth part of lead, and
22764 then quenched.</s>
22765 </p>
22766 <p type="main">
22767
22768 <s>The fourth method is to melt one and a third <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the copper <lb></lb>with a sixth of a
22769 <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead, and to
22770 pour it into another crucible smeared on <lb></lb>the inside with tallow or
22771 gypsum; and to this is added a powder consisting of <lb></lb>half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each of prepared
22772 sulphur, verdigris, and saltpetre, and an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and a half of <emph type="italics"></emph>sal coctus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
22773 <s> The fifth method consists of placing in a crucible <lb></lb>one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the copper and two
22774 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of granulated
22775 lead, with one and a half <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <emph type="italics"></emph>sal-artificíosus;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> they are at first
22776 heated over a gentle fire and then <lb></lb>over a fiercer one. </s>
22777
22778 <s>The sixth method consists in heating together a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>the copper and one-sixth of a
22779 <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each of sulphur,
22780 salt, and <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
22781 <s> The <lb></lb>seventh method consists of heating together a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the copper and one-sixth <lb></lb>each of
22782 iron scales and filings, salt, <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and glass-galls. </s>
22783
22784 <s>The eighth <lb></lb>method consists of heating together one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the copper, one and a half
22785 <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of sulphur,
22786 half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of verdigris,
22787 and a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of refined salt. </s>
22788
22789 <s>The <lb></lb>ninth method consists of placing in one <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the molten copper as <lb></lb>much
22790 pounded sulphur, not exposed to the fire, and of stirring it rapidly
22791 <lb></lb>with an iron rod; the lump is ground to powder, into which quicksilver
22792 <lb></lb>is poured, and this attracts to itself the gold.</s>
22793 </p>
22794 <p type="main">
22795
22796 <s>Gilded copper articles are moistened with water and placed on the fire,
22797 <lb></lb>and when they are glowing they are quenched with cold water, and the
22798 gold <lb></lb>is scraped off with a brass rod. </s>
22799
22800 <s>By these practical methods gold is separated <lb></lb>from copper.</s>
22801 </p>
22802 <p type="main">
22803
22804 <s>Either copper or lead is separated from silver by the methods which I
22805 <lb></lb>will now explain.<emph type="sup"></emph>26<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> This is
22806 carried on in a building near by the works, or <lb></lb>in the works in which
22807 the gold or silver ores or alloys are smelted. </s>
22808
22809 <s>The <lb></lb>middle wall of such a building is twenty-one feet long and fifteen
22810 feet high, and <lb></lb>from this a front wall is distant fifteen feet toward
22811 the river; the rear wall <pb pagenum="465"></pb>is nineteen feet distant, and
22812 both these walls are thirty-six feet long and <lb></lb>fourteen feet high; a
22813 transverse wall extends from the end of the front wall to <lb></lb>the end of
22814 the rear wall; then fifteen feet back a second transverse wall <lb></lb>is built
22815 out from the front wall to the end of the middle wall. </s>
22816
22817 <s>In that space <lb></lb>which is between those two transverse walls are set up the
22818 stamps, by means <lb></lb>of which the ores and the necessary ingredients for
22819 smelting are broken up. <lb></lb></s>
22820
22821 <s>From the further end of the front wall, a third transverse wall leads to the
22822 <lb></lb>other end of the middle wall, and from the same to the end of the rear
22823 wall. <lb></lb></s>
22824
22825 <s>The space between the second and third transverse walls, and between the
22826 <lb></lb>rear and middle long walls, contains the cupellation furnace, in which
22827 lead <pb pagenum="466"></pb>is separated from gold or silver. </s>
22828
22829 <s>The vertical wall of its chimney is <lb></lb>erected upon the middle wall, and
22830 the sloping chimney-wall rests on the <lb></lb>beams which extend from the
22831 second transverse wall to the third; these are <lb></lb>so located that they are
22832 at a distance of thirteen feet from the middle long <lb></lb>wall and four from
22833 the rear wall, and they are two feet wide and thick. <lb></lb></s>
22834
22835 <s>From the ground up to the roof-beams is twelve feet, and lest the sloping
22836 <lb></lb>chimney-wall should fall down, it is partly supported by means of many
22837 <lb></lb>iron rods, and partly by means of a few tie-beams covered with lute,
22838 which <lb></lb>extend from the small beams of the sloping chimney-wall to the
22839 beams of the <lb></lb>vertical chimney-wall. </s>
22840
22841 <s>The rear roof is arranged in the same way as the roof <pb pagenum="467"></pb>of
22842 the works in which ore is smelted. </s>
22843
22844 <s>In the space between the middle and <lb></lb>the front long walls and between the
22845 second<emph type="sup"></emph>27<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> and the third
22846 transverse walls are <lb></lb>the bellows, the machinery for depressing and the
22847 instrument for raising them. <lb></lb></s>
22848
22849 <s>A drum on the axle of a water-wheel has rundles which turn the toothed
22850 <lb></lb>drum of an axle, whose long cams depress the levers of the bellows, and
22851 also <lb></lb>another toothed drum on an axle, whose cams raise the tappets of
22852 the stamps, <lb></lb>but in the opposite direction. </s>
22853
22854 <s>So that if the cams which depress the levers <lb></lb>of the bellows turn from
22855 north to south, the cams of the stamps turn from <lb></lb>south to north.</s>
22856 </p>
22857 <p type="main">
22858
22859 <s>Lead is separated from gold or silver in a cupellation furnace, of <lb></lb>which
22860 the structure consists of rectangular stones, of two interior walls of which
22861 <lb></lb>the one intersects the other transversely, of a round sole, and of a
22862 dome. </s>
22863
22864 <s>Its <lb></lb>crucible is made from powder of earth and ash; but I will first
22865 speak of the <lb></lb>structure and also of the rectangular stones. </s>
22866
22867 <s>A circular wall is built four <lb></lb>feet and three palms high, and one foot
22868 thick; from the height of two feet <lb></lb>and three palms from the bottom, the
22869 upper part of the interior is cut away <lb></lb>to the width of one palm, so
22870 that the stone sole may rest upon it. </s>
22871
22872 <s>There are <lb></lb>usually as many as fourteen stones; on the outside they are a
22873 foot and a <lb></lb>palm wide, and on the inside narrower, because the inner
22874 circle is much <lb></lb>smaller than the outer; if the stones are wider, fewer
22875 are required, if <lb></lb>narrower more; they are sunk into the earth to a depth
22876 of a foot and a palm. <lb></lb></s>
22877
22878 <s>At the top each one is joined to the next by an iron staple, the points of
22879 <lb></lb>which are embedded in holes, and into each hole is poured molten lead. </s>
22880
22881 <s>This <lb></lb>stone structure has six air-holes near the ground, at a height of a
22882 foot above <lb></lb>the ground; they are two feet and a palm from the bottom of
22883 the stones; <lb></lb>each of these air-holes is in two stones, and is two palms
22884 high, and a palm and <lb></lb>three digits wide. </s>
22885
22886 <s>One of them is on the right side, between the wall which <lb></lb>protects the
22887 main wall from the fire, and the channel through which the <lb></lb>litharge
22888 flows out of the furnace crucible; the other five air-holes are
22889 <lb></lb>distributed all round at equal distances apart; through these escapes
22890 the <lb></lb>moisture which the earth exhales when heated, and if it were not
22891 for these <lb></lb>openings the crucible would absorb the moisture and be
22892 damaged. </s>
22893
22894 <s>In such a <lb></lb>case a lump would be raised, like that which a mole throws up
22895 from the earth, <lb></lb>and the ash would float on the top, and the crucible
22896 would absorb the silver-lead <lb></lb>alloy; there are some who, because of
22897 this, make the rear part of the structure <lb></lb>entirely open. </s>
22898
22899 <s>The two inner walls, of which one intersects the other, are <lb></lb>built of
22900 bricks, and are a brick in thickness. </s>
22901
22902 <s>There are four air-holes in <lb></lb>these, one in each part, which are about one
22903 digit&#039;s breadth higher and wider <lb></lb>than the others. </s>
22904
22905 <s>Into the four compartments is thrown a wheelbarrowful <lb></lb>of slag, and over
22906 this is placed a large wicker basket full of charcoal dust. <lb></lb></s>
22907
22908 <s>These walls extend a cubit above the ground, and on these, and on the ledge
22909 <lb></lb>cut in the rectangular stones, is placed the stone sole; this sole is a
22910 palm and <lb></lb>three digits thick, and on all sides touches the rectangular
22911 stones; if there <lb></lb>are any cracks in it they are filled up with fragments
22912 of stone or brick. </s>
22913
22914 <s>The <lb></lb>front part of the sole is sloped so that a channel can be made,
22915 through which <pb pagenum="468"></pb>the litharge flows out. </s>
22916
22917 <s>Copper plates are placed on this part of the sole-stone <lb></lb>so that the
22918 silver-lead or other alloy may be more rapidly heated.</s>
22919 </p>
22920 <p type="main">
22921
22922 <s>A dome which has the shape of half a sphere covers the crucible. </s>
22923
22924 <s>It con­<lb></lb>sists of iron bands and of bars and of a lid. </s>
22925
22926 <s>There are three bands, each about <lb></lb>a palm wide and a digit thick; the
22927 lowest is at a distance of one foot from the <lb></lb>middle one, and the middle
22928 one a distance of two feet from the upper one. <lb></lb></s>
22929
22930 <s>Under them are eighteen iron bars fixed by iron rivets; these bars are of
22931 <lb></lb>the same width and thickness as the bands, and they are of such a
22932 length, that <lb></lb>curving, they reach from the lower band to the upper, that
22933 is two feet and <lb></lb>three palms long, while the dome is only one foot and
22934 three palms high. </s>
22935
22936 <s>All <lb></lb>the bars and bands of the dome have iron plates fastened on the
22937 underside <lb></lb>with iron wire. </s>
22938
22939 <s>In addition, the dome has four apertures; the rear one, <lb></lb>which is
22940 situated opposite the channel through which the litharge flows out, <lb></lb>is
22941 two feet wide at the bottom; toward the top, since it slopes gently, it is
22942 <lb></lb>narrower, being a foot, three palms, and a digit wide; there is no bar
22943 at <lb></lb>this place, for the aperture extends from the upper band to the
22944 middle one, <lb></lb>but not to the lower one. </s>
22945
22946 <s>The second aperture is situated above the </s>
22947 </p>
22948 <figure></figure>
22949 <p type="caption">
22950
22951 <s>A—RECTANGULAR STONES. B—SOLE-STONE. C—AIR-HOLES.
22952 D—INTERNAL WALLS. <lb></lb>E—DOME. F—CRUCIBLE. G—BANDS.
22953 H—BARS. I—APERTURES IN THE DOME. <lb></lb>K—LID OF THE DOME.
22954 L—RINGS. M—PIPES. N—VALVES. O—CHAINS.<pb pagenum="469"></pb>channel, is two and a half feet wide at the bottom, and
22955 two feet and a palm <lb></lb>at the top; and there is likewise no bar at this
22956 point; indeed, not only does <lb></lb>the bar not extend to the lower band, but
22957 the lower band itself does not <lb></lb>extend over this part, in order that the
22958 master can draw the litharge out <lb></lb>of the crucible. </s>
22959
22960 <s>There are besides, in the wall which protects the principal <lb></lb>wall against
22961 the heat, near where the nozzles of the bellows are situated, <lb></lb>two
22962 apertures, three palms wide and about a foot high, in the middle <lb></lb>of
22963 which two rods descend, fastened on the inside with plates. <lb></lb></s>
22964
22965 <s>Near these apertures are placed the nozzles of the bellows, and through
22966 <lb></lb>the apertures extend the pipes in which the nozzles of the bellows are
22967 <lb></lb>set. </s>
22968
22969 <s>These pipes are made of iron plates rolled up; they are two <lb></lb>palms three
22970 digits long, and their inside diameter is three and a half <lb></lb>digits; into
22971 these two pipes the nozzles of the bellows penetrate a distance of
22972 <lb></lb>three digits from their valves. </s>
22973
22974 <s>The lid of the dome consists of an iron band <lb></lb>at the bottom, two digits
22975 wide, and of three curved iron bars, which extend <lb></lb>from one point on the
22976 band to the point opposite; they cross each other at <lb></lb>the top, where
22977 they are fixed by means of iron rivets. </s>
22978
22979 <s>On the under side of <lb></lb>the bars there are likewise plates fastened by
22980 rivets; each of the plates has <lb></lb>small holes the size of a finger, so
22981 that the lute will adhere when the interior <lb></lb>is lined. </s>
22982
22983 <s>The dome has three iron rings engaged in wide holes in the heads of <lb></lb>iron
22984 claves, which fasten the bars to the middle band at these points. </s>
22985
22986 <s>Into <lb></lb>these rings are fastened the hooks of the chains with which the
22987 dome is <lb></lb>raised, when the master is preparing the crucible.</s>
22988 </p>
22989 <p type="main">
22990
22991 <s>On the sole and the copper plates and the rock of the furnace, lute mixed
22992 <lb></lb>with straw is placed to a depth of three digits, and it is pounded with
22993 a wooden <lb></lb>rammer until it is compressed to a depth of one digit only. </s>
22994
22995 <s>The rammer-head <lb></lb>is round and three palms high, two palms wide at the
22996 bottom, and tapering <lb></lb>upward; its handle is three feet long, and where
22997 it is set into the rammer­<lb></lb>head it is bound around with an iron
22998 band. </s>
22999
23000 <s>The top of the stonework in <lb></lb>which the dome rests is also covered with
23001 lute, likewise mixed with straw, <lb></lb>to the thickness of a palm. </s>
23002
23003 <s>All this, as soon as it becomes loosened, must <lb></lb>be repaired.</s>
23004 </p>
23005 <p type="main">
23006
23007 <s>The artificer who undertakes the work of parting the metals, distributes
23008 <lb></lb>the operation into two shifts of two days. </s>
23009
23010 <s>On the one morning he sprinkles <lb></lb>a little ash into the lute, and when he
23011 has poured some water over it he brushes <lb></lb>it over with a broom. </s>
23012
23013 <s>Then he throws in sifted ashes and dampens them <lb></lb>with water, so that they
23014 could be moulded into balls like snow. </s>
23015
23016 <s>The ashes <lb></lb>are those from which lye has been made by letting water
23017 percolate <lb></lb>through them, for other ashes which are fatty would have to
23018 be burnt <lb></lb>again in order to make them less fat. </s>
23019
23020 <s>When he has made the ashes <lb></lb>smooth by pressing them with his hands, he
23021 makes the crucible slope down <lb></lb>toward the middle; then he tamps it, as I
23022 have described, with a rammer. <lb></lb></s>
23023
23024 <s>He afterward, with two small wooden rammers, one held in each hand,
23025 <lb></lb>forms the channel through which the litharge flows out. </s>
23026
23027 <s>The heads of these <lb></lb>small rammers are each a palm wide, two digits thick,
23028 and one foot high; <lb></lb>the handle of each is somewhat rounded, is a digit
23029 and a half less in </s>
23030 </p>
23031 <pb></pb>
23032 <figure></figure>
23033 <p type="caption">
23034
23035 <s>A—AN ARTIFICER TAMPING THE CRUCIBLE WITH A RAMMER. B—LARGE
23036 RAMMER. <lb></lb>C—BROOM. D—TWO SMALLER RAMMERS. E—CURVED IRON
23037 PLATES. F—PART OF <lb></lb>A WOODEN STRIP. G—SIEVE. H—ASHES.
23038 I—IRON SHOVEL. K—IRON PLATE. <lb></lb>L—BLOCK OF WOOD.
23039 M—ROCK. N—BASKET MADE OF WOVEN TWIGS. O—HOOKED <lb></lb>BAR.
23040 P—SECOND HOOKED BAR. Q—OLD LINEN RAG. R—BUCKET.
23041 S—DOESKIN. <lb></lb>T—BUNDLES OF STRAW. V—WOOD. X—CAKES
23042 OF LEAD ALLOY. Y—FORK. <lb></lb>Z—ANOTHER WORKMAN COVERS THE OUTSIDE
23043 OF THE FURNACE WITH LUTE WHERE THE <lb></lb>DOME FITS ON IT. AA—BASKET
23044 FULL OF ASHES. BB—LID OF THE DOME. CC—THE <lb></lb>ASSISTANT
23045 STANDING ON THE STEPS POURS CHARCOAL INTO THE CRUCIBLE THROUGH THE
23046 <lb></lb>HO<gap></gap> AT THE TOP OF THE DOME. DD—IRON IMPLEMENT WITH WHICH THE
23047 LUTE IS <lb></lb><gap></gap><pb pagenum="471"></pb>diameter than the rammer-head, and is
23048 three feet in length; the rammer­<lb></lb>head as well as the handle is made
23049 of one piece of wood. </s>
23050
23051 <s>Then with shoes on, <lb></lb>he descends into the crucible and stamps it in every
23052 direction with his feet, <lb></lb>in which manner it is packed and made sloping. </s>
23053
23054 <s>Then he again tamps it <lb></lb>with a large rammer, and removing his shoe from
23055 his right foot he draws a circle <lb></lb>around the crucible with it, and cuts
23056 out the circle thus drawn with an iron <lb></lb>plate. </s>
23057
23058 <s>This plate is curved at both ends, is three palms long, as many digits
23059 <lb></lb>wide, and has wooden handles a palm and two digits long, and two digits
23060 <lb></lb>thick; the iron plate is curved back at the top and ends, which
23061 penetrate <lb></lb>into handles. </s>
23062
23063 <s>There are some who use in the place of the plate a strip of <lb></lb>wood, like
23064 the rim of a sieve; this is three digits wide, and is cut out at both
23065 <lb></lb>ends that it may be held in the hands. </s>
23066
23067 <s>Afterward he tamps the channel <lb></lb>through which the litharge discharges. </s>
23068
23069 <s>Lest the ashes should fall out, he <lb></lb>blocks up the aperture with a stone
23070 shaped to fit it, against which he places <lb></lb>a board, and lest this fall,
23071 he props it with a stick. </s>
23072
23073 <s>Then he pours in <lb></lb>a basketful of ashes and tamps them with the large
23074 rammer; then again and <lb></lb>again he pours in ashes and tamps them with the
23075 rammer. </s>
23076
23077 <s>When the <lb></lb>channel has been made, he throws dry ashes all over the
23078 crucible with a sieve, <lb></lb>and smooths and rubs it with his hands. </s>
23079
23080 <s>Then he throws three basketsful <lb></lb>of damp ashes on the margin all round
23081 the edge of the crucible, and lets down <lb></lb>the dome. </s>
23082
23083 <s>Soon after, climbing upon the crucible, he builds up ashes all <lb></lb>around
23084 it, lest the molten alloy should flow out. </s>
23085
23086 <s>Then, having raised the lid of <lb></lb>the dome, he throws a basketful of
23087 charcoal into the crucible, together with <lb></lb>an iron shovelful of glowing
23088 coals, and he also throws some of the latter <lb></lb>through the apertures in
23089 the sides of the dome, and he spreads them with the <lb></lb>same shovel. </s>
23090
23091 <s>This work and labour is finished in the space of two hours.</s>
23092 </p>
23093 <p type="main">
23094
23095 <s>An iron plate is set in the ground under the channel, and upon this is
23096 <lb></lb>placed a wooden block, three feet and a palm long, a foot and two palms
23097 and <lb></lb>as many digits wide at the back, and two palms and as many digits
23098 wide in <lb></lb>front; on the block of wood is placed a stone, and over it an
23099 iron plate similar <lb></lb>to the bottom one, and upon this he puts a basketful
23100 of charcoal, and also <lb></lb>an iron shovelful of burning charcoals. </s>
23101
23102 <s>The crucible is heated in an <lb></lb>hour, and then, with the hooked bar with
23103 which the litharge is drawn off, he <lb></lb>stirs the remainder of the charcoal
23104 about. </s>
23105
23106 <s>This hook is a palm long and three <lb></lb>digits wide, has the form of a double
23107 triangle, and has an iron handle four <lb></lb>feet long, into which is set a
23108 wooden one six feet long. </s>
23109
23110 <s>There are some who <lb></lb>use instead a simple hooked bar. </s>
23111
23112 <s>After about an hour&#039;s time, he stirs the <lb></lb>charcoal again with the bar,
23113 and with the shovel throws into the crucible <lb></lb>the burning charcoals
23114 lying in the channel; then again, after the space of an <lb></lb>hour, he stirs
23115 the burning charcoals with the same bar. </s>
23116
23117 <s>If he did not thus <lb></lb>stir them about, some blackness would remain in the
23118 crucible and that part <lb></lb>would be damaged, because it would not be
23119 sufficiently dried. </s>
23120
23121 <s>Therefore <lb></lb>the assistant stirs and turns the burning charcoal that it may
23122 be entirely <lb></lb>burnt up, and so that the crucible may be well heated,
23123 which takes three <lb></lb>hours; then the crucible is left quiet for the
23124 remaining two hours.</s>
23125 </p>
23126 <pb pagenum="472"></pb>
23127 <p type="main">
23128
23129 <s>When the hour of eleven has struck, he sweeps up the charcoal ashes with
23130 <lb></lb>a broom and throws them out of the crucible. </s>
23131
23132 <s>Then he climbs on to the <lb></lb>dome, and passing his hand in through its
23133 opening, and dipping an old linen <lb></lb>rag in a bucket of water mixed with
23134 ashes, he moistens the whole of the <lb></lb>crucible and sweeps it. </s>
23135
23136 <s>In this way he uses two bucketsful of the mixture, <lb></lb>each holding five
23137 Roman <emph type="italics"></emph>sextaríi,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>28<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> and he does this lest the crucible,
23138 <lb></lb>when the metals are being parted, should break open; after this he rubs
23139 the <lb></lb>crucible with a doe skin, and fills in the cracks. </s>
23140
23141 <s>Then he places at the left side <lb></lb>of the channel, two fragments of
23142 hearth-lead, laid one on the top of the other, <lb></lb>so that when partly
23143 melted they remain fixed and form an obstacle, that the <lb></lb>litharge will
23144 not be blown about by the wind from the bellows, but remain in <lb></lb>its
23145 place. </s>
23146
23147 <s>It is expedient, however, to use a brick in the place of the
23148 hearth­<lb></lb>lead, for as this gets much hotter, therefore it causes the
23149 litharge to form <lb></lb>more rapidly. </s>
23150
23151 <s>The crucible in its middle part is made two palms and as <lb></lb>many digits
23152 deeper.<emph type="sup"></emph>29<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
23153 </p>
23154 <p type="main">
23155
23156 <s>There are some who having thus prepared the crucible, smear it over <lb></lb>with
23157 incense<emph type="sup"></emph>30<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, ground to powder and
23158 dissolved in white of egg, soaking <lb></lb>it up in a sponge and then squeezing
23159 it out again; there are others who <lb></lb>smear over it a liquid consisting of
23160 white of egg and double the amount of <lb></lb>bullock&#039;s blood or marrow. </s>
23161
23162 <s>Some throw lime into the crucible through a <lb></lb>sieve.</s>
23163 </p>
23164 <p type="main">
23165
23166 <s>Afterward the master of the works weighs the lead with which the gold <lb></lb>or
23167 silver or both are mixed, and he sometimes puts a hundred <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>31<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>into the crucible, but
23168 frequently only sixty, or fifty, or much less. </s>
23169
23170 <s>After it <lb></lb>has been weighed, he strews about in the crucible three small
23171 bundles of <lb></lb>straw, lest the lead by its weight should break the surface. </s>
23172
23173 <s>Then he places <lb></lb>in the channel several cakes of lead alloy, and through
23174 the aperture at the rear <lb></lb>of the dome he places some along the sides;
23175 then, ascending to the opening at <lb></lb>the top of the dome, he arranges in
23176 the crucible round about the dome the <lb></lb>cakes which his assistant hands
23177 to him, and after ascending again and passing <lb></lb>his hands through the
23178 same aperture, he likewise places other cakes inside the <lb></lb>crucible. </s>
23179
23180 <s>On the second day those which remain he, with an iron fork, <lb></lb>places on
23181 the wood through the rear aperture of the dome.</s>
23182 </p>
23183 <p type="main">
23184
23185 <s>When the cakes have been thus arranged through the hole at the top of
23186 <lb></lb>the dome, he throws in charcoal with a basket woven of wooden twigs. </s>
23187
23188 <s>Then <lb></lb>he places the lid over the dome, and the assistant covers over the
23189 joints with <lb></lb>lute. </s>
23190
23191 <s>The master himself throws half a basketful of charcoal into the crucible
23192 <lb></lb>through the aperture next to the nozzle pipe, and prepares the bellows,
23193 in <lb></lb>order to be able to begin the second operation on the morning of the
23194 following <lb></lb>day. </s>
23195
23196 <s>It takes the space of one hour to carry out such a piece of work, and
23197 <lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="473"></pb>at twelve all is prepared. </s>
23198
23199 <s>These hours all reckoned up make a sum of eight <lb></lb>hours.</s>
23200 </p>
23201 <p type="main">
23202
23203 <s>Now it is time that we should come to the second operation. </s>
23204
23205 <s>In the <lb></lb>morning the workman takes up two shovelsful of live charcoals and
23206 throws <lb></lb>them into the crucible through the aperture next to the pipes of
23207 the nozzles; <lb></lb>then through the same hole he lays upon them small pieces
23208 of fir-wood or of <lb></lb>pitch pine, such as are generally used to cook fish. </s>
23209
23210 <s>After this the water-gates <lb></lb>are opened, in order that the machine may be
23211 turned which depresses the levers <lb></lb>of the bellows. </s>
23212
23213 <s>In the space of one hour the lead alloy is melted; and when this <lb></lb>has
23214 been done, he places four sticks of wood, twelve feet long, through the
23215 <lb></lb>hole in the back of the dome, and as many through the channel; these
23216 <lb></lb>sticks, lest they should damage the crucible, are both weighted on the
23217 ends <lb></lb>and supported by trestles; these trestles are made of a beam,
23218 three feet <lb></lb>long, two palms and as many digits wide, two palms thick,
23219 and have two <lb></lb>spreading legs at each end. </s>
23220
23221 <s>Against the trestle, in front of the channel, there <lb></lb>is placed an iron
23222 plate, lest the litharge, when it is extracted from the furnace, <lb></lb>should
23223 splash the smelter&#039;s shoes and injure his feet and legs. </s>
23224
23225 <s>With an iron <lb></lb>shovel or a fork he places the remainder of the cakes
23226 through the aperture at <lb></lb>the back of the dome on to the sticks of wood
23227 already mentioned.</s>
23228 </p>
23229 <p type="main">
23230
23231 <s>The native silver, or silver glance, or grey silver, or ruby silver, or any
23232 <lb></lb>other sort, when it has been flattened out<emph type="sup"></emph>32<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, and cut up, and heated in an <lb></lb>iron crucible, is poured
23233 into the molten lead mixed with silver, in order that <lb></lb>impurities may be
23234 separated. </s>
23235
23236 <s>As I have often said, this molten lead mixed <lb></lb>with silver is called <emph type="italics"></emph>stannum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>33<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
23237 </p>
23238 <p type="main">
23239
23240 <s>When the long sticks of wood are burned up at the fore end, the <lb></lb>master,
23241 with a hammer, drives into them pointed iron bars, four feet long and
23242 <lb></lb>two digits wide at the front end, and beyond that one and a half digits
23243 wide <lb></lb><pb pagenum="474"></pb>and thick<gap></gap> with these he pushes the sticks
23244 of wood forward and the bars <lb></lb>then rest on the trestles. </s>
23245
23246 <s>There are others who, when they separate metals, <lb></lb>put two such sticks of
23247 wood into the crucible through the aperture which is <lb></lb>between the
23248 bellows, as many through the holes at the back, and one through <lb></lb>the
23249 channel; but in this case a larger number of long sticks of wood is
23250 <lb></lb>necessary, that is, sixty; in the former case, forty long sticks of
23251 wood suffice <lb></lb>to carry out the operation. </s>
23252
23253 <s>When the lead has been heated for two hours, <lb></lb>it is stirred with a hooked
23254 bar, that the heat may be increased.</s>
23255 </p>
23256 <p type="main">
23257
23258 <s>If it be difficult to separate the lead from the silver, he throws copper
23259 <lb></lb>and charcoal dust into the molten silver-lead alloy. </s>
23260
23261 <s>If the alloy of argen­<lb></lb>tiferous gold and lead, or the silver-lead
23262 alloy, contains impurities from the <lb></lb>ore, then he throws in either equal
23263 portions of argol and Venetian glass or of <lb></lb>sal-ammoniac, or of Venetian
23264 glass and of Venetian soap; or else unequal <lb></lb>portions, that is, two of
23265 argol and one of iron rust; there are some who <lb></lb>mix a little saltpetre
23266 with each compound. </s>
23267
23268 <s>To one <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the
23269 <lb></lb>alloy is added a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or
23270 a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a third
23271 of the powder, according <lb></lb>to whether it is more or less impure. </s>
23272
23273 <s>The powder certainly separates the <lb></lb>impurities from the alloy. </s>
23274
23275 <s>Then, with a kind of rabble he draws out through </s>
23276 </p>
23277 <figure></figure>
23278 <p type="caption">
23279
23280 <s>A—FURNACE. B—STICKS OF WOOD. C—LITHARGE. D—PLATE.
23281 E—THE FOREMAN <lb></lb>WHEN HUNGRY EATS BUTTER, THAT THE POISON WHICH THE
23282 CRUCIBLE EXHALES MAY NOT <lb></lb>HARM HIM, FOR THIS IS A SPECIAL REMEDY AGAINST
23283 THAT POISON.<pb pagenum="475"></pb>the channel, mixed with charcoal, the scum,
23284 as one might say, of the lead; <lb></lb>the lead makes this scum when it becomes
23285 hot, but that less of it may be <lb></lb>made it must be stirred frequently with
23286 the bar.</s>
23287 </p>
23288 <p type="main">
23289
23290 <s>Within the space of a quarter of an hour the crucible absorbs the lead;
23291 <lb></lb>at the time when it penetrates into the crucible it leaps and bubbles. </s>
23292
23293 <s>Then <lb></lb>the master takes out a little lead with an iron ladle, which he
23294 assays, in order <lb></lb>to find what proportion of silver there is in the
23295 whole of the alloy; the <lb></lb>ladle is five digits wide, the iron part of its
23296 handle is three feet long and the <lb></lb>wooden part the same. </s>
23297
23298 <s>Afterward, when they are heated, he extracts with <lb></lb>a bar the litharge
23299 which comes from the lead and the copper, if there be any <lb></lb>of it in the
23300 alloy. </s>
23301
23302 <s>Wherefore, it might more rightly be called <emph type="italics"></emph>spuma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead <lb></lb>than of silver<emph type="sup"></emph>34<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
23303
23304 <s>There is no injury to the silver, when the lead and copper <lb></lb>are separated
23305 from it. </s>
23306
23307 <s>In truth the lead becomes much purer in the crucible <lb></lb>of the other
23308 furnace, in which silver is refined. </s>
23309
23310 <s>In ancient times, as the <lb></lb>author Pliny<emph type="sup"></emph>35<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> relates, there was under the channel of the crucible
23311 another <lb></lb>crucible, and the litharge flowed down from the upper one into
23312 the lower <lb></lb>one, out of which it was lifted up and rolled round with a
23313 stick in order that <lb></lb>it might be of moderate weight. </s>
23314
23315 <s>For which reason, they formerly made it <lb></lb>into small tubes or pipes, but
23316 now, since it is not rolled round a stick, they <lb></lb>make it into bars.</s>
23317 </p>
23318 <p type="main">
23319
23320 <s>If there be any danger that the alloy might flow out with the litharge, the
23321 <lb></lb>foreman keeps on hand a piece of lute, shaped like a cylinder and
23322 pointed at <lb></lb>both ends; fastening this to a hooked bar he opposes it to
23323 the alloy so that <lb></lb>it will not flow out.</s>
23324 </p>
23325 <p type="main">
23326
23327 <s>Now when the colour begins to show in the silver, bright spots appear,
23328 <lb></lb>some of them being almost white, and a moment afterward it becomes
23329 <lb></lb>absolutely white. </s>
23330
23331 <s>Then the assistant lets down the water-gates, so that, the <lb></lb>race being
23332 closed, the water-wheel ceases to turn and the bellows are still. <lb></lb></s>
23333
23334 <s>Then the master pours several buckets of water on to the silver to cool it;
23335 <lb></lb>others pour beer over it to make it whiter, but this is of no
23336 importance since <lb></lb>the silver has yet to be refined. </s>
23337
23338 <s>Afterward, the cake of silver is raised with <lb></lb>the pointed iron bar, which
23339 is three feet long and two digits wide, and has a <lb></lb>wooden handle four
23340 feet long fixed in its socket. </s>
23341
23342 <s>When the cake of silver has <lb></lb>been taken from the crucible, it is laid
23343 upon a stone, and from part of it the <lb></lb>hearth-lead, and from the other
23344 part the litharge, is chipped away with a <lb></lb>hammer; then it is cleansed
23345 with a bundle of brass wire dipped in water. <lb></lb></s>
23346
23347 <s>When the lead is separated from the silver, more silver is frequently found
23348 <lb></lb>than when it was assayed; for instance, if before there were three
23349 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and
23350 <lb></lb>as many <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in a
23351 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
23352 they now sometimes find three <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and a half<emph type="sup"></emph>36<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
23353
23354 <s>Often the hearth-lead remaining in the crucible is a palm <lb></lb>deep; it is
23355 taken out with the rest of the ashes and is sifted, and that which
23356 <lb></lb>remains in the sieve, since it is hearth-lead, is added to the
23357 hearth-lead<emph type="sup"></emph>37<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.<lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
23358 </p>
23359 <pb pagenum="476"></pb>
23360 <figure></figure>
23361 <p type="caption">
23362
23363 <s>A—CAKE. B—STONE. C—HAMMER. D—BRASS WIRE.
23364 E—BUCKET CONTAINING WATER. <lb></lb>F—FURNACE FROM WHICH THE CAKE
23365 HAS BEEN TAKEN, WHICH IS STILL SMOKING. <lb></lb>G—LABOURER CARRYING A
23366 CAKE OUT OF THE WORKS.</s>
23367 </p>
23368 <p type="main">
23369
23370 <s>The ashes which pass through the sieve are of the same use as they were
23371 <lb></lb>at first, for, indeed, from these and pulverised bones they make the
23372 cupels. <lb></lb></s>
23373
23374 <s>Finally, when much of it has accumulated, the yellow <emph type="italics"></emph>pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> adhering to <lb></lb>the walls of the
23375 furnace, and likewise to those rings of the dome near the <lb></lb>apertures, is
23376 cleared away.</s>
23377 </p>
23378 <p type="main">
23379
23380 <s>I must also describe the crane with which the dome is raised. </s>
23381
23382 <s>When <lb></lb>it is made, there is first set up a rectangular upright post twelve
23383 feet <lb></lb>long, each side of which measures a foot in width. </s>
23384
23385 <s>Its lower pinion turns <lb></lb>in a bronze socket set in an oak sill; there are
23386 two sills placed crosswise so <pb pagenum="477"></pb>that the one fits in a
23387 mortise in the middle of the other, and the other likewise <lb></lb>fits in the
23388 mortise of the first, thus making a kind of a cross; these sills are
23389 <lb></lb>three feet long and one foot wide and thick. </s>
23390
23391 <s>The crane-post is round at its <lb></lb>upper end and is cut down to a depth of
23392 three palms, and turns in a band <lb></lb>fastened at each end to a roof-beam,
23393 from which springs the inclined chimney <lb></lb>wall. </s>
23394
23395 <s>To the crane-post is affixed a frame, which is made in this way: first, at a
23396 <lb></lb>height of a cubit from the bottom, is mortised into the crane-post a
23397 small <lb></lb>cross-beam, a cubit and three digits long, except its tenons, and
23398 two palms in <lb></lb>width and thickness. </s>
23399
23400 <s>Then again, at a height of five feet above it, is another <lb></lb>small
23401 cross-beam of equal length, width, and thickness, mortised into the
23402 <lb></lb>crane-post. </s>
23403
23404 <s>The other ends of these two small cross-beams are mortised <lb></lb>into an
23405 upright timber, six feet three palms long, and three-quarters wide <lb></lb>and
23406 thick; the mortise is transfixed by wooden pegs. </s>
23407
23408 <s>Above, at a height of <lb></lb>three palms from the lower small cross-beam, are
23409 two bars, one foot one palm <lb></lb>long, not including the tenons, a palm
23410 three digits wide, and a palm thick, <lb></lb>which are mortised in the other
23411 sides of the crane-post. </s>
23412
23413 <s>In the same manner, <lb></lb>under the upper small cross-beam are two bars of the
23414 same size. </s>
23415
23416 <s>Also in the <lb></lb>upright timber there are mortised the same number of bars,
23417 of the same length <lb></lb>as the preceding, but three digits thick, a palm two
23418 digits wide, the two <lb></lb>lower ones being above the lower small cross-beam. </s>
23419
23420 <s>From the upright <lb></lb>timber near the upper small cross-beam, which at its
23421 other end is mortised <lb></lb>into the crane-post, are two mortised bars. </s>
23422
23423 <s>On the outside of this frame, <lb></lb>boards are fixed to the small cross-beams,
23424 but the front and back parts of the <lb></lb>frame have doors, whose hinges are
23425 fastened to the boards which are fixed <lb></lb>to the bars that are mortised to
23426 the sides of the crane-post.</s>
23427 </p>
23428 <p type="main">
23429
23430 <s>Then boards are laid upon the lower small cross-beam, and at a height <lb></lb>of
23431 two palms above these there is a small square iron axle, the sides of which
23432 <lb></lb>are two digits wide; both ends of it are round and turn in bronze or
23433 iron <lb></lb>bearings, one of these bearings being fastened in the crane-post,
23434 the other in <lb></lb>the upright timber. </s>
23435
23436 <s>About each end of the small axle is a wooden disc, of three <lb></lb>palms and a
23437 digit radius and one palm thick, covered on the rim with an iron <lb></lb>band;
23438 these two discs are distant two palms and as many digits from each <pb pagenum="478"></pb>other, and are joined with five rundles; these rundles
23439 are two and a half <lb></lb>digits thick and are placed three digits apart. </s>
23440
23441 <s>Thus a drum is made, which <lb></lb>is a palm and a digit distant from the
23442 upright timber, but further from the <lb></lb>crane-post, namely, a palm and
23443 three digits. </s>
23444
23445 <s>At a height of a foot and a <lb></lb>palm above this little axle is a second
23446 small square iron axle, the thickness of <lb></lb>which is three digits; this
23447 one, like the first one, turns in bronze or iron <lb></lb>bearings. </s>
23448
23449 <s>Around it is a toothed wheel, composed of two discs a foot three <lb></lb>palms
23450 in diameter, a palm and two digits thick: on the rim of this there <lb></lb>are
23451 twenty-three teeth, a palm wide and two digits thick; they protrude <lb></lb>a
23452 palm from the wheel and are three digits apart. </s>
23453
23454 <s>And around this same <lb></lb>axle, at a distance of two palms and as many digits
23455 toward the upright <lb></lb>timber, is another disc of the same diameter as the
23456 wheel and a palm thick; <lb></lb>this turns in a hollowed-out place in the
23457 upright timber. </s>
23458
23459 <s>Between this disc <lb></lb>and the disc of the toothed wheel another drum is
23460 made, having likewise five <lb></lb>rundles. </s>
23461
23462 <s>There is, in addition to this second axle, at a height of a cubit <lb></lb>above
23463 it, a small wooden axle, the journals of which are of iron; the ends
23464 <lb></lb>are bound round with iron rings so that the journals may remain firmly
23465 fixed, <lb></lb>and the journals, like the little iron axles, turn in bronze or
23466 iron bearings. <lb></lb></s>
23467
23468 <s>This third axle is at a distance of about a cubit from the upper small
23469 cross­<lb></lb>beam; it has, near the upright timber, a toothed wheel two
23470 and a half feet <lb></lb>in diameter, on the rim of which are twenty-seven
23471 teeth; the other part of <lb></lb>this axle, near the crane-post, is covered
23472 with iron plates, lest it should be worn <lb></lb>away by the chain which winds
23473 around it. </s>
23474
23475 <s>The end link of the chain is fixed <lb></lb>in an iron pin driven into the little
23476 axle; this chain passes out of the frame <lb></lb>and turns over a little pulley
23477 set between the beams of the crane-arm.</s>
23478 </p>
23479 <p type="main">
23480
23481 <s>Above the frame, at a height of a foot and a palm, is the crane-arm. </s>
23482
23483 <s>This <lb></lb>consists of two beams fifteen feet long, three palms wide, and two
23484 thick, <lb></lb>mortised into the crane-post, and they protrude a cubit from the
23485 back of the <lb></lb>crane-post and are fastened together. </s>
23486
23487 <s>Moreover, they are fastened by means <lb></lb>of a wooden pin which penetrates
23488 through them and the crane-post; this <lb></lb>pin has at the one end a broad
23489 head, and at the other a hole, through which <lb></lb>is driven an iron bolt, so
23490 that the beams may be tightly bound into the crane­<lb></lb>post. </s>
23491
23492 <s>The beams of the crane-arm are supported and stayed by means of <lb></lb>two
23493 oblique beams, six feet and two palms long, and likewise two palms wide
23494 <lb></lb>and thick; these are mortised into the crane-post at their lower ends,
23495 and <lb></lb>their upper ends are mortised into the beams of the crane-arm at a
23496 point <lb></lb>about four feet from the crane-post, and they are fastened with
23497 iron nails. <lb></lb></s>
23498
23499 <s>At the back of the upper end of these oblique beams, toward the crane-post,
23500 <lb></lb>is an iron staple, fastened into the lower sides of the beams of the
23501 crane-arm, in <lb></lb>order that it may hold them fast and bind them. </s>
23502
23503 <s>The outer end of each <lb></lb>beam of the crane-arm is set in a rectangular iron
23504 plate, and between these <lb></lb>are three rectangular iron plates, fixed in
23505 such a manner that the beams of the <lb></lb>crane-arm can neither move away
23506 from, nor toward, each other. </s>
23507
23508 <s>The upper <lb></lb>sides of these crane-arm beams are covered with iron plates
23509 for a length of <lb></lb>six feet, so that a trolley can move on it.</s>
23510 </p>
23511 <pb pagenum="479"></pb>
23512 <figure></figure>
23513 <p type="caption">
23514
23515 <s>A—CRANE-POST. B—SOCKET. C—OAK CROSS-SILLS. D—BAND.
23516 E—ROOF-BEAM. <lb></lb>F—FRAME. G—LOWER SMALL CROSS-BEAM.
23517 H—UPRIGHT TIMBER. I—BARS WHICH <lb></lb>COME FROM THE SIDES OF THE
23518 CRANE-POST. K—BARS WHICH COME FROM THE SIDES OF <lb></lb>THE UPRIGHT
23519 TIMBER. L—RUNDLE DRUMS. M—TOOTHED WHEELS. N—CHAIN.
23520 <lb></lb>O—PULLEY. P—BEAMS OF THE CRANE-ARM. Q—OBLIQUE BEAMS
23521 SUPPORTING THE BEAMS <lb></lb>OF THE CRANE-ARM. R—RECTANGULAR IRON PLATES.
23522 S—TROLLEY. T—DOME OF THE <lb></lb><gap></gap></s>
23523 </p>
23524 <pb pagenum="480"></pb>
23525 <p type="main">
23526
23527 <s>The body of the trolley is made of wood from the Ostrya or any other
23528 <lb></lb>hard tree, and is a cubit long, a foot wide, and three palms thick; on
23529 both <lb></lb>edges of it the lower side is cut out to a height and width of a
23530 palm, so that <lb></lb>the remainder may move backward and forward between the
23531 two beams of <lb></lb>the crane-arm; at the front, in the middle part, it is cut
23532 out to a width of <lb></lb>two palms and as many digits, that a bronze pulley,
23533 around a small iron <lb></lb>axle, may turn in it. </s>
23534
23535 <s>Near the corners of the trolley are four holes, in which <lb></lb>as many small
23536 wheels travel on the beams of the crane-arm. </s>
23537
23538 <s>Since this <lb></lb>trolley, when it travels backward and forward, gives out a
23539 sound somewhat <lb></lb>similar to the barking of a dog, we have given it this
23540 name<emph type="sup"></emph>38<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
23541
23542 <s>It is propelled <lb></lb>forward by means of a crank, and is drawn back by means
23543 of a chain. </s>
23544
23545 <s>There <lb></lb>is an iron hook whose ring turns round an iron pin fastened to the
23546 right side <lb></lb>of the trolley, which hook is held by a sort of clavis,
23547 which is fixed in the <lb></lb>right beam of the crane-arm.</s>
23548 </p>
23549 <p type="main">
23550
23551 <s>At the end of the crane-post is a bronze pulley, the iron axle of which is
23552 <lb></lb>fastened in the beams of the crane-arm, and over which the chain passes
23553 <lb></lb>as it comes from the frame, and then, penetrating through the hollow in
23554 the <lb></lb>top of the trolley, it reaches to the little bronze pulley of the
23555 trolley, and passing <lb></lb>over this it hangs down. </s>
23556
23557 <s>A hook on its end engages a ring, in which are <lb></lb>fixed the top links of
23558 three chains, each six feet long, which pass through <lb></lb>the three iron
23559 rings fastened in the holes of the claves which are fixed into <lb></lb>the
23560 middle iron band of the dome, of which I have spoken.</s>
23561 </p>
23562 <p type="main">
23563
23564 <s>Therefore when the master wishes to lift the dome by means of the <lb></lb>crane,
23565 the assistant fits over the lower small iron axle an iron crank, which
23566 <lb></lb>projects from the upright beam a palm and two digits; the end of the
23567 little <lb></lb>axle is rectangular, and one and a half digits wide and one
23568 digit thick; it is <lb></lb>set into a similar rectangular hole in the crank,
23569 which is two digits long and a <lb></lb>little more than a digit wide. </s>
23570
23571 <s>The crank is semi-circular, and one foot three <lb></lb>palms and two digits
23572 long, as many digits wide, and one digit thick. </s>
23573
23574 <s>Its <lb></lb>handle is straight and round, and three palms long, and one and a
23575 half digits <lb></lb>thick. </s>
23576
23577 <s>There is a hole in the end of the little axle, through which an iron <lb></lb>pin
23578 is driven so that the crank may not come off. </s>
23579
23580 <s>The crane having four <lb></lb>drums, two of which are rundle-drums and two
23581 toothed-wheels, is more easily <lb></lb>moved than another having two drums, one
23582 of which has rundles and the <lb></lb>other teeth.</s>
23583 </p>
23584 <p type="main">
23585
23586 <s>Many, however, use only a simple contrivance, the pivots of whose
23587 <lb></lb>crane-post turn in the same manner, the one in an iron socket, the
23588 other in a <lb></lb>ring. </s>
23589
23590 <s>There is a crane-arm on the crane-post, which is supported by an <lb></lb>oblique
23591 beam; to the head of the crane-arm a strong iron ring is fixed, <lb></lb>which
23592 engages a second iron ring. </s>
23593
23594 <s>In this iron ring a strong wooden lever-bar <lb></lb>is fastened firmly, the head
23595 of which is bound by a third iron ring, from which <lb></lb>hangs an iron hook,
23596 which engages the rings at the ends of the chains from <lb></lb>the dome. </s>
23597
23598 <s>At the other end of the lever-bar is another chain, which, when <lb></lb>it is
23599 pulled down, raises the opposite end of the bar and thus the dome; and
23600 <lb></lb>when it is relaxed the dome is lowered.</s>
23601 </p>
23602 <pb pagenum="481"></pb>
23603 <figure></figure>
23604 <p type="caption">
23605
23606 <s>A—CHAMBER OF THE FURNACE. B—ITS BED. C—PASSAGES.
23607 D—RAMMER. <lb></lb>E—MALLET. F—ARTIFICER MAKING TUBES FROM
23608 LITHARGE ACCORDING TO THE ROMAN <lb></lb>METHOD. G—CHANNEL.
23609 H—LITHARGE. I—LOWER CRUCIBLE OR HEARTH. K—STICK.
23610 <lb></lb>L—TUBES.</s>
23611 </p>
23612 <pb pagenum="482"></pb>
23613 <p type="main">
23614
23615 <s>In certain places, as at Freiberg in Meissen, the upper part of the
23616 <lb></lb>cupellation furnace is vaulted almost like an oven. </s>
23617
23618 <s>This chamber is four <lb></lb>feet high and has either two or three apertures, of
23619 which the first, in <lb></lb>front, is one and a half feet high and a foot wide,
23620 and out of this flows <lb></lb>the litharge; the second aperture and likewise
23621 the third, if there be three, <lb></lb>are at the sides, and are a foot and a
23622 half high and two and a half feet wide, <lb></lb>in order that he who prepares
23623 the crucible may be able to creep into the <lb></lb>furnace. </s>
23624
23625 <s>Its circular bed is made of cement, it has two passages two feet high
23626 <lb></lb>and one foot wide, for letting out the vapour, and these lead directly
23627 through <lb></lb>from one side to the other, so that the one passage crosses the
23628 other at right <lb></lb>angles, and thus four openings are to be seen; these are
23629 covered at the top <lb></lb>by rocks, wide, but only a palm thick. </s>
23630
23631 <s>On these and on the other parts <lb></lb>of the interior of the bed made of
23632 cement, is placed lute mixed with straw, <lb></lb>to a depth of three digits, as
23633 it was placed over the sole and the plates of <lb></lb>copper and the rocks of
23634 that other furnace. </s>
23635
23636 <s>This, together with the ashes which <lb></lb>are thrown in, the master or the
23637 assistant, who, upon his knees, prepares <lb></lb>the crucible, tamps down with
23638 short wooden rammers and with mallets <lb></lb>likewise made of wood.</s>
23639 </p>
23640 <figure></figure>
23641 <p type="caption">
23642
23643 <s>A—FURNACE SIMILAR TO AN OVEN. B—PASSAGE C—IRON BARS.
23644 D—HOLE THROUGH <lb></lb>WHICH THE LITHARGE IS DRAWN OUT. E—CRUCIBLE
23645 WHICH LACKS A DOME. F—THICK <lb></lb>STICKS. G—BELLOWS</s>
23646 </p>
23647 <pb pagenum="483"></pb>
23648 <p type="main">
23649
23650 <s>The cupellation furnace in Poland and Hungary is likewise vaulted at the
23651 <lb></lb>top, and is almost similar to an oven, but in the lower part the bed is
23652 solid, <lb></lb>and there is no opening for the vapours, while on one side of
23653 the crucible is a <lb></lb>wall, between which and the bed of the crucible is a
23654 passage in place of the <lb></lb>opening for vapours; this passage is covered by
23655 iron bars or rods extending <lb></lb>from the wall to the crucible, and placed a
23656 distance of two digits from each <lb></lb>other. </s>
23657
23658 <s>In the crucible, when it is prepared, they first scatter straw, and then
23659 <lb></lb>they lay in it cakes of silver-lead alloy, and on the iron bars they
23660 lay wood, <lb></lb>which when kindled heats the crucible. </s>
23661
23662 <s>They melt cakes to the weight of some­<lb></lb>times eighty <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and sometimes a
23663 hundred <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>39<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
23664
23665 <s>They <lb></lb>stimulate a mild fire by means of a blast from the bellows, and
23666 throw on to the <lb></lb>bars as much wood as is required to make a flame which
23667 will reach into the <lb></lb>crucible, and separate the lead from the silver. </s>
23668
23669 <s>The litharge is drawn out <lb></lb>on the other side through an aperture that is
23670 just wide enough for the master <lb></lb>to creep through into the crucible. </s>
23671
23672 <s>The Moravians and Carni, who very <lb></lb>rarely make more than a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or five-sixths of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, separate
23673 <lb></lb>the lead from it, neither in a furnace resembling an oven, nor in the
23674 crucible <lb></lb>covered by a dome, but on a crucible which is without a cover
23675 and exposed to <lb></lb>the wind; on this crucible they lay cakes of silver-lead
23676 alloy, and over them <lb></lb>they place dry wood, and over these again thick
23677 green wood. </s>
23678
23679 <s>The wood <lb></lb>having been kindled, they stimulate the fire by means of a
23680 bellows.</s>
23681 </p>
23682 <p type="main">
23683
23684 <s>I have explained the method of separating lead from gold or silver. </s>
23685
23686 <s>Now <lb></lb>I will speak of the method of refining silver, for I have already
23687 explained <lb></lb>the process for refining gold. </s>
23688
23689 <s>Silver is refined in a refining furnace, <lb></lb>over whose hearth is an arched
23690 chamber built of bricks; this chamber <lb></lb>in the front part is three feet
23691 high. </s>
23692
23693 <s>The hearth itself is five feet long <lb></lb>an four wide. </s>
23694
23695 <s>The walls are unbroken along the sides and back, but <lb></lb>in front one
23696 chamber is placed over the other, and above these and the <lb></lb>wall is the
23697 upright chimney. </s>
23698
23699 <s>The hearth has a round pit, a cubit wide and two <lb></lb>palms deep, into which
23700 are thrown sifted ashes, and in this is placed a prepared <lb></lb>earthenware
23701 “test,” in such a manner that it is surrounded on all sides
23702 <lb></lb>by ashes to a height equal to its own. </s>
23703
23704 <s>The earthenware test is filled <lb></lb>with a powder consisting of equal
23705 portions of bones ground to powder, and of <lb></lb>ashes taken from the
23706 crucible in which lead is separated from gold or silver; <lb></lb>others mix
23707 crushed brick with the ashes, for by this method the powder <lb></lb>attracts no
23708 silver to itself. </s>
23709
23710 <s>When the powder has been made up and <lb></lb>moistened with water, a little is
23711 thrown into the earthenware test and tamped <lb></lb>with a wooden pestle. </s>
23712
23713 <s>This pestle is round, a foot long, and a palm and a <lb></lb>digit wide, out of
23714 which extend six teeth, each a digit thick, and a digit and a <lb></lb>third
23715 long and wide, and almost a digit apart; these six teeth form a circle,
23716 <lb></lb>and in the centre of them is the seventh tooth, which is round and of
23717 the <lb></lb>same length as the others, but a digit and a half thick; this
23718 pestle tapers a <lb></lb>little from the bottom up, that the upper part of the
23719 handle may be round <lb></lb>and three digits thick. </s>
23720
23721 <s>Some use a round pestle without teeth. </s>
23722
23723 <s>Then a </s>
23724 </p>
23725 <pb pagenum="484"></pb>
23726 <figure></figure>
23727 <p type="caption">
23728
23729 <s>A—PESTLE WITH TEETH. B—PESTLE WITHOUT TEETH. C—DISH OR TRAY
23730 FULL OF ASHES. <lb></lb>D—PREPARED TESTS PLACED ON BOARDS OR SHELVES.
23731 E—EMPTY TESTS. F—WOOD. <lb></lb>G—SAW.<lb></lb>little powder is
23732 again moistened, and thrown into the test, and tamped; this <lb></lb>work is
23733 repeated until the test is entirely full of the powder, which the
23734 <lb></lb>master then cuts out with a knife, sharp on both sides, and turned
23735 upward at <lb></lb>both ends so that the central part is a palm and a digit
23736 long; therefore it is <lb></lb>partly straight and partly curved. </s>
23737
23738 <s>The blade is one and a half digits wide, <lb></lb>and at each end it turns upward
23739 two palms, which ends to the depth of a <lb></lb>palm are either not sharpened
23740 or they are enclosed in wooden handles. </s>
23741
23742 <s>The <lb></lb>master holds the knife with one hand and cuts out the powder from
23743 the test, <lb></lb>so that it is left three digits thick all round; then he
23744 sifts the powder of dried <lb></lb>bones over it through a sieve, the bottom of
23745 which is made of closely-woven <lb></lb>bristles. </s>
23746
23747 <s>Afterward a ball made of very hard wood, six digits in diameter, <lb></lb>is
23748 placed in the test and rolled about with both hands, in order to make the
23749 <lb></lb>inside even and smooth; for that matter he may move the ball about with
23750 only <lb></lb>one hand. </s>
23751
23752 <s>The tests<emph type="sup"></emph>40<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> are of various
23753 capacities, for some of them when prepared </s>
23754 </p>
23755 <pb pagenum="485"></pb>
23756 <figure></figure>
23757 <p type="caption">
23758
23759 <s>A—STRAIGHT KNIFE HAVING WOODEN HANDLES. B—CURVED KNIFE LIKEWISE
23760 HAVING <lb></lb>WOODEN HANDLES. C—CURVED KNIFE WITHOUT WOODEN HANDLES.
23761 D—SIEVE. <lb></lb>E—BALLS. F—IRON DOOR WHICH THE MASTER LETS
23762 DOWN WHEN HE REFINES SILVER, LEST <lb></lb>THE HEAT OF THE FIRE SHOULD INJURE
23763 HIS EYES. G—IRON IMPLEMENT ON WHICH THE <lb></lb>WOOD IS PLACED WHEN THE
23764 LIQUID SILVER IS TO BE REFINED. H—ITS OTHER PART <lb></lb>PASSING THROUGH
23765 THE RING OF ANOTHER IRON IMPLEMENT ENCLOSED IN THE WALL OF THE <lb></lb>FURNACE.
23766 I—TESTS IN WHICH BURNING CHARCOAL HAS BEEN THROWN.<lb></lb>hold much less
23767 than fifteen <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
23768 silver, others twenty, some thirty, others <lb></lb>forty, and others fifty. </s>
23769
23770 <s>All these tests thus prepared are dried in the sun, or <lb></lb>set in a warm and
23771 covered place; the more dry and old they are the better. <lb></lb></s>
23772
23773 <s>All of them, when used for refining silver, are heated by means of burning
23774 <lb></lb>charcoal placed in them. </s>
23775
23776 <s>Others use instead of these tests an iron ring; but <lb></lb>the test is more
23777 useful, for if the powder deteriorates the silver remains in <lb></lb>it, while
23778 there being no bottom to the ring, it falls out; besides, it is easier to
23779 <lb></lb>place in the hearth the test than the iron ring, and furthermore it
23780 requires <lb></lb>much less powder. </s>
23781
23782 <s>In order that the test should not break and damage the <lb></lb>silver, some bind
23783 it round with an iron band.</s>
23784 </p>
23785 <p type="main">
23786
23787 <s>In order that they may be more easily broken, the silver cakes are placed
23788 <lb></lb>upon an iron grate by the refiner, and are heated by burning charcoal
23789 <lb></lb>placed under them. </s>
23790
23791 <s>He has a brass block two palms and two digits long and <lb></lb>wide, with a
23792 channel in the middle, which he places upon a block of hard <lb></lb>wood. </s>
23793
23794 <s>Then with a double-headed hammer, he beats the hot cakes of silver <pb pagenum="486"></pb>placed on the brass block, and breaks them in pieces. </s>
23795
23796 <s>The head of this <lb></lb>hammer is a foot and two digits long, and a palm wide. </s>
23797
23798 <s>Others use for this <lb></lb>purpose merely a block of wood channelled in the
23799 top. </s>
23800
23801 <s>While the fragments <lb></lb>of the cake are still hot, he seizes them with the
23802 tongs and throws them into <lb></lb>a bowl with holes in the bottom, and pours
23803 water over them. </s>
23804
23805 <s>When the <lb></lb>fragments are cooled, he puts them nicely into the test by
23806 placing them so <lb></lb>that they stand upright and project from the test to a
23807 height of two palms, and <lb></lb>lest one should fall against the other, he
23808 places little pieces of charcoal between <lb></lb>them; then he places live
23809 charcoal in the test, and soon two twig basketsful <lb></lb>of charcoal. </s>
23810
23811 <s>Then he blows in air with the bellows. </s>
23812
23813 <s>This bellows is double, <lb></lb>and four feet two palms long, and two feet and
23814 as many palms wide at the <lb></lb>back; the other parts are similar to those
23815 described in Book VII. </s>
23816
23817 <s>The <lb></lb>nozzle of the bellows is placed in a bronze pipe a foot long, the
23818 aperture in <lb></lb>this pipe being a digit in diameter in front and quite
23819 round, and at the back <lb></lb>two palms wide. </s>
23820
23821 <s>The master, because he needs for the operation of refining </s>
23822 </p>
23823 <figure></figure>
23824 <p type="caption">
23825
23826 <s>A—GRATE. B—BRASS BLOCK. C—BLOCK OF WOOD. D—CAKES OF
23827 SILVER. E—HAMMER. <lb></lb>F—BLOCK OF WOOD CHANNELLED IN THE MIDDLE.
23828 G—BOWL FULL OF HOLES. <lb></lb>H—BLOCK OF WOOD FASTENED TO AN IRON
23829 IMPLEMENT. I—FIR-WOOD. K—IRON BAR. <lb></lb>L—IMPLEMENT WITH A
23830 HOLLOW END. THE IMPLEMENT WHICH HAS A CIRCULAR END IS <lb></lb>SHOWN IN THE NEXT
23831 PICTURE. M—IMPLEMENT, THE EXTREMITY OF WHICH IS BENT <lb></lb>UPWARDS.
23832 N—IMPLEMENT IN THE SHAPE OF TONGS.<pb pagenum="487"></pb>silver a fierce
23833 fire, and requires on that account a vigorous blast, places the <lb></lb>bellows
23834 very much inclined, in order that, when the silver has melted, it <lb></lb>may
23835 blow into the centre of the test. </s>
23836
23837 <s>When the silver bubbles, he presses the <lb></lb>nozzle down by means of a small
23838 block of wood moistened with water and <lb></lb>fastened to an iron rod, the
23839 outer end of which bends upward. </s>
23840
23841 <s>The silver <lb></lb>melts when it has been heated in the test for about an hour;
23842 when it is <lb></lb>melted, he removes the live coals from the test and places
23843 over it two billets <lb></lb>of fir-wood, a foot and three palms long, a palm
23844 two digits wide, one palm <lb></lb>thick at the upper part, and three digits at
23845 the lower. </s>
23846
23847 <s>He joins them <lb></lb>together at the lower edges, and into the billets he again
23848 throws the coals, <lb></lb>for a fierce fire is always necessary in refining
23849 silver. </s>
23850
23851 <s>It is refined in two or <lb></lb>three hours, according to whether it was pure or
23852 impure, and if it is impure it <lb></lb>is made purer by dropping granulated
23853 copper or lead into the test at the <lb></lb>same time. </s>
23854
23855 <s>In order that the refiner may sustain the great heat from the fire <lb></lb>while
23856 the silver is being refined, he lets down an iron door, which is three feet
23857 <lb></lb>long and a foot and three palms high; this door is held on both ends in
23858 iron <lb></lb>plates, and when the operation is concluded, he raises it again
23859 with an iron <lb></lb>shovel, so that its edge holds against the iron hook in
23860 the arch, and thus the <lb></lb>door is held open. </s>
23861
23862 <s>When the silver is nearly refined, which may be judged <lb></lb>by the space of
23863 time, he dips into it an iron bar, three and a half feet <lb></lb>long and a
23864 digit thick, having a round steel point. </s>
23865
23866 <s>The small drops of silver <lb></lb>that adhere to the bar he places on the brass
23867 block and flattens with <lb></lb>a hammer, and from their colour he decides
23868 whether the silver is sufficiently <lb></lb>refined or not. </s>
23869
23870 <s>If it is thoroughly purified it is very white, and in a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> there <lb></lb>is only a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of impurities. </s>
23871
23872 <s>Some ladle up the silver with a hollow iron <lb></lb>implement. </s>
23873
23874 <s>Of each <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver one
23875 <emph type="italics"></emph>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is consumed,
23876 or occasionally <lb></lb>when very impure, three <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>41<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>.</s>
23877 </p>
23878 <p type="main">
23879
23880 <s>The refiner governs the fire and stirs the molten silver with an iron
23881 <lb></lb>implement, nine feet long, a digit thick, and at the end first curved
23882 toward <lb></lb>the right, then curved back in order to form a circle, the
23883 interior of which is a <lb></lb>palm in diameter; others use an iron implement,
23884 the end of which is bent <lb></lb>directly upward. </s>
23885
23886 <s>Another iron implement has the shape of tongs, with <lb></lb>which, by
23887 compressing it with his hands, he seizes the coals and puts them on <lb></lb>or
23888 takes them off; this is two feet long, one and a half digits wide, and the
23889 <lb></lb>third of a digit thick.</s>
23890 </p>
23891 <p type="main">
23892
23893 <s>When the silver is seen to be thoroughly refined, the artificer removes
23894 <lb></lb>the coals from the test with a shovel. </s>
23895
23896 <s>Soon afterward he draws water in <lb></lb>a copper ladle, which has a wooden
23897 handle four feet long; it has a small <lb></lb>hole at a point half-way between
23898 the middle of the bowl and the edge, through <lb></lb>which a hemp seed just
23899 passes. </s>
23900
23901 <s>He fills this ladle three times with water, <lb></lb>and three times it all flows
23902 out through the hole on to the silver, and slowly <lb></lb>quenches it; if he
23903 suddenly poured much water on it, it would burst asunder <lb></lb>and injure
23904 those standing near. </s>
23905
23906 <s>The artificer has a pointed iron bar, three </s>
23907 </p>
23908 <pb pagenum="488"></pb>
23909 <figure></figure>
23910 <p type="caption">
23911
23912 <s>A—IMPLEMENT WITH A RING. B—LADLE. C—ITS HOLE.
23913 D—POINTED BAR. E—FORKS. <lb></lb>F—CAKE OF SILVER LAID UPON
23914 THE IMPLEMENT SHAPED LIKE TONGS. G—TUB OF WATER. <lb></lb>H—BLOCK OF
23915 WOOD, WITH A CAKE LAID UPON IT. I—HAMMER. K—SILVER AGAIN
23916 <lb></lb>PLACED UPON THE IMPLEMENT RESEMBLING TONGS. L—ANOTHER TUB FULL OF
23917 WATER. <lb></lb>M—BRASS WIRES. N—TRIPOD. O—ANOTHER BLOCK.
23918 P—CHISEL. Q—CRUCIBLE OF <lb></lb>THE FURNACE. R—TEST STILL
23919 SMOKING.<lb></lb>feet long, which has a wooden handle as many feet long, and he
23920 puts the end of <lb></lb>this bar into the test in order to stir it. </s>
23921
23922 <s>He also stirs it with a hooked iron <lb></lb>bar, of which the hook is two digits
23923 wide and a palm deep, and the iron part <lb></lb>of its handle is three feet
23924 long and the wooden part the same. </s>
23925
23926 <s>Then he <lb></lb>removes the test from the hearth with a shovel or a fork, and
23927 turns it over, <lb></lb>and by this means the silver falls to the ground in the
23928 shape of half a sphere; <lb></lb>then lifting the cake with a shovel he throws
23929 it into a tub of water, where <lb></lb>it gives out a great sound. </s>
23930
23931 <s>Or else, having lifted the cake of silver with a <lb></lb>fork, he lays it upon
23932 the iron implement similar to tongs, which are placed <lb></lb>across a tub full
23933 of water; afterward, when cooled, he takes it from the <lb></lb>tub again and
23934 lays it on the block made of hard wood and beats it with a <lb></lb>hammer, in
23935 order to break off any of the powder from the test which <lb></lb>adheres to it. </s>
23936
23937 <s>The cake is then placed on the implement similar to <lb></lb>tongs, laid over the
23938 tub full of water, and cleaned with a bundle of brass wire <pb pagenum="489"></pb>dipped into the water; this operation of beating and cleansing is repeated
23939 <lb></lb>until it is all clean. </s>
23940
23941 <s>Afterward he places it on an iron grate or tripod; the <lb></lb>tripod is a palm
23942 and two digits high, one and a half digits wide, and its span <lb></lb>is two
23943 palms wide; then he puts burning charcoal under the tripod or grate, <lb></lb>in
23944 order again to dry the silver that was moistened by the water. </s>
23945
23946 <s>Finally, <lb></lb>the Royal Inspector<emph type="sup"></emph>42<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
23947 in the employment of the King or Prince, or the owner, <lb></lb>lays the silver
23948 on a block of wood, and with an engraver&#039;s chisel he cuts out two </s>
23949 </p>
23950 <figure></figure>
23951 <p type="caption">
23952
23953 <s>A—MUFFLE. B—ITS LITTLE WINDOWS. C—ITS LITTLE BRIDGE.
23954 D—BRICKS. E—IRON <lb></lb>DOOR. F—ITS LITTLE WINDOW.
23955 G—BELLOWS. H—HAMMER-CHISEL. I—IRON RING <lb></lb>WHICH SOME
23956 USE INSTEAD OF THE TEST. K—PESTLE WITH WHICH THE ASHES PLACED IN
23957 <lb></lb>THE RING ARE POUNDED.<lb></lb>small pieces, one from the under and the
23958 other from the upper side. </s>
23959
23960 <s>These <lb></lb>are tested by fire, in order to ascertain whether the silver is
23961 thoroughly refined <lb></lb>or not, and at what price it should be sold to the
23962 merchants. </s>
23963
23964 <s>Finally he <lb></lb>impresses upon it the seal of the King or the Prince or the
23965 owner, and, near <lb></lb>the same, the amount of the weight.</s>
23966 </p>
23967 <p type="main">
23968
23969 <s>There are some who refine silver in tests placed under iron or
23970 earthen­<lb></lb>ware muffles. </s>
23971
23972 <s>They use a furnace, on the hearth of which they place the test
23973 <lb></lb>containing the fragments of silver, and they place the muffle over it;
23974 the <pb pagenum="490"></pb>muffle has small windows at the sides, and in front a
23975 little bridge. </s>
23976
23977 <s>In order <lb></lb>to melt the silver, at the sides of the muffle are laid bricks,
23978 upon which the <lb></lb>charcoal is placed, and burning firebrands are put on
23979 the bridge. </s>
23980
23981 <s>The <lb></lb>furnace has an iron door, which is covered on the side next to the
23982 fire with lute <lb></lb>in order that it may not be injured. </s>
23983
23984 <s>When the door is closed it retains the <lb></lb>heat of the fire, but it has a
23985 small window, so that the artificers may look <lb></lb>into the test and may at
23986 times stimulate the fire with the bellows. </s>
23987
23988 <s>Although <lb></lb>by this method silver is refined more slowly than by the other,
23989 nevertheless it is <lb></lb>more useful, because less loss is caused, for a
23990 gentle fire consumes fewer particles <lb></lb>than a fierce fire continually
23991 excited by the blast of the bellows. </s>
23992
23993 <s>If, on <lb></lb>account of its great size, the cake of silver can be carried only
23994 with difficulty <lb></lb>when it is taken out of the muffle, they cut it up into
23995 two or three <lb></lb>pieces while it is still hot, with a wedge or a
23996 hammer-chisel; for if they cut <lb></lb>it up after it has cooled, little pieces
23997 of it frequently fly off and are lost.</s>
23998 </p>
23999 <p type="head">
24000
24001 <s>END OF BOOK X.</s>
24002 </p>
24003 <figure></figure>
24004 <pb></pb>
24005 <p type="head">
24006
24007 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>BOOK XI.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
24008 </p>
24009 <p type="main">
24010
24011 <s>Different methods of parting gold from silver, <lb></lb>and, on the other hand,
24012 silver from gold, were dis­<lb></lb>cussed in the last book; also the
24013 separation of copper <lb></lb>from the latter, and further, of lead from gold as
24014 <lb></lb>well as from silver; and, lastly, the methods for <lb></lb>refining the two
24015 precious metals. </s>
24016
24017 <s>Now I will speak <lb></lb>of the methods by which silver must be separated
24018 <lb></lb>from copper, and likewise from iron.<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
24019 </p>
24020 <p type="main">
24021
24022 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>officina,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or the building
24023 necessary for the <lb></lb>purposes and use of those who separate silver from
24024 copper, is constructed <lb></lb>in this manner. </s>
24025
24026 <s>First, four long walls are built, of which the first, which <lb></lb>is parallel
24027 with the bank of a stream, and the second, are both two hundred and
24028 <lb></lb>sixty-four feet long. </s>
24029
24030 <s>The second, however, stops at one hundred and fifty-one <lb></lb>feet, and after,
24031 as it were, a break for a length of twenty-four feet, it continues
24032 <lb></lb>again until it is of a length equal to the first wall. </s>
24033
24034 <s>The third wall is one <lb></lb>hundred and twenty feet long, starting at a point
24035 opposite the sixty-seventh <lb></lb>foot of the other walls, and reaching to
24036 their one hundred and eighty-sixth foot. <pb pagenum="492"></pb>The fourth wall
24037 is one hundred and fifty-one feet long. </s>
24038
24039 <s>The height of each of <lb></lb>these walls, and likewise of the other two and of
24040 the transverse walls, of <lb></lb>which I will speak later on, is ten feet, and
24041 the thickness two feet and as <lb></lb>many palms. </s>
24042
24043 <s>The second long wall only is built fifteen feet high, because <lb></lb>of the
24044 furnaces which must be built against it. </s>
24045
24046 <s>The first long wall is distant <lb></lb>fifteen feet from the second, and the
24047 third is distant the same number of feet <lb></lb>from the fourth, but the
24048 second is distant thirty-nine feet from the third. <lb></lb></s>
24049
24050 <s>Then transverse walls are built, the first of which leads from the beginning
24051 <lb></lb>of the first long wall to the beginning of the second long wall; and
24052 the second <lb></lb>transverse wall from the beginning of the second long wall
24053 to the beginning of <lb></lb>the fourth long wall, for the third long wall does
24054 not reach so far. </s>
24055
24056 <s>Then from <lb></lb>the beginning of the third long wall are built two
24057 walls—the one to the <lb></lb>sixty-seventh foot of the second long wall,
24058 the other to the same point in <lb></lb>the fourth long wall. </s>
24059
24060 <s>The fifth transverse wall is built at a distance of ten <lb></lb>feet from the
24061 fourth transverse wall toward the second transverse wall; </s>
24062 </p>
24063 <pb pagenum="493"></pb>
24064 <figure></figure>
24065 <p type="caption">
24066
24067 <s>SIX LONG WALLS: A—THE FIRST. B—THE FIRST PART OF THE SECOND.
24068 C—THE <lb></lb>FURTHER PART OF THE SECOND. D—THE THIRD. E—THE
24069 FOURTH. F—THE FIFTH. <lb></lb>G—THE SIXTH. FOURTEEN TRANSVERSE
24070 WALLS: H—THE FIRST. I—THE SECOND. <lb></lb>K—THE THIRD.
24071 L—THE FOURTH. M—THE FIFTH. N—THE SIXTH. O—THE
24072 SEVENTH. <lb></lb>P—THE EIGHTH. O—THE NINTH. R—THE TENTH.
24073 S—THE ELEVENTH. T—THE <lb></lb><gap></gap><pb pagenum="494"></pb>it is twenty
24074 feet long, and starts from the fourth long wall. </s>
24075
24076 <s>The sixth <lb></lb>transverse wall is built also from the fourth long wall, at a
24077 point distant <lb></lb>thirty feet from the fourth transverse wall, and it
24078 extends as far as the back <lb></lb>of the third long wall. </s>
24079
24080 <s>The seventh transverse wall is constructed from <lb></lb>the second long wall,
24081 where this first leaves off, to the third long wall; and <lb></lb>from the back
24082 of the third long wall the eighth transverse wall is built, <lb></lb>extending
24083 to the end of the fourth long wall. </s>
24084
24085 <s>Then the fifth long wall is built <lb></lb>from the seventh transverse wall,
24086 starting at a point nineteen feet from the <lb></lb>second long wall; it is one
24087 hundred and nine feet in length; and at a point <lb></lb>twenty-four feet along
24088 it, the ninth transverse wall is carried to the third end <lb></lb>of the second
24089 long wall, where that begins again. </s>
24090
24091 <s>The tenth transverse wall is <lb></lb>built from the end of the fifth long wall,
24092 and leads to the further end of the <lb></lb>second long wall; and from there
24093 the eleventh transverse wall leads to the <lb></lb>further end of the first long
24094 wall. </s>
24095
24096 <s>Behind the fifth long wall, and five feet <lb></lb>toward the third long wall,
24097 the sixth long wall is built, leading from the <lb></lb>seventh transverse wall;
24098 its length is thirty-five feet, and from its further <lb></lb>end the twelfth
24099 transverse wall is built to the third long wall, and from it the
24100 <lb></lb>thirteenth transverse wall is built to the fifth long wall. </s>
24101
24102 <s>The fourteenth <lb></lb>transverse wall divides into equal parts the space which
24103 lies between the <lb></lb>seventh transverse wall and the twelfth.</s>
24104 </p>
24105 <p type="main">
24106
24107 <s>The length, height, breadth, and position of the walls are as above.
24108 <lb></lb></s>
24109
24110 <s>Their archways, doors, and openings are made at the same time that the walls
24111 <lb></lb>are built. </s>
24112
24113 <s>The size of these and the way they are made will be much better
24114 <lb></lb>understood hereafter. </s>
24115
24116 <s>I will now speak of the furnace hoods and of the roofs. <lb></lb></s>
24117
24118 <s>The first side<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> of the hood stands on
24119 the second long wall, and is similar in <lb></lb>every respect to those whose
24120 structure I explained in Book IX, when I <lb></lb>described the works in whose
24121 furnaces are smelted the ores of gold, silver, <lb></lb>and copper. </s>
24122
24123 <s>From this side of the hood a roof, which consists of burnt tiles,
24124 <lb></lb>extends to the first long wall; and this part of the building contains
24125 the <lb></lb>bellows, the machinery for compressing them, and the instruments
24126 for <lb></lb>inflating them. </s>
24127
24128 <s>In the middle space, which is situated between the second <lb></lb>and third
24129 transverse walls, an upright post eight feet high and two feet thick <pb pagenum="495"></pb>and wide, is erected on a rock foundation, and is distant
24130 thirteen feet from <lb></lb>the second long wall. </s>
24131
24132 <s>On that upright post, and in the second transverse <lb></lb>wall, which has at
24133 that point a square hole two feet high and wide, is placed <lb></lb>a beam
24134 thirty-four feet and a palm long. </s>
24135
24136 <s>Another beam, of the same length, <lb></lb>width, and thickness, is fixed on the
24137 same upright post and in the third <lb></lb>transverse wall. </s>
24138
24139 <s>The heads of those two beams, where they meet, are joined <lb></lb>together with
24140 iron staples. </s>
24141
24142 <s>In a similar manner another post is erected, at a <lb></lb>distance of ten feet
24143 from the first upright post in the direction of the fourth <lb></lb>wall, and
24144 two beams are laid upon it and into the same walls in a similar <lb></lb>way to
24145 those I have just now described. </s>
24146
24147 <s>On these two beams and on the <lb></lb>fourth long wall are fixed seventeen
24148 cross-beams, forty-three feet and three <lb></lb>palms long, a foot wide, and
24149 three palms thick; the first of these is laid upon <lb></lb>the second
24150 transverse wall, the last lies along the third and fourth transverse
24151 <lb></lb>walls; the rest are set in the space between them. </s>
24152
24153 <s>These cross-beams are <lb></lb>three feet apart one from the other.</s>
24154 </p>
24155 <p type="main">
24156
24157 <s>In the ends of these cross-beams, facing the second long wall, are mortised
24158 <lb></lb>the ends of the same number of rafters reaching to those timbers which
24159 <lb></lb>stand upright on the second long wall, and in this manner is made the
24160 inclined <lb></lb>side of the hood in a similar way to the one described in Book
24161 IX. </s>
24162
24163 <s>To prevent <lb></lb>this from falling toward the vertical wall of the hood, there
24164 are iron rods <lb></lb>securing it, but only a few, because the four brick
24165 chimneys which have <lb></lb>to be built in that space partly support it. </s>
24166
24167 <s>Twelve feet back are likewise <lb></lb>mortised into the cross-beams, which lie
24168 upon the two longitudinal beams <lb></lb>and the fourth long wall, the lower
24169 ends of as many rafters, whose upper ends <lb></lb>are mortised into the upper
24170 ends of an equal number of similar rafters, whose <lb></lb>lower ends are
24171 mortised to the ends of the beams at the fourth long wall. <lb></lb></s>
24172
24173 <s>From the first set of rafters<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> to the
24174 second set of rafters is a distance of twelve <lb></lb>feet, in order that a
24175 gutter may be well placed in the middle space. </s>
24176
24177 <s>Between <lb></lb>these two are again erected two sets of rafters, the lower ends
24178 of which are like­<lb></lb>wise mortised into the beams, which lie on the
24179 two longitudinal beams and the <lb></lb>fourth long wall, and are interdistant a
24180 cubit. </s>
24181
24182 <s>The upper ends of the ones <lb></lb>fifteen feet long rest on the backs of the
24183 rafters of the first set; the ends of the <lb></lb>others, which are eighteen
24184 feet long, rest on the backs of the rafters of the <lb></lb>second set, which
24185 are longer; in this manner, in the middle of the rafters, is <lb></lb>a
24186 sub-structure. </s>
24187
24188 <s>Upon each alternate cross-beam which is placed upon the <lb></lb>two longitudinal
24189 beams and the fourth long wall is erected an upright post, <lb></lb>and that it
24190 may be sufficiently firm it is strengthened by means of a slanting
24191 <lb></lb>timber. </s>
24192
24193 <s>Upon these posts is laid a long beam, upon which rests one set of <lb></lb>middle
24194 rafters. </s>
24195
24196 <s>In a similar manner the other set of middle rafters rests on a <lb></lb>long beam
24197 which is placed upon other posts. </s>
24198
24199 <s>Besides this, two feet above <lb></lb>every cross-beam, which is placed on the
24200 two longitudinal beams and the <pb pagenum="496"></pb>fourth long wall, is
24201 placed a tie-beam which reaches from the first set of <lb></lb>middle rafters to
24202 the second set of middle rafters; upon the tie-beams is <lb></lb>placed a gutter
24203 hollowed out from a tree. </s>
24204
24205 <s>Then from the back of each of <lb></lb>the first set of middle rafters a beam six
24206 feet long reaches almost to the gutter; <lb></lb>to the lower end of this beam
24207 is attached a piece of wood two feet long; <lb></lb>this is repeated with each
24208 rafter of the first set of middle rafters. </s>
24209
24210 <s>Similarly <lb></lb>from the back of each rafter of the second set of middle
24211 rafters a little beam, <lb></lb>seven feet long, reaches almost to the gutter;
24212 to the lower end of it <lb></lb>is likewise attached a short piece of wood; this
24213 is repeated on each rafter <lb></lb>of the second set of middle rafters. </s>
24214
24215 <s>Then in the upper part, to the first and <lb></lb>second sets of principal
24216 rafters are fastened long boards, upon which are <lb></lb>fixed the burnt tiles;
24217 and in the same manner, in the middle part, they are <lb></lb>fastened to the
24218 first and second sets of middle rafters, and at the lower part to <lb></lb>the
24219 little beams which reach from each rafter of the first and second set of
24220 <lb></lb>middle rafters almost to the gutter; and, finally, to the little boards
24221 fastened <lb></lb>to the short pieces of wood are fixed shingles of pinewood
24222 extending into the <lb></lb>gutter, so that the violent rain or melted snow may
24223 not penetrate into the <lb></lb>building. </s>
24224
24225 <s>The substructures in the interior which support the second set of
24226 <lb></lb>rafters, and those on the opposite side which support the third, being
24227 not <lb></lb>unusual, I need not explain.</s>
24228 </p>
24229 <p type="main">
24230
24231 <s>In that part of the building against the second long wall are the
24232 <lb></lb>furnaces, in which exhausted liquation cakes which have already been
24233 <lb></lb>“dried” are smelted, that they may recover once again the
24234 appearance <lb></lb>and colour of copper, inasmuch as they really are copper. </s>
24235
24236 <s>The remainder <lb></lb>of the room is occupied by the passage which leads from
24237 the door to the <lb></lb>furnaces, together with two other furnaces, in one of
24238 which the whole cakes <lb></lb>of copper are heated, and in the other the
24239 exhausted liquation cakes are <lb></lb>“dried” by the heat of the
24240 fire.</s>
24241 </p>
24242 <p type="main">
24243
24244 <s>Likewise, in the room between the third and seventh<emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> transverse walls, <lb></lb>two posts are erected
24245 on rock foundation; both of them are eight feet high <lb></lb>and two feet wide
24246 and thick. </s>
24247
24248 <s>The one is at a distance of thirteen feet from <lb></lb>the second long wall; the
24249 other at the same distance from the third long wall; <lb></lb>there is a
24250 distance of thirteen feet between them. </s>
24251
24252 <s>Upon these two posts and <lb></lb>upon the third transverse wall are laid two
24253 longitudinal beams, forty-one feet <lb></lb>and one palm long, and two feet wide
24254 and thick. </s>
24255
24256 <s>Two other beams of the <lb></lb>same length, width, and thickness are laid upon
24257 the upright posts and upon <lb></lb>the seventh transverse wall, and the heads
24258 of the two long beams, where they <lb></lb>meet, are joined with iron staples. </s>
24259
24260 <s>On these longitudinal beams are again <lb></lb>placed twenty-one transverse
24261 beams, thirteen feet long, a foot wide, and three <lb></lb>palms thick, of which
24262 the first is set on the third transverse wall, and the last <lb></lb>on the
24263 seventh transverse wall; the rest are laid in the space between these
24264 <lb></lb>two, and they are distant from one another three feet. </s>
24265
24266 <s>Into the ends of <lb></lb>the transverse beams which face the second long wall,
24267 are mortised the <lb></lb>ends of the same number of rafters erected toward the
24268 upright posts <lb></lb>which are placed upon the second long wall, and in this
24269 manner is made <pb pagenum="497"></pb>the second inclined side wall of the hood. </s>
24270
24271 <s>Into the ends of the transverse <lb></lb>beams facing the third long wall, are
24272 mortised the ends of the same <lb></lb>number of rafters rising toward the
24273 rafters of the first inclined side of <lb></lb>the second hood, and in this
24274 manner is made the other inclined side of <lb></lb>the second hood. </s>
24275
24276 <s>But to prevent this from falling in upon the opposite <lb></lb>inclined side of
24277 the hood, and that again upon the opposite vertical one, <lb></lb>there are many
24278 iron rods reaching from some of the rafters to those <lb></lb>opposite them; and
24279 this is also prevented in part by means of a few tie-beams, <lb></lb>extending
24280 from the back of the rafters to the back of those which are behind
24281 <lb></lb>them. </s>
24282
24283 <s>These tie-beams are two palms thick and wide, and have holes made
24284 <lb></lb>through them at each end; each of the rafters is bound round with iron
24285 <lb></lb>bands three digits wide and half a digit thick, which hold together the
24286 ends <lb></lb>of the tie-beams of which I have spoken; and so that the joints
24287 may be firm, <lb></lb>an iron nail, passing through the plate on both sides, is
24288 driven through the <lb></lb>holes in the ends of the beams. </s>
24289
24290 <s>Since one weight counter-balances another, the <lb></lb>rafters on the opposite
24291 hoods cannot fall. </s>
24292
24293 <s>The tie-beams and middle posts <lb></lb>which have to support the gutters and the
24294 roof, are made in every particular <lb></lb>as I stated above, except only that
24295 the second set of middle rafters are not <lb></lb>longer than the first set of
24296 middle rafters, and that the little beams which <lb></lb>reach from the back of
24297 each rafter of the second set of middle rafters nearly <lb></lb>to the gutter
24298 are not longer than the little beams which reach from the back <lb></lb>of each
24299 rafter of the first set of middle rafters almost to the gutter. </s>
24300
24301 <s>In this <lb></lb>part of the building, against the second long wall, are the
24302 furnaces in which <lb></lb>copper is alloyed with lead, and in which
24303 “slags” are re-smelted. </s>
24304
24305 <s>Against <lb></lb>the third long wall are the furnaces in which silver and lead
24306 are liquated from <lb></lb>copper. </s>
24307
24308 <s>The interior is also occupied by two cranes, of which one deposits <lb></lb>on
24309 the ground the cakes of copper lifted out of the moulding pans; the other
24310 <lb></lb>lifts them from the ground into the second furnace.</s>
24311 </p>
24312 <p type="main">
24313
24314 <s>On the third and the fourth long walls are set twenty-one beams eighteen
24315 <lb></lb>feet and three palms long. </s>
24316
24317 <s>In mortises in them, two feet behind the third long <lb></lb>wall, are set the
24318 ends of the same number of rafters erected opposite to the <lb></lb>rafters of
24319 the other inclined wall of the second furnace hood, and in this <lb></lb>manner
24320 is made the third inclined wall, exactly similar to the others. </s>
24321
24322 <s>The <lb></lb>ends of as many rafters are mortised into these beams where they are
24323 fixed in <lb></lb>the fourth long wall; these rafters are erected obliquely, and
24324 rest against the <lb></lb>backs of the preceding ones and support the roof,
24325 which consists entirely of <lb></lb>burnt tiles and has the usual substructures. </s>
24326
24327 <s>In this part of the building <lb></lb>there are two rooms, in the first of which
24328 the cakes of copper, and in the other <lb></lb>the cakes of lead, are
24329 stored.</s>
24330 </p>
24331 <p type="main">
24332
24333 <s>In the space enclosed between the ninth and tenth transverse walls and
24334 <lb></lb>the second and fifth long walls, a post twelve feet high and two feet
24335 wide and <lb></lb>thick is erected on a rock foundation; it is distant thirteen
24336 feet from the <lb></lb>second long wall, and six from the fifth long wall. </s>
24337
24338 <s>Upon this post and upon <lb></lb>the ninth transverse wall is laid a beam
24339 thirty-three feet and three palms <lb></lb>long, and two palms wide and thick. </s>
24340
24341 <s>Another beam, also of the same length, <lb></lb>width and thickness, is laid upon
24342 the same post and upon the tenth transverse <pb pagenum="498"></pb>wall, and the
24343 ends of these two beams where they meet are joined by means <lb></lb>of iron
24344 staples. </s>
24345
24346 <s>On these beams and on the fifth long wall are placed ten <lb></lb>cross-beams,
24347 eight feet and three palms long, the first of which is placed on <lb></lb>the
24348 ninth transverse wall, the last on the tenth, the remainder in the space
24349 <lb></lb>between them; they are distant from one another three feet. </s>
24350
24351 <s>Into the <lb></lb>ends of the cross-beams facing the second long wall, are
24352 mortised the ends of <lb></lb>the same number of rafters inclined toward the
24353 posts which stand vertically <lb></lb>upon the second long wall. </s>
24354
24355 <s>This, again, is the manner in which the inclined <lb></lb>side of the furnace
24356 hood is made, just as with the others; at the top <lb></lb>where the fumes are
24357 emitted it is two feet distant from the vertical side. <lb></lb></s>
24358
24359 <s>The ends of the same number of rafters are mortised into the cross-beams,
24360 <lb></lb>where they are set in the fifth long wall; each of them is set up
24361 obliquely and <lb></lb>rests against the back of one of the preceding set; they
24362 support the roof, <lb></lb>made of burnt tiles. </s>
24363
24364 <s>In this part of the building, against the second long <lb></lb>wall, are four
24365 furnaces in which lead is separated from silver, together with <lb></lb>the
24366 cranes by means of which the domes are lifted from the crucibles.</s>
24367 </p>
24368 <p type="main">
24369
24370 <s>In that part of the building which lies between the first long wall and
24371 <lb></lb>the break in the second long wall, is the stamp with which the copper
24372 cakes <lb></lb>are crushed, and the four stamps with which the accretions that
24373 are chipped <lb></lb>off the walls of the furnace are broken up and crushed to
24374 powder, and likewise <lb></lb>the bricks on which the exhausted liquation cakes
24375 of copper are stood to <lb></lb>be “dried.” This room has the usual
24376 roof, as also has the space between <lb></lb>the seventh transverse wall and the
24377 twelfth and thirteenth transverse walls.</s>
24378 </p>
24379 <p type="main">
24380
24381 <s>At the sides of these rooms are the fifth, the sixth, and the third long
24382 <lb></lb>walls. </s>
24383
24384 <s>This part of the building is divided into two parts, in the first of
24385 <lb></lb>which stand the little furnaces in which the artificer assays metals;
24386 and the <lb></lb>bone ash, together with the other powders, are kept here. </s>
24387
24388 <s>In the other room <lb></lb>is prepared the powder from which the hearths and the
24389 crucibles of the fur­<lb></lb>naces are made. </s>
24390
24391 <s>Outside the building, at the back of the fourth long wall, <lb></lb>near the door
24392 to the left as you enter, is a hearth in which smaller <lb></lb>masses of lead
24393 are melted from large ones, that they may be the more easily <lb></lb>weighed;
24394 because the masses of lead, just as much as the cakes of copper, <lb></lb>ought
24395 to be first prepared so that they can be weighed, and a definite weight
24396 <lb></lb>can be melted and alloyed in the furnaces. </s>
24397
24398 <s>To begin with, the hearth in <lb></lb>which the masses of lead are liquefied is
24399 six feet long and five wide; it is <lb></lb>protected on both sides by rocks
24400 partly sunk into the earth, but a palm higher <lb></lb>than the hearth, and it
24401 is lined in the inside with lute. </s>
24402
24403 <s>It slopes toward the <lb></lb>middle and toward the front, in order that the
24404 molten lead may run down <lb></lb>and flow out into the dipping-pot. </s>
24405
24406 <s>There is a wall at the back of the hearth <lb></lb>which protects the fourth long
24407 wall from damage by the heat; this wall, <lb></lb>which is made of bricks and
24408 lute, is four feet high, three palms thick, and five <lb></lb>feet long at the
24409 bottom, and at the top three feet and two palms long; there­<lb></lb>fore it
24410 narrows gradually, and in the upper part are laid seven bricks, the
24411 <lb></lb>middle ones of which are set upright, and the end ones inclined; they
24412 are all <lb></lb>thickly coated with lute. </s>
24413
24414 <s>In front of the hearth is a dipping-pot, whose pit is <lb></lb>a foot deep, and a
24415 foot and three palms wide at the top, and gradually narrows. </s>
24416 </p>
24417 <pb pagenum="499"></pb>
24418 <figure></figure>
24419 <p type="caption">
24420
24421 <s>A—HEARTH. B—ROCKS SUNK INTO THE GROUND. C—WALLS WHICH
24422 PROTECT THE <lb></lb>FOURTH LONG WALL FROM DAMAGE BY FIRE. D—DIPPING-POT.
24423 E—MASSES OF LEAD. <lb></lb>F—TROLLEY. G—ITS WHEELS.
24424 H—CRANE. I—TONGS. K—WOOD. L—MOULDS.
24425 <lb></lb>M—LADLE. N—PICK. O—CAKES.<pb pagenum="500"></pb>When the
24426 masses of lead are to be melted, the workman first places the wood <lb></lb>in
24427 the hearth so that one end of each billet faces the wall, and the other end
24428 <lb></lb>the dipping-pot. </s>
24429
24430 <s>Then, assisted by other workmen, he pushes the mass <lb></lb>of lead forward with
24431 crowbars on to a low trolley, and draws it to the <lb></lb>crane. </s>
24432
24433 <s>The trolley consists of planks fastened together, is two and one-half
24434 <lb></lb>feet wide and five feet long, and has two small iron axles, around
24435 which at <lb></lb>each end revolve small iron wheels, two palms in diameter and
24436 as many digits <lb></lb>wide. </s>
24437
24438 <s>The trolley has a tongue, and attached to this is a rope, by which it is
24439 <lb></lb>drawn to the crane. </s>
24440
24441 <s>The crane is exactly similar to those in the second part <lb></lb>of the works,
24442 except that the crane-arm is not so long. </s>
24443
24444 <s>The tongs in whose <lb></lb>jaws<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> the
24445 masses of lead are seized, are two feet a palm and two digits long;
24446 <lb></lb>both of the jaws, when struck with a hammer, impinge upon the mass and
24447 are <lb></lb>driven into it. </s>
24448
24449 <s>The upper part of both handles of the tongs are curved back, <lb></lb>the one to
24450 the right, the other to the left, and each handle is engaged in one <lb></lb>of
24451 the lowest links of two short chains, which are three links long. </s>
24452
24453 <s>The upper <lb></lb>links are engaged in a large round ring, in which is fixed the
24454 hook of a chain <lb></lb>let down from the pulley of the crane-arm. </s>
24455
24456 <s>When the crank of the crane <lb></lb>is turned, the mass is lifted and is carried
24457 by the crane-arm to the hearth and <lb></lb>placed on the wood. </s>
24458
24459 <s>The workmen wheel up one mass after another and <lb></lb>place them in a similar
24460 manner on the wood of the hearth; masses which <lb></lb>weigh a total of about a
24461 hundred and sixty <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> are usually
24462 placed <lb></lb>upon the wood and melted at one time. </s>
24463
24464 <s>Then a workman throws charcoal <lb></lb>on the masses, and all are made ready in
24465 the evening. </s>
24466
24467 <s>If he fears that it may <lb></lb>rain, he covers it up with a cover, which may be
24468 moved here and there; at the <lb></lb>back this cover has two legs, so that the
24469 rain which it collects may flow down <lb></lb>the slope on to the open ground. </s>
24470
24471 <s>Early in the morning of the following day, <lb></lb>he throws live coals on the
24472 charcoal with a shovel, and by this method the <lb></lb>masses of lead melt, and
24473 from time to time charcoal is added. </s>
24474
24475 <s>The lead, as <lb></lb>soon as it begins to run into the dipping-pot, is ladled
24476 out with an iron ladle <lb></lb>into copper moulds such as the refiners
24477 generally use. </s>
24478
24479 <s>If it does not cool <lb></lb>immediately he pours water over it, and then sticks
24480 the pointed pick into <lb></lb>it and pulls it out. </s>
24481
24482 <s>The pointed end of the pick is three palms long and <lb></lb>the round end is two
24483 digits long. </s>
24484
24485 <s>It is necessary to smear the moulds with a <lb></lb>wash of lute, in order that,
24486 when they have been turned upside down and <lb></lb>struck with the broad round
24487 end of the pick, the cakes of lead may fall out <lb></lb>easily. </s>
24488
24489 <s>If the moulds are not washed over with the lute, there is a risk that
24490 <lb></lb>they may be melted by the lead and let it through. </s>
24491
24492 <s>Others take hold of a <lb></lb>billet of wood with their left hand, and with the
24493 heavy lower end of it they <lb></lb>pound the mould, and with the right hand
24494 they stick the point of the pick <lb></lb>into the cake of lead, and thus pull
24495 it out. </s>
24496
24497 <s>Then immediately the workman <lb></lb>pours other lead into the empty moulds, and
24498 this he does until the work of <lb></lb>melting the lead is finished. </s>
24499
24500 <s>When the lead is melted, something similar to <lb></lb>litharge is produced; but
24501 it is no wonder that it should be possible to make <lb></lb><pb pagenum="501"></pb>it in this case, when it used formerly to be produced at Puteoli from lead
24502 <lb></lb>alone when melted by a fierce fire in the cupellation furnace.<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> Afterward <lb></lb>these cakes of lead
24503 are carried into the lead store-room.</s>
24504 </p>
24505 <p type="main">
24506
24507 <s>The cakes of copper, put into wheelbarrows, are carried into the third
24508 <lb></lb>part of the building, where each is laid upon a saddle, and is broken
24509 up by <lb></lb>the impact of successive blows from the iron-shod stamp. </s>
24510
24511 <s>This machine <lb></lb>is made by placing upon the ground a block of oak, five
24512 feet long and three feet </s>
24513 </p>
24514 <figure></figure>
24515 <p type="caption">
24516
24517 <s>A—BLOCK OF WOOD. B—UPRIGHT POSTS. C—TRANSVERSE BEAMS.
24518 D—HEAD OF THE <lb></lb>STAMP. E—ITS TOOTH. F—THE HOLE IN THE
24519 STAMP-STEM. G—IRON BAR. H—MASSES <lb></lb>OF LEAD. I—THE
24520 BRONZE SADDLE. K—AXLE. L—ITS ARMS. M—LITTLE IRON AXLE.
24521 <lb></lb>N—BRONZE PIPE.<lb></lb>wide and thick; it is cut out in the middle
24522 for a length of two feet and two <lb></lb>palms, a width of two feet, and a
24523 depth of three palms and two digits, and is <lb></lb>open in front; the higher
24524 part of it is at the back, and the wide part lies flat <lb></lb>in the block. </s>
24525
24526 <s>In the middle of it is placed a bronze saddle. </s>
24527
24528 <s>Its base <lb></lb>is a palm and two digits wide, and is planted between two
24529 masses of <lb></lb>lead, and extends under them to a depth of a palm on both
24530 sides. <lb></lb></s>
24531
24532 <s>The whole saddle is three palms and two digits wide, a foot long, and <pb pagenum="502"></pb>two palms thick. </s>
24533
24534 <s>Upon each end of the block stands a post, a cubit wide <lb></lb>and thick, the
24535 upper end of which is somewhat cut away and is mortised into <lb></lb>the beams
24536 of the building. </s>
24537
24538 <s>At a height of four feet and two digits above the <lb></lb>block there are joined
24539 to the posts two transverse beams, each of which is <lb></lb>three palms wide
24540 and thick; their ends are mortised into the upright posts, <lb></lb>and holes
24541 are bored through them; in the holes are driven iron claves, <lb></lb>horned in
24542 front and so driven into the post that one of the horns of each <lb></lb>points
24543 upward and the other downward; the other end of each clavis is
24544 <lb></lb>perforated, and a wide iron wedge is inserted and driven into the
24545 holes, and <lb></lb>thus holds the transverse beams in place. </s>
24546
24547 <s>These transverse beams have in the <lb></lb>middle a square opening three palms
24548 and half a digit wide in each <lb></lb>direction, through which the iron-shod
24549 stamp passes. </s>
24550
24551 <s>At a height of three <lb></lb>feet and two palms above these transverse beams
24552 there are again two beams <lb></lb>of the same kind, having also a square
24553 opening and holding the same stamp. <lb></lb></s>
24554
24555 <s>This stamp is square, eleven feet long, three palms wide and thick; its iron
24556 <lb></lb>shoe is a foot and a palm long; its head is two palms long and wide, a
24557 palm <lb></lb>two digits thick at the top, and at the bottom the same number of
24558 digits, for <lb></lb>it gradually narrows. </s>
24559
24560 <s>But the tail is three palms long; where the head <lb></lb>begins is two palms
24561 wide and thick, and the further it departs from the same <lb></lb>the narrower
24562 it becomes. </s>
24563
24564 <s>The upper part is enclosed in the stamp-stem, and <lb></lb>it is perforated so
24565 that an iron bolt may be driven into it; it is bound by three
24566 <lb></lb>rectangular iron bands, the lowest of which, a palm wide, is between
24567 the iron <lb></lb>shoe and the head of the stamp; the middle band, three digits
24568 wide, follows <lb></lb>next and binds round the head of the stamp, and two
24569 digits above is the <lb></lb>upper one, which is the same number of digits wide. </s>
24570
24571 <s>At a distance of two <lb></lb>feet and as many digits above the lowest part of
24572 the iron shoe, is a rectangular <lb></lb>tooth, projecting from the stamp for a
24573 distance of a foot and a palm; it is <lb></lb>two palms thick, and when it has
24574 extended to a distance of six digits from the <lb></lb>stamp it is made two
24575 digits narrower. </s>
24576
24577 <s>At a height of three palms upward <lb></lb>from the tooth there is a round hole
24578 in the middle of the stamp-stem, into <lb></lb>which can be thrust a round iron
24579 bar two feet long and a digit and a half in <lb></lb>diameter; in its hollow end
24580 is fixed a wooden handle two palms and the same <lb></lb>number of digits long. </s>
24581
24582 <s>The bar rests on the lower transverse beam, and holds <lb></lb>up the stamp when
24583 it is not in use. </s>
24584
24585 <s>The axle which raises the stamp <lb></lb>has on each side two arms, which are two
24586 palms and three digits distant <lb></lb>from each other, and which project from
24587 the axle a foot, a palm and two <lb></lb>digits; penetrating through them are
24588 bolts, driven in firmly; the arms are <lb></lb>each a palm and two digits wide
24589 and thick, and their round heads, for a foot <lb></lb>downward on either side,
24590 are covered with iron plates of the same width as <lb></lb>the arms and fastened
24591 by iron nails. </s>
24592
24593 <s>The head of each arm has a round <lb></lb>hole, into which is inserted an iron
24594 pin, passing through a bronze pipe; this <lb></lb>little axle has at the one end
24595 a wide head, and at the other end a perforation <lb></lb>through which is driven
24596 an iron nail, lest this little axle should fall out of the <lb></lb>arms. </s>
24597
24598 <s>The bronze pipe is two palms long and one in diameter; the little <lb></lb>iron
24599 axle penetrates through its round interior, which is two digits in diameter.
24600 <lb></lb></s>
24601
24602 <s>The bronze pipe not only revolves round the little iron axle, but it also <pb pagenum="503"></pb>rotates with it; therefore, when the axle revolves, the
24603 little axle and <lb></lb>the bronze tube in their turn raise the tooth and the
24604 stamp. </s>
24605
24606 <s>When the <lb></lb>little iron axle and the bronze pipe have been taken out of the
24607 arms, the tooth <lb></lb>of the stamps is not raised, and other stamps may be
24608 raised without this one. <lb></lb></s>
24609
24610 <s>Further on, a drum with spindles fixed around the axle of a water-wheel
24611 <lb></lb>moves the axle of a toothed drum, which depresses the sweeps of the
24612 bellows <lb></lb>in the adjacent fourth part of the building; but it turns in
24613 the contrary <lb></lb>direction; for the axis of the drum which raises the
24614 stamps turns toward <lb></lb>the north, while that one which depresses the
24615 sweeps of the bellows turns <lb></lb>toward the south.</s>
24616 </p>
24617 <p type="main">
24618
24619 <s>Those cakes which are too thick to be rapidly broken by blows from <lb></lb>the
24620 iron-shod stamp, such as are generally those which have settled in the
24621 <lb></lb>bottom of the crucible,<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> are
24622 carried into the first part of the building. </s>
24623
24624 <s>They <lb></lb>are there heated in a furnace, which is twenty-eight feet distant
24625 from the <lb></lb>second long wall and twelve feet from the second transverse
24626 wall. </s>
24627
24628 <s>The three <lb></lb>sides of this furnace are built of rectangular rocks, upon
24629 which bricks are laid; <lb></lb>the back furnace wall is three feet and a palm
24630 high, and the rear of the side <lb></lb>walls is the same; the side walls are
24631 sloping, and where the furnace is open in <lb></lb>front they are only two feet
24632 and three palms high; all the walls are a foot and <lb></lb>a palm thick. </s>
24633
24634 <s>Upon these walls stand upright posts not less thick, in order <lb></lb>that they
24635 may bear the heavy weight placed upon them, and they are covered <lb></lb>with
24636 lute; these posts support the sloping chimney and penetrate through <lb></lb>the
24637 roof. </s>
24638
24639 <s>Moreover, not only the ribs of the chimney, but also the rafters, <lb></lb>are
24640 covered thickly with lute. </s>
24641
24642 <s>The hearth of the furnace is six feet <lb></lb>long on each side, is sloping, and
24643 is paved with bricks. </s>
24644
24645 <s>The cakes of copper <lb></lb>are placed in the furnace and heated in the
24646 following way. </s>
24647
24648 <s>They are first of <lb></lb>all placed in the furnace in rows, with as many small
24649 stones the size of an egg <lb></lb>between, so that the heat of the fire can
24650 penetrate through the spaces between <lb></lb>them; indeed, those cakes which
24651 are placed at the bottom of the crucible are <lb></lb>each raised upon half a
24652 brick for the same reason. </s>
24653
24654 <s>But lest the last row, <lb></lb>which lies against the mouth of the furnace,
24655 should fall out, against the mouth <lb></lb>are placed iron plates, or the
24656 copper cakes which are the first taken from the <lb></lb>crucible when copper is
24657 made, and against them are laid exhausted liquation <lb></lb>cakes or rocks. </s>
24658
24659 <s>Then charcoal is thrown on the cakes, and then live coals; <lb></lb>at first the
24660 cakes are heated by a gentle fire, and afterward more charcoal is <lb></lb>added
24661 to them until it is at times three-quarters of a foot deep. </s>
24662
24663 <s>A fiercer fire <lb></lb>is certainly required to heat the hard cakes of copper
24664 than the fragile ones. <lb></lb></s>
24665
24666 <s>When the cakes have been sufficiently heated, which usually occurs within
24667 <lb></lb>the space of about two hours, the exhausted liquation cakes or the
24668 rocks <lb></lb>and the iron plate are removed from the mouth of the furnace. </s>
24669
24670 <s>Then the <lb></lb>hot cakes are taken out row after row with a two-pronged
24671 rabble, such as the <lb></lb>one which is used by those who “dry”
24672 the exhausted liquation cakes. <lb></lb></s>
24673
24674 <s>Then the first cake is laid upon the exhausted liquation cakes, and beaten by
24675 <lb></lb>two workmen with hammers until it breaks; the hotter the cakes are, the
24676 <pb pagenum="504"></pb>sooner they are broken up; the less hot, the longer
24677 it takes, for now and <lb></lb>then they bend into the shape of copper basins. </s>
24678
24679 <s>When the first cake has <lb></lb>been broken, the second is put on to the other
24680 fragments and beaten until it <lb></lb>breaks into pieces, and the rest of the
24681 cakes are broken up in the same manner <lb></lb>in due order. </s>
24682
24683 <s>The head of the hammer is three palms long and one wide, <lb></lb>and sharpened
24684 at both ends, and its handle is of wood three feet long. <lb></lb></s>
24685
24686 <s>When they have been broken by the stamp, if cold, or with hammers if hot,
24687 <lb></lb>the fragments of copper or the cakes are carried into the store-room
24688 for <lb></lb>copper.</s>
24689 </p>
24690 <figure></figure>
24691 <p type="caption">
24692
24693 <s>A—BACK WALL. B—WALLS AT THE SIDES. C—UPRIGHT POSTS.
24694 D—CHIMNEY. <lb></lb>E—THE CAKES ARRANGED. F—IRON PLATES.
24695 G—ROCKS. H—RABBLE WITH TWO <lb></lb>PRONGS. I—HAMMERS.</s>
24696 </p>
24697 <p type="main">
24698
24699 <s>The foreman of the works, according to the different proportions of
24700 <lb></lb>silver in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper, alloys it with lead, without which <lb></lb>he
24701 could not separate the silver from the copper.<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> If there be a moderate <pb pagenum="505"></pb>amount of silver
24702 in the copper, he alloys it fourfold; for instance, if in
24703 three­<lb></lb>quarters of a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper there is less than the following
24704 pro­<lb></lb>portions, <emph type="italics"></emph>í.e.:<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, or half a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or half a
24705 <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and a
24706 <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or half a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a
24707 <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then rich <lb></lb>lead—that is, that from which the
24708 silver has not yet been separated—is <lb></lb>added, to the amount of half
24709 a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or a
24710 whole <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
24711 or <lb></lb>a whole and a half, in such a way that there may be in the
24712 copper-lead alloy <lb></lb>some one of the proportions of silver which I have
24713 just mentioned, which is <lb></lb>the first alloy. </s>
24714
24715 <s>To this “first” alloy is added such a weight of de-silverized
24716 <lb></lb>lead or litharge as is required to make out of all of these a single
24717 liquation cake <lb></lb>that will contain approximately two <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead; but as usually
24718 <lb></lb>from one hundred and thirty <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of litharge only one hundred
24719 <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead
24720 <lb></lb>are made, a greater proportion of litharge than of de-silverized lead
24721 is added <lb></lb>as a supplement. </s>
24722
24723 <s>Since four cakes of this kind are placed at the same time <lb></lb>into the
24724 furnace in which the silver and lead is liquated from copper, there
24725 <lb></lb>will be in all the cakes three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper and eight
24726 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of lead. </s>
24727
24728 <s>When the lead has been liquated from the copper, it weighs six <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in each
24729 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
24730 which there is a quarter of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and almost a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
24731
24732 <s>Only seven <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
24733 the silver remain in the <lb></lb>exhausted liquation cakes and in that
24734 copper-lead alloy which we call <lb></lb>“liquation thorns”; they
24735 are not called by this name so much because they <lb></lb>have sharp points as
24736 because they are base. </s>
24737
24738 <s>If in three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper
24739 there are less than seven <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of silver, then so
24740 much rich lead must be added as to make in the copper and <lb></lb>lead alloy
24741 one of the proportions of silver which I have already mentioned. <lb></lb></s>
24742
24743 <s>This is the “second” alloy. </s>
24744
24745 <s>To this is again to be added as great a weight <pb pagenum="506"></pb>of
24746 de-silverized lead, or of litharge, as will make it possible to obtain from
24747 that <lb></lb>alloy a liquation cake containing two and a quarter <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead,
24748 <lb></lb>in which manner in four of these cakes there will be three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
24749 <lb></lb>copper and nine <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead. </s>
24750
24751 <s>The lead which liquates from these <lb></lb>cakes weighs seven <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which
24752 there is <lb></lb>a quarter of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver and a little more than a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
24753 <s> About seven <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver remain in the exhausted liquation cakes and in the liquation
24754 <lb></lb>thorns, if we may be allowed to make common the old name (<emph type="italics"></emph>spínae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>=thorns) <lb></lb>and
24755 bestow it upon a new substance. </s>
24756
24757 <s>If in three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of copper there is less than three-quarters of a
24758 <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver,
24759 or three-quarters <lb></lb>and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> then as much rich
24760 lead must be added as will produce one <lb></lb>of the proportions of silver in
24761 the copper-lead alloy above mentioned; this <lb></lb>is the “third”
24762 alloy. </s>
24763
24764 <s>To this is added such an amount of de-silverized lead <lb></lb>or of litharge,
24765 that a liquation cake made from it contains in all two and
24766 <lb></lb>three-quarters <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead. </s>
24767
24768 <s>In this manner four such cakes will <lb></lb>contain three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper and eleven
24769 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
24770 lead. <lb></lb></s>
24771
24772 <s>The lead which these cakes liquate, when they are melted in the furnace,
24773 <lb></lb>weighs about nine <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which there is
24774 <lb></lb>a quarter of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and more than a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver;
24775 and seven <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
24776 <lb></lb>silver remain in the exhausted liquation cakes and in the liquation
24777 thorns. <lb></lb></s>
24778
24779 <s>If, however, in three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper there is less
24780 than <lb></lb>ten-twelfths of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or ten-twelfths of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver,
24781 <lb></lb>then such a proportion of rich lead is added as will produce in the
24782 copper-lead <lb></lb>alloy one of the proportions of silver which I mentioned
24783 above; this is the <lb></lb>“fourth” alloy. </s>
24784
24785 <s>To this is added such a weight of de-silverized lead or of <lb></lb>litharge,
24786 that a liquation cake made from it contains three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <pb pagenum="507"></pb>lead, and in four cakes of this kind there are three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper and
24787 <lb></lb>twelve <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead. </s>
24788
24789 <s>The lead which is liquated therefrom weighs <lb></lb>about ten <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in each
24790 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
24791 which there is a quarter <lb></lb>of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and more than a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, or seven
24792 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or <lb></lb>seven <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
24793 silver remain in the exhausted liquation <lb></lb>cakes and in the liquation
24794 thorns.</s>
24795 </p>
24796 <p type="main">
24797
24798 <s>Against the second long wall in the second part of the building, whose
24799 <lb></lb>area is eighty feet long by thirty-nine feet wide, are four furnaces in
24800 which <lb></lb>the copper is alloyed with lead, and six furnaces in which
24801 “slags” are re­<lb></lb>smelted. </s>
24802
24803 <s>The interior of the first kind of furnace is a foot and three palms wide,
24804 <lb></lb>two feet three digits long; and of the second is a foot and a palm wide
24805 and a foot <lb></lb>three palms and a digit long. </s>
24806
24807 <s>The side walls of these furnaces are the same <lb></lb>height as the furnaces in
24808 which gold or silver ores are smelted. </s>
24809
24810 <s>As the whole <lb></lb>room is divided into two parts by upright posts, the front
24811 part must have, <lb></lb>first, two furnaces in which “slags” are
24812 re-melted; second, two furnaces in <lb></lb>which copper is alloyed with lead;
24813 and third, one furnace in which “slags” are <lb></lb>re-melted. </s>
24814
24815 <s>The back part of the room has first, one furnace in which “slags”
24816 <lb></lb>are re-melted; next, two furnaces in which copper is alloyed with lead;
24817 and <lb></lb>third, two furnaces in which “slags” are re-melted. </s>
24818
24819 <s>Each of these is six feet <lb></lb>distant from the next; on the right side of
24820 the first is a space of three feet <lb></lb>and two palms, and on the left side
24821 of the last one of seven feet. </s>
24822
24823 <s>Each pair of <lb></lb>furnaces has a common door, six feet high and a cubit wide,
24824 but the first and <lb></lb>the tenth furnace each has one of its own. </s>
24825
24826 <s>Each of the furnaces is set in an arch <lb></lb>of its own in the back wall, and
24827 in front has a forehearth pit; this is filled with <lb></lb>a powder compound
24828 rammed down and compressed in order to make a crucible. <lb></lb></s>
24829
24830 <s>Under each furnace is a hidden receptacle for the moisture,<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> from which a <lb></lb>vent is made through the
24831 back wall toward the right, which allows the <lb></lb>vapour to escape. </s>
24832
24833 <s>Finally, to the right, in front, is the copper mould into <lb></lb>which the
24834 copper-lead alloy is poured from the forehearth, in order that
24835 <lb></lb>liquation cakes of equal weight may be made. </s>
24836
24837 <s>This copper mould is a digit <lb></lb>thick, its interior is two feet in diameter
24838 and six digits deep. </s>
24839
24840 <s>Behind the <lb></lb>second long wall are ten pairs of bellows, two machines for
24841 compressing them, <lb></lb>and twenty instruments for inflating them. </s>
24842
24843 <s>The way in which these should <lb></lb>be made may be understood from Book
24844 IX.</s>
24845 </p>
24846 <p type="main">
24847
24848 <s>The smelter, when he alloys copper with lead, with his hand throws into
24849 <lb></lb>the heated furnace, first the large fragments of copper, then a
24850 basketful of <lb></lb>charcoal, then the smaller fragments of copper. </s>
24851
24852 <s>When the copper is melted <lb></lb>and begins to run out of the tap-hole into the
24853 forehearth, he throws litharge <lb></lb>into the furnace, and, lest part of it
24854 should fly away, he first throws <lb></lb>charcoal over it, and lastly lead. </s>
24855
24856 <s>As soon as he has thrown into the furnace <lb></lb>the copper and the lead, from
24857 which alloy the first liquation cake is made, he <lb></lb>again throws in a
24858 basket of charcoal, and then fragments of copper are thrown <lb></lb>over them,
24859 from which the second cake may be made. </s>
24860
24861 <s>Afterward with a <lb></lb>rabble he skims the “slag” from the copper
24862 and lead as they flow into the <lb></lb>forehearth. </s>
24863
24864 <s>Such a rabble is a board into which an iron bar is fixed; the <pb pagenum="508"></pb>board is made of elder-wood or willow, and is ten digits
24865 long, six wide, and one <lb></lb>and a half digits thick; the iron bar is three
24866 feet long, and the wooden <lb></lb>handle inserted into it is two and a half
24867 feet long. </s>
24868
24869 <s>While he purges the <lb></lb>alloy and pours it out with a ladle into the copper
24870 mould, the fragments of <lb></lb>copper from which he is to make the second cake
24871 are melting. </s>
24872
24873 <s>As soon as <lb></lb>this begins to run down he again throws in litharge, and when
24874 he has put on <lb></lb>more charcoal he adds the lead. </s>
24875
24876 <s>This operation he repeats until thirty <lb></lb>liquation cakes have been made,
24877 on which work he expends nine hours, or at <lb></lb>most ten; if more than
24878 thirty cakes must be made, then he is paid for <lb></lb>another shift when he
24879 has made an extra thirty.</s>
24880 </p>
24881 <p type="main">
24882
24883 <s>At the same time that he pours the copper-lead alloy into the copper
24884 <lb></lb>mould, he also pours water slowly into the top of the mould. </s>
24885
24886 <s>Then, with a <lb></lb>cleft stick, he takes a hook and puts its straight stem
24887 into the molten cake. <lb></lb></s>
24888
24889 <s>The hook itself is a digit and a half thick; its straight stem is two palms
24890 <lb></lb>long and two digits wide and thick. </s>
24891
24892 <s>Afterward he pours more water over the <lb></lb>cakes. </s>
24893
24894 <s>When they are cold he places an iron ring in the hook of the chain </s>
24895 </p>
24896 <figure></figure>
24897 <p type="caption">
24898
24899 <s>A—FURNACE IN WHICH “SLAGS” ARE RE-SMELTED. B—FURNACE
24900 IN WHICH COPPER IS <lb></lb>ALLOYED WITH LEAD. C—DOOR.
24901 D—FORE-HEARTHS ON THE GROUND. E—COPPER <lb></lb>MOULDS.
24902 F—RABBLE. G—HOOK. H—CLEFT STICK. I—ARM OF THE CRANE.
24903 <lb></lb>K—THE HOOK OF ITS CHAIN.<pb pagenum="509"></pb>let down from the
24904 pulley of the crane arm; the inside diameter of this ring <lb></lb>is six
24905 digits, and it is about a digit and a half thick; the ring is then engaged
24906 <lb></lb>in the hook whose straight stem is in the cake, and thus the cake is
24907 raised from <lb></lb>the mould and put into its place.</s>
24908 </p>
24909 <p type="main">
24910
24911 <s>The copper and lead, when thus melted, yield a small amount of
24912 “slag”<emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>and
24913 much litharge. </s>
24914
24915 <s>The litharge does not cohere, but falls to pieces like the <lb></lb>residues from
24916 malt from which beer is made. <emph type="italics"></emph>Pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> adheres to the walls <lb></lb>in white ashes, and to the
24917 sides of the furnace adheres <emph type="italics"></emph>spodos.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
24918 </p>
24919 <p type="main">
24920
24921 <s>In this practical manner lead is alloyed with copper in which there is but
24922 <lb></lb>a moderate portion of silver. </s>
24923
24924 <s>If, however, there is much silver in it, as, for <lb></lb>instance, two <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or two <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>bes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> to the <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>—which
24925 <lb></lb>weighs one hundred and thirty-three and a third <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or one hundred and
24926 <lb></lb>forty-six <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a
24927 <emph type="italics"></emph>bes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>—then the foreman of the works adds to a
24928 <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of such copper three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead, in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of which
24929 there is a third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, or a third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí­<lb></lb>uncía.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
24930 <s> In this manner three liquation cakes are made, which contain <lb></lb>altogether
24931 three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
24932 copper and nine <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead.<emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> The
24933 <lb></lb>lead, when it has been liquated from the copper, weighs seven <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and in each
24934 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>—if the <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper contain two <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, and the lead contain a third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>—there will
24935 be a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and a
24936 sixth and more than a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver; while in
24937 the exhausted <lb></lb>liquation cakes, and in the liquation thorns, there
24938 remains a third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="510"></pb>If a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper contains two
24939 <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a
24940 <emph type="italics"></emph>bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, and
24941 <lb></lb>the lead a third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> there will be in
24942 each liquation <lb></lb>cake one and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a little more than a
24943 <emph type="italics"></emph>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of silver. </s>
24944
24945 <s>In the exhausted liquation cakes there remain a third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver.</s>
24946 </p>
24947 <p type="main">
24948
24949 <s>If there be in the copper only a minute proportion of silver, it cannot be
24950 <lb></lb>separated easily until it has been re-melted in other furnaces, so that
24951 in <lb></lb>the “bottoms” there remains more silver and in the
24952 “tops” less.<emph type="sup"></emph>15<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> This </s>
24953 </p>
24954 <figure></figure>
24955 <p type="caption">
24956
24957 <s>A—FURNACE. B—FOREHEARTH. C—DIPPING-POT.
24958 D—CAKES.<lb></lb>furnace, vaulted with unbaked bricks, is similar to an
24959 oven, and also to the <lb></lb>cupellation furnace, in which the lead is
24960 separated from silver, which I described <lb></lb>in the last book. </s>
24961
24962 <s>The crucible is made of ashes, in the same manner as <pb pagenum="511"></pb>in
24963 the latter, and in the front of the furnace, three feet above the floor of
24964 <lb></lb>the building, is the mouth out of which the re-melted copper flows into
24965 a <lb></lb>forehearth and a dipping-pot. </s>
24966
24967 <s>On the left side of the mouth is an aperture, <lb></lb>through which beech-wood
24968 may be put into the furnace to feed the fire. </s>
24969
24970 <s>If <lb></lb>in a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper there were a sixth of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>silver, or
24971 a quarter of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or a
24972 quarter of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
24973 and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>—there
24974 is <lb></lb>re-melted at the same time thirty-eight <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of it in this furnace,
24975 until <lb></lb>there remain in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the copper
24976 “bottoms” a third of a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
24977
24978 <s>For example, if in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>copper not yet re-melted, there is a quarter of
24979 a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver,
24980 <lb></lb>then the thirty-eight <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> that are smelted together must contain a <lb></lb>total of
24981 eleven <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and an
24982 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
24983
24984 <s>Since from fifteen <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of re-melted copper there was a total of four and a
24985 third <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a
24986 <emph type="italics"></emph>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of
24987 silver, there remain only two and a third <emph type="italics"></emph>librae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
24988 <s> Thus there is left in the <lb></lb>“bottoms,” weighing twenty-three
24989 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> a
24990 total of eight and three­<lb></lb>quarter <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
24991
24992 <s>Therefore, each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of this contains a <lb></lb>third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the twenty-third
24993 part of a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
24994 silver; from such copper it is profitable to separate the silver. <lb></lb></s>
24995
24996 <s>In order that the master may be more certain of the number of <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of
24997 copper in the “bottoms,” he weighs the “tops” that
24998 have been drawn <lb></lb>off from it; the “tops” were first drawn
24999 off into the dipping-pot, and cakes <lb></lb>were made from them. </s>
25000
25001 <s>Fourteen hours are expended on the work of thus <lb></lb>dividing the copper. </s>
25002
25003 <s>The “bottoms,” when a certain weight of lead has <lb></lb>been added
25004 to them, of which alloy I shall soon speak, are melted in <lb></lb>the blast
25005 furnace; liquation cakes are then made, and the silver is afterward
25006 <lb></lb>separated from the copper. </s>
25007
25008 <s>The “tops” are subsequently melted <lb></lb>in the blast furnace, and
25009 re-melted in the refining furnace, in order that <lb></lb>red copper shall be
25010 made<emph type="sup"></emph>16<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>; and the
25011 “tops” from this are again smelted in <lb></lb>the blast furnace,
25012 and then again in the refining furnace, that therefrom <pb pagenum="512"></pb>shall be made <emph type="italics"></emph>caldaríum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> copper. </s>
25013
25014 <s>But when the copper, yellow or red or <emph type="italics"></emph>caldar­<lb></lb>íum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is re-smelted in
25015 the refining furnace, forty <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> are placed in <lb></lb>it,
25016 and from it they make at least twenty, and at most thirty-five, <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondía.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
25017 <s> About twenty-two <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of exhausted liquation cakes and <lb></lb>ten of yellow
25018 copper and eight of red, are simultaneously placed in this latter
25019 <lb></lb>furnace and smelted, in order that they may be made into refined
25020 copper.</s>
25021 </p>
25022 <p type="main">
25023
25024 <s>The copper “bottoms” are alloyed in three different ways with
25025 lead.<emph type="sup"></emph>17<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>First, five-eights
25026 of a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
25027 copper and two and three­<lb></lb>quarters <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead are taken; and since
25028 one liquation cake is made <lb></lb>from this, therefore two and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper
25029 and eleven <emph type="italics"></emph>cen­<lb></lb>tumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead make four liquation cakes. </s>
25030
25031 <s>Inasmuch as in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpon­<lb></lb>dium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper there is a third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, there would be in
25032 the whole <lb></lb>of the copper ten-twelfths of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver; to these are added
25033 four <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead re-melted from “slags,” each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which
25034 contains <lb></lb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícilícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, which weights make up a total of an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and a half of
25035 silver. </s>
25036
25037 <s>There is also added seven <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of de-silverized <lb></lb>lead, in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which
25038 there is a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
25039 silver; therefore <lb></lb>in the four cakes of copper-lead alloy there is a
25040 total of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> a
25041 <emph type="italics"></emph>sicílícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
25042 and <lb></lb>a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
25043 silver. </s>
25044
25045 <s>In each single <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead, after it has been <lb></lb>liquated from the
25046 copper, there is an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, which alloy <lb></lb>we call “poor”
25047 argentiferous lead, because it contains but little silver. </s>
25048
25049 <s>But <lb></lb>as five cakes of that kind are placed together in the furnace, they
25050 liquate <lb></lb>from them usually as much as nine and three-quarters <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of poor
25051 <pb pagenum="513"></pb>argentiferous lead, in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which there is an
25052 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a
25053 <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver,
25054 or a total of ten <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> less four <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
25055 <s> Of the liquation <lb></lb>thorns there remain three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which
25056 <lb></lb>there are three <emph type="italics"></emph>sícilící<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver; and
25057 there remain four <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>exhausted liquation cakes, each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which
25058 contains a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí­<lb></lb>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or four and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
25059 <s> Inasmuch as in a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper <lb></lb>“bottoms” there is a third
25060 of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a
25061 <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
25062 of silver, in five of those <lb></lb>cakes there must be more than one and a
25063 half <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and half
25064 a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
25065 <lb></lb>silver.</s>
25066 </p>
25067 <p type="main">
25068
25069 <s>Then, again, from another two and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper
25070 <lb></lb>“bottoms,” together with eleven <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead, four liquation
25071 cakes <lb></lb>are made. </s>
25072
25073 <s>If in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
25074 copper there was a third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>silver, there would be in the whole of the
25075 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
25076 base metal five­<lb></lb>sixths of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the precious metal. </s>
25077
25078 <s>To this copper is added eight <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of poor
25079 argentiferous lead, each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which contains an <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, or a total of
25080 three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. <lb></lb></s>
25081
25082 <s>There is also added three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of de-silverized lead, in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which
25083 there is a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
25084 silver. </s>
25085
25086 <s>Therefore, four liquation <lb></lb>cakes contain a total of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> seven <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
25087 and a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver;
25088 <lb></lb>thus each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead, when it has been liquated from the copper,
25089 <lb></lb>contains an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a half and a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver,
25090 which alloy we call <lb></lb>“medium” silver-lead.</s>
25091 </p>
25092 <p type="main">
25093
25094 <s>Then, again, from another two and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper
25095 <lb></lb>“bottoms,” together with eleven <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead, they make four
25096 <lb></lb>liquation cakes. </s>
25097
25098 <s>If in each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
25099 copper there were likewise a <lb></lb>third of a <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, there will be in all
25100 the weight of the base metal five­<lb></lb>sixths of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the precious metal. </s>
25101
25102 <s>To this is added nine <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of medium silver-lead, each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which contains an
25103 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <lb></lb>a
25104 half and a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver; or a total of a <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a quarter and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí­<lb></lb>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
25105
25106 <s>And likewise they add two <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>poor silver-lead, in each of which there is an
25107 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. <lb></lb></s>
25108
25109 <s>Therefore the four liquation cakes contain two and a third <emph type="italics"></emph>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver.
25110 <lb></lb></s>
25111
25112 <s>Each <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
25113 lead, when it has been liquated from the copper, <lb></lb>contains a sixth of a
25114 <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a <emph type="italics"></emph>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a
25115 <emph type="italics"></emph>drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
25116
25117 <s>This <lb></lb>alloy we call “rich” silver-lead; it is carried to the
25118 cupellation furnace, <lb></lb>in which lead is separated from silver. </s>
25119
25120 <s>I have now mentioned in how many <lb></lb>ways copper containing various
25121 proportions of silver is alloyed with lead, <lb></lb>and how they are melted
25122 together in the furnace and run into the casting pan.</s>
25123 </p>
25124 <p type="main">
25125
25126 <s>Now I will speak of the method by which lead is liquated from copper
25127 <lb></lb>simultaneously with the silver. </s>
25128
25129 <s>The liquation cakes are raised from the <lb></lb>ground with the crane, and
25130 placed on the copper plates of the furnaces. </s>
25131
25132 <s>The <lb></lb>hook of the chain let down from the arm of the crane, is inserted in
25133 a <lb></lb>ring of the tongs, one jaw of which has a tooth; a ring is engaged in
25134 each <lb></lb>of the handles of the tongs, and these two rings are engaged in a
25135 third, in <lb></lb>which the hook of the chain is inserted. </s>
25136
25137 <s>The tooth on the one jaw of the <lb></lb>tongs is struck by a hammer, and driven
25138 into the hole in the cake, at the point <pb pagenum="514"></pb>where the
25139 straight end of the hook was driven into it when it was lifted out <lb></lb>of
25140 the copper mould; the other jaw of the tongs, which has no tooth,
25141 <lb></lb>squeezes the cake, lest the tooth should fall out of it; the tongs are
25142 one and <lb></lb>a half feet long, each ring is a digit and a half thick, and
25143 the inside is a palm <lb></lb>and two digits in diameter. </s>
25144
25145 <s>Those cranes by which the cakes are lifted out <lb></lb>of the copper pans and
25146 placed on the ground, and lifted up again from there <lb></lb>and placed in the
25147 furnaces, are two in number—one in the middle space <lb></lb>between the
25148 third transverse wall and the two upright posts, and the other in </s>
25149 </p>
25150 <figure></figure>
25151 <p type="caption">
25152
25153 <s>A—CRANE. B—DRUM CONSISTING OF RUNDLES. C—TOOTHED DRUM.
25154 D—TROLLEY <lb></lb>AND ITS WHEELS. E—TRIANGULAR BOARD.
25155 F—CAKES. G—CHAIN OF THE CRANE. <lb></lb>H—ITS HOOK.
25156 I—RING. K—THE TONGS.<lb></lb>the middle space between the same posts
25157 and the seventh transverse wall. <lb></lb></s>
25158
25159 <s>The rectangular crane-post of both of these is two feet wide and thick, and
25160 <lb></lb>is eighteen feet from the third long wall, and nineteen from the second
25161 long <lb></lb>wall. </s>
25162
25163 <s>There are two drums in the framework of each—one drum consisting
25164 <lb></lb>of rundles, the other being toothed. </s>
25165
25166 <s>The crane-arm of each extends seventeen <lb></lb>feet, three palms and as many
25167 digits from the post. </s>
25168
25169 <s>The trolley of each <lb></lb>crane is two feet and as many palms long, a foot and
25170 two digits wide, and a <lb></lb>palm and two digits thick; but where it runs
25171 between the beams of the <lb></lb>crane-arm it is three digits wide and a palm
25172 thick; it has five notches, in <pb pagenum="515"></pb>which turn five brass
25173 wheels, four of which are small, and the fifth much <lb></lb>larger than the
25174 rest. </s>
25175
25176 <s>The notches in which the small wheels turn are two <lb></lb>palms long and as
25177 much as a palm wide; those wheels are a palm wide and <lb></lb>a palm and two
25178 digits in diameter; four of the notches are near the four <lb></lb>corners of
25179 the trolley; the fifth notch is between the two front ones, and <lb></lb>it is
25180 two palms back from the front. </s>
25181
25182 <s>Its pulley is larger than the rest, and <lb></lb>turns in its own notch; it is
25183 three palms in diameter and one palm wide, <lb></lb>and grooved on the
25184 circumference, so that the iron chain may run in the <lb></lb>groove. </s>
25185
25186 <s>The trolley has two small axles, to the one in front are fastened <lb></lb>three,
25187 and to the one at the back, the two wheels; two wheels run on the <lb></lb>one
25188 beam of the crane-arm, and two on the other; the fifth wheel, which is
25189 <lb></lb>larger than the others, runs between those two beams. </s>
25190
25191 <s>Those people who <lb></lb>have no cranes place the cakes on a triangular board,
25192 to which iron cleats <lb></lb>are affixed, so that it will last longer; the
25193 board has three iron chains, <lb></lb>which are fixed in an iron ring at the
25194 top; two workmen pass a pole through <lb></lb>the ring and carry it on their
25195 shoulders, and thus take the cake to the furnace <lb></lb>in which silver is
25196 separated from copper.</s>
25197 </p>
25198 <p type="main">
25199
25200 <s>From the vicinity of the furnaces in which copper is mixed with lead and
25201 <lb></lb>the “slags” are re-melted, to the third long wall, are
25202 likewise ten furnaces, <lb></lb>in which silver mixed with lead is separated
25203 from copper. </s>
25204
25205 <s>If this space is <lb></lb>eighty feet and two palms long, and the third long wall
25206 has in the centre a <lb></lb>door three feet and two palms wide, then the spaces
25207 remaining at either side <lb></lb>of the door will be thirty-eight feet and two
25208 palms; and if each of the furnaces <lb></lb>occupies four feet and a palm, then
25209 the interval between each furnace and <lb></lb>the next one must be a foot and
25210 three palms; thus the width of the five <lb></lb>furnaces and four interspaces
25211 will be twenty-eight feet and a palm. </s>
25212
25213 <s>There­<lb></lb>fore, there remain ten feet and a palm, which measurement is
25214 so divided <lb></lb>that there are five feet and two digits between the first
25215 furnace and <lb></lb>the transverse wall, and as many feet and digits between
25216 the fifth furnace <lb></lb>and the door; similarly in the other part of the
25217 space from the door to the <lb></lb>sixth furnace, there must be five feet and
25218 two digits, and from the tenth <lb></lb>furnace to the seventh transverse wall,
25219 likewise, five feet and two digits. <lb></lb></s>
25220
25221 <s>The door is six feet and two palms high; through it the foreman of the <emph type="italics"></emph>officína<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and the
25222 workmen enter the store-room in which the silver-lead alloy is kept.</s>
25223 </p>
25224 <p type="main">
25225
25226 <s>Each furnace has a bed, a hearth, a rear wall, two sides and a front,
25227 <lb></lb>and a receiving-pit. </s>
25228
25229 <s>The bed consists of two sole-stones, four rectangular <lb></lb>stones, and two
25230 copper plates; the sole-stones are five feet and a palm <lb></lb>long, a cubit
25231 wide, a foot and a palm thick, and they are sunk into the ground, <lb></lb>so
25232 that they emerge a palm and two digits; they are distant from each other
25233 <lb></lb>about three palms, yet the distance is narrower at the back than the
25234 front. <lb></lb></s>
25235
25236 <s>Each of the rectangular stones is two feet and as many palms long, a cubit
25237 <lb></lb>wide, and a cubit thick at the outer edge, and a foot and a palm thick
25238 on the <lb></lb>inner edge which faces the hearth, thus they form an incline, so
25239 that there is a <lb></lb>slope to the copper plates which are laid upon them. </s>
25240
25241 <s>Two of these rectang­<lb></lb>ular stones are placed on one sole-stone; a
25242 hole is cut in the upper edge of <lb></lb>each, and into the holes are placed
25243 iron clamps, and lead is poured in; they <pb pagenum="516"></pb>are so placed on
25244 the sole-stones that they project a palm at the sides, and at the <lb></lb>front
25245 the sole-stones project to the same extent; if rectangular stones are
25246 <lb></lb>not available, bricks are laid in their place. </s>
25247
25248 <s>The copper plates are four feet <lb></lb>two palms and as many digits long, a
25249 cubit wide, and a palm thick; each <lb></lb>edge has a protuberance, one at the
25250 front end, the other at the back; these <lb></lb>are a palm and three digits
25251 long, and a palm wide and thick. </s>
25252
25253 <s>The plates are <lb></lb>so laid upon the rectangular stones that their rear ends
25254 are three digits from <lb></lb>the third long wall; the stones project beyond
25255 the plate the same number <lb></lb>of digits in front, and a palm and three
25256 digits at the sides. </s>
25257
25258 <s>When the plates <lb></lb>have been joined, the groove which is between the
25259 protuberances is a palm <lb></lb>and three digits wide, and four feet long, and
25260 through it flows the silver-lead <lb></lb>which liquates from the cakes. </s>
25261
25262 <s>When the plates are corroded either by the <lb></lb>fire or by the silver-lead,
25263 which often adheres to them in the form of stalac­<lb></lb>tites, and is
25264 chipped off, they are exchanged, the right one being placed to the
25265 <lb></lb>left, and the left one, on the contrary, to the right; but the left
25266 side of the <lb></lb>plates, which, when the fusion of the copper took place,
25267 came into contact <lb></lb>with the copper, must lie flat; so that when the
25268 exchange of the plates has <lb></lb>been carried out, the protuberances, which
25269 are thus on the underside, raise <lb></lb>the plate from the stones, and they
25270 have to be partially chipped off, lest they <lb></lb>should prove an impediment
25271 to the work; and in each of their places is <lb></lb>laid a piece of iron, three
25272 palms long, a digit thick at both ends, and a palm <lb></lb>thick in the centre
25273 for the length of a palm and three digits.</s>
25274 </p>
25275 <p type="main">
25276
25277 <s>The passage under the plates between the rectangular stones is a foot
25278 <lb></lb>wide at the back, and a foot and a palm wide at the front, for it
25279 gradually <lb></lb>widens out. </s>
25280
25281 <s>The hearth, which is between the sole-stones, is covered with a <lb></lb>bed of
25282 hearth-lead, taken from the crucible in which lead is separated from
25283 <lb></lb>silver. </s>
25284
25285 <s>The rear end is the highest, and should be so high that it reaches to
25286 <lb></lb>within six digits of the plates, from which point it slopes down evenly
25287 to the <lb></lb>front end, so that the argentiferous lead alloy which liquates
25288 from the cakes <lb></lb>can flow into the receiving-pit. </s>
25289
25290 <s>The wall built against the third long wall <lb></lb>in order to protect it from
25291 injury by fire, is constructed of bricks joined <lb></lb>together with lute, and
25292 stands on the copper plates; this wall is two feet, a <lb></lb>palm and two
25293 digits high, two palms thick, and three feet, a palm and three <lb></lb>digits
25294 wide at the bottom, for it reaches across both of them; at the top it is
25295 <lb></lb>three feet wide, for it rises up obliquely on each side. </s>
25296
25297 <s>At each side of this wall, <lb></lb>at a height of a palm and two digits above
25298 the top of it, there is inserted in a <lb></lb>hole in the third long wall a
25299 hooked iron rod, fastened in with molten lead; <lb></lb>the rod projects two
25300 palms from the wall, and is two digits wide and one <lb></lb>digit thick; it has
25301 two hooks, the one at the side, the other at the end. <lb></lb></s>
25302
25303 <s>Both of these hooks open toward the wall, and both are a digit thick, and
25304 <lb></lb>both are inserted in the last, or the adjacent, links of a short iron
25305 chain. </s>
25306
25307 <s>This <lb></lb>chain consists of four links, each of which is a palm and a digit
25308 long and half <lb></lb>a digit thick; the first link is engaged in the first
25309 hole in a long iron rod, and <lb></lb>one or other of the remaining three links
25310 engages the hook of the hooked rod. <lb></lb></s>
25311
25312 <s>The two long rods are three feet and as many palms and digits long, two
25313 <lb></lb>digits wide, and one digit thick; both ends of both of these rods have
25314 holes, </s>
25315 </p>
25316 <pb pagenum="517"></pb>
25317 <figure></figure>
25318 <p type="caption">
25319
25320 <s>A—SOLE-STONES. B—RECTANGULAR STONES. C—COPPER PLATES.
25321 D—FRONT PANEL. <lb></lb>E—SIDE PANELS. F—BAR. G—FRONT
25322 END OF THE LONG IRON RODS. H—SHORT CHAIN. <lb></lb>I—HOOKED ROD.
25323 K—WALL WHICH PROTECTS THE THIRD LONG WALL FROM INJURY BY <lb></lb>FIRE.
25324 L—THIRD LONG WALL. M—FEET OF THE PANELS. N—IRON BLOCKS.
25325 O—CAKES. <lb></lb>P—HEARTH. Q—RECEIVING-PIT.<pb pagenum="518"></pb>the back one of which is round and a digit in diameter, and in this is
25326 engaged <lb></lb>the first link of the chain as I have stated; the hole at the
25327 front end is two <lb></lb>digits and a half long and a digit and a half wide. </s>
25328
25329 <s>This end of each rod <lb></lb>is made three digits wide, while for the rest of
25330 its length it is only two digits, <lb></lb>and at the back it is two and a half
25331 digits. </s>
25332
25333 <s>Into the front hole of each rod is <lb></lb>driven an iron bar, which is three
25334 feet and two palms long, two digits wide <lb></lb>and one thick; in the end of
25335 this bar are five small square holes, two-thirds <lb></lb>of a digit square;
25336 each hole is distant from the other half a digit, the first <lb></lb>being at a
25337 distance of about a digit from the end. </s>
25338
25339 <s>Into one of these holes the <lb></lb>refiner drives an iron pin; if he should
25340 desire to make the furnace narrower, <lb></lb>then he drives it into the last
25341 hole; if he should desire to widen it, then into <lb></lb>the first hole; if he
25342 should desire to contract it moderately, then into one <lb></lb>of the middle
25343 holes. </s>
25344
25345 <s>For the same reason, therefore, the hook is sometimes <lb></lb>inserted into the
25346 last link of the chain, and sometimes into the third or the <lb></lb>second. </s>
25347
25348 <s>The furnace is widened when many cakes are put into it, and
25349 con­<lb></lb>tracted when there are but few, but to put in more than five is
25350 neither usual <lb></lb>nor possible; indeed, it is because of thin cakes that
25351 the walls are contracted. <lb></lb></s>
25352
25353 <s>The bar has a hump, which projects a digit on each side at the back, of the
25354 <lb></lb>same width and thickness as itself. </s>
25355
25356 <s>These humps project, lest the bar should <lb></lb>slip through the hole of the
25357 right-hand rod, in which it remains fixed when <lb></lb>it, together with the
25358 rods, is not pressing upon the furnace walls.</s>
25359 </p>
25360 <p type="main">
25361
25362 <s>There are three panels to the furnace—two at the sides, one in front
25363 <lb></lb>and another at the back. </s>
25364
25365 <s>Those which are at the sides are three feet <lb></lb>and as many palms and two
25366 digits long, and two feet high; the front one is <lb></lb>two feet and a palm
25367 and three digits long, and, like the side ones, two feet <lb></lb>high. </s>
25368
25369 <s>Each consists of iron bars, of feet, and of iron plates. </s>
25370
25371 <s>Those which are <lb></lb>at the side have seven bars, the lower and upper of
25372 which are of the same <lb></lb>length as the panels; the former holds up the
25373 upright bars; the latter is <lb></lb>placed upon them; the uprights are five in
25374 number, and have the same height <lb></lb>as the panels; the middle ones are
25375 inserted into holes in the upper and lower <lb></lb>bars; the outer ones are
25376 made of one and the same bar as the lower and <lb></lb>upper ones. </s>
25377
25378 <s>They are two digits wide and one thick. </s>
25379
25380 <s>The front panel has <lb></lb>five bars; the lower one holds similar uprights, but
25381 there are three of them <lb></lb>only; the upper bar is placed on them. </s>
25382
25383 <s>Each of these panels has two feet <lb></lb>fixed at each end of the lower bar,
25384 and these are two palms long, one wide, <lb></lb>and a digit thick. </s>
25385
25386 <s>The iron plates are fastened to the inner side of the bars <lb></lb>with iron
25387 wire, and they are covered with lute, so that they may last longer <lb></lb>and
25388 may be uninjured by the fire. </s>
25389
25390 <s>There are, besides, iron blocks three palms <lb></lb>long, one wide, and a digit
25391 and a half thick; the upper surface of these is <lb></lb>somewhat hollowed out,
25392 so that the cakes may stand in them; these iron <lb></lb>blocks are dipped into
25393 a vessel in which there is clay mixed with water, and <lb></lb>they are used
25394 only for placing under the cakes of copper and lead alloy made <lb></lb>in the
25395 furnaces. </s>
25396
25397 <s>There is more silver in these than in those which are <lb></lb>made of liquation
25398 thorns, or furnace accretions, or re-melted “slags.” Two
25399 <lb></lb>iron blocks are placed under each cake, in order that, by raising it
25400 up, the fire <lb></lb>may bring more force to bear upon it; the one is put on
25401 the right bed-plate, </s>
25402 </p>
25403 <pb pagenum="519"></pb>
25404 <figure></figure>
25405 <p type="caption">
25406
25407 <s>A—FURNACE IN WHICH THE OPERATION OF LIQUATION IS BEING PERFORMED.
25408 <lb></lb>B—FURNACE IN WHICH IT IS NOT BEING PERFORMED.
25409 C—RECEIVING-PIT. D—MOULDS. <lb></lb>E—CAKES. F—LIQUATION
25410 THORNS.<pb pagenum="520"></pb>the other on the left. </s>
25411
25412 <s>Finally, outside the hearth is the receiving-pit, which <lb></lb>is a foot wide
25413 and three palms deep; when this is worn away it is restored <lb></lb>with lute
25414 alone, which easily retains the lead alloy.</s>
25415 </p>
25416 <p type="main">
25417
25418 <s>If four liquation cakes are placed on the plates of each furnace, then the
25419 <lb></lb>iron blocks are laid under them; but if the cakes are made from copper
25420 <lb></lb>“bottoms,” or from liquation thorns, or from the accretions
25421 or “slags,” of <lb></lb>which I have partly written above and will
25422 further describe a little later, <lb></lb>there are five of them, and because
25423 they are not so large and heavy, no blocks <lb></lb>are placed under them. </s>
25424
25425 <s>Pieces of charcoal six digits long are laid between the <lb></lb>cakes, lest they
25426 should fall one against the other, or lest the last one should <lb></lb>fall
25427 against the wall which protects the third long wall from injury by fire. </s>
25428
25429 <s>In <lb></lb>the middle empty spaces, long and large pieces of charcoal are
25430 likewise laid. <lb></lb></s>
25431
25432 <s>Then when the panels have been set up, and the bar has been closed, the
25433 <lb></lb>furnace is filled with small charcoal, and a wicker basket full of
25434 charcoal is <lb></lb>thrown into the receiving-pit, and over that are thrown
25435 live coals; soon <lb></lb>afterward the burning coal, lifted up in a shovel, is
25436 spread over all parts of <lb></lb>the furnace, so that the charcoal in it may be
25437 kindled; any charcoal which <lb></lb>remains in the receiving-pit is thrown into
25438 the passage, so that it may likewise <lb></lb>be heated. </s>
25439
25440 <s>If this has not been done, the silver-lead alloy liquated from the <lb></lb>cakes
25441 is frozen by the coldness of the passage, and does not run down into the
25442 <lb></lb>receiving-pit.</s>
25443 </p>
25444 <p type="main">
25445
25446 <s>After a quarter of an hour the cakes begin to drip silver-lead alloy,<emph type="sup"></emph>18<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>which runs down through the
25447 openings between the copper plates into the <lb></lb>passage. </s>
25448
25449 <s>When the long pieces of charcoal have burned up, if the cakes <lb></lb>lean
25450 toward the wall, they are placed upright again with a hooked bar, but
25451 <lb></lb>if they lean toward the front bar they are propped up by charcoal;
25452 more­<lb></lb>over, if some cakes shrink more than the rest, charcoal is
25453 added to the former <lb></lb>and not to the others. </s>
25454
25455 <s>The silver drips together with the lead, for both melt <lb></lb>more rapidly than
25456 copper. </s>
25457
25458 <s>The liquation thorns do not flow away, but remain <lb></lb>in the passage, and
25459 should be turned over frequently with a hooked bar, in <lb></lb>order that the
25460 silver-lead may liquate away from them and flow down into <lb></lb>the receiving
25461 pit; that which remains is again melted in the blast furnace, <lb></lb>while
25462 that which flows into the receiving pit is at once carried with the
25463 remain­<pb pagenum="521"></pb>ing products to the cupellation furnace,
25464 where the lead is separated from the <lb></lb>silver. </s>
25465
25466 <s>The hooked bar has an iron handle two feet long, in which is set a
25467 <lb></lb>wooden one four feet long. </s>
25468
25469 <s>The silver-lead which runs out into the receiving­<lb></lb>pit is poured out
25470 by the refiner with a bronze ladle into eight copper moulds, <lb></lb>which are
25471 two palms and three digits in diameter; these are first smeared <lb></lb>with a
25472 lute wash so that the cakes of silver-lead may more easily fall out
25473 <lb></lb>when they are turned over. </s>
25474
25475 <s>If the supply of moulds fails because the silver­<lb></lb>lead flows down too
25476 rapidly into the receiving-pit, then water is poured on them, <lb></lb>in order
25477 that the cakes may cool and be taken out of them more rapidly; <lb></lb>thus the
25478 same moulds may be used again immediately; if no such necessity <lb></lb>urges
25479 the refiner, he washes over the empty moulds with a lute wash. </s>
25480
25481 <s>The <lb></lb>ladle is exactly similar to that which is used in pouring out the
25482 metals that <lb></lb>are melted in the blast furnace. </s>
25483
25484 <s>When all the silver-lead has run down from <lb></lb>the passage into the
25485 receiving-pit, and has been poured out into copper <lb></lb>moulds, the thorns
25486 are drawn out of the passage into the receiving-pit <lb></lb>with a rabble;
25487 afterward they are raked on to the ground from the receiving­<lb></lb>pit,
25488 thrown with a shovel into a wheelbarrow, and, having been conveyed <lb></lb>away
25489 to a heap, are melted once again. </s>
25490
25491 <s>The blade of the rabble is two palms <lb></lb>and as many digits long, two palms
25492 and a digit wide, and joined to its <lb></lb>back is an iron handle three feet
25493 long; into the iron handle is inserted a <lb></lb>wooden one as many feet in
25494 length.</s>
25495 </p>
25496 <p type="main">
25497
25498 <s>The residue cakes, after the silver-lead has been liquated from the
25499 <lb></lb>copper, are called “exhausted liquation cakes” (<emph type="italics"></emph>fathíscentes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), because
25500 when <lb></lb>thus smelted they appear to be dried up. </s>
25501
25502 <s>By placing a crowbar under the <lb></lb>cakes they are raised up, seized with
25503 tongs, and placed in the wheelbarrow; <lb></lb>they are then conveyed away to
25504 the furnace in which they are “dried.” <lb></lb>The crowbar is
25505 somewhat similar to those generally used to chip off the <lb></lb>accretions
25506 that adhere to the walls of the blast furnace. </s>
25507
25508 <s>The tongs are two <lb></lb>and a half feet long. </s>
25509
25510 <s>With the same crowbar the stalactites are chipped off <lb></lb>from the copper
25511 plates from which they hang, and with the same instrument <lb></lb>the iron
25512 blocks are struck off the exhausted liquation cakes to which they
25513 <lb></lb>adhere. </s>
25514
25515 <s>The refiner has performed his day&#039;s task when he has liquated the
25516 <lb></lb>silver-lead from sixteen of the large cakes and twenty of the smaller
25517 ones; <lb></lb>if he liquates more than this, he is paid separately for it at
25518 the price for <lb></lb>extraordinary work.</s>
25519 </p>
25520 <p type="main">
25521
25522 <s>Silver, or lead mixed with silver, which we call <emph type="italics"></emph>stannum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is separated by <lb></lb>the above
25523 method from copper. </s>
25524
25525 <s>This silver-lead is carried to the cupellation <lb></lb>furnace, in which lead is
25526 separated from silver; of these methods I will <lb></lb>mention only one,
25527 because in the previous book I have explained them in <lb></lb>detail. </s>
25528
25529 <s>Amongst us some years ago only forty-four <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver­<lb></lb>lead
25530 and one of copper were melted together in the cupellation furnaces, <lb></lb>but
25531 now they melt forty-six <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver-lead and one and a half <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of copper;
25532 in other places, usually a hundred and twenty <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver-lead alloy and
25533 six of copper are melted, in which <lb></lb>manner they make about one hundred
25534 and ten <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
25535 more or less of <lb></lb>litharge and thirty of hearth-lead. </s>
25536
25537 <s>But in all these methods the silver which <pb pagenum="522"></pb>is in the copper
25538 is mixed with the remainder of silver; the copper itself, <lb></lb>equally with
25539 the lead, will be changed partly into litharge and partly into
25540 <lb></lb>hearth-lead.<emph type="sup"></emph>19<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> The
25541 silver-lead alloy which does not melt is taken from the <lb></lb>margin of the
25542 crucible with a hooked bar.</s>
25543 </p>
25544 <p type="main">
25545
25546 <s>The work of “drying” is distributed into four operations, which
25547 are <lb></lb>performed in four days. </s>
25548
25549 <s>On the first—as likewise on the other three days—the <lb></lb>master
25550 begins at the fourth hour of the morning, and with his assistant chips </s>
25551 </p>
25552 <figure></figure>
25553 <p type="caption">
25554
25555 <s>A—CAKES. B—HAMMER.<lb></lb>off the stalactites from the exhausted
25556 liquation cakes. </s>
25557
25558 <s>They then carry the <lb></lb>cakes to the furnace, and put the stalactites upon
25559 the heap of liquation <lb></lb>thorns. </s>
25560
25561 <s>The head of the chipping hammer is three palms and as many digits <pb pagenum="523"></pb>long; its sharp edge is a palm wide; the round end is
25562 three digits thick; the <lb></lb>wooden handle is four feet long.</s>
25563 </p>
25564 <p type="main">
25565
25566 <s>The master throws pulverised earth into a small vessel, sprinkles water
25567 <lb></lb>over it, and mixes it; this he pours over the whole hearth, and
25568 sprinkles <lb></lb>charcoal dust over it to the thickness of a digit. </s>
25569
25570 <s>If he should neglect this, <lb></lb>the copper, settling in the passages, would
25571 adhere to the copper bed-plates, <lb></lb>from which it can be chipped off only
25572 with difficulty; or else it would adhere <lb></lb>to the bricks, if the hearth
25573 was covered with them, and when the copper is <lb></lb>chipped off these they
25574 are easily broken. </s>
25575
25576 <s>On the second day, at the same <lb></lb>time, the master arranges bricks in ten
25577 rows; in this manner twelve <lb></lb>passages are made. </s>
25578
25579 <s>The first two rows of bricks are between the first and <lb></lb>the second
25580 openings on the right of the furnace; the next three rows are <lb></lb>between
25581 the second and third openings, the following three rows are <lb></lb>between the
25582 third and the fourth openings, and the last two rows between <lb></lb>the fourth
25583 and fifth openings. </s>
25584
25585 <s>These bricks are a foot and a palm long, two <lb></lb>palms and a digit wide, and
25586 a palm and two digits thick; there are seven of <lb></lb>these thick bricks in a
25587 row, so there are seventy all together. </s>
25588
25589 <s>Then on the <lb></lb>first three rows of bricks they lay exhausted liquation
25590 cakes and a layer five <lb></lb>digits thick of large charcoal; then in a
25591 similar way more exhausted <lb></lb>liquation cakes are laid upon the other
25592 bricks, and charcoal is thrown upon <lb></lb>them; in this manner seventy <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of cakes are put
25593 on the <lb></lb>hearth of the furnace. </s>
25594
25595 <s>But if half of this weight, or a little more, is to be
25596 <lb></lb>“dried,” then four rows of bricks will suffice. </s>
25597
25598 <s>Those who dry exhausted <lb></lb>liquation cakes<emph type="sup"></emph>20<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> made from copper “bottoms” place ninety or a
25599 hundred <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>21<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> into the furnace at the
25600 same time. </s>
25601
25602 <s>A place is left in the front <lb></lb>part of the furnace for the topmost cakes
25603 removed from the forehearth in <lb></lb>which copper is made, these being more
25604 suitable for supporting the exhausted <lb></lb>liquation cakes than are iron
25605 plates; indeed, if the former cakes drip copper <lb></lb>from the heat, this can
25606 be taken back with the liquation thorns to the first <lb></lb>furnace, but
25607 melted iron is of no use to us in these matters. </s>
25608
25609 <s>When the cakes <lb></lb>of this kind have been placed in front of the exhausted
25610 liquation cakes, the <lb></lb>workman inserts the iron bar into the holes on the
25611 inside of the wall, which <lb></lb>are at a height of three palms and two digits
25612 above the hearth; the hole to <lb></lb>the left penetrates through into the
25613 wall, so that the bar may be pushed back <lb></lb><pb pagenum="524"></pb>and forth. </s>
25614
25615 <s>This bar is round, eight feet long and two digits in diameter; <lb></lb>on the
25616 right side it has a haft made of iron, which is about a foot from the
25617 <lb></lb>right end; the aperture in this haft is a palm wide, two digits high,
25618 and a <lb></lb>digit thick. </s>
25619
25620 <s>The bar holds the exhausted liquation cakes opposite, lest they <lb></lb>should
25621 fall down. </s>
25622
25623 <s>When the operation of “drying” is completed, a work­<lb></lb>man
25624 draws out this bar with a crook which he inserts into the haft, as I will
25625 <lb></lb>explain hereafter.</s>
25626 </p>
25627 <p type="main">
25628
25629 <s>In order that one should understand those things of which I have spoken,
25630 <lb></lb>and concerning which I am about to speak, it is necessary for me to
25631 give some <lb></lb>information beforehand about the furnace and how it is to be
25632 made. </s>
25633
25634 <s>It stands <lb></lb>nine feet from the fourth long wall, and as far from the wall
25635 which is between <lb></lb>the second and fourth transverse walls. </s>
25636
25637 <s>It consists of walls, an arch, a chimney, <lb></lb>an interior wall, and a
25638 hearth; the two walls are at the sides; and they are <lb></lb>eleven feet three
25639 palms and two digits long, and where they support the <lb></lb>chimney they are
25640 eight feet and a palm high. </s>
25641
25642 <s>At the front of the arch they <lb></lb>are only seven feet high; they are two
25643 feet three palms and two digits <lb></lb>thick, and are made either of rock or
25644 of bricks; the distance between them <lb></lb>is eight feet, a palm and two
25645 digits. </s>
25646
25647 <s>There are two of the arches, for the <lb></lb>space at the rear between the walls
25648 is also arched from the ground, in order <lb></lb>that it may be able to support
25649 the chimney; the foundations of these <lb></lb>arches are the walls of the
25650 furnace; the span of the arch has the same <lb></lb>length as the space between
25651 the walls; the top of the arch is five feet, a palm <lb></lb>and two digits
25652 high. </s>
25653
25654 <s>In the rear arch there is a wall made of bricks joined <lb></lb>with lime; this
25655 wall at a height of a foot and three palms from the ground <lb></lb>has five
25656 vent-holes, which are two palms and a digit high, a palm and a digit
25657 <lb></lb>wide, of which the first is near the right interior wall, and the last
25658 near the <lb></lb>left interior wall, the remaining three in the intervening
25659 space; these vent­<lb></lb>holes penetrate through the interior of the wall
25660 which is in the arch. <lb></lb></s>
25661
25662 <s>Half-bricks can be placed over the vent-holes, lest too much air should be
25663 <lb></lb>drawn into the furnace, and they can be taken out at times, in order
25664 that he <lb></lb>who is “drying” the exhausted liquation cakes may
25665 inspect the passages, <lb></lb>as they are called, to see whether the cakes are
25666 being properly “dried.” <lb></lb>The front arch is three feet two
25667 palms distant from the rear one; this arch <lb></lb>is the same thickness as
25668 that of the rear arch, but the span is six feet wide; </s>
25669 </p>
25670 <pb pagenum="525"></pb>
25671 <figure></figure>
25672 <p type="caption">
25673
25674 <s>A—SIDE WALLS. B—FRONT ARCH. C—REAR ARCH. D—WALL IN
25675 THE REAR ARCH. <lb></lb>E—INNER WALL. F—VENT HOLES. G—CHIMNEY.
25676 H—HEARTH. I—TANK. K—PIPE. <lb></lb>L—PLUG. M—IRON
25677 DOOR. N—TRANSVERSE BARS. O—UPRIGHT BARS. P—PLATES.
25678 <lb></lb>Q—RINGS OF THE BARS. R—CHAINS. S—ROWS OF BRICKS.
25679 T—BAR. V—ITS HAFT. <lb></lb>X—COPPER BED-PLATES.<pb pagenum="526"></pb>the interior of the a<gap></gap>oh itself is of the same
25680 height as the walls. </s>
25681
25682 <s>A chimney <lb></lb>is built upon the arches and the walls, and is made of bricks
25683 joined <lb></lb>together with lime; it is thirty-six feet high and penetrates
25684 through the <lb></lb>roof. </s>
25685
25686 <s>The interior wall is built against the rear arch and both the side
25687 <lb></lb>walls, from which it juts out a foot; it is three feet and the same
25688 number <lb></lb>of palms high, three palms thick, and is made of bricks joined
25689 together <lb></lb>with lute and smeared thickly with lute, sloping up to the
25690 height of <lb></lb>a foot above it. </s>
25691
25692 <s>This wall is a kind of shield, for it protects the exterior <lb></lb>walls from
25693 the heat of the fire, which is apt to injure them; the latter
25694 can­<lb></lb>not be easily re-made, while the former can be repaired with
25695 little work.</s>
25696 </p>
25697 <p type="main">
25698
25699 <s>The hearth is made of lute, and is covered either with copper plates,
25700 <lb></lb>such as those of the furnaces in which silver is liquated from copper,
25701 although <lb></lb>they have no protuberances, or it may be covered with bricks,
25702 if the owners <lb></lb>are unwilling to incur the expense of copper plates. </s>
25703
25704 <s>The wider part of the <lb></lb>hearth is made sloping in such a manner that the
25705 rear end reaches as high as <lb></lb>the five vent-holes, and the front end of
25706 the hearth is so low that the back <lb></lb>of the front arch is four feet,
25707 three palms and as many digits above it, <lb></lb>and the front five feet, three
25708 palms and as many digits. </s>
25709
25710 <s>The hearth beyond <lb></lb>the furnaces is paved with bricks for a distance of
25711 six feet. </s>
25712
25713 <s>Near the <lb></lb>furnace, against the fourth long wall, is a tank thirteen feet
25714 and a palm <lb></lb>long, four feet wide, and a foot and three palms deep. </s>
25715
25716 <s>It is lined on all sides <lb></lb>with planks, lest the earth should fall into
25717 it; on one side the water flows <lb></lb>in through pipes, and on the other, if
25718 the plug be pulled out, it soaks into the <lb></lb>earth; into this tank of
25719 water are thrown the cakes of copper from which <lb></lb>the silver and lead
25720 have been separated. </s>
25721
25722 <s>The fore part of the front furnace <lb></lb>arch should be partly closed with an
25723 iron door; the bottom of this door is <lb></lb>six feet and two digits wide; the
25724 upper part is somewhat rounded, and at <lb></lb>the highest point, which is in
25725 the middle, it is three feet and two palms high. <lb></lb></s>
25726
25727 <s>It is made of iron bars, with plates fastened to them with iron wire, there
25728 <lb></lb>being seven bars—three transverse and four upright—each of
25729 which is two <lb></lb>digits wide and half a digit thick. </s>
25730
25731 <s>The lowest transverse bar is six feet and <lb></lb>two palms long; the middle one
25732 has the same length; the upper one is <lb></lb>curved and higher at the centre,
25733 and thus longer than the other two. </s>
25734
25735 <s>The <lb></lb>upright bars are two feet distant from one another; both the outer
25736 ones are <lb></lb>two feet and as many palms high; but the centre ones are three
25737 feet and two <lb></lb>palms. </s>
25738
25739 <s>They project from the upper curved transverse bar and have holes, <lb></lb>in
25740 which are inserted the hooks of small chains two feet long; the topmost
25741 <lb></lb>links of these chains are engaged in the ring of a third chain, which,
25742 when <lb></lb>extended, reaches to one end of a beam which is somewhat cut out. </s>
25743
25744 <s>The chain <lb></lb>then turns around the beam, and again hanging down, the hook
25745 in the other end <lb></lb>is fastened in one of the links. </s>
25746
25747 <s>This beam is eleven feet long, a palm and two <lb></lb>digits wide, a palm thick,
25748 and turns on an iron axle fixed in a near-by timber; <lb></lb>the rear end of
25749 the beam has an iron pin, which is three palms and a digit long, <lb></lb>and
25750 which penetrates through it where it lies under a timber, and projects
25751 <lb></lb>from it a palm and two digits on one side, and three digits on the
25752 other side. <lb></lb></s>
25753
25754 <s>At this point the pin is perforated, in order that a ring may be fixed in it
25755 <pb pagenum="527"></pb>and hold it, lest it should fall out of the beam;
25756 that end is hardly a digit <lb></lb>thick, while the other round end is thicker
25757 than a digit. </s>
25758
25759 <s>When the door is <lb></lb>to be shut, this pin lies under the timber and holds
25760 the door so that it cannot <lb></lb>fall; the pin likewise prevents the
25761 rectangular iron band which encircles the <lb></lb>end of the beam, and into
25762 which is inserted the ring of a long hook, from <lb></lb>falling from the end. </s>
25763
25764 <s>The lowest link of an iron chain, which is six feet long, <lb></lb>is inserted in
25765 the ring of a staple driven into the right wall of the furnace, <lb></lb>and
25766 fixed firmly by filling in with molten lead. </s>
25767
25768 <s>The hook suspended at the <lb></lb>top from the ring should be inserted in one of
25769 these lower links, when the <lb></lb>door is to be raised; when the door is to
25770 be let down, the hook is taken out <lb></lb>of that link and put into one of the
25771 upper links.</s>
25772 </p>
25773 <p type="main">
25774
25775 <s>On the third day the master sets about the principal operation. </s>
25776
25777 <s>First <lb></lb>he throws a basketful of charcoals on to the ground in front of
25778 the hearth, <lb></lb>and kindles them by adding live coals, and having thrown
25779 live coals on to the <lb></lb>cakes placed within, he spreads them equally all
25780 over with an iron shovel. <lb></lb></s>
25781
25782 <s>The blade of the shovel is three palms and a digit long, and three palms
25783 wide; <lb></lb>its iron handle is two palms long, and the wooden one ten feet
25784 long, so that <lb></lb>it can reach to the rear wall of the furnace. </s>
25785
25786 <s>The exhausted liquation cakes <lb></lb>become incandescent in an hour and a half,
25787 if the copper was good and hard, </s>
25788 </p>
25789 <figure></figure>
25790 <p type="caption">
25791
25792 <s>A—THE DOOR LET DOWN. B—BAR. C—EXHAUSTED LIQUATION CAKES.
25793 D—BRICKS. <lb></lb>E—TONGS.<pb pagenum="528"></pb>or after two hours, if
25794 it was soft and fragile. </s>
25795
25796 <s>The workman adds charcoal to <lb></lb>them where he sees it is needed, throwing
25797 it into the furnace through the <lb></lb>openings on both sides between the side
25798 walls and the closed door. </s>
25799
25800 <s>This open­<lb></lb>ing is a foot and a palm wide. </s>
25801
25802 <s>He lets down the door, and when the “slags” <lb></lb>begin to flow he
25803 opens the passages with a bar; this should take place after <lb></lb>five hours;
25804 the door is let down over the upper open part of the arch for <lb></lb>two feet
25805 and as many digits, so that the master can bear the violence of the
25806 <lb></lb>heat. </s>
25807
25808 <s>When the cakes shrink, charcoal should not be added to them lest <lb></lb>they
25809 should melt. </s>
25810
25811 <s>If the cakes made from poor and fragile copper are <lb></lb>“dried”
25812 with cakes made from good hard copper, very often the copper <lb></lb>so settles
25813 into the passages that a bar thrust into them cannot penetrate <lb></lb>them. </s>
25814
25815 <s>This bar is of iron, six feet and two palms long, into which a wooden
25816 <lb></lb>handle five feet long is inserted. </s>
25817
25818 <s>The refiner draws off the “slags” with a <lb></lb>rabble from the
25819 right side of the hearth. </s>
25820
25821 <s>The blade of the rabble is made <lb></lb>of an iron plate a foot and a palm wide,
25822 gradually narrowing toward the <lb></lb>handle; the blade is two palms high, its
25823 iron handle is two feet long, and <lb></lb>the wooden handle set into it is ten
25824 feet long.</s>
25825 </p>
25826 <p type="main">
25827
25828 <s>When the exhausted liquation cakes have been “dried,” the master
25829 </s>
25830 </p>
25831 <figure></figure>
25832 <p type="caption">
25833
25834 <s>A—THE DOOR RAISED. B—HOOKED BAR. C—TWO-PRONGED RAKE.
25835 D—TONGS. <lb></lb>E—TANK.<pb pagenum="529"></pb>raises the door in the
25836 manner I have described, and with a long iron hook <lb></lb>inserted into the
25837 haft of the bar he draws it through the hole in the left wall <lb></lb>from the
25838 hole in the right wall; afterward he pushes it back and replaces it.
25839 <lb></lb></s>
25840
25841 <s>The master then takes out the exhausted liquation cakes nearest to him with
25842 <lb></lb>the iron hook; then he pulls out the cakes from the bricks. </s>
25843
25844 <s>This hook is <lb></lb>two palms high, as many digits wide, and one thick; its
25845 iron handle is two <lb></lb>feet long, and the wooden handle eleven feet long. </s>
25846
25847 <s>There is also a two­<lb></lb>pronged rake with which the “dried”
25848 cakes are drawn over to the left side so <lb></lb>that they may be seized with
25849 tongs; the prongs of the rake are pointed, <lb></lb>and are two palms long, as
25850 many digits wide, and one digit thick; the iron <lb></lb>part of the handle is a
25851 foot long, the wooden part nine feet long. </s>
25852
25853 <s>The <lb></lb>“dried” cakes, taken out of the hearth by the master and
25854 his assistants, <lb></lb>are seized with other tongs and thrown into the
25855 rectangular tank, which is <lb></lb>almost filled with water. </s>
25856
25857 <s>These tongs are two feet and three palms long, <lb></lb>both the handles are
25858 round and more than a digit thick, and the ends are <lb></lb>bent for a palm and
25859 two digits; both the jaws are a digit and a half wide <lb></lb>in front and
25860 sharpened; at the back they are a digit thick, and then gradually
25861 <lb></lb>taper, and when closed, the interior is two palms and as many digits
25862 wide.</s>
25863 </p>
25864 <p type="main">
25865
25866 <s>The “dried” cakes which are dripping copper are not immediately
25867 dipped <lb></lb>into the tank, because, if so, they burst in fragments and give
25868 out a sound <lb></lb>like thunder. </s>
25869
25870 <s>The cakes are afterward taken out of the tank with the <lb></lb>tongs, and laid
25871 upon the two transverse planks on which the workmen stand; <lb></lb>the sooner
25872 they are taken out the easier it is to chip off the copper that <lb></lb>has
25873 become ash-coloured. </s>
25874
25875 <s>Finally, the master, with a spade, raises up the <lb></lb>bricks a little from
25876 the hearth, while they are still warm. </s>
25877
25878 <s>The blade of the <lb></lb>spade is a palm and two digits long, the lower edge is
25879 sharp, and is a palm <lb></lb>and a digit wide, the upper end a palm wide; its
25880 handle is round, the iron <lb></lb>part being two feet long, and the wooden part
25881 seven and a half feet long.</s>
25882 </p>
25883 <p type="main">
25884
25885 <s>On the fourth day the master draws out the liquation thorns which <lb></lb>have
25886 settled in the passages; they are much richer in silver than those <lb></lb>that
25887 are made when the silver-lead is liquated from copper in the liquation
25888 <lb></lb>furnace. </s>
25889
25890 <s>The “dried” cakes drip but little copper, but nearly all their
25891 <lb></lb>remaining silver-lead and the thorns consist of it, for, indeed, in one
25892 <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
25893 “dried” copper there should remain only half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of silver,
25894 and there sometimes remain only three <emph type="italics"></emph>drachmae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>22<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> Some smelters <lb></lb>chip off the metal adhering to the
25895 bricks with a hammer, in order that it <lb></lb>may be melted again; others,
25896 however, crush the bricks under the stamps <lb></lb>and wash them, and the
25897 copper and lead thus collected is melted again. </s>
25898
25899 <s>The <lb></lb>master, when he has taken these things away and put them in their
25900 places, <lb></lb>has finished his day&#039;s work.</s>
25901 </p>
25902 <p type="main">
25903
25904 <s>The assistants take the “dried” cakes out of the tank on the
25905 <lb></lb>next day, place them on an oak block, and first pound them with rounded
25906 <lb></lb>hammers in order that the ash-coloured copper may fall away from them,
25907 <pb pagenum="530"></pb>and then they dig out with pointed picks the holes in
25908 the cakes, which contain <lb></lb>the same kind of copper. </s>
25909
25910 <s>The head of the round hammer is three palms and <lb></lb>a digit long; one end of
25911 the head is round and two digits long and thick; <lb></lb>the other end is
25912 chisel-shaped, and is two digits and a half long. </s>
25913
25914 <s>The sharp <lb></lb>pointed hammer is the same length as the round hammer, but one
25915 end is <lb></lb>pointed, the other end is square, and gradually tapers to a
25916 point.</s>
25917 </p>
25918 <figure></figure>
25919 <p type="caption">
25920
25921 <s>A—TANK. B—BOARD. C—TONGS. D—“DRIED” CAKES
25922 TAKEN OUT OF THE TANKS. <lb></lb>E—BLOCK. F—ROUNDED HAMMER.
25923 G—POINTED HAMMER.</s>
25924 </p>
25925 <p type="main">
25926
25927 <s>The nature of copper is such that when it is “dried” it becomes
25928 ash <lb></lb>coloured, and since this copper contains silver, it is smelted
25929 again in the <lb></lb>blast furnaces.<emph type="sup"></emph>23<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
25930 </p>
25931 <p type="main">
25932
25933 <s>I have described sufficiently the method by which exhausted liquation
25934 <lb></lb>cakes are “dried”; now I will speak of the method by which
25935 they are made <lb></lb>into copper after they have been “dried.”
25936 These cakes, in order that <lb></lb>they may recover the appearance of copper
25937 which they have to some extent <lb></lb>lost, are melted in four furnaces, which
25938 are placed against the second long <lb></lb>wall in the part of the building
25939 between the second and third transverse <lb></lb>walls. </s>
25940
25941 <s>This space is sixty-three feet and two palms long, and since each of <pb pagenum="531"></pb>these furnaces occupies thirteen feet, the space which is
25942 on the right <lb></lb>side of the first furnace, and on the left of the fourth,
25943 are each three feet and <lb></lb>three palms wide, and the distance between the
25944 second and third furnace is <lb></lb>six feet. </s>
25945
25946 <s>In the middle of each of these three spaces is a door, a foot and <lb></lb>a half
25947 wide and six feet high, and the middle one is common to the master <lb></lb>of
25948 each of the furnaces. </s>
25949
25950 <s>Each furnace has its own chimney, which rises <lb></lb>between the two long walls
25951 mentioned above, and is supported by two arches <lb></lb>and a partition wall. </s>
25952
25953 <s>The partition wall is between the two furnaces, and <lb></lb>is five feet long,
25954 ten feet high, and two feet thick; in front of it is a pillar <lb></lb>belonging
25955 in common to the front arches of the furnace on either side, which <lb></lb>is
25956 two feet and as many palms thick, three feet and a half wide. </s>
25957
25958 <s>The front <lb></lb>arch reaches from this common pillar to another pillar that is
25959 common to the <lb></lb>side arch of the same furnace; this arch on the right
25960 spans from the second <lb></lb>long wall to the same pillar, which is two feet
25961 and as many palms wide and <lb></lb>thick at the bottom. </s>
25962
25963 <s>The interior of the front arch is nine feet and a palm <lb></lb>wide, and eight
25964 feet high at its highest point; the interior of the arch which <lb></lb>is on
25965 the right side, is five feet and a palm wide, and of equal height to the
25966 <lb></lb>other, and both the arches are built of the same height as the
25967 partition wall. <lb></lb></s>
25968
25969 <s>Imposed upon these arches and the partition wall are the walls of the
25970 chimney; <lb></lb>these slope upward, and thus contract, so that at the upper
25971 part, where the <lb></lb>fumes are emitted, the opening is eight feet in length,
25972 one foot and three <lb></lb>palms in width. </s>
25973
25974 <s>The fourth wall of the chimney is built vertically upon the <lb></lb>second long
25975 wall. </s>
25976
25977 <s>As the partition wall is common to the two furnaces, so its
25978 <lb></lb>superstructure is common to the two chimneys. </s>
25979
25980 <s>In this sensible manner <lb></lb>the chimney is built. </s>
25981
25982 <s>At the front each furnace is six feet two palms long, <lb></lb>and three feet two
25983 palms wide, and a cubit high; the back of each furnace <lb></lb>is against the
25984 second long wall, the front being open. </s>
25985
25986 <s>The first furnace is open <lb></lb>and sloping at the right side, so that the
25987 slags may be drawn out; the left <lb></lb>side is against the partition wall,
25988 and has a little wall built of bricks cemented <lb></lb>together with lute; this
25989 little wall protects the partition wall from injury by <lb></lb>the fire. </s>
25990
25991 <s>On the contrary, the second furnace has the left side open and <lb></lb>the right
25992 side is against the partition wall, where also it has its own little wall
25993 <lb></lb>which protects the partition wall from the fire. </s>
25994
25995 <s>The front of each furnace is <lb></lb>built of rectangular rocks; the interior of
25996 it is filled up with earth. </s>
25997
25998 <s>Then in <lb></lb>each of the furnaces at the rear, against the second long wall,
25999 is an aperture <lb></lb>through an arch at the back, and in these are fixed the
26000 copper pipes. </s>
26001
26002 <s>Each <lb></lb>furnace has a round pit, two feet and as many palms wide, built
26003 three feet <lb></lb>away from the partition wall. </s>
26004
26005 <s>Finally, under the pit of the furnace, at a <lb></lb>depth of a cubit, is the
26006 hidden receptacle for moisture, similar to the others, <lb></lb>whose vent
26007 penetrates through the second long wall and slopes upward to <lb></lb>the right
26008 from the first furnace, and to the left from the second. </s>
26009
26010 <s>If copper <lb></lb>is to be made the next day, then the master cuts out the
26011 crucible with a <lb></lb>spatula, the blade of which is three digits wide and as
26012 many palms long, the <lb></lb>iron handle being two feet long and one and a half
26013 digits in diameter; the <lb></lb>wooden handle inserted into it is round, five
26014 feet long and two digits <lb></lb>in diameter. </s>
26015
26016 <s>Then, with another cutting spatula, he makes the crucible <pb pagenum="532"></pb>smooth; the blade of this spatula is a palm wide and two palms long; its
26017 <lb></lb>handle, partly of iron, partly of wood, is similar in every respect to
26018 the first <lb></lb>one. </s>
26019
26020 <s>Afterward he throws pulverised clay and charcoal into the crucible, pours
26021 <lb></lb>water over it, and sweeps it over with a broom into which a stick is
26022 fixed. <lb></lb></s>
26023
26024 <s>Then immediately he throws into the crucible a powder, made of two
26025 <lb></lb>wheelbarrowsful of sifted charcoal dust, as many wheelbarrowsful of
26026 </s>
26027 </p>
26028 <figure></figure>
26029 <p type="caption">
26030
26031 <s>A—HEARTH OF THE FURNACE. B—CHIMNEY. C—COMMON PILLAR.
26032 D—OTHER PILLARS. <lb></lb>THE PARTITION WALL IS BEHIND THE COMMON PILLAR
26033 AND NOT TO BE SEEN. E—ARCHES. <lb></lb>F—LITTLE WALLS WHICH PROTECT
26034 THE PARTITION WALL FROM INJURY BY THE FIRE. <lb></lb>G—CRUCIBLES.
26035 H—SECOND LONG WALL. I—DOOR. K—SPATULA. L—THE OTHER
26036 <lb></lb>SPATULA. M—THE BROOM IN WHICH IS INSERTED A STICK.
26037 N—PESTLES. O—WOODEN <lb></lb>MALLET. P—PLATE. Q—STONES.
26038 R—IRON ROD.<lb></lb>pulverised clay likewise sifted, and six basketsful of
26039 river sand which has <lb></lb>passed through a very fine sieve. </s>
26040
26041 <s>This powder, like that used by smelters, <lb></lb>is sprinkled with water and
26042 moistened before it is put into the crucible, so <lb></lb>that it may be
26043 fashioned by the hands into shapes similar to snowballs. <lb></lb></s>
26044
26045 <s>When it has been put in, the master first kneads it and makes it smooth with
26046 <lb></lb>his hands, and then pounds it with two wooden pestles, each of which is
26047 a <lb></lb>cubit long; each pestle has a round head at each end, but one of
26048 these is <lb></lb>a palm in diameter, the other three digits; both are thinner
26049 in the middle, <lb></lb>so that they may be held in the hand. </s>
26050
26051 <s>Then he again throws moistened <pb pagenum="533"></pb>powder into the crucible,
26052 and again makes it smooth with his hands, and <lb></lb>kneads it with his fists
26053 and with the pestles; then, pushing upward and <lb></lb>pressing with his
26054 fingers, he makes the edge of the crucible smooth. </s>
26055
26056 <s>After the <lb></lb>crucible has been made smooth, he sprinkles in dry charcoal
26057 dust, and again <lb></lb>pounds it with the same pestles, at first with the
26058 narrow heads, and afterward <lb></lb>with the wider ones. </s>
26059
26060 <s>Then he pounds the crucible with a wooden mallet <lb></lb>two feet long, both
26061 heads of which are round and three digits in diameter; <lb></lb>its wooden
26062 handle is two palms long, and one and a half digits in diameter. <lb></lb></s>
26063
26064 <s>Finally, he throws into the crucible as much pure sifted ashes as both hands
26065 <lb></lb>can hold, and pours water into it, and, taking an old linen rag, he
26066 smears <lb></lb>the crucible over with the wet ashes. </s>
26067
26068 <s>The crucible is round and sloping. </s>
26069
26070 <s>If <lb></lb>copper is to be made from the best quality of “dried”
26071 cakes, it is made two <lb></lb>feet wide and one deep, but if from other cakes,
26072 it is made a cubit wide and <lb></lb>two palms deep. </s>
26073
26074 <s>The master also has an iron band curved at both ends, <lb></lb>two palms long and
26075 as many digits wide, and with this he cuts off the edges <lb></lb>of the
26076 crucible if they are higher than is necessary. </s>
26077
26078 <s>The copper pipe is <lb></lb>inclined, and projects three digits from the wall,
26079 and has its upper end and <lb></lb>both sides smeared thick with lute, that it
26080 may not be burned; but the under­<lb></lb>side of the pipe is smeared thinly
26081 with lute, for this side reaches almost to the <lb></lb>edge of the crucible,
26082 and when the crucible is full the molten copper touches <lb></lb>it. </s>
26083
26084 <s>The wall above the pipe is smeared over with lute, lest that should be
26085 <lb></lb>damaged. </s>
26086
26087 <s>He does the same to the other side of an iron plate, which is a <lb></lb>foot and
26088 three palms long and a foot high; this stands on stones near the
26089 <lb></lb>crucible at the side where the hearth slopes, in order that the slag
26090 may run <lb></lb>out under it. </s>
26091
26092 <s>Others do not place the plates upon stones, but cut out <lb></lb>of the plate
26093 underneath a small piece, three digits long and three digits <lb></lb>wide; lest
26094 the plate should fall, it is supported by an iron rod fixed in the <lb></lb>wall
26095 at a height of two palms and the same number of digits, and it projects
26096 <lb></lb>from the wall three palms.</s>
26097 </p>
26098 <p type="main">
26099
26100 <s>Then with an iron shovel, whose wooden handle is six feet long, he
26101 <lb></lb>throws live charcoal into the crucible; or else charcoal, kindled by
26102 means <lb></lb>of a few live coals, is added to them. </s>
26103
26104 <s>Over the live charcoal he lays “dried” <lb></lb>cakes, which, if they
26105 were of copper of the first quality, weigh all together <lb></lb>three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or three and a
26106 half <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
26107 but if they were <lb></lb>of copper of the second quality, then two and a half
26108 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> if
26109 they <lb></lb>were of the third quality, then two <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> only; but if they were
26110 <lb></lb>of copper of very superior quality, then they place upon it six <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and
26111 in this case they make the crucible wider and deeper.<emph type="sup"></emph>24<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> The lowest <lb></lb>“dried” cake is
26112 placed at a distance of two palms from the pipe, the rest at <lb></lb>a greater
26113 distance, and when the lower ones are melted the upper ones fall <lb></lb>down
26114 and get nearer to the pipe; if they do not fall down they must <lb></lb>be
26115 pushed with a shovel. </s>
26116
26117 <s>The blade of the shovel is a foot long, three palms <lb></lb>and two digits wide,
26118 the iron part of the handle is two palms long, the <pb pagenum="534"></pb>wooden
26119 part nine feet. </s>
26120
26121 <s>Round about the “dried” cakes are placed large <lb></lb>long pieces
26122 of charcoal, and in the pipe are placed medium-sized pieces. <lb></lb></s>
26123
26124 <s>When all these things have been arranged in this manner, the fire must be
26125 <lb></lb>more violently excited by the blast from the bellows. </s>
26126
26127 <s>When the copper is <lb></lb>melting and the coals blaze, the master pushes an
26128 iron bar into the middle <lb></lb>of them in order that they may receive the
26129 air, and that the flame can force <lb></lb>its way out. </s>
26130
26131 <s>This pointed bar is two and a half feet long, and its wooden <lb></lb>handle four
26132 feet long. </s>
26133
26134 <s>When the cakes are partly melted, the master, passing <lb></lb>out through the
26135 door, inspects the crucible through the bronze pipe, and if he <lb></lb>should
26136 find that too much of the “slag” is adhering to the mouth of the
26137 pipe, <lb></lb>and thus impeding the blast of the bellows, he inserts the hooked
26138 iron bar <lb></lb>into the pipe through the nozzle of the bellows, and, turning
26139 this about the <lb></lb>mouth of the pipe, he removes the “slags”
26140 from it. </s>
26141
26142 <s>The hook on this bar <lb></lb>is two digits high; the iron part of the handle is
26143 three feet long; the wooden <lb></lb>part is the same number of palms long. </s>
26144
26145 <s>Now it is time to insert the bar <lb></lb>under the iron plate, in order that the
26146 “slags” may flow out. </s>
26147
26148 <s>When the <lb></lb>cakes, being all melted, have run into the crucible, he takes
26149 out a sample of <lb></lb>copper with the third round bar, which is made wholly
26150 of iron, and is three feet <lb></lb>long, a digit thick, and has a steel point
26151 lest its pores should absorb the copper. </s>
26152 </p>
26153 <figure></figure>
26154 <p type="caption">
26155
26156 <s>A—POINTED BAR. B—THIN COPPER LAYER. C—ANVIL.
26157 D—HAMMER.<pb pagenum="535"></pb>When he has compressed the bellows, he
26158 introduces this bar as quickly as <lb></lb>possible into the crucible through
26159 the pipe between the two nozzles, and <lb></lb>takes out samples two, three, or
26160 four times, until he finds that the copper is <lb></lb>perfectly refined. </s>
26161
26162 <s>If the copper is good it adheres easily to the bar, and <lb></lb>two samples
26163 suffice; if it is not good, then many are required. </s>
26164
26165 <s>It is <lb></lb>necessary to smelt it in the crucible until the copper adhering to
26166 the bar is <lb></lb>seen to be of a brassy colour, and if the upper as well as
26167 the lower part of <lb></lb>the thin layer of copper may be easily broken, it
26168 signifies that the copper <lb></lb>is perfectly melted; he places the point of
26169 the bar on a small iron anvil, <lb></lb>and chips off the thin layer of copper
26170 from it with a hammer.<emph type="sup"></emph>25<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
26171 </p>
26172 <p type="main">
26173
26174 <s>If the copper is not good, the master draws off the “slags”
26175 twice, or <lb></lb>three times if necessary—the first time when some of
26176 the cakes have been <lb></lb>melted, the second when all have melted, the third
26177 time when the copper has <lb></lb>been heated for some time. </s>
26178
26179 <s>If the copper was of good quality, the “slags” <lb></lb>are not drawn
26180 off before the operation is finished, but at the time they are to be
26181 <lb></lb>drawn off, he depresses the bar over both bellows, and places over both
26182 a <lb></lb>stick, a cubit long and a palm wide, half cut away at the upper part,
26183 so that it <lb></lb>may pass under the iron pin fixed at the back in the
26184 perforated wood. </s>
26185
26186 <s>This <lb></lb>he does likewise when the copper has been completely melted. </s>
26187
26188 <s>Then the <lb></lb>assistant removes the iron plate with the tongs; these tongs
26189 are four feet <lb></lb>three palms long, their jaws are about a foot in length,
26190 and their straight part <lb></lb>measures two palms and three digits, and the
26191 curved a palm and a digit. <lb></lb></s>
26192
26193 <s>The same assistant, with the iron shovel, throws and heaps up the larger
26194 <lb></lb>pieces of charcoal into that part of the hearth which is against the
26195 little wall <lb></lb>which protects the other wall from injury by fire, and
26196 partly extinguishes <lb></lb>them by pouring water over them. </s>
26197
26198 <s>The master, with a hazel stick inserted <pb pagenum="536"></pb>into the crucible,
26199 stirs it twice. </s>
26200
26201 <s>Afterward he draws off the slags with a <lb></lb>rabble, which consists of an
26202 iron blade, wide and sharp, and of alder-wood; <lb></lb>the blade is a digit and
26203 a half in width and three feet long; the wooden handle <lb></lb>inserted in its
26204 hollow part is the same number of feet long, and the alder-wood <lb></lb>in
26205 which the blade is fixed must have the figure of a rhombus; it must be
26206 <lb></lb>three palms and a digit long, a palm and two digits wide, and a palm
26207 thick. <lb></lb></s>
26208
26209 <s>Subsequently he takes a broom and sweeps the charcoal dust and small coal
26210 <lb></lb>over the whole of the crucible, lest the copper should cool before it
26211 flows <lb></lb>together; then, with a third rabble, he cuts off the slags which
26212 may adhere <lb></lb>to the edge of the crucible. </s>
26213
26214 <s>The blade of this rabble is two palms long and <lb></lb>a palm and one digit
26215 wide, the iron part of the handle is a foot and three palms <lb></lb>long, the
26216 wooden part six feet. </s>
26217
26218 <s>Afterward he again draws off the slags <lb></lb>from the crucible, which the
26219 assistant does not quench by pouring water <lb></lb>upon them, as the other
26220 slags are usually quenched, but he sprinkles over <lb></lb>them a little water
26221 and allows them to cool. </s>
26222
26223 <s>If the copper should bubble, <lb></lb>he presses down the bubbles with the
26224 rabble. </s>
26225
26226 <s>Then he pours water on the wall <lb></lb>and the pipes, that it may flow down
26227 warm into the crucible, for, the <lb></lb>copper, if cold water were to be
26228 poured over it while still hot, would spatter <lb></lb>about. </s>
26229
26230 <s>If a stone, or a piece of lute or wood, or a damp coal should then fall
26231 <lb></lb>into it, the crucible would vomit out all the copper with a loud noise
26232 like <lb></lb>thunder, and whatever it touches it injures and sets on fire. </s>
26233
26234 <s>Subsequently he <lb></lb>lays a curved board with a notch in it over the front
26235 part of the crucible; it <lb></lb>is two feet long, a palm and two digits wide,
26236 and a digit thick. </s>
26237
26238 <s>Then <lb></lb>the copper in the crucible should be divided into cakes with an
26239 iron wedge­<lb></lb>shaped bar; this is three feet long, two digits wide,
26240 and steeled on the end <lb></lb>for the distance of two digits, and its wooden
26241 handle is three feet long. </s>
26242
26243 <s>He <lb></lb>places this bar on the notched board, and, driving it into the
26244 copper, moves </s>
26245 </p>
26246 <pb pagenum="537"></pb>
26247 <figure></figure>
26248 <p type="caption">
26249
26250 <s>A—CRUCIBLE. B—BOARD. C—WEDGE-SHAPED BAR. D—CAKES OF
26251 COPPER MADE BY <lb></lb>SEPARATING THEM WITH THE WEDGE-SHAPED BAR.
26252 E—TONGS. F—TUB.<pb pagenum="538"></pb>it forward and back, and by
26253 this means the water flows into the vacant <lb></lb>space in the copper, and he
26254 separates the cake from the rest of the mass. <lb></lb></s>
26255
26256 <s>If the copper is not perfectly smelted the cakes will be too thick, and
26257 can­<lb></lb>not be taken out of the crucible easily. </s>
26258
26259 <s>Each cake is afterward seized by <lb></lb>the assistant with the tongs and
26260 plunged into the water in the tub; the first <lb></lb>one is placed aside so
26261 that the master may re-melt it again immediately, for, <lb></lb>since some
26262 “slags” adhere to it, it is not as perfect as the subsequent
26263 ones; <lb></lb>indeed, if the copper is not of good quality, he places the first
26264 two cakes aside. <lb></lb></s>
26265
26266 <s>Then, again pouring water over the wall and the pipes, he separates out the
26267 <lb></lb>second cake, which the assistant likewise immerses in water and places
26268 on <lb></lb>the ground together with the others separated out in the same way,
26269 which <lb></lb>he piles upon them. </s>
26270
26271 <s>These, if the copper was of good quality, should be <lb></lb>thirteen or more in
26272 number; if it was not of good quality, then fewer. </s>
26273
26274 <s>If the <lb></lb>copper was of good quality, this part of the operation, which
26275 indeed is dis­<lb></lb>tributed into four parts, is accomplished by the
26276 master in two hours; if of <lb></lb>mediocre quality, in two and a half hours;
26277 if of bad quality, in three. </s>
26278
26279 <s>The <lb></lb>“dried” cakes are re-melted, first in the first crucible
26280 and then in the <lb></lb>second. </s>
26281
26282 <s>The assistant must, as quickly as possible, quench all the cakes <lb></lb>with
26283 water, after they have been cut out of the second crucible. </s>
26284
26285 <s>Afterward <lb></lb>with the tongs he replaces in its proper place the iron plate
26286 which was in front <lb></lb>of the furnace, and throws the charcoal back into
26287 the crucible with a shovel. <lb></lb></s>
26288
26289 <s>Meanwhile the master, continuing his work, removes the wooden stick from
26290 <lb></lb>the bars of the bellows, so that in re-melting the other cakes he may
26291 accom­<lb></lb>plish the third part of his process; this must be carefully
26292 done, for if a particle <lb></lb>from any iron implement should by chance fall
26293 into the crucible, or should <lb></lb>be thrown in by any malevolent person, the
26294 copper could not be made until <lb></lb>the iron had been consumed, and
26295 therefore double labour would have to be <lb></lb>expended upon it. </s>
26296
26297 <s>Finally, the assistant extinguishes all the glowing coals, <lb></lb>and chips off
26298 the dry lute from the mouth of the copper pipe with a hammer; <lb></lb>one end
26299 of this hammer is pointed, the other round, and it has a wooden handle
26300 <lb></lb>five feet long. </s>
26301
26302 <s>Because there is danger that the copper would be scattered if <lb></lb>the <emph type="italics"></emph>pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>spodos,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which adhere to the
26303 walls and the hood erected <lb></lb>upon them, should fall into the crucible, he
26304 cleans them off in the meantime. <lb></lb></s>
26305
26306 <s>Every week he takes the copper flowers out of the tub, after having poured
26307 off <lb></lb>the water, for these fall into it from the cakes when they are
26308 quenched.<emph type="sup"></emph>26<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
26309 </p>
26310 <pb pagenum="539"></pb>
26311 <p type="main">
26312
26313 <s>The bellows which this master uses differ in size from the others, for the
26314 <lb></lb>boards are seven and a half feet long; the back part is three feet
26315 wide; <lb></lb>the front, where the head is joined on is a foot, two palms and
26316 as many digits. <lb></lb></s>
26317
26318 <s>The head is a cubit and a digit long; the back part of it is a cubit and a
26319 <lb></lb>palm wide, and then becomes gradually narrower. </s>
26320
26321 <s>The nozzles of the bellows <lb></lb>are bound together by means of an iron chain,
26322 controlled by a thick <lb></lb>bar, one end of which penetrates into the ground
26323 against the back of the long <lb></lb>wall, and the other end passes under the
26324 beam which is laid upon the <lb></lb>foremost perforated beams. </s>
26325
26326 <s>These nozzles are so placed in a copper pipe <lb></lb>that they are at a distance
26327 of a palm from the mouth; the mouth should be <lb></lb>made three digits in
26328 diameter, that the air may be violently expelled through <lb></lb>this narrow
26329 aperture.</s>
26330 </p>
26331 <p type="main">
26332
26333 <s>There now remain the liquation thorns, the ash-coloured copper, the
26334 <lb></lb>“slags,” and the <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmía.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>27<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> Liquation cakes are made from thorns in the <lb></lb>following
26335 manner.<emph type="sup"></emph>28<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> There are taken
26336 three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>thorns, which have their origin from the cakes
26337 of copper-lead alloy when <lb></lb>lead-silver is liquated, and as many parts of
26338 a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
26339 the thorns <lb></lb>derived from cakes made from once re-melted thorns by the
26340 same method, <lb></lb>and to them are added a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of de-silverized lead
26341 and half a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of hearth-lead. </s>
26342
26343 <s>If there is in the works plenty of litharge, it <lb></lb>is substituted for the
26344 de-silverized lead. </s>
26345
26346 <s>One and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>litharge and hearth-lead is added to the same
26347 weight of primary thorns, <lb></lb>and half a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of thorns which have
26348 their origin from liquation <lb></lb>cakes composed of thorns twice re-melted by
26349 the same method (tertiary <lb></lb>thorns), and a fourth part of a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of thorns
26350 which are pro­<lb></lb><pb pagenum="540"></pb>duced when the exhausted liquation
26351 cakes are “dried.” By both methods <lb></lb>one single liquation
26352 cake is made from three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
26353 <s> In this manner <lb></lb>the smelter makes every day fifteen liquation cakes,
26354 more or less; he takes <lb></lb>great care that the metallic substances, from
26355 which the first liquation cake is <lb></lb>made, flow down properly and in due
26356 order into the fore-hearth, before the <lb></lb>material of which the subsequent
26357 cake is to be made. </s>
26358
26359 <s>Five of these liquation <lb></lb>cakes are put simultaneously into the furnace in
26360 which silver-lead is liquated <lb></lb>from copper, they weigh almost fourteen
26361 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and
26362 the “slags” <lb></lb>made therefrom usually weigh quite a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
26363 <s> In all the liquation <lb></lb>cakes together there is usually one <emph type="italics"></emph>líbra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and nearly two
26364 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver,
26365 and <lb></lb>in the silver-lead which drips from those cakes, and weighs seven
26366 and a half <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> there is in each an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a half of silver. </s>
26367
26368 <s>In each of the <lb></lb>three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of liquation thorns there is almost an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, and <lb></lb>in
26369 the two <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a
26370 quarter of exhausted liquation cakes there <lb></lb>is altogether one and a half
26371 <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> yet this varies
26372 greatly for each variety of <lb></lb>thorns, for in the thorns produced from
26373 primary liquation cakes made of <lb></lb>copper and lead when silver-lead is
26374 liquated from the copper, and those <lb></lb>produced in “drying”
26375 the exhausted liquation cakes, there are almost two <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver; in
26376 the others not quite an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncía.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
26377 <s> There are other thorns <lb></lb>besides, of which I will speak a little further
26378 on.</s>
26379 </p>
26380 <p type="main">
26381
26382 <s>Those in the Carpathian Mountains who make liquation cakes from the
26383 <lb></lb>copper “bottoms” which remain after the upper part of the
26384 copper is <lb></lb>divided from the lower, in the furnace similar to an oven,
26385 produce thorns when <lb></lb>the poor or mediocre silver-lead is liquated from
26386 the copper. </s>
26387
26388 <s>These, together <lb></lb>with those made of cakes of re-melted thorns, or made
26389 with re-melted litharge, <lb></lb>are placed in a heap by themselves; but those
26390 that are made from cakes <lb></lb>melted from hearth-lead are placed in a heap
26391 separate from the first, and <lb></lb>likewise those produced from
26392 “drying” the exhausted liquation cakes are <lb></lb>placed
26393 separately; from these thorns liquation cakes are made. </s>
26394
26395 <s>From the <lb></lb>first heap they take the fourth part of a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> from the second
26396 <lb></lb>the same amount, from the third a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>—to which thorns
26397 are <lb></lb>added one and a half <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of litharge and half a
26398 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
26399 <lb></lb>hearth-lead, and from these, melted in the blast furnace, a liquation
26400 cake is <lb></lb>made; each workman makes twenty such cakes every day. </s>
26401
26402 <s>But of theirs <lb></lb>enough has been said for the present; I will return to
26403 ours.</s>
26404 </p>
26405 <p type="main">
26406
26407 <s>The ash-coloured copper<emph type="sup"></emph>29<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> which is
26408 chipped off, as I have stated, from <lb></lb>the “dried” cakes, used
26409 some years ago to be mixed with the thorns produced <lb></lb>from liquation of
26410 the copper-lead alloy, and contained in themselves, equally <lb></lb>with the
26411 first, two <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
26412 silver; but now it is mixed with the concentrates <lb></lb>washed from the
26413 accretions and the other material. </s>
26414
26415 <s>The inhabitants of the <lb></lb>Carpathian Mountains melt this kind of copper in
26416 furnaces in which are re­<lb></lb>melted the “slags” which flow
26417 out when the copper is refined; but as this <lb></lb>soon melts and flows down
26418 out of the furnace, two workmen are required for <pb pagenum="541"></pb>the work
26419 of smelting, one of whom smelts, while the other takes out the <lb></lb>thick
26420 cakes from the forehearth. </s>
26421
26422 <s>These cakes are only “dried,” and from <lb></lb>the
26423 “dried” cakes copper is again made.</s>
26424 </p>
26425 <p type="main">
26426
26427 <s>The “slags”<emph type="sup"></emph>30<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> are melted
26428 continually day and night, whether they have <lb></lb>been drawn off from the
26429 alloyed metals with a rabble, or whether they adhered <lb></lb>to the forehearth
26430 to the thickness of a digit and made it smaller and <lb></lb>were taken off with
26431 spatulas. </s>
26432
26433 <s>In this manner two or three liquation cakes <lb></lb>are made, and afterward much
26434 or little of the “slag,” skimmed from the <lb></lb>molten alloy of
26435 copper and lead, is re-melted. </s>
26436
26437 <s>Such liquation cakes should <lb></lb>weigh up to three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> in each of which there is half
26438 an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>silver. </s>
26439
26440 <s>Five cakes are placed at the same time in the furnace in which
26441 <lb></lb>argentiferous lead is liquated from copper, and from these are made
26442 lead <lb></lb>which contains half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver to the <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
26443 <s> The exhausted <lb></lb>liquation cakes are laid upon the other baser exhausted
26444 liquation cakes, from <lb></lb>both of which yellow copper is made. </s>
26445
26446 <s>The base thorns thus obtained are <lb></lb>re-melted with a few baser
26447 “slags,” after having been sprinkled with con­<lb></lb>centrates
26448 from furnace accretions and other material, and in this manner six <lb></lb>or
26449 seven liquation cakes are made, each of which weighs some two <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondia.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
26450 <s> Five of these are placed at the same time in the furnace in which
26451 <lb></lb>silver-lead is liquated from copper; these drip three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>lead,
26452 each of which contains half an <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
26453
26454 <s>The basest thorns <lb></lb>thus produced should be re-melted with only a little
26455 “slag.” The copper <lb></lb>alloyed with lead, which flows down from
26456 the furnace into the fore­<lb></lb>hearth, is poured out with a ladle into
26457 oblong copper moulds; these cakes <lb></lb>are “dried” with base
26458 exhausted liquation cakes. </s>
26459
26460 <s>The thorns they produce <lb></lb>are added to the base thorns, and they are made
26461 into cakes according to the <lb></lb>method I have described. </s>
26462
26463 <s>From the “dried” cakes they make copper, of <lb></lb>which some add a
26464 small portion to the best “dried” cakes when copper is <lb></lb>made
26465 from them, in order that by mixing the base copper with the good it <lb></lb>may
26466 be sold without loss. </s>
26467
26468 <s>The “slags,” if they are utilisable, are re-melted <lb></lb>a second
26469 and a third time, the cakes made from them are “dried,” and from
26470 <lb></lb>the “dried” cakes is made copper, which is mixed with the
26471 good copper. </s>
26472
26473 <s>The <lb></lb>“slags,” drawn off by the master who makes copper out of
26474 “dried” cakes, <lb></lb>are sifted, and those which fall through the
26475 sieve into a vessel placed under­<lb></lb>neath are washed; those which
26476 remain in it are emptied into a wheelbarrow <lb></lb>and wheeled away to the
26477 blast furnaces, and they are re-melted together <lb></lb>with other
26478 “slags,” over which are sprinkled the concentrates from washing
26479 <lb></lb>the slags or furnace accretions made at this time. </s>
26480
26481 <s>The copper which flows out <pb pagenum="542"></pb>of the furnace into the
26482 forehearth, is likewise dipped out with a ladle into <lb></lb>oblong copper
26483 moulds; in this way nine or ten cakes are made, which are
26484 <lb></lb>“dried,” together with bad exhausted liquation cakes, and
26485 from these <lb></lb>“dried” cakes yellow<emph type="sup"></emph>31<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> copper is made.</s>
26486 </p>
26487 <p type="main">
26488
26489 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>32<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> as it is called by us, is made from the
26490 “slags” which the <lb></lb>master, who makes copper from
26491 “dried” cakes, draws off together with other <lb></lb>re-melted base
26492 “slags”; for, indeed, if the copper cakes made from such
26493 <lb></lb>“slags” are broken, the fragments are called <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> from this and yellow
26494 <lb></lb>copper is made <emph type="italics"></emph>caldarium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> copper in two ways. </s>
26495
26496 <s>For either two parts of <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>are mixed with one of yellow copper in the blast furnaces, and
26497 melted; or, on <lb></lb>the contrary, two parts of yellow copper with one of
26498 <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> so that the
26499 <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>cadmía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and
26500 yellow copper may be well mixed; and the copper which flows down <lb></lb>from
26501 the furnace into the forehearth is poured out with a ladle into oblong
26502 <lb></lb>copper moulds heated beforehand. </s>
26503
26504 <s>These moulds are sprinkled over with char­<lb></lb>coal dust before the <emph type="italics"></emph>caldarium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> copper is to be
26505 poured into them, and the same <lb></lb>dust is sprinkled over the copper when
26506 it is poured in, lest the <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <lb></lb>yellow copper should freeze before they have
26507 become well mixed. </s>
26508
26509 <s>With a <lb></lb>piece of wood the assistant cleanses each cake from the dust,
26510 when it is <lb></lb>turned out of the mould. </s>
26511
26512 <s>Then he throws it into the tub containing hot water, <lb></lb>for the <emph type="italics"></emph>caldarium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> copper is finer if
26513 quenched in hot water. </s>
26514
26515 <s>But as I have <lb></lb>so often made mention of the oblong copper moulds, I must
26516 now speak of <lb></lb>them a little; they are a foot and a palm long, the inside
26517 is three palms and a <lb></lb>digit wide at the top, and they are rounded at the
26518 bottom.</s>
26519 </p>
26520 <p type="main">
26521
26522 <s>The concentrates are of two kinds—precious and base.<emph type="sup"></emph>33<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> The first are <lb></lb>obtained from the
26523 accretions of the blast furnace, when liquation cakes are <lb></lb>made from
26524 copper and lead, or from precious liquation thorns, or from the <lb></lb>better
26525 quality “slags,” or from the best grade of concentrates, or from
26526 the <lb></lb>sweepings and bricks of the furnaces in which exhausted liquation
26527 cakes are <lb></lb>“dried”; all of these things are crushed and
26528 washed, as I explained in Book <lb></lb>VIII. </s>
26529
26530 <s>The base concentrates are made from accretions formed when cakes <lb></lb>are
26531 cast from base thorns or from the worst quality of slags. </s>
26532
26533 <s>The smelter <lb></lb>who makes liquation cakes from the precious concentrates,
26534 adds to them <lb></lb>three wheelbarrowsful of litharge and four barrowsful of
26535 hearth-lead and <lb></lb>one of ash-coloured copper, from all of which nine or
26536 ten liquation cakes <lb></lb>are melted out, of which five at a time are placed
26537 in the furnace in which <lb></lb>silver-lead is liquated from copper; a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the lead
26538 which drips <lb></lb>from these cakes contains one <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver. </s>
26539
26540 <s>The liquation thorns are <lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
26541 </p>
26542 <pb pagenum="543"></pb>
26543 <figure></figure>
26544 <p type="caption">
26545
26546 <s>A—FURNACE. B—FOREHEARTH. C—OBLONG MOULDS.<lb></lb>placed apart
26547 by themselves, of which one basketful is mixed with the precious <lb></lb>thorns
26548 to be re-melted. </s>
26549
26550 <s>The exhausted liquation cakes are “dried” at the <lb></lb>same time
26551 as other good exhausted liquation cakes.</s>
26552 </p>
26553 <p type="main">
26554
26555 <s>The thorns which are drawn off from the lead, when it is separated from
26556 <lb></lb>silver in the cupellation furnace<emph type="sup"></emph>34<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, and the hearth-lead which remains in the <lb></lb>crucible in
26557 the middle part of the furnaces, together with the hearth material
26558 <lb></lb>which has become defective and has absorbed silver-lead, are all melted
26559 <lb></lb>together with a little slag in the blast furnaces. </s>
26560
26561 <s>The lead, or rather the <lb></lb>silver-lead, which flows from the furnace into
26562 the fore-hearth, is poured out <lb></lb>into copper moulds such as are used by
26563 the refiners; a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>such lead contains four <emph type="italics"></emph>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver, or, if the hearth
26564 was defective, it <lb></lb>contains more. </s>
26565
26566 <s>A small portion of this material is added to the copper and <lb></lb>lead when
26567 liquation cakes are made from them, if more were to be added <lb></lb>the alloy
26568 would be much richer than it should be, for which reason the wise <pb pagenum="544"></pb>foreman of the works mixes these thorns with other
26569 precious thorns. </s>
26570
26571 <s>The <lb></lb>hearth-lead which remains in the middle of the crucible, and the
26572 hearth <lb></lb>material which absorbs silver-lead, is mixed with other
26573 hearth-lead which <lb></lb>remains in the cupellation furnace crucible; and yet
26574 some cakes, made rich <lb></lb>in this manner, may be placed again in the
26575 cupellation furnaces, together <lb></lb>with the rest of the silver-lead cakes
26576 which the refiner has made.</s>
26577 </p>
26578 <p type="main">
26579
26580 <s>The inhabitants of the Carpathian Mountains, if they have an abundance
26581 <lb></lb>of finely crushed copper<emph type="sup"></emph>35<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> or
26582 lead either made from “slags,” or collected <lb></lb>from the
26583 furnace in which the exhausted liquation cakes are dried, or <lb></lb>litharge,
26584 alloy them in various ways. </s>
26585
26586 <s>The “first” alloy consists of two <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead melted out of thorns,
26587 litharge, and thorns made <lb></lb>from hearth-lead, and of half a <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each of lead
26588 collected in <lb></lb>the furnace in which exhausted liquation cakes are
26589 “dried,” and of copper <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>mínutum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and from these are made
26590 liquation cakes; the task of the smelter is <lb></lb>finished when he has made
26591 forty liquation cakes of this kind. </s>
26592
26593 <s>The <lb></lb>“second” alloy consists of two <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of litharge, of one and a
26594 <lb></lb>quarter <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
26595 de-silverized lead or lead from “slags,” and of half <lb></lb>a
26596 <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead
26597 made from thorns, and of as much copper <emph type="italics"></emph>minutum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>The “third” alloy
26598 consists of three <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of litharge and of half a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> each of de-silverized lead, of
26599 lead made from thorns, and of <lb></lb>copper <emph type="italics"></emph>mínutum contusum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
26600 <s> Liquation cakes are made from all these alloys; the <lb></lb>task of the
26601 smelters is finished when they have made thirty cakes.</s>
26602 </p>
26603 <p type="main">
26604
26605 <s>The process by which cakes are made among the Tyrolese, from which <lb></lb>they
26606 separate the silver-lead, I have explained in Book IX.</s>
26607 </p>
26608 <p type="main">
26609
26610 <s>Silver is separated from iron in the following manner. </s>
26611
26612 <s>Equal portions of <lb></lb>iron scales and filings and of <emph type="italics"></emph>stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> are thrown into an earthenware
26613 crucible <lb></lb>which, when covered with a lid and sealed, is placed in a
26614 furnace, into <lb></lb>which air is blown. </s>
26615
26616 <s>When this has melted and again cooled, the crucible <lb></lb>is broken; the
26617 button that settles in the bottom of it, when taken out, <lb></lb>is pounded to
26618 powder, and the same weight of lead being added, is mixed <lb></lb>and melted in
26619 a second crucible; at last this button is placed in a cupel <lb></lb>and the
26620 lead is separated from the silver.<emph type="sup"></emph>36<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
26621 </p>
26622 <p type="main">
26623
26624 <s>There are a great variety of methods by which one metal is separated
26625 <lb></lb>from other metals, and the manner in which the same are alloyed I have
26626 <lb></lb>explained partly in the eighth book of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura
26627 Fossilium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and partly I will <lb></lb>explain
26628 elsewhere. </s>
26629
26630 <s>Now I will proceed to the remainder of my subject.<lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
26631 </p>
26632 <p type="head">
26633
26634 <s>END OF BOOK XI.</s>
26635 </p>
26636 <pb></pb>
26637 <p type="head">
26638
26639 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>BOOK XII.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
26640 </p>
26641 <p type="main">
26642
26643 <s>Previously I have dealt with the methods of <lb></lb>separating silver from
26644 copper. </s>
26645
26646 <s>There now remains <lb></lb>the portion which treats of solidified juices; and
26647 <lb></lb>whereas they might be considered as alien to things <lb></lb>metallic,
26648 nevertheless, the reasons why they should <lb></lb>not be separated from it I
26649 have explained in the <lb></lb>second book.</s>
26650 </p>
26651 <p type="main">
26652
26653 <s>Solidified juices are either prepared from waters <lb></lb>in which nature or art
26654 has infused them, or they are <lb></lb>produced from the liquid juices
26655 themselves, or from stony minerals. </s>
26656
26657 <s>Sagacious <lb></lb>people, at first observing the waters of some lakes to be
26658 naturally full of juices <lb></lb>which thickened on being dried up by the heat
26659 of the sun and thus became <lb></lb>solidified juices, drew such waters into
26660 other places, or diverted them <lb></lb>into low-lying places adjoining hills,
26661 so that the heat of the sun should <lb></lb>likewise cause them to condense. </s>
26662
26663 <s>Subsequently, because they observed that <lb></lb>in this wise the solidified
26664 juices could be made only in summer, and then <lb></lb>not in all countries, but
26665 only in hot and temperate regions in which it seldom <lb></lb>rains in summer,
26666 they boiled them in vessels over a fire until they began to <lb></lb>thicken. </s>
26667
26668 <s>In this manner, at all times of the year, in all regions, even the
26669 <lb></lb>coldest, solidified juices could be obtained from solutions of such
26670 juices, <lb></lb>whether made by nature or by art. </s>
26671
26672 <s>Afterward, when they saw juices <lb></lb>drip from some roasted stones, they
26673 cooked these in pots in order to obtain <lb></lb>solidified juices in this wise
26674 also. </s>
26675
26676 <s>It is worth the trouble to learn the pro­<lb></lb>portions and the methods by
26677 which these are made.</s>
26678 </p>
26679 <p type="main">
26680
26681 <s>I will therefore begin with salt, which is made from water either salty
26682 <lb></lb>by nature, or by the labour of man, or else from a solution of salt, or
26683 <lb></lb>from lye, likewise salty. </s>
26684
26685 <s>Water which is salty by nature, is condensed and <lb></lb>converted into salt in
26686 salt-pits by the heat of the sun, or else by the heat <lb></lb>of a fire in pans
26687 or pots or trenches. </s>
26688
26689 <s>That which is made salty by <lb></lb>art, is also condensed by fire and changed
26690 into salt. </s>
26691
26692 <s>There should be as <lb></lb>many salt-pits dug as the circumstance of the place
26693 permits, but there should <lb></lb>not be more made than can be used, although
26694 we ought to make as much <lb></lb>salt as we can sell. </s>
26695
26696 <s>The depth of salt-pits should be moderate, and the <lb></lb>bottom should be
26697 level, so that all the water is evaporated from the salt by <lb></lb>the heat of
26698 the sun. </s>
26699
26700 <s>The salt-pits should first be encrusted with salt, so <lb></lb>that they may not
26701 suck up the water. </s>
26702
26703 <s>The method of pouring or leading <lb></lb>sea-water into salt-pits is very old,
26704 and is still in use in many places. </s>
26705
26706 <s>The <lb></lb>method is not less old, but less common, to pour well-water into
26707 salt-pits, as <lb></lb>was done in Babylon, for which Pliny is the authority,
26708 and in Cappadocia, <lb></lb>where they used not only well-water, but also
26709 spring-water. </s>
26710
26711 <s>In all hot <lb></lb>countries salt-water and lake-water are conducted, poured or
26712 carried into <lb></lb>salt-pits, and, being dried by the heat of the sun, are
26713 converted into <pb pagenum="546"></pb>salt.<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> While the salt-water contained in the salt-pits is being
26714 heated by the sun, <lb></lb>if they be flooded with great and frequent showers
26715 of rain the evaporation is <lb></lb>hindered. </s>
26716
26717 <s>If this happens rarely, the salt acquires a disagreeable<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> flavour, and <lb></lb>in this case the salt-pits
26718 have to be filled with other sweet water.</s>
26719 </p>
26720 <p type="main">
26721
26722 <s>Salt from sea-water is made in the following manner. </s>
26723
26724 <s>Near that part <lb></lb>of the seashore where there is a quiet pool, and there
26725 are wide, level plains <lb></lb>which the inundations of the sea do not
26726 overflow, three, four, five, or six <lb></lb>trenches are dug six feet wide,
26727 twelve feet deep, and six hundred feet long, <lb></lb>or longer if the level
26728 place extends for a longer distance; they are two hundred <lb></lb>feet distant
26729 from one another; between these are three transverse trenches. <lb></lb></s>
26730
26731 <s>Then are dug the principal pits, so that when the water has been raised from
26732 <lb></lb>the pool it can flow into the trenches, and from thence into the
26733 salt-pits, <lb></lb>of which there are numbers on the level ground between the
26734 trenches. </s>
26735
26736 <s>The <lb></lb>salt-pits are basins dug to a moderate depth; these are banked round
26737 with <lb></lb>the earth which was dug in sinking them or in cleansing them, so
26738 that between <lb></lb>the basins, earth walls are made a foot high, which retain
26739 the water let into <lb></lb>them. </s>
26740
26741 <s>The trenches have openings, through which the first basins receive <lb></lb>the
26742 water; these basins also have openings, through which the water flows
26743 <lb></lb>again from one into the other. </s>
26744
26745 <s>There should be a slight fall, so that the <lb></lb>water may flow from one basin
26746 into the other, and can thus be replenished. <lb></lb></s>
26747
26748 <s>All these things having been done rightly and in order, the gate is raised
26749 that <lb></lb>opens the mouth of the pool which contains sea-water mixed with
26750 rain-water <lb></lb>or river-water; and thus all of the trenches are filled. </s>
26751
26752 <s>Then the gates of the <lb></lb>first basins are opened, and thus the remaining
26753 basins are filled with the <lb></lb>water from the first; when this salt-water
26754 condenses, all these basins are <lb></lb>incrusted, and thus made clean from
26755 earthy matter. </s>
26756
26757 <s>Then again the first <lb></lb>basins are filled up from the nearest trench with
26758 the same kind of water, <lb></lb>and left until much of the thin liquid is
26759 converted into vapour by the heat <lb></lb>of the sun and dissipated, and the
26760 remainder is considerably thickened. </s>
26761
26762 <s>Then <lb></lb>their gates being opened, the water passes into the second basins;
26763 and <lb></lb>when it has remained there for a certain space of time the gates
26764 are opened, <lb></lb>so that it flows into the third basins, where it is all
26765 condensed into salt. <lb></lb></s>
26766
26767 <s>After the salt has been taken out, the basins are filled again and again with
26768 <lb></lb>sea-water. </s>
26769
26770 <s>The salt is raked up with wooden rakes and thrown out with <lb></lb>shovels.</s>
26771 </p>
26772 <p type="main">
26773
26774 <s>Salt-water is also boiled in pans, placed in sheds near the wells from
26775 <lb></lb>which it is drawn. </s>
26776
26777 <s>Each shed is usually named from some animal or other <lb></lb>thing which is
26778 pictured on a tablet nailed to it. </s>
26779
26780 <s>The walls of these sheds <lb></lb>are made either from baked earth or from wicker
26781 work covered with thick <lb></lb></s>
26782 </p>
26783 <pb pagenum="547"></pb>
26784 <figure></figure>
26785 <p type="caption">
26786
26787 <s>A—SEA. B—POOL. C—GATE. D—TRENCHES. E—SALT
26788 BASINS. F—RAKE. <lb></lb>G—SHOVEL.<pb pagenum="548"></pb>mud, although
26789 some may be made of stones or bricks. </s>
26790
26791 <s>When of brick they <lb></lb>are often sixteen feet high, and if the roof rises
26792 twenty-four feet high, then <lb></lb>the walls which are at the ends must be
26793 made forty feet high, as likewise <lb></lb>the interior partition walls. </s>
26794
26795 <s>The roof consists of large shingles four feet long, <lb></lb>one foot wide, and
26796 two digits thick; these are fixed on long narrow planks <lb></lb>placed on the
26797 rafters, which are joined at the upper end and slope in opposite
26798 <lb></lb>directions. </s>
26799
26800 <s>The whole of the under side is plastered one digit thick with <lb></lb>straw
26801 mixed with lute; likewise the roof on the outside is plastered one <lb></lb>and
26802 a half feet thick with straw mixed with lute, in order that the shed
26803 <lb></lb>should not run any risk of fire, and that it should be proof against
26804 rain, and <lb></lb>be able to retain the heat necessary for drying the lumps of
26805 salt. </s>
26806
26807 <s>Each shed <lb></lb>is divided into three parts, in the first of which the
26808 firewood and straw are <lb></lb>placed; in the middle room, separated from the
26809 first room by a partition, is <lb></lb>the fireplace on which is placed the
26810 caldron. </s>
26811
26812 <s>To the right of the caldron is <lb></lb>a tub, into which is emptied the brine
26813 brought into the shed by the porters; <lb></lb>to the left is a bench, on which
26814 there is room to lay thirty pieces of salt. <lb></lb></s>
26815
26816 <s>In the third room, which is in the back part of the house, there is made a
26817 pile <lb></lb>of clay or ashes eight feet higher than the floor, being the same
26818 height as the <lb></lb>bench. </s>
26819
26820 <s>The master and his assistants, when they carry away the lumps of <lb></lb>salt
26821 from the caldrons, go from the former to the latter. </s>
26822
26823 <s>They ascend from <lb></lb>the right side of the caldron, not by steps, but by a
26824 slope of earth. </s>
26825
26826 <s>At the <lb></lb>top of the end wall are two small windows, and a third is in the
26827 roof, through <lb></lb>which the smoke escapes. </s>
26828
26829 <s>This smoke, emitted from both the back and the <lb></lb>front of the furnace,
26830 finds outlet through a hood through which it makes <lb></lb>its way up to the
26831 windows; this hood consists of boards projecting one <lb></lb>beyond the other,
26832 which are supported by two small beams of the roof. <lb></lb></s>
26833
26834 <s>Opposite the fireplace the middle partition has an open door eight feet high
26835 <lb></lb>and four feet wide, through which there is a gentle draught which
26836 drives the <lb></lb>smoke into the last room; the front wall also has a door of
26837 the same height <lb></lb>and width. </s>
26838
26839 <s>Both of these doors are large enough to permit the firewood or <lb></lb>straw or
26840 the brine to be carried in, and the lumps of salt to be carried out;
26841 <lb></lb>these doors must be closed when the wind blows, so that the boiling
26842 will <lb></lb>not be hindered. </s>
26843
26844 <s>Indeed, glass panes which exclude the wind but transmit the <lb></lb>light,
26845 should be inserted in the windows in the walls.</s>
26846 </p>
26847 <p type="main">
26848
26849 <s>They construct the greater part of the fireplace of rock-salt and of clay
26850 <lb></lb>mixed with salt and moistened with brine, for such walls are greatly
26851 <lb></lb>hardened by the fire. </s>
26852
26853 <s>These fireplaces are made eight and a half feet long, <lb></lb>seven and three
26854 quarters feet wide, and, if wood is burned in them, nearly <lb></lb>four feet
26855 high; but if straw is burned in them, they are six feet high. </s>
26856
26857 <s>An <lb></lb>iron rod, about four feet long, is engaged in a hole in an iron foot,
26858 which <lb></lb>stands on the base of the middle of the furnace mouth. </s>
26859
26860 <s>This mouth is three <lb></lb>feet in width, and has a door which opens inward;
26861 through it they throw <lb></lb>in the straw.</s>
26862 </p>
26863 <p type="main">
26864
26865 <s>The caldrons are rectangular, eight feet long, seven feet wide, and half a
26866 <lb></lb>foot high, and are made of sheets of iron or lead, three feet long and
26867 of the <lb></lb>same width, all but two digits. </s>
26868
26869 <s>These plates are not very thick, so that the </s>
26870 </p>
26871 <pb pagenum="549"></pb>
26872 <figure></figure>
26873 <p type="caption">
26874
26875 <s>A—SHED. B—PAINTED SIGNS. C—FIRST ROOM. D—MIDDLE ROOM.
26876 E—THIRD <lb></lb>ROOM. F—TWO LITTLE WINDOWS IN THE END WALL.
26877 G—THIRD LITTLE WINDOW IN THE <lb></lb>ROOF. H—WELL. I—WELL OF
26878 ANOTHER KIND. K—CASK. L—POLE. M—FORKED <lb></lb>STICKS IN
26879 WHICH THE PORTERS REST THE POLE WHEN THEY ARE TIRED.<pb pagenum="550"></pb>water
26880 is heated more quickly by the fire, and is boiled away rapidly. </s>
26881
26882 <s>The <lb></lb>more salty the water is, the sooner it is condensed into salt. </s>
26883
26884 <s>To prevent <lb></lb>the brine from leaking out at the points where the metal
26885 plates are fastened <lb></lb>with rivets, the caldrons are smeared over with a
26886 cement made of ox-liver <lb></lb>and ox-blood mixed with ashes. </s>
26887
26888 <s>On each side of the middle of the furnace <lb></lb>two rectangular posts, three
26889 feet long, and half a foot thick and wide are <lb></lb>set into the ground, so
26890 that they are distant from each other only one and <lb></lb>a half feet. </s>
26891
26892 <s>Each of them rises one and a half feet above the caldron. </s>
26893
26894 <s>After <lb></lb>the caldron has been placed on the walls of the furnace, two beams
26895 of the <lb></lb>same width and thickness as the posts, but four feet long, are
26896 laid on these <lb></lb>posts, and are mortised in so that they shall not fall. </s>
26897
26898 <s>There rest trans­<lb></lb>versely upon these beams three bars, three feet
26899 long, three digits wide, and <lb></lb>two digits thick, distant from one another
26900 one foot. </s>
26901
26902 <s>On each of these hang <lb></lb>three iron hooks, two beyond the beams and one in
26903 the middle; these are a <lb></lb>foot long, and are hooked at both ends, one
26904 hook turning to the right, the other <lb></lb>to the left. </s>
26905
26906 <s>The bottom hook catches in the eye of a staple, whose ends are <lb></lb>fixed in
26907 the bottom of the caldron, and the eye projects from it. </s>
26908
26909 <s>There are <lb></lb>besides, two longer bars six feet long, one palm wide, and
26910 three digits thick, <lb></lb>which pass under the front beam and rest upon the
26911 rear beam. </s>
26912
26913 <s>At the rear end <lb></lb>of each of the bars there is an iron hook two feet and
26914 three digits long, the <lb></lb>lower end of which is bent so as to support the
26915 caldron. </s>
26916
26917 <s>The rear end of the <lb></lb>caldron does not rest on the two rear corners of the
26918 fireplace, but is distant <lb></lb>from the fireplace two thirds of a foot, so
26919 that the flame and smoke can escape; <lb></lb>this rear end of the fireplace is
26920 half a foot thick and half a foot higher than <lb></lb>the caldron. </s>
26921
26922 <s>This is also the thickness and height of the wall between the <lb></lb>caldron
26923 and the third room of the shed, to which it is adjacent. </s>
26924
26925 <s>This back <lb></lb>wall is made of clay and ashes, unlike the others which are
26926 made of rock-salt. <lb></lb></s>
26927
26928 <s>The caldron rests on the two front corners and sides of the fireplace, and is
26929 <lb></lb>cemented with ashes, so that the flames shall not escape. </s>
26930
26931 <s>If a dipperful <lb></lb>of brine poured into the caldron should flow into all the
26932 corners, the caldron <lb></lb>is rightly set upon the fireplace.</s>
26933 </p>
26934 <p type="main">
26935
26936 <s>The wooden dipper holds ten Roman <emph type="italics"></emph>sextarii,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the cask holds eight <lb></lb>dippers full<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>. </s>
26937
26938 <s>The brine drawn up from the well is poured into such casks <lb></lb>and carried
26939 by porters, as I have said before, into the shed and poured into a <lb></lb>tub,
26940 and in those places where the brine is very strong it is at once
26941 trans­<lb></lb>ferred with the dippers into the caldron. </s>
26942
26943 <s>That brine which is less strong is <lb></lb>thrown into a small tub with a deep
26944 ladle, the spoon and handle of which <lb></lb>are hewn out of one piece of wood. </s>
26945
26946 <s>In this tub rock-salt is placed in order </s>
26947 </p>
26948 <pb pagenum="551"></pb>
26949 <figure></figure>
26950 <p type="caption">
26951
26952 <s>A—FIREPLACE. B—MOUTH OF FIREPLACE. C—CALDRON. D—POSTS
26953 SUNK INTO THE <lb></lb>GROUND. E—CROSS-BEAMS. F—SHORTER BARS.
26954 G—IRON HOOKS. H—STAPLES. <lb></lb>I—LONGER BARS. K—IRON
26955 ROD BENT TO SUPPORT THE CALDRON.<pb pagenum="552"></pb>that the water should be
26956 made more salty, and it is then run off through a <lb></lb>launder which leads
26957 into the caldron. </s>
26958
26959 <s>From thirty-seven dippersful of brine <lb></lb>the master or his deputy, at Halle
26960 in Saxony,<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> makes two cone-shaped
26961 pieces <lb></lb>of salt. </s>
26962
26963 <s>Each master has a helper, or in the place of a helper his wife assists
26964 <lb></lb>him in his work, and, in addition, a youth who throws wood or straw
26965 under <lb></lb>the caldron. </s>
26966
26967 <s>He, on account of the great heat of the workshop, wears <lb></lb>a straw cap on
26968 his head and a breech cloth, being otherwise quite naked. <lb></lb></s>
26969
26970 <s>As soon as the master has poured the first dipperful of brine into the
26971 caldron <lb></lb>the youth sets fire to the wood and straw laid under it. </s>
26972
26973 <s>If the firewood is <lb></lb>bundles of faggots or brushwood, the salt will be
26974 white, but if straw is burned, <lb></lb>then it is not infrequently blackish,
26975 for the sparks, which are drawn up with <lb></lb>the smoke into the hood, fall
26976 down again into the water and colour it black.</s>
26977 </p>
26978 <p type="main">
26979
26980 <s>In order to accelerate the condensation of the brine, when the master
26981 <lb></lb>has poured in two casks and as many dippersful of brine, he adds about
26982 a <lb></lb>Roman <emph type="italics"></emph>cyathus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a
26983 half of bullock&#039;s blood, or of calf&#039;s blood, or buck&#039;s <lb></lb>blood, or else
26984 he mixes it into the nineteenth dipperful of brine, in order that <lb></lb>it
26985 may be dissolved and distributed into all the corners of the caldron; in
26986 other <lb></lb>places the blood is dissolved in beer. </s>
26987
26988 <s>When the boiling water seems to be <lb></lb>mixed with scum, he skims it with a
26989 ladle; this scum, if he be working with <lb></lb>rock-salt, he throws into the
26990 opening in the furnace through which the smoke <lb></lb>escapes, and it is dried
26991 into rock-salt; if it be not from rock-salt, he pours <lb></lb>it on to the
26992 floor of the workshop. </s>
26993
26994 <s>From the beginning to the boiling and <lb></lb>skimming is the work of
26995 half-an-hour; after this it boils down for another <lb></lb>quarter-of-an-hour,
26996 after which time it begins to condense into salt. </s>
26997
26998 <s>When <lb></lb>it begins to thicken with the heat, he and his helper stir it
26999 assiduously with a <lb></lb>wooden spatula, and then he allows it to boil for an
27000 hour. </s>
27001
27002 <s>After this he pours <lb></lb>in a <emph type="italics"></emph>cyathus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and a half of beer. </s>
27003
27004 <s>In order that the wind should not blow <lb></lb>into the caldron, the helper
27005 covers the front with a board seven and a half <lb></lb>feet long and one foot
27006 high, and covers each of the sides with boards three and <lb></lb>three quarters
27007 feet long. </s>
27008
27009 <s>In order that the front board may hold more <lb></lb>firmly, it is fitted into
27010 the caldron itself, and the sideboards are fixed on the <lb></lb>front board and
27011 upon the transverse beam. </s>
27012
27013 <s>Afterward, when the boards <lb></lb>have been lifted off, the helper places two
27014 baskets, two feet high and as many <lb></lb>wide at the top, and a palm wide at
27015 the bottom, on the transverse beams, <lb></lb>and into them the master throws
27016 the salt with a shovel, taking half-an-hour <lb></lb>to fill them. </s>
27017
27018 <s>Then, replacing the boards on the caldron, he allows the brine <lb></lb>to boil
27019 for three quarters of an hour. </s>
27020
27021 <s>Afterward the salt has again to be <lb></lb>removed with a shovel, and when the
27022 baskets are full, they pile up the salt in <lb></lb>heaps.</s>
27023 </p>
27024 <p type="main">
27025
27026 <s>In different localities the salt is moulded into different shapes. </s>
27027
27028 <s>In the <lb></lb>baskets the salt assumes the form of a cone; it is not moulded in
27029 baskets <lb></lb>alone, but also in moulds into which they throw the salt, which
27030 are made in </s>
27031 </p>
27032 <pb pagenum="553"></pb>
27033 <figure></figure>
27034 <p type="caption">
27035
27036 <s>A—WOODEN DIPPER. B—CASK. C—TUB. D—MASTER.
27037 E—YOUTH. F—WIFE. <lb></lb>G—WOODEN SPADE. H—BOARDS.
27038 I—BASKETS. K—HOE. L—RAKE. M—STRAW.
27039 <lb></lb>N—BOWL. O—BUCKET CONTAINING THE BLOOD. P—TANKARD
27040 WHICH CONTAINS BEER.<pb pagenum="554"></pb>the likeness of many objects, as for
27041 instance tablets. </s>
27042
27043 <s>These tablets and <lb></lb>cones are kept in the higher part of the third room of
27044 the house, or else on <lb></lb>the flat bench of the same height, in order that
27045 they may dry better in the <lb></lb>warm air. </s>
27046
27047 <s>In the manner I have described, a master and his helper continue <lb></lb>one
27048 after the other, alternately boiling the brine and moulding the salt,
27049 <lb></lb>day and night, with the exception only of the annual feast days. </s>
27050
27051 <s>No caldron <lb></lb>is able to stand the fire for more than half a year. </s>
27052
27053 <s>The master pours in water <lb></lb>and washes it out every week; when it is
27054 washed out he puts straw under <lb></lb>it and pounds it; new caldrons he washes
27055 three times in the first two <lb></lb>weeks, and afterward twice. </s>
27056
27057 <s>In this manner the incrustations fall from <lb></lb>the bottom; if they are not
27058 cleared off, the salt would have to be made <lb></lb>more slowly over a fiercer
27059 fire, which requires more brine and burns the <lb></lb>plates of the caldron. </s>
27060
27061 <s>If any cracks make their appearance in the caldron <lb></lb>they are filled up
27062 with cement. </s>
27063
27064 <s>The salt made during the first two weeks is <lb></lb>not so good, being usually
27065 stained by the rust at the bottom where incrusta­<lb></lb>tions have not yet
27066 adhered.</s>
27067 </p>
27068 <p type="main">
27069
27070 <s>Although salt made in this manner is prepared only from the brine of </s>
27071 </p>
27072 <figure></figure>
27073 <p type="caption">
27074
27075 <s>A—POOL. B—POTS. C—LADLE. D—PANS. E—TONGS.<pb pagenum="555"></pb>springs and wells, yet it is also possible to use this
27076 method in the case of <lb></lb>river-, lake-, and sea-water, and also of those
27077 waters which are artificially <lb></lb>salted. </s>
27078
27079 <s>For in places where rock-salt is dug, the impure and the broken pieces
27080 <lb></lb>are thrown into fresh water, which, when boiled, condenses into salt. </s>
27081
27082 <s>Some, <lb></lb>indeed, boil sea-salt in fresh water again, and mould the salt
27083 into the little <lb></lb>cones and other shapes.</s>
27084 </p>
27085 <p type="main">
27086
27087 <s>Some people make salt by another method, from salt water which <lb></lb>flows
27088 from hot springs that issue boiling from the earth. </s>
27089
27090 <s>They set earthen­<lb></lb>ware pots in a pool of the spring-water, and into
27091 them they pour water scooped <lb></lb>up with ladles from the hot spring until
27092 they are half full. </s>
27093
27094 <s>The perpetual <lb></lb>heat of the waters of the pool evaporates the salt water
27095 just as the heat of <lb></lb>the fire does in the caldrons. </s>
27096
27097 <s>As soon as it begins to thicken, which happens <lb></lb>when it has been reduced
27098 by boiling to a third or more, they seize the pots <lb></lb>with tongs and pour
27099 the contents into small rectangular iron pans, which have <lb></lb>also been
27100 placed in the pool. </s>
27101
27102 <s>The interior of these pans is usually three feet <lb></lb>long, two feet wide,
27103 and three digits deep, and they stand on four heavy legs, <lb></lb>so that the
27104 water flows freely all round, but not into them. </s>
27105
27106 <s>Since the water <lb></lb>flows continuously from the pool through the little
27107 canals, and the spring </s>
27108 </p>
27109 <figure></figure>
27110 <p type="caption">
27111
27112 <s>A—POTS. B—TRIPOD. C—DEEP LADLE.<pb pagenum="556"></pb>always
27113 provides a new and copious supply, always boiling hot, it condenses <lb></lb>the
27114 thickened water poured into the pans into salt; this is at once taken
27115 <lb></lb>out with shovels, and then the work begins all over again. </s>
27116
27117 <s>If the salty water <lb></lb>contains other juices, as is usually the case with
27118 hot springs, no salt should <lb></lb>be made from them.</s>
27119 </p>
27120 <p type="main">
27121
27122 <s>Others boil salt water, and especially sea-water, in large iron pots;
27123 <lb></lb>this salt is blackish, for in most cases they burn straw under them. </s>
27124
27125 <s>Some <lb></lb>people boil in these pots the brine in which fish is pickled. </s>
27126
27127 <s>The salt which <lb></lb>they make tastes and smells of fish.</s>
27128 </p>
27129 <figure></figure>
27130 <p type="caption">
27131
27132 <s>A—TRENCH. B—VAT INTO WHICH THE SALT WATER FLOWS. C—LADLE.
27133 D—SMALL <lb></lb>BUCKET WITH POLE FASTENED INTO IT.</s>
27134 </p>
27135 <p type="main">
27136
27137 <s>Those who make salt by pouring brine over firewood, lay the wood in
27138 <lb></lb>trenches which are twelve feet long, seven feet wide, and two and one
27139 half <lb></lb>feet deep, so that the water poured in should not flow out. </s>
27140
27141 <s>These trenches <lb></lb>are constructed of rock-salt wherever it is to be had, in
27142 order that they should <lb></lb>not soak up the water, and so that the earth
27143 should not fall in on the front, <lb></lb>back and sides. </s>
27144
27145 <s>As the charcoal is turned into salt at the same time as the </s>
27146 </p>
27147 <pb pagenum="557"></pb>
27148 <figure></figure>
27149 <p type="caption">
27150
27151 <s>A—LARGE VAT. B—PLUG. C—SMALL TUB. D—DEEP LADLE.
27152 E—SMALL VAT. <lb></lb>F—CALDRON.<pb pagenum="558"></pb>salt liquor, the
27153 Spaniards think, as Pliny writes<emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>,
27154 that the wood itself turns <lb></lb>into salt. </s>
27155
27156 <s>Oak is the best wood, as its pure ash yields salt; elsewhere
27157 hazel­<lb></lb>wood is lauded. </s>
27158
27159 <s>But with whatever wood it be made, this salt is not <lb></lb>greatly appreciated,
27160 being black and not quite pure; on that account this <lb></lb>method of
27161 salt-making is disdained by the Germans and Spaniards.</s>
27162 </p>
27163 <p type="main">
27164
27165 <s>The solutions from which salt is made are prepared from salty earth or
27166 <lb></lb>from earth rich in salt and saltpetre. </s>
27167
27168 <s>Lye is made from the ashes of reeds <lb></lb>and rushes. </s>
27169
27170 <s>The solution obtained from salty earth by boiling, makes salt <lb></lb>only; from
27171 the other, of which I will speak more a little later, salt and
27172 salt­<lb></lb>petre are made; and from ashes is derived lye, from which its
27173 own salt is <lb></lb>obtained. </s>
27174
27175 <s>The ashes, as well as the earth, should first be put into a large <lb></lb>vat;
27176 then fresh water should be poured over the ashes or earth, and it should
27177 <lb></lb>be stirred for about twelve hours with a stick, so that it may dissolve
27178 the <lb></lb>salt. </s>
27179
27180 <s>Then the plug is pulled out of the large vat; the solution of salt or the
27181 <lb></lb>lye is drained into a small tub and emptied with ladles into small
27182 vats; <lb></lb>finally, such a solution is transferred into iron or lead
27183 caldrons and boiled, <lb></lb>until the water having evaporated, the juices are
27184 condensed into salt. </s>
27185
27186 <s>The <lb></lb>above are the various methods for making salt. (Illustration p. </s>
27187
27188 <s>557.)</s>
27189 </p>
27190 <p type="main">
27191
27192 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Nítrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> is usually made from <emph type="italics"></emph>nitrous<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> waters, or from solutions or from
27193 <lb></lb>lye. </s>
27194
27195 <s>In the same manner as sea-water or salt-water is poured into salt-pits
27196 <lb></lb>and evaporated by the heat of the sun and changed into salt, so the
27197 <emph type="italics"></emph>nítrous<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>Nile
27198 is led into <emph type="italics"></emph>nítrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
27199 pits and evaporated by the heat of the sun and con­<lb></lb></s>
27200 </p>
27201 <pb pagenum="559"></pb>
27202 <figure></figure>
27203 <p type="caption">
27204
27205 <s>A—NILE. B—NITRUM-PITS, SUCH AS I CONJECTURE THEM TO BE.<emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>verted into <emph type="italics"></emph>nítrum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
27206 <s> Just as the sea, in flowing of its own will over the soil <lb></lb>of this same
27207 Egypt, is changed into salt, so also the Nile, when it overflows <lb></lb>in the
27208 dog days, is converted into <emph type="italics"></emph>nitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> when it flows into the <emph type="italics"></emph>nítrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> pits. <lb></lb></s>
27209
27210 <s>The solution from which <emph type="italics"></emph>nitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is produced is obtained from fresh water <lb></lb>percolating through <emph type="italics"></emph>nitrous<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> earth, in the same
27211 manner as lye is made from <lb></lb>fresh water percolating through ashes of oak
27212 or hard oak. </s>
27213
27214 <s>Both solutions <lb></lb>are taken out of vats and poured into rectangular copper
27215 caldrons, and are <lb></lb>boiled until at last they condense into <emph type="italics"></emph>nitrum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
27216 </p>
27217 <pb pagenum="560"></pb>
27218 <p type="main">
27219
27220 <s>Native as well as manufactured <emph type="italics"></emph>nítrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is mixed in vats with urine <lb></lb>and boiled in the same
27221 caldrons; the decoction is poured into vats in which <lb></lb>are copper wires,
27222 and, adhering to them, it hardens and becomes <emph type="italics"></emph>chrysocolla,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>which the Moors call <emph type="italics"></emph>borax.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
27223 <s> Formerly <emph type="italics"></emph>nitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> was
27224 compounded with <lb></lb>Cyprian verdigris, and ground with Cyprian copper in
27225 Cyprian mortars, as <lb></lb>Pliny writes. </s>
27226
27227 <s>Some <emph type="italics"></emph>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is made of
27228 rock-alum and sal-ammoniac.<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
27229 </p>
27230 <pb pagenum="561"></pb>
27231 <figure></figure>
27232 <p type="caption">
27233
27234 <s>A—VAT IN WHICH THE SODA IS MIXED. B—CALDRON. C—TUB IN WHICH
27235 <emph type="italics"></emph>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> IS
27236 <lb></lb>CONDENSED. D—COPPER WIRES. E—MORTAR.</s>
27237 </p>
27238 <p type="main">
27239
27240 <s>Saltpetre<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> is made from a dry,
27241 slightly fatty earth, which, if it be re­<lb></lb>tained for a while in the
27242 mouth, has an acrid and salty taste. </s>
27243
27244 <s>This earth, <lb></lb>together with a powder, are alternately put into a vat in
27245 layers a palm deep. <lb></lb></s>
27246
27247 <s>The powder consists of two parts of unslaked lime and three parts of ashes of
27248 <lb></lb>oak, or holmoak, or Italian oak, or Turkey oak, or of some similar
27249 kind. </s>
27250
27251 <s>Each <lb></lb>vat is filled with alternate layers of these to within
27252 three-quarters of a foot <lb></lb>of the top, and then water is poured in until
27253 it is full. </s>
27254
27255 <s>As the water percolates <lb></lb>through the material it dissolves the saltpetre;
27256 then, the plug being pulled <lb></lb>out from the vat, the solution is drained
27257 into a tub and ladled out into small <pb pagenum="562"></pb>vats. </s>
27258
27259 <s>If when tested it tastes very salty, and at the same time acrid, it is
27260 <lb></lb>good; but, if not, then it is condemned, and it must be made to
27261 percolate <lb></lb>again through the same material or through a fresh lot. </s>
27262
27263 <s>Even two or three <lb></lb>waters may be made to percolate through the same earth
27264 and become full <lb></lb>of saltpetre, but the solutions thus obtained must not
27265 be mixed together <lb></lb>unless all have the same taste, which rarely or never
27266 happens. </s>
27267
27268 <s>The first of <lb></lb>these solutions is poured into the first vat, the next into
27269 the second, the third <lb></lb>into the third vat; the second and third
27270 solutions are used instead of plain <lb></lb>water to percolate through fresh
27271 material; the first solution is made in <lb></lb>this manner from both the
27272 second and third. </s>
27273
27274 <s>As soon as there is an abun­<lb></lb>dance of this solution it is poured into
27275 the rectangular copper caldron and <lb></lb>evaporated to one half by boiling;
27276 then it is transferred into a vat covered <lb></lb>with a lid, in which the
27277 earthy matter settles to the bottom. </s>
27278
27279 <s>When the <lb></lb>solution is clear it is poured back into the same pan, or into
27280 another, and <lb></lb>re-boiled. </s>
27281
27282 <s>When it bubbles and forms a scum, in order that it should <lb></lb>not run over
27283 and that it may be greatly purified, there is poured into it three <lb></lb>or
27284 four pounds of lye, made from three parts of oak or similar ash and one of
27285 <lb></lb>unslaked lime. </s>
27286
27287 <s>But in the water, prior to its being poured in, is dissolved
27288 rock­<lb></lb>alum, in the proportion of one hundred and twenty <emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the former to five
27289 <pb pagenum="563"></pb><emph type="italics"></emph>librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the latter. </s>
27290
27291 <s>Shortly afterward the solution will be found to be clear <lb></lb>and blue. </s>
27292
27293 <s>It is boiled until the waters, which are easily volatile (<emph type="italics"></emph>subtiles<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), are
27294 <lb></lb>evaporated, and then the greater part of the salt, after it has settled
27295 at the <lb></lb>bottom of the pan, is taken out with iron ladles. </s>
27296
27297 <s>Then the concentrated <lb></lb>solution is transferred to the vat in which rods
27298 are placed horizontally and <lb></lb>vertically, to which it adheres when cold,
27299 and if there be much, it is condensed <lb></lb>in three or four days into
27300 saltpetre. </s>
27301
27302 <s>Then the solution which has not con­<lb></lb>gealed, is poured out and put on
27303 one side or re-boiled. </s>
27304
27305 <s>The saltpetre being <lb></lb>cut out and washed with its own solution, is thrown
27306 on to boards that it may <lb></lb>drain and dry. </s>
27307
27308 <s>The yield of saltpetre will be much or little in proportion <lb></lb>to whether
27309 the solution has absorbed much or little; when the saltpetre <lb></lb>has been
27310 obtained from lye, which purifies itself, it is somewhat clear and
27311 <lb></lb>pure.</s>
27312 </p>
27313 <p type="main">
27314
27315 <s>The purest and most transparent, because free from salt, is made if it is
27316 <lb></lb>drawn off at the thickening stage, according to the following method. </s>
27317
27318 <s>There </s>
27319 </p>
27320 <figure></figure>
27321 <p type="caption">
27322
27323 <s>A—CALDRON. B—LARGE VAT INTO WHICH SAND IS THROWN. C—PLUG.
27324 D—TUB. <lb></lb>E—VAT CONTAINING THE RODS.<pb pagenum="564"></pb>are
27325 poured into the caldron the same number of <emph type="italics"></emph>amphorae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the solution as of <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>congíi<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of the lye of
27326 which I have already spoken, and into the same caldron <lb></lb>is thrown as
27327 much of the already made saltpetre as the solution and lye will
27328 <lb></lb>dissolve. </s>
27329
27330 <s>As soon as the mixture effervesces and forms scum, it is
27331 trans­<lb></lb>ferred to a vat, into which on a cloth has been thrown washed
27332 sand obtained <lb></lb>from a river. </s>
27333
27334 <s>Soon afterward the plug is drawn out of the hole at the <lb></lb>bottom, and the
27335 mixture, having percolated through the sand, escapes into <lb></lb>a tub. </s>
27336
27337 <s>It is then reduced by boiling in one or another of the caldrons, until
27338 <lb></lb>the greater part of the solution has evaporated; but as soon as it is
27339 well <lb></lb>boiled and forms scum, a little lye is poured into it. </s>
27340
27341 <s>Then it is transferred to <lb></lb>another vat in which there are small rods, to
27342 which it adheres and congeals in <lb></lb>two days if there is but little of it,
27343 or if there is much in three days, or <lb></lb>at the most in four days; if it
27344 does not condense, it is poured back into the <lb></lb>caldron and re-boiled
27345 down to half; then it is transferred to the vat to cool. <lb></lb></s>
27346
27347 <s>The process must be repeated as often as is necessary.</s>
27348 </p>
27349 <p type="main">
27350
27351 <s>Others refine saltpetre by another method, for with it they fill a pot
27352 <lb></lb>made of copper, and, covering it with a copper lid, set it over live
27353 coals, where <lb></lb>it is heated until it melts. </s>
27354
27355 <s>They do not cement down the lid, but it has <lb></lb>a handle, and can be lifted
27356 for them to see whether or not the melting has taken <lb></lb>place. </s>
27357
27358 <s>When it has melted, powdered sulphur is sprinkled in, and if the pot <lb></lb>set
27359 on the fire does not light it, the sulphur kindles, whereby the thick,
27360 greasy <lb></lb>matter floating on the saltpetre burns up, and when it is
27361 consumed the salt­<lb></lb>petre is pure. </s>
27362
27363 <s>Soon afterward the pot is removed from the fire, and later, when <lb></lb>cold,
27364 the purest saltpetre is taken out, which has the appearance of white
27365 <lb></lb>marble, the earthy residue then remains at the bottom. </s>
27366
27367 <s>The earths from <lb></lb>which the solution was made, together with branches of
27368 oak or similar trees, <lb></lb>are exposed under the open sky and sprinkled with
27369 water containing saltpetre. <lb></lb></s>
27370
27371 <s>After remaining thus for five or six years, they are again ready to be made
27372 <lb></lb>into a solution.</s>
27373 </p>
27374 <p type="main">
27375
27376 <s>Pure saltpetre which has rested many years in the earth, and that which
27377 <lb></lb>exudes from the stone walls of wine cellars and dark places, is mixed
27378 with the <lb></lb>first solution and evaporated by boiling.</s>
27379 </p>
27380 <p type="main">
27381
27382 <s>Thus far I have described the methods of making <emph type="italics"></emph>nítrum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which are not <lb></lb>less
27383 varied or multifarious than those for making salt. </s>
27384
27385 <s>Now I propose to <lb></lb>describe the methods of making alum,<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> which are likewise neither all alike,
27386 <lb></lb>nor simple, because it is made from boiling aluminous water until it
27387 con­<lb></lb>denses to alum, or else from boiling a solution of alum which
27388 is obtained <lb></lb>from a kind of earth, or from rocks, or from pyrites, or
27389 other minerals.</s>
27390 </p>
27391 <pb pagenum="565"></pb>
27392 <p type="main">
27393
27394 <s>This kind of earth having first been dug up in such quantity as would
27395 <lb></lb>make three hundred wheelbarrow loads, is thrown into two tanks; then
27396 the <lb></lb>water is turned into them, and if it (the earth) contains vitriol
27397 it must be <lb></lb>diluted with urine. </s>
27398
27399 <s>The workmen must many times a day stir the <lb></lb>ore with long, thick sticks
27400 in order that the water and urine may be <lb></lb>mixed with it; then the plugs
27401 having been taken out of both tanks, the <lb></lb>solution is drawn off into a
27402 trough, which is carved out of one or two trees. <lb></lb></s>
27403
27404 <s>If the locality is supplied with an abundance of such ore, it should not
27405 <lb></lb>immediately be thrown into the tanks, but first conveyed into open
27406 spaces <lb></lb>and heaped up, for the longer it is exposed to the air and the
27407 rain, the better it <lb></lb>is; after some months, during which the ore has
27408 been heaped up in open <lb></lb>spaces into mounds, there are generated veinlets
27409 of far better quality than <lb></lb>the ore. </s>
27410
27411 <s>Then it is conveyed into six or more tanks, nine feet in length <lb></lb>and
27412 breadth and five in depth, and afterward water is drawn into them <lb></lb>of
27413 similar solution. </s>
27414
27415 <s>After this, when the water has absorbed the alum, the <lb></lb>plugs are pulled
27416 out, and the solution escapes into a round reservoir forty <lb></lb>feet wide
27417 and three feet deep. </s>
27418
27419 <s>Then the ore is thrown out of the tanks <lb></lb>into other tanks, and water
27420 again being run into the latter and the urine <lb></lb>added and stirred by
27421 means of poles, the plugs are withdrawn and <lb></lb>the solution is run off
27422 into the same reservoir. </s>
27423
27424 <s>A few days afterward, <lb></lb>the reservoirs containing the solution are emptied
27425 through a small launder, <lb></lb>and run into rectangular lead caldrons; it is
27426 boiled in them until the <pb pagenum="566"></pb>greater part of the water has
27427 evaporated. </s>
27428
27429 <s>The earthy sediment deposited <lb></lb>at the bottom of the caldron is composed
27430 of fatty and aluminous matter, which <lb></lb>usually consists of small
27431 incrustations, in which there is not infrequently found <lb></lb>a very white
27432 and very light powder of asbestos or gypsum. </s>
27433
27434 <s>The solution now <lb></lb>seems to be full of meal. </s>
27435
27436 <s>Some people instead pour the partly evaporated <lb></lb>solution into a vat, so
27437 that it may become pure and clear; then pouring it <lb></lb>back into the
27438 caldron, they boil it again until it becomes mealy. </s>
27439
27440 <s>By which­<lb></lb>ever process it has been condensed, it is then poured into
27441 a wooden tub <lb></lb>sunk into the earth in order to cool it. </s>
27442
27443 <s>When it becomes cold it is poured <lb></lb>into vats, in which are arranged
27444 horizontal and vertical twigs, to which the <lb></lb>alum clings when it
27445 condenses; and thus are made the small white trans­<lb></lb>parent cubes,
27446 which are laid to dry in hot rooms.</s>
27447 </p>
27448 <p type="main">
27449
27450 <s>If vitriol forms part of the aluminous ore, the material is dissolved in
27451 <lb></lb>water without being mixed with urine, but it is necessary to pour that
27452 into <lb></lb>the clear and pure solution when it is to be re-boiled. </s>
27453
27454 <s>This separates the <lb></lb>vitriol from the alum, for by this method the latter
27455 sinks to the bottom of the <lb></lb>caldron, while the former floats on the top;
27456 both must be poured separately <lb></lb>into smaller vessels, and from these
27457 into vats to condense. </s>
27458
27459 <s>If, however, when <lb></lb>the solution was re-boiled they did not separate, then
27460 they must be poured <lb></lb>from the smaller vessels into larger vessels and
27461 covered over; then the vitriol <lb></lb>separating from the alum, it condenses. </s>
27462
27463 <s>Both are cut out and put to dry in <lb></lb>the hot room, and are ready to be
27464 sold; the solution which did not congeal in </s>
27465 </p>
27466 <pb pagenum="567"></pb>
27467 <figure></figure>
27468 <p type="caption">
27469
27470 <s>A—TANKS. B—STIRRING POLES. C—PLUG. D—TROUGH.
27471 E—RESERVOIR. F—LAUNDER. <lb></lb>G—LEAD CALDRON.
27472 H—WOODEN TUBS SUNK INTO THE EARTH. I—VATS IN WHICH <lb></lb>TWIGS
27473 ARE FIXED.<pb pagenum="568"></pb>the vessels and vats is again poured back into
27474 the caldron to be re-boiled. <lb></lb></s>
27475
27476 <s>The earth which settled at the bottom of the caldron is carried back to the
27477 <lb></lb>tanks, and, together with the ore, is again dissolved with water and
27478 urine. <lb></lb></s>
27479
27480 <s>The earth which remains in the tanks after the solution has been drawn off
27481 <lb></lb>is emptied in a heap, and daily becomes more and more aluminous in the
27482 <lb></lb>same way as the earth from which saltpetre was made, but fuller of its
27483 juices, <lb></lb>wherefore it is again thrown into the tanks and percolated by
27484 water.</s>
27485 </p>
27486 <p type="main">
27487
27488 <s>Aluminous rock is first roasted in a furnace similar to a lime kiln. </s>
27489
27490 <s>At <lb></lb>the bottom of the kiln a vaulted fireplace is made of the same kind
27491 of rock; <lb></lb>the remainder of the empty part of the kiln is then entirely
27492 filled with the <lb></lb>same aluminous rocks. </s>
27493
27494 <s>Then they are heated with fire until they are red <lb></lb>hot and have exhaled
27495 their sulphurous fumes, which occurs, according to their <lb></lb>divers nature,
27496 within the space of ten, eleven, twelve, or more hours. </s>
27497
27498 <s>One <lb></lb>thing the master must guard against most of all is not to roast the
27499 rock <lb></lb>either too much or too little, for on the one hand they would not
27500 soften when <lb></lb>sprinkled with water, and on the other they either would be
27501 too hard or <lb></lb>would crumble into ashes; from neither would much alum be
27502 obtained, for <lb></lb>the strength which they have would be decreased. </s>
27503
27504 <s>When the rocks are cooled <lb></lb>they are drawn out and conveyed into an open
27505 space, where they are piled one <lb></lb>upon the other in heaps fifty feet
27506 long, eight feet wide, and four feet high, <lb></lb>which are sprinkled for
27507 forty days with water carried in deep ladles. </s>
27508
27509 <s>In <lb></lb>spring the sprinkling is done both morning and evening, and in summer
27510 at <pb pagenum="569"></pb>noon besides. </s>
27511
27512 <s>After being moistened for this length of time the rocks begin <lb></lb>to fall to
27513 pieces like slaked lime, and there originates a certain new material <lb></lb>of
27514 the future alum, which is soft and similar to the <emph type="italics"></emph>liquidae medullae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> found <lb></lb>in the rocks. </s>
27515
27516 <s>It is white if the stone was white before it was roasted, and
27517 <lb></lb>rose-coloured if red was mixed with the white; from the former, white
27518 <lb></lb>alum is obtained, and from the latter, rose-coloured. </s>
27519
27520 <s>A round furnace is <lb></lb>made, the lower part of which, in order to be able to
27521 endure the force of <lb></lb>the heat, is made of rock that neither melts nor
27522 crumbles to powder by the <lb></lb>fire. </s>
27523
27524 <s>It is constructed in the form of a basket, the walls of which are two
27525 <lb></lb>feet high, made of the same rock. </s>
27526
27527 <s>On these walls rests a large round caldron <lb></lb>made of copper plates, which
27528 is concave at the bottom, where it is eight feet <lb></lb>in diameter. </s>
27529
27530 <s>In the empty space under the bottom they place the wood to be <lb></lb>kindled
27531 with fire. </s>
27532
27533 <s>Around the edge of the bottom of the caldron, rock <lb></lb>is built in
27534 cone-shaped, and the diameter of the bottom of the rock structure <lb></lb>is
27535 seven feet, and of the top ten feet; it is eight feet deep. </s>
27536
27537 <s>The inside, <lb></lb>after being rubbed over with oil, is covered with cement, so
27538 that it may be <lb></lb>able to hold boiling water; the cement is composed of
27539 fresh lime, of <lb></lb>which the lumps are slaked with wine, of iron-scales,
27540 and of sea-snails, <lb></lb>ground and mixed with the white of eggs and oil. </s>
27541
27542 <s>The edges of the caldron <lb></lb>are surmounted with a circle of wood a foot
27543 thick and half a foot high, <lb></lb>on which the workmen rest the wooden
27544 shovels with which they cleanse <lb></lb>the water of earth and of the
27545 undissolved lumps of rock that remain at <pb pagenum="570"></pb>the bottom of
27546 the caldron. </s>
27547
27548 <s>The caldron, being thus prepared, is entirely <lb></lb>filled through a launder
27549 with water, and this is boiled with a fierce fire <lb></lb>until it bubbles. </s>
27550
27551 <s>Then little by little eight wheelbarrow loads of the <lb></lb>material, composed
27552 of roasted rock moistened with water, are gradually <lb></lb>emptied into the
27553 caldron by four workmen, who, with their shovels which <lb></lb>reach to the
27554 bottom, keep the material stirred and mixed with water, and <lb></lb>by the same
27555 means they lift the lumps of undissolved rock out of the <lb></lb>caldron. </s>
27556
27557 <s>In this manner the material is thrown in, in three or four lots, at
27558 <lb></lb>intervals of two or three hours more or less; during these intervals,
27559 the <lb></lb>water, which has been cooled by the rock and material, again begins
27560 to boil. <lb></lb></s>
27561
27562 <s>The water, when sufficiently purified and ready to congeal, is ladled out and
27563 <lb></lb>run off with launders into thirty troughs. </s>
27564
27565 <s>These troughs are made of oak, <lb></lb>holm oak, or Turkey oak; their interior
27566 is six feet long, five feet deep, and <lb></lb>four feet wide. </s>
27567
27568 <s>In these the water congeals and condenses into alum, in the <lb></lb>spring in
27569 the space of four days, and in summer in six days. </s>
27570
27571 <s>Afterward the <lb></lb>holes at the bottom of the oak troughs being opened, the
27572 water which has <lb></lb>not congealed is drawn off into buckets and poured back
27573 into the caldron; <lb></lb>or it may be preserved in empty troughs, so that the
27574 master of the workmen, <lb></lb>having seen it, may order his helpers to pour it
27575 into the caldron, for the water <lb></lb>which is not altogether wanting in
27576 alum, is considered better than that which <lb></lb>has none at all. </s>
27577
27578 <s>Then the alum is hewn out with a knife or a chisel. </s>
27579
27580 <s>It is <lb></lb>thick and excellent according to the strength of the rock, either
27581 white or <lb></lb>pink according to the colour of the rock. </s>
27582
27583 <s>The earthy powder, which remains <lb></lb>three to four digits thick as the
27584 residue of the alum at the bottom of the <lb></lb>trough is again thrown into
27585 the caldron and boiled with fresh aluminous <lb></lb>material. </s>
27586
27587 <s>Lastly, the alum cut out is washed, and dried, and sold.</s>
27588 </p>
27589 <p type="main">
27590
27591 <s>Alum is also made from crude pyrites and other aluminous mixtures. <lb></lb></s>
27592
27593 <s>It is first roasted in an enclosed area: then, after being exposed for some
27594 </s>
27595 </p>
27596 <pb pagenum="571"></pb>
27597 <figure></figure>
27598 <p type="caption">
27599
27600 <s>A—FURNACE. B—ENCLOSED SPACE. C—ALUMINOUS ROCK. D—DEEP
27601 LADLE. <lb></lb>E—CALDRON. F—LAUNDER. G—TROUGHS.<pb pagenum="572"></pb>months to the air in order to soften it, it is thrown
27602 into vats and dissolved. <lb></lb></s>
27603
27604 <s>After this the solution is poured into the leaden rectangular pans and boiled
27605 <lb></lb>until it condenses into alum. </s>
27606
27607 <s>The pyrites and other stones which are not <lb></lb>mixed with alum alone, but
27608 which also contain vitriol, as is most usually the <lb></lb>case, are both
27609 treated in the manner which I have already described. </s>
27610
27611 <s>Finally, <lb></lb>if metal is contained in the pyrites and other rock, this
27612 material must be dried, <lb></lb>and from it either gold, silver, or copper is
27613 made in a furnace.</s>
27614 </p>
27615 <p type="main">
27616
27617 <s>Vitriol<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> can be made by four
27618 different methods; by two of these methods <pb pagenum="573"></pb>from water
27619 containing vitriol; by one method from a solution of <emph type="italics"></emph>melantería, <lb></lb>sory<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>chalcítís;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and
27620 by another method from earth or stones mixed with <lb></lb>vitriol.</s>
27621 </p>
27622 <p type="main">
27623
27624 <s>The vitriol water is collected into pools, and if it cannot be drained into
27625 <lb></lb>them, it must be drawn up and carried to them in buckets by a workman.
27626 </s>
27627 </p>
27628 <pb pagenum="574"></pb>
27629 <figure></figure>
27630 <p type="caption">
27631
27632 <s>A—TUNNEL. B—BUCKET. C—PIT.<lb></lb>In hot regions or in summer,
27633 it is poured into out-of-door pits which have <lb></lb>been dug to a certain
27634 depth, or else it is extracted from shafts by pumps <lb></lb>and poured into
27635 launders, through which it flows into the pits, where it is <lb></lb>condensed
27636 by the heat of the sun. </s>
27637
27638 <s>In cold regions and in winter these vitriol <lb></lb>waters are boiled down with
27639 equal parts of fresh water in rectangular leaden <lb></lb>caldrons; then, when
27640 cold, the mixture is poured into vats or into tanks, <lb></lb>which Pliny calls
27641 wooden fish-tanks. </s>
27642
27643 <s>In these tanks light cross-beams are <lb></lb>fixed to the upper part, so that
27644 they may be stationary, and from them hang <lb></lb>ropes stretched with little
27645 stones; to these the contents of the thickened <lb></lb>solutions congeal and
27646 adhere in transparent cubes or seeds of vitriol, like <lb></lb>bunches of
27647 grapes.</s>
27648 </p>
27649 <pb pagenum="575"></pb>
27650 <figure></figure>
27651 <p type="caption">
27652
27653 <s>A—CALDRON. B—TANK. C—CROSS-BARS. D—ROPES.
27654 E—LITTLE STONES.</s>
27655 </p>
27656 <p type="main">
27657
27658 <s>By the third method vitriol is made out of <emph type="italics"></emph>melanteria<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>sory.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
27659 <s> If <lb></lb>the mines give an abundant supply of <emph type="italics"></emph>melanteria<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>sory,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> it is better to <lb></lb>reject the <emph type="italics"></emph>chalcítís,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and
27660 especially the <emph type="italics"></emph>mísy,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
27661 for from these the vitriol is impure, <lb></lb>particularly from the <emph type="italics"></emph>misy.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
27662 <s> These materials having been dug and thrown <lb></lb>into the tanks, they are
27663 first dissolved with water; then, in order to recover <lb></lb>the pyrites from
27664 which copper is not rarely smelted and which forms a sedi­<lb></lb>ment at
27665 the bottom of the tanks, the solution is transferred to other vats,
27666 <lb></lb>which are nine feet wide and three feet deep. </s>
27667
27668 <s>Twigs and wood which float <lb></lb>on the surface are lifted out with a broom
27669 made of twigs, and afterward all the <lb></lb>sediment settles at the bottom of
27670 this vat. </s>
27671
27672 <s>The solution is poured into a <lb></lb>rectangular leaden caldron eight feet
27673 long, three feet wide, and the same in <lb></lb>depth. </s>
27674
27675 <s>In this caldron it is boiled until it becomes thick and viscous, when <lb></lb>it
27676 is poured into a launder, through which it runs into another leaden caldron
27677 <lb></lb>of the same size as the one described before. </s>
27678
27679 <s>When cold, the solution is <lb></lb>drawn off through twelve little launders, out
27680 of which it flows into as many <lb></lb>wooden tubs four and a half feet deep
27681 and three feet wide. </s>
27682
27683 <s>Upon these tubs <lb></lb>are placed perforated crossbars distant from each other
27684 from four to six <lb></lb>digits, and from the holes hang thin laths, which
27685 reach to the bottom, with <pb pagenum="576"></pb>pegs or wedges driven into
27686 them. </s>
27687
27688 <s>The vitriol adheres to these laths, and <lb></lb>within the space of a few days
27689 congeals into cubes, which are taken away <lb></lb>and put into a chamber having
27690 a sloping board floor, so that the moisture <lb></lb>which drips from the
27691 vitriol may flow into a tub beneath. </s>
27692
27693 <s>This solution is <lb></lb>re-boiled, as is also that solution which was left in
27694 the twelve tubs, for, by <lb></lb>reason of its having become too thin and
27695 liquid, it did not congeal, and was <lb></lb>thus not converted into
27696 vitriol.</s>
27697 </p>
27698 <figure></figure>
27699 <p type="caption">
27700
27701 <s>A—WOODEN TUB. B—CROSS-BARS. C—LATHS. D—SLOPING FLOOR
27702 OF THE CHAMBER. <lb></lb>E—TUB PLACED UNDER IT.</s>
27703 </p>
27704 <p type="main">
27705
27706 <s>The fourth method of making vitriol is from vitriolous earth or stones.
27707 <lb></lb></s>
27708
27709 <s>Such ore is at first carried and heaped up, and is then left for five or six
27710 months <lb></lb>exposed to the rain of spring and autumn, to the heat of summer,
27711 and to the <lb></lb>rime and frost of winter. </s>
27712
27713 <s>It must be turned over several times with shovels, <lb></lb>so that the part at
27714 the bottom may be brought to the top, and it is thus <lb></lb>ventilated and
27715 cooled; by this means the earth crumbles up and loosens, <lb></lb>and the stone
27716 changes from hard to soft. </s>
27717
27718 <s>Then the ore is covered with a roof, <lb></lb>or else it is taken away and placed
27719 under a roof, and remains in that place <lb></lb>six, seven, or eight months. </s>
27720
27721 <s>Afterward as large a portion as is required is <lb></lb>thrown into a vat, which
27722 is half-filled with water; this vat is one hundred <pb pagenum="577"></pb>feet
27723 long, twenty-four feet wide, eight feet deep. </s>
27724
27725 <s>It has an opening at the <lb></lb>bottom, so that when it is opened the dregs of
27726 the ore from which the vitriol <lb></lb>comes may be drawn off, and it has, at
27727 the height of one foot from the bottom, <lb></lb>three or four little holes, so
27728 that, when closed, the water may be retained, <lb></lb>and when opened the
27729 solution flows out. </s>
27730
27731 <s>Thus the ore is mixed with water, <lb></lb>stirred with poles and left in the
27732 tank until the earthy portions sink to the <lb></lb>bottom and the water absorbs
27733 the juices. </s>
27734
27735 <s>Then the little holes are opened, <lb></lb>the solution flows out of the vat, and
27736 is caught in a vat below it; this vat is <lb></lb>of the same length as the
27737 other, but twelve feet wide and four feet deep. </s>
27738
27739 <s>If <lb></lb>the solution is not sufficiently vitriolous it is mixed with fresh
27740 ore; but if it <lb></lb>contains enough vitriol, and yet has not exhausted all
27741 of the ore rich in vitriol, <lb></lb>it is well to dissolve the ore again with
27742 fresh water. </s>
27743
27744 <s>As soon as the solution <lb></lb>becomes clear, it is poured into the rectangular
27745 leaden caldron through <lb></lb>launders, and is boiled until the water is
27746 evaporated. </s>
27747
27748 <s>Afterward as many thin <lb></lb>strips of iron as the nature of the solution
27749 requires, are thrown in, and then <lb></lb>it is boiled again until it is thick
27750 enough, when cold, to congeal into vitriol. <lb></lb></s>
27751
27752 <s>Then it is poured into tanks or vats, or any other receptacle, in which all
27753 of it <lb></lb>that is apt to congeal does so within two or three days. </s>
27754
27755 <s>The solution which <lb></lb>does not congeal is either poured back into the
27756 caldron to be boiled again, or </s>
27757 </p>
27758 <figure></figure>
27759 <p type="caption">
27760
27761 <s>A—CALDRON. B—MOULDS. C—CAKES<pb pagenum="578"></pb>it is put
27762 aside for dissolving the new ore, for it is far preferable to fresh water.
27763 <lb></lb></s>
27764
27765 <s>The solidified vitriol is hewn out, and having once more been thrown into the
27766 <lb></lb>caldron, is re-heated until it liquefies; when liquid, it is poured
27767 into <lb></lb>moulds that it may be made into cakes. </s>
27768
27769 <s>If the solution first poured out is <lb></lb>not satisfactorily thickened, it is
27770 condensed two or three times, and each <lb></lb>time liquefied in the caldron
27771 and re-poured into the moulds, in which <lb></lb>manner pure cakes, beautiful to
27772 look at, are made from it.</s>
27773 </p>
27774 <p type="main">
27775
27776 <s>The vitriolous pyrites, which are to be numbered among the mixtures
27777 <lb></lb>(<emph type="italics"></emph>mistura<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), are
27778 roasted as in the case of alum, and dissolved with water, and <lb></lb>the
27779 solution is boiled in leaden caldrons until it condenses into vitriol. </s>
27780
27781 <s>Both <lb></lb>alum and vitriol are often made out of these, and it is no wonder,
27782 for these <lb></lb>juices are cognate, and only differ in the one
27783 point,—that the former is less, the <lb></lb>latter more, earthy. </s>
27784
27785 <s>That pyrites which contains metal must be smelted in the <lb></lb>furnace. </s>
27786
27787 <s>In the same manner, from other mixtures of vitriolic and
27788 metallifer­<lb></lb>ous material are made vitriol and metal. </s>
27789
27790 <s>Indeed, if ores of vitriolous pyrites <lb></lb>abound, the miners split small
27791 logs down the centre and cut them off in lengths <lb></lb>as long as the drifts
27792 and tunnels are wide, in which they lay them down trans­<lb></lb>versely;
27793 but, that they may be stable, they are laid on the ground with the wide
27794 <lb></lb>side down and the round side up, and they touch each other at the
27795 bottom, <lb></lb>but not at the top. </s>
27796
27797 <s>The intermediate space is filled with pyrites, and the same <lb></lb>crushed are
27798 scattered over the wood, so that, coming in or going out, the <lb></lb>road is
27799 flat and even. </s>
27800
27801 <s>Since the drifts or tunnels drip with water, these <lb></lb>pyrites are soaked,
27802 and from them are freed the vitriol and cognate things. </s>
27803
27804 <s>If <lb></lb>the water ceases to drip, these dry and harden, and then they are
27805 raised <lb></lb>from the shafts, together with the pyrites not yet dissolved in
27806 the water, or <lb></lb>they are carried out from the tunnels; then they are
27807 thrown into vats or <lb></lb>tanks, and boiling water having been poured over
27808 them, the vitriol is freed <lb></lb>and the pyrites are dissolved. </s>
27809
27810 <s>This green solution is transferred to other vats <lb></lb>or tanks, that it may
27811 be made clear and pure; it is then boiled in the lead <lb></lb>caldrons until it
27812 thickens; afterward it is poured into wooden tubs, where <lb></lb>it condenses
27813 on rods, or reeds, or twigs, into green vitriol.</s>
27814 </p>
27815 <p type="main">
27816
27817 <s>Sulphur is made from sulphurous waters, from sulphurous ores, and <lb></lb>from
27818 sulphurous mixtures. </s>
27819
27820 <s>These waters are poured into the leaden caldrons <lb></lb>and boiled until they
27821 condense into sulphur. </s>
27822
27823 <s>From this latter, heated <lb></lb>together with iron-scales, and transferred into
27824 pots, which are afterward <lb></lb>covered with lute and refined sulphur,
27825 another sulphur is made, which we <lb></lb>call <emph type="italics"></emph>caballinum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
27826 </p>
27827 <p type="main">
27828
27829 <s>The ores<emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> which consist mostly of
27830 sulphur and of earth, and rarely of <lb></lb>other minerals, are melted in
27831 big-bellied earthenware pots. </s>
27832
27833 <s>The furnaces, <lb></lb></s>
27834 </p>
27835 <pb pagenum="579"></pb>
27836 <figure></figure>
27837 <p type="caption">
27838
27839 <s>A—POTS HAVING SPOUTS. B—POTS WITHOUT SPOUTS.
27840 C—LIDS.<lb></lb>which hold two of these pots, are divided into three
27841 parts; the lowest part is a <lb></lb>foot high, and has an opening at the front
27842 for the draught; the top of this is <lb></lb>covered with iron plates, which are
27843 perforated near the edges, and these <lb></lb>support iron rods, upon which the
27844 firewood is placed. </s>
27845
27846 <s>The middle part of the <lb></lb>furnace is one and a half feet high, and has a
27847 mouth in front, so that the wood <lb></lb>may be inserted; the top of this has
27848 rods, upon which the bottom of the pots <lb></lb>stand. </s>
27849
27850 <s>The upper part is about two feet high, and the pots are also two feet
27851 <lb></lb>high and one digit thick; these have below their mouths a long, slender
27852 spout. <lb></lb></s>
27853
27854 <s>In order that the mouth of the pot may be covered, an earthenware lid is
27855 <lb></lb>made which fits into it. </s>
27856
27857 <s>For every two of these pots there must be one pot <pb pagenum="580"></pb>of the
27858 same size and shape, and without a spout, but having three holes, two of
27859 <lb></lb>which are below the mouth and receive the spouts of the two first pots;
27860 the <lb></lb>third hole is on the opposite side at the bottom, and through it
27861 the sulphur <lb></lb>flows out. </s>
27862
27863 <s>In each furnace are placed two pots with spouts, and the furnace <lb></lb>must be
27864 covered by plates of iron smeared over with lute two digits thick; it is
27865 <lb></lb>thus entirely closed in, but for two or three ventholes through which
27866 the mouths <lb></lb>of the pots project. </s>
27867
27868 <s>Outside of the furnace, against one side, is placed the pot <lb></lb>without a
27869 spout, into the two holes of which the two spouts of the other pots
27870 <lb></lb>penetrate, and this pot should be built in at both sides to keep it
27871 steady. </s>
27872
27873 <s>When <lb></lb>the sulphur ore has been placed in the pots, and these placed in
27874 the furnace, <lb></lb>they are closely covered, and it is desirable to smear the
27875 joint over with lute, <lb></lb>so that the sulphur will not exhale, and for the
27876 same reason the pot below is <lb></lb>covered with a lid, which is also smeared
27877 with lute. </s>
27878
27879 <s>The wood having been <lb></lb>kindled, the ores are heated until the sulphur is
27880 exhaled, and the vapour, <lb></lb>arising through the spout, penetrates into the
27881 lower pot and thickens into <lb></lb>sulphur, which falls to the bottom like
27882 melted wax. </s>
27883
27884 <s>It then flows out <lb></lb>through the hole, which, as I said, is at the bottom
27885 of this pot; and the work­<lb></lb>man makes it into cakes, or thin sticks
27886 or thin pieces of wood are dipped in it. <lb></lb></s>
27887
27888 <s>Then he takes the burning wood and glowing charcoal from the furnace, and
27889 <lb></lb>when it has cooled, he opens the two pots, empties the residues, which,
27890 if the <lb></lb>ores were composed of sulphur and earth, resemble naturally
27891 extinguished <lb></lb>ashes; but if the ores consisted of sulphur and earth and
27892 stone, or sulphur <lb></lb>and stone only, they resemble earth completely dried
27893 or stones well roasted. <lb></lb></s>
27894
27895 <s>Afterward the pots are re-filled with ore, and the whole work is
27896 repeated.</s>
27897 </p>
27898 <p type="main">
27899
27900 <s>The sulphurous mixture, whether it consists of stone and sulphur only,
27901 <lb></lb>or of stone and sulphur and metal, may be heated in similar pots, but
27902 with <lb></lb>perforated bottoms. </s>
27903
27904 <s>Before the furnace is constructed, against the “second” <lb></lb>wall
27905 of the works two lateral partitions are built seven feet high, three feet
27906 <lb></lb>long, one and a half feet thick, and these are distant from each other
27907 twenty­<lb></lb>seven feet. </s>
27908
27909 <s>Between them are seven low brick walls, that measure but <lb></lb>two feet and
27910 the same number of digits in height, and, like the other walls, <lb></lb>are
27911 three feet long and one foot thick; these little walls are at equal
27912 <lb></lb>distances from one another, consequently they will be two and one half
27913 feet <lb></lb>apart. </s>
27914
27915 <s>At the top, iron bars are fixed into them, which sustain iron plates
27916 <lb></lb>three feet long and wide and one digit thick, so that they can bear not
27917 only <lb></lb>the weight of the pots, but also the fierceness of the fire. </s>
27918
27919 <s>These plates have <lb></lb>in the middle a round hole one and a half digits wide;
27920 there must not be <lb></lb>more than eight of these, and upon them as many pots
27921 are placed. </s>
27922
27923 <s>These <lb></lb>pots are perforated at the bottom, and the same number of whole
27924 pots are <lb></lb>placed underneath them; the former contain the mixture, and
27925 are covered <lb></lb>with lids; the latter contain water, and their mouths are
27926 under the holes <lb></lb>in the plates. </s>
27927
27928 <s>After wood has been arranged round the upper pots and <lb></lb>ignited, the
27929 mixture being heated, red, yellow, or green sulphur drips <lb></lb>from it and
27930 flows down through the hole, and is caught by the pots placed
27931 <lb></lb>underneath the plates, and is at once cooled by the water. </s>
27932
27933 <s>If the mixture <lb></lb>contains metal, it is reserved for smelting, and, if not,
27934 it is thrown away. </s>
27935 </p>
27936 <pb pagenum="581"></pb>
27937 <figure></figure>
27938 <p type="caption">
27939
27940 <s>A—LONG WALL. B—HIGH WALLS. C—LOW WALLS. D—PLATES.
27941 E—UPPER POTS. <lb></lb>F—LOWER POTS.<lb></lb>The sulphur from such a
27942 mixture can best be extracted if the upper pots are <lb></lb>placed in a vaulted
27943 furnace, like those which I described among other <lb></lb>metallurgical
27944 subjects in Book VIII., which has no floor, but a grate inside; <lb></lb>under
27945 this the lower pots are placed in the same manner, but the plates <lb></lb>must
27946 have larger holes.</s>
27947 </p>
27948 <p type="main">
27949
27950 <s>Others bury a pot in the ground, and place over it another pot with a
27951 <lb></lb>hole at the bottom, in which pyrites or <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or other sulphurous stones <lb></lb>are
27952 so enclosed that the sulphur cannot exhale. </s>
27953
27954 <s>A fierce fire heats the <lb></lb>sulphur, and it drips away and flows down into
27955 the lower pot, which contains <lb></lb>water. (Illustration p. </s>
27956
27957 <s>582).</s>
27958 </p>
27959 <p type="main">
27960
27961 <s>Bitumen<emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> is made from bituminous
27962 waters, from liquid bitumen, and <lb></lb>from mixtures of bituminous
27963 substances. </s>
27964
27965 <s>The water, bituminous as well as </s>
27966 </p>
27967 <pb pagenum="582"></pb>
27968 <figure></figure>
27969 <p type="caption">
27970
27971 <s>A—LOWER POT. B—UPPER POT. C—LID.<lb></lb>salty, at Babylon, as
27972 Pliny writes, was taken from the wells to the salt works <lb></lb>and heated by
27973 the great heat of the sun, and condensed partly into liquid <lb></lb>bitumen and
27974 partly into salt. </s>
27975
27976 <s>The bitumen being lighter, floats on the top, <lb></lb>while the salt being
27977 heavier, sinks to the bottom. </s>
27978
27979 <s>Liquid bitumen, if there <lb></lb>is much floating on springs, streams and
27980 rivers, is drawn up in buckets or <lb></lb>other vessels; but, if there is
27981 little, it is collected with goose wings, pieces </s>
27982 </p>
27983 <pb pagenum="583"></pb>
27984 <figure></figure>
27985 <p type="caption">
27986
27987 <s>A—BITUMINOUS SPRING. B—BUCKET. C—POT. D—LID.<lb></lb>of
27988 linen, <emph type="italics"></emph>ralla,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> shreds of
27989 reeds, and other things to which it easily adheres, <lb></lb>and it is boiled in
27990 large brass or iron pots by fire and condensed. </s>
27991
27992 <s>As this <lb></lb>bitumen is put to divers uses, some mix pitch with the liquid,
27993 others old <lb></lb>cart-grease, in order to temper its viscosity; these,
27994 however long they are <pb pagenum="584"></pb>boiled in the pots, cannot be made
27995 hard. </s>
27996
27997 <s>The mixtures containing bitumen <lb></lb>are also treated in the same manner as
27998 those containing sulphur, in pots <lb></lb>having a hole in the bottom, and it
27999 is rare that such bitumen is not highly <lb></lb>esteemed.</s>
28000 </p>
28001 <p type="main">
28002
28003 <s>Since all solidified juices and earths, if abundantly and copiously mixed
28004 <lb></lb>with the water, are deposited in the beds of springs, streams or
28005 rivers, and the <lb></lb>stones therein are coated by them, they do not require
28006 the heat of the sun or <lb></lb>fire to harden them. </s>
28007
28008 <s>This having been pondered over by wise men, they dis­<lb></lb>covered methods
28009 by which the remainder of these solidified juices and unusual <lb></lb>earths
28010 can be collected. </s>
28011
28012 <s>Such waters, whether flowing from springs or <lb></lb>tunnels, are collected in
28013 many wooden tubs or tanks arranged in consecutive <lb></lb>order, and deposit in
28014 them such juices or earths; these being scraped off <lb></lb>every year, are
28015 collected, as <emph type="italics"></emph>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>15<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> in the Carpathians and as
28016 ochre in <lb></lb>the Harz.</s>
28017 </p>
28018 <p type="main">
28019
28020 <s>There remains glass, the preparation of which belongs here, for the
28021 <lb></lb>reason that it is obtained by the power of fire and subtle art from
28022 certain <lb></lb>solidified juices and from coarse or fine sand. </s>
28023
28024 <s>It is transparent, as are certain <lb></lb>solidified juices, gems, and stones;
28025 and can be melted like fusible stones and <lb></lb>metals. </s>
28026
28027 <s>First I must speak of the materials from which glass is made; <lb></lb>then of
28028 the furnaces in which it is melted; then of the methods by which it <lb></lb>is
28029 produced.</s>
28030 </p>
28031 <p type="main">
28032
28033 <s>It is made from fusible stones and from solidified juices, or from other
28034 <lb></lb>juicy substances which are connected by a natural relationship. </s>
28035
28036 <s>Stones <lb></lb>which are fusible, if they are white and translucent, are more
28037 excellent than </s>
28038 </p>
28039 <pb pagenum="585"></pb>
28040 <figure></figure>
28041 <p type="caption">
28042
28043 <s>A—MOUTH OF THE TUNNEL. B—TROUGH. C—TANKS. D—LITTLE
28044 TROUGH.<lb></lb>the others, for which reason crystals take the first place. </s>
28045
28046 <s>From these, when <lb></lb>pounded, the most excellent transparent glass was made
28047 in India, with which <lb></lb>no other could be compared, as Pliny relates. </s>
28048
28049 <s>The second place is accorded <lb></lb>to stones which, although not so hard as
28050 crystal, are yet just as white and <lb></lb>transparent. </s>
28051
28052 <s>The third is given to white stones, which are not transparent. <lb></lb></s>
28053
28054 <s>It is necessary, however, first of all to heat all these, and afterward they
28055 are <lb></lb>subjected to the pestle in order to break and crush them into
28056 coarse sand, <lb></lb>and then they are passed through a sieve. </s>
28057
28058 <s>If this kind of coarse or fine sand <lb></lb>is found by the glass-makers near
28059 the mouth of a river, it saves them much <lb></lb>labour in burning and
28060 crushing. </s>
28061
28062 <s>As regards the solidified juices, the first <lb></lb>place is given to soda; the
28063 second to white and translucent rock-salt; the third <lb></lb>to salts which are
28064 made from lye, from the ashes of the musk ivy, or from <lb></lb>other salty
28065 herbs. </s>
28066
28067 <s>Yet there are some who give to this latter, and not to the <lb></lb>former, the
28068 second place. </s>
28069
28070 <s>One part of coarse or fine sand made from fusible <lb></lb>stones should be mixed
28071 with two parts of soda or of rock-salt or of herb <lb></lb>salts, to which are
28072 added minute particles of <emph type="italics"></emph>magnes.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>16<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> It is true
28073 that in our <pb pagenum="586"></pb>day, as much as in ancient times, there
28074 exists the belief in the singular <lb></lb>power of the latter to attract to
28075 itself the vitreous liquid just as it does iron, <lb></lb>and by attracting it
28076 to purify and transform green or yellow into white; and <lb></lb>afterward fire
28077 consumes the <emph type="italics"></emph>magnes.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28078 <s> When the said juices are not to be had, <lb></lb>two parts of the ashes of oak
28079 or holmoak, or of hard oak or Turkey oak, <lb></lb>or if these be not available,
28080 of beech or pine, are mixed with one part <lb></lb>of coarse or fine sand, and a
28081 small quantity of salt is added, made from salt <lb></lb>water or sea-water, and
28082 a small particle of <emph type="italics"></emph>magnes;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
28083 but these make a less <lb></lb>white and translucent glass. </s>
28084
28085 <s>The ashes should be made from old trees, of <lb></lb>which the trunk at a height
28086 of six feet is hollowed out and fire is put in, and <lb></lb>thus the whole tree
28087 is consumed and converted into ashes. </s>
28088
28089 <s>This is done in <lb></lb>winter when the snow lies long, or in summer when it
28090 does not rain, for the <lb></lb>showers at other times of the year, by mixing
28091 the ashes with earth, render <lb></lb>them impure; for this reason, at such
28092 times, these same trees are cut up <lb></lb>into many pieces and burned under
28093 cover, and are thus converted into ashes.</s>
28094 </p>
28095 <p type="main">
28096
28097 <s>Some glass-makers use three furnaces, others two, others only one. <lb></lb></s>
28098
28099 <s>Those who use three, melt the material in the first, re-melt it in the
28100 second, </s>
28101 </p>
28102 <pb pagenum="587"></pb>
28103 <figure></figure>
28104 <p type="caption">
28105
28106 <s>A—LOWER CHAMBER OF THE FIRST FURNACE. B—UPPER CHAMBER.
28107 C—VITREOUS MASS.<lb></lb>and in the third they cool the glowing glass
28108 vessels and other articles. </s>
28109
28110 <s>Of <lb></lb>these the first furnace must be vaulted and similar to an oven. </s>
28111
28112 <s>In the upper <lb></lb>chamber, which is six feet long, four feet wide, and two
28113 feet high, the <lb></lb>mixed materials are heated by a fierce fire of dry wood
28114 until they melt <lb></lb>and are converted into a vitreous mass. </s>
28115
28116 <s>And if they are not satisfactorily <lb></lb>purified from dross, they are taken
28117 out and cooled and broken into pieces; <lb></lb>and the vitreous pieces are
28118 heated in pots in the same furnace.</s>
28119 </p>
28120 <p type="main">
28121
28122 <s>The second furnace is round, ten feet in diameter and eight feet high,
28123 <lb></lb>and on the outside, so that it may be stronger, it is encompassed by
28124 five <lb></lb>arches, one and one half feet thick; it consists in like manner of
28125 two <lb></lb>chambers, of which the lower one is vaulted and is one and one half
28126 feet thick. <lb></lb></s>
28127
28128 <s>In front this chamber has a narrow mouth, through which the wood <lb></lb>can be
28129 put into the hearth, which is on the ground. </s>
28130
28131 <s>At the top and in the <lb></lb>middle of its vault, there is a large round hole
28132 which opens to the upper <lb></lb>chamber, so that the flames can penetrate into
28133 it. </s>
28134
28135 <s>Between the arches in <lb></lb>the walls of the upper chamber are eight windows,
28136 so large that the big­<lb></lb>bellied pots may be placed through them on to
28137 the floor of the chamber, <lb></lb>around the large hole. </s>
28138
28139 <s>The thickness of these pots is about two digits, their <lb></lb>height the same
28140 number of feet, and the diameter of the belly one and a half <pb pagenum="588"></pb>feet, and of the mouth and bottom one foot. </s>
28141
28142 <s>In the back part of the furnace <lb></lb>is a rectangular hole, measuring in
28143 height and width a palm, through which <lb></lb>the heat penetrates into a third
28144 furnace which adjoins it.</s>
28145 </p>
28146 <p type="main">
28147
28148 <s>This third furnace is rectangular, eight feet long and six feet wide; it
28149 <lb></lb>also consists of two chambers, of which the lower has a mouth in front,
28150 so that <lb></lb>firewood may be placed on the hearth which is on the ground. </s>
28151
28152 <s>On each side of <lb></lb>this opening in the wall of the lower chamber is a
28153 recess for oblong earthen­<lb></lb>ware receptacles, which are about four
28154 feet long, two feet high, and one and <lb></lb>a half feet wide. </s>
28155
28156 <s>The upper chamber has two holes, one on the right side, <lb></lb>the other on the
28157 left, of such height and width that earthenware receptacles <lb></lb>may be
28158 conveniently placed in them. </s>
28159
28160 <s>These latter receptacles are three <lb></lb>feet long, one and a half feet high,
28161 the lower part one foot wide, and the <lb></lb>upper part rounded. </s>
28162
28163 <s>In these receptacles the glass articles, which have been <lb></lb>blown, are
28164 placed so that they may cool in a milder temperature; if they were <lb></lb>not
28165 cooled slowly they would burst asunder. </s>
28166
28167 <s>When the vessels are taken <lb></lb>from the upper chamber, they are immediately
28168 placed in the receptacles <lb></lb>to cool.</s>
28169 </p>
28170 <figure></figure>
28171 <p type="caption">
28172
28173 <s>A—ARCHES OF THE SECOND FURNACE. B—MOUTH OF THE LOWER CHAMBER.
28174 <lb></lb>C—WINDOWS OF THE UPPER CHAMBER. D—BIG-BELLIED POTS.
28175 E—MOUTH OF THE <lb></lb>THIRD FURNACE. F—RECESSES FOR THE
28176 RECEPTACLES. G—OPENINGS IN THE UPPER <lb></lb>CHAMBER. H—OBLONG
28177 RECEPTACLES.</s>
28178 </p>
28179 <pb pagenum="589"></pb>
28180 <figure></figure>
28181 <p type="caption">
28182
28183 <s>A—LOWER CHAMBER OF THE OTHER SECOND FURNACE. B—MIDDLE ONE.
28184 C—UPPER ONE. <lb></lb>D—ITS OPENING. E—ROUND OPENING.
28185 F—RECTANGULAR OPENING.</s>
28186 </p>
28187 <pb pagenum="590"></pb>
28188 <p type="main">
28189
28190 <s>Some who use two furnaces partly melt the mixture in the first, and <lb></lb>not
28191 only re-melt it in the second, but also replace the glass articles there.
28192 <lb></lb></s>
28193
28194 <s>Others partly melt and re-melt the material in different chambers of the
28195 <lb></lb>second furnace. </s>
28196
28197 <s>Thus the former lack the third furnace, and the latter, <lb></lb>the first. </s>
28198
28199 <s>But this kind of second furnace differs from the other second <lb></lb>furnace,
28200 for it is, indeed, round, but the interior is eight feet in diameter
28201 <lb></lb>and twelve feet high, and it consists of three chambers, of which the
28202 lowest is <lb></lb>not unlike the lowest of the other second furnace. </s>
28203
28204 <s>In the middle chamber <lb></lb>wall there are six arched openings, in which are
28205 placed the pots to be heated, <lb></lb>and the remainder of the small windows
28206 are blocked up with lute. </s>
28207
28208 <s>In the <lb></lb>middle top of the middle chamber is a square opening a palm in
28209 length <lb></lb>and width. </s>
28210
28211 <s>Through this the heat penetrates into the upper chamber, <lb></lb>of which the
28212 rear part has an opening to receive the oblong earthenware <lb></lb>receptacles,
28213 in which are placed the glass articles to be slowly cooled. </s>
28214
28215 <s>On <lb></lb>this side, the ground of the workshop is higher, or else a bench is
28216 placed there, <lb></lb>so that the glass-makers may stand upon it to stow away
28217 their products <lb></lb>more conveniently.</s>
28218 </p>
28219 <p type="main">
28220
28221 <s>Those who lack the first furnace in the evening, when they have
28222 accom­<lb></lb>plished their day&#039;s work, place the material in the pots, so
28223 that the heat during <lb></lb>the night may melt it and turn it into glass. </s>
28224
28225 <s>Two boys alternately, during <lb></lb>night and day, keep up the fire by throwing
28226 dry wood on to the hearth. </s>
28227
28228 <s>Those <lb></lb>who have but one furnace use the second sort, made with three
28229 chambers. <lb></lb></s>
28230
28231 <s>Then in the evening they pour the material into the pots, and in the morning,
28232 <lb></lb>having extracted the fused material, they make the glass objects, which
28233 they <lb></lb>place in the upper chamber, as do the others.</s>
28234 </p>
28235 <p type="main">
28236
28237 <s>The second furnace consists either of two or three chambers, the first of
28238 <lb></lb>which is made of unburnt bricks dried in the sun. </s>
28239
28240 <s>These bricks are made of a <lb></lb>kind of clay that cannot be easily melted by
28241 fire nor resolved into powder; <lb></lb>this clay is cleaned of small stones and
28242 beaten with rods. </s>
28243
28244 <s>The bricks are <lb></lb>laid with the same kind of clay instead of lime. </s>
28245
28246 <s>From the same clay the <lb></lb>potters also make their vessels and pots, which
28247 they dry in the shade. </s>
28248
28249 <s>These <lb></lb>two parts having been completed, there remains the third.</s>
28250 </p>
28251 <p type="main">
28252
28253 <s>The vitreous mass having been made in the first furnace in the manner <lb></lb>I
28254 described, is broken up, and the assistant heats the second furnace, in
28255 order <lb></lb>that the fragments may be re-melted. </s>
28256
28257 <s>In the meantime, while they are doing <lb></lb>this, the pots are first warmed by
28258 a slow fire in the first furnace, so that the <lb></lb>vapours may evaporate,
28259 and then by a fiercer fire, so that they become red <lb></lb>in drying. </s>
28260
28261 <s>Afterward the glass-makers open the mouth of the furnace, and, <lb></lb>seizing
28262 the pots with tongs, if they have not cracked and fallen to pieces,
28263 <lb></lb>quickly place them in the second furnace, and they fill them up with
28264 the <lb></lb>fragments of the heated vitreous mass or with glass. </s>
28265
28266 <s>Afterward they close <lb></lb>up all the windows with lute and bricks, with the
28267 exception that in each <lb></lb>there are two little windows left free; through
28268 one of these they inspect the <lb></lb>glass contained in the pot, and take it
28269 up by means of a blow-pipe; in the <lb></lb>other they rest another blow-pipe,
28270 so that it may get warm. </s>
28271
28272 <s>Whether it <lb></lb>is made of brass, bronze, or iron, the blow-pipe must be
28273 three feet long. </s>
28274 </p>
28275 <pb pagenum="591"></pb>
28276 <figure></figure>
28277 <p type="caption">
28278
28279 <s>A—BLOW-PIPE. B—LITTLE WINDOW. C—MARBLE. D—FORCEPS.
28280 E—MOULDS BY <lb></lb>MEANS OF WHICH THE SHAPES ARE PRODUCED.<pb pagenum="592"></pb>In front of the window is inserted a lip of marble, on
28281 which rests the <lb></lb>heaped-up clay and the iron shield. </s>
28282
28283 <s>The clay holds the blow-pipe when it <lb></lb>is put into the furnace, whereas
28284 the shield preserves the eyes of the glass-maker <lb></lb>from the fire. </s>
28285
28286 <s>All this having been carried out in order, the glass-makers <lb></lb>bring the
28287 work to completion. </s>
28288
28289 <s>The broken pieces they re-melt with dry wood, <lb></lb>which emits no smoke, but
28290 only a flame. </s>
28291
28292 <s>The longer they re-melt it, the purer <lb></lb>and more transparent it becomes,
28293 the fewer spots and blisters there are, and <lb></lb>therefore the glass-makers
28294 can carry out their work more easily. </s>
28295
28296 <s>For this <lb></lb>reason those who only melt the material from which glass is
28297 made for one <lb></lb>night, and then immediately make it up into glass
28298 articles, make them less <lb></lb>pure and transparent than those who first
28299 produce a vitreous mass and then <lb></lb>re-melt the broken pieces again for a
28300 day and a night. </s>
28301
28302 <s>And, again, these make <lb></lb>a less pure and transparent glass than do those
28303 who melt it again for two days <lb></lb>and two nights, for the excellence of
28304 the glass does not consist solely in the <lb></lb>material from which it is
28305 made, but also in the melting. </s>
28306
28307 <s>The glass-makers <lb></lb>often test the glass by drawing it up with the
28308 blowpipes; as soon as they <lb></lb>observe that the fragments have been
28309 re-melted and purified satisfactorily, <lb></lb>each of them with another
28310 blow-pipe which is in the pot, slowly stirs and takes <lb></lb>up the glass
28311 which sticks to it in the shape of a ball like a glutinous, coagulated
28312 <lb></lb>gum. </s>
28313
28314 <s>He takes up just as much as he needs to complete the article he wishes
28315 <lb></lb>to make; then he presses it against the lip of marble and kneads it
28316 round and <lb></lb>round until it consolidates. </s>
28317
28318 <s>When he blows through the pipe he blows as <lb></lb>he would if inflating a
28319 bubble; he blows into the blow-pipe as often as it is <lb></lb>necessary,
28320 removing it from his mouth to re-fill his cheeks, so that his breath
28321 <lb></lb>does not draw the flames into his mouth. </s>
28322
28323 <s>Then, twisting the lifted blow-pipe <lb></lb>round his head in a circle, he makes
28324 a long glass, or moulds the same in a <lb></lb>hollow copper mould, turning it
28325 round and round, then warming it again, <lb></lb>blowing it and pressing it, he
28326 widens it into the shape of a cup or vessel, or of <lb></lb>any other object he
28327 has in mind. </s>
28328
28329 <s>Then he again presses this against the <lb></lb>marble to flatten the bottom,
28330 which he moulds in the interior with his other <lb></lb>blow-pipe. </s>
28331
28332 <s>Afterward he cuts out the lip with shears, and, if necessary, adds <lb></lb>feet
28333 and handles. </s>
28334
28335 <s>If it so please him, he gilds it and paints it with various <lb></lb>colours. </s>
28336
28337 <s>Finally, he lays it in the oblong earthenware receptacle, which is
28338 <lb></lb>placed in the third furnace, or in the upper chamber of the second
28339 furnace, <lb></lb>that it may cool. </s>
28340
28341 <s>When this receptacle is full of other slowly-cooled articles, <lb></lb>he passes
28342 a wide iron bar under it, and, carrying it on the left arm, places it
28343 <lb></lb>in another recess.</s>
28344 </p>
28345 <p type="main">
28346
28347 <s>The glass-makers make divers things, such as goblets, cups, ewers, flasks,
28348 <lb></lb>dishes, plates, panes of glass, animals, trees, and ships, all of which
28349 excellent and <lb></lb>wonderful works I have seen when I spent two whole years
28350 in Venice some <lb></lb>time ago. </s>
28351
28352 <s>Especially at the time of the Feast of the Ascension they were on <lb></lb>sale
28353 at Morano, where are located the most celebrated glass-works. </s>
28354
28355 <s>These I <lb></lb>saw on other occasions, and when, for a certain reason, I
28356 visited Andrea <lb></lb>Naugerio in his house which he had there, and conversed
28357 with him and <lb></lb>Francisco Asulano.</s>
28358 </p>
28359 <p type="head">
28360
28361 <s>END OF BOOK XII.</s>
28362 </p>
28363 <pb></pb>
28364 <p type="head">
28365
28366 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>APPENDIX A.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
28367 </p>
28368 <p type="head">
28369
28370 <s>AGRICOLA&#039;S WORKS.</s>
28371 </p>
28372 <p type="main">
28373
28374 <s>Georgius agricola was not only the author of <lb></lb>works on Mining and allied
28375 subjects, usually asso­<lb></lb>ciated with his name, but he also interested
28376 himself <lb></lb>to some extent in political and religious subjects. <lb></lb></s>
28377
28378 <s>For convenience in discussion we may, therefore, <lb></lb>divide his writings on
28379 the broad lines of (1) works on <lb></lb>mining, geology, mineralogy, and allied
28380 subjects; (2) <lb></lb>works on other subjects, medical, religious, critical,
28381 <lb></lb>political, and historical. </s>
28382
28383 <s>In respect especially to the <lb></lb>first division, and partially with regard
28384 to the others, we find three principal <lb></lb>cases: (<emph type="italics"></emph>a<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>) Works which can be authenticated in
28385 European libraries to-day; <lb></lb>(<emph type="italics"></emph>b<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>) references to editions of these in bibliographies,
28386 catalogues, etc., which we <lb></lb>have been unable to authenticate; and (<emph type="italics"></emph>c<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>) references to works either
28387 un­<lb></lb>published or lost. </s>
28388
28389 <s>The following are the short titles of all of the published <lb></lb>works which
28390 we have been able to find on the subjects allied to mining, <lb></lb>arranged
28391 according to their present importance:—<emph type="italics"></emph>De Re
28392 Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> first <lb></lb>edition, 1556;
28393 <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura Fossílíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> first edition, 1546; <emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu et
28394 Causis <lb></lb>Subterraneorum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> first edition, 1546;
28395 <emph type="italics"></emph>Bermannus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> first
28396 edition, 1530; <emph type="italics"></emph>Rerum <lb></lb>Metallicarum
28397 Interpretatio,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> first edition, 1546; <emph type="italics"></emph>De Mensuris et Ponderibus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>first edition, 1533; <emph type="italics"></emph>De Precio Metallorum et
28398 Monetís,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> first edition, 1550; <emph type="italics"></emph>De <lb></lb>Veteribus et Novis Metallis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> first edition, 1546; <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura
28399 eorum quae Effluunt <lb></lb>ex Terra,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> first edition,
28400 1546; <emph type="italics"></emph>De Animantibus Subterraneis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> first edition, 1549.</s>
28401 </p>
28402 <p type="main">
28403
28404 <s>Of the “lost” or unpublished works, on which there is some
28405 evidence, <lb></lb>the following are the most important:—<emph type="italics"></emph>De Metallicis et Machinís, De Ortu
28406 <lb></lb>Metallorum Defensio ad Jacobum Scheckium, De Jure et Legíbus
28407 Metallicis, <lb></lb>De Varía Temperie síve Constitutione
28408 Aerís, De Terrae Motu,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>Commen­<lb></lb>tariorum, Librí VI.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28409 </p>
28410 <p type="main">
28411
28412 <s>The known published works upon other subjects are as follows:—Latin
28413 <lb></lb>Grammar, first edition, 1520; Two Religious Tracts, first edition,
28414 1522; <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>Galen<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (Joint
28415 Revision of Greek Text), first edition, 1525; <emph type="italics"></emph>De Bello
28416 adversus <lb></lb>Turcam,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> first edition, 1528; <emph type="italics"></emph>De Peste,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> first edition,
28417 1554.</s>
28418 </p>
28419 <p type="main">
28420
28421 <s>The lost or partially completed works on subjects unrelated to mining,
28422 <lb></lb>of which some trace has been found, are:—<emph type="italics"></emph>De
28423 Medicatís Fontibus, De Putre­<lb></lb>díne solidas
28424 partes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> etc., <emph type="italics"></emph>Castigationes in Híppocratem, Typographia Mysnae <lb></lb>et Toringiae,
28425 De Tradítioníbus Apostolícis, Oratío de rebus
28426 gestis Ernesti et <lb></lb>Alberti, Ducum Saxoniae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28427 </p>
28428 <p type="head">
28429
28430 <s>REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL WORKS.</s>
28431 </p>
28432 <p type="main">
28433
28434 <s>Before proceeding with the bibliographical detail, we consider it desirable
28435 <lb></lb>to review briefly the most important of the author&#039;s works on subjects
28436 related <lb></lb>to mining.</s>
28437 </p>
28438 <pb pagenum="594"></pb>
28439 <p type="main">
28440
28441 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura Fossílium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28442 <s> This is the most important work of Agricola, <lb></lb>excepting <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28443 <s> It has always been printed in combination with <lb></lb>other works, and first
28444 appeared at Basel, 1546. This edition was considerably <lb></lb>revised by the
28445 author, the amended edition being that of 1558, which we have <lb></lb>used in
28446 giving references. </s>
28447
28448 <s>The work comprises ten “books” of a total of <lb></lb>217 folio
28449 pages. </s>
28450
28451 <s>It is the first attempt at systematic mineralogy, the minerals<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>being classified into (1)
28452 “earths” (clay, ochre, etc.), (2) “stones properly
28453 so­<lb></lb>called” (gems, semi-precious and unusual stones, as
28454 distinguished from rocks), <lb></lb>(3) “solidified juices” (salt,
28455 vitriol, alum, etc.), (4) metals, and (5) “com­<lb></lb>pounds”
28456 (homogeneous “mixtures” of simple substances, thus forming
28457 <lb></lb>such minerals as galena, pyrite, etc.). In this classification Agricola
28458 en­<lb></lb>deavoured to find some fundamental basis, and therefore adopted
28459 solubility, <lb></lb>fusibility, odour, taste, etc., but any true classification
28460 without the atomic <lb></lb>theory was, of course, impossible. </s>
28461
28462 <s>However, he makes a very creditable <lb></lb>performance out of their properties
28463 and obvious characteristics. </s>
28464
28465 <s>All of the <lb></lb>external characteristics which we use to-day in
28466 discrimination, such as colour, <lb></lb>hardness, lustre, etc., are enumerated,
28467 the origin of these being attributed to <lb></lb>the proportions of the
28468 Peripatetic elements and their binary properties. <lb></lb></s>
28469
28470 <s>Dana, in his great work<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, among some
28471 fourscore minerals which he identifies <lb></lb>as having been described by
28472 Agricola and his predecessors, accredits a score to <lb></lb>Agricola himself. </s>
28473
28474 <s>It is our belief, however, that although in a few cases <lb></lb>Agricola has
28475 been wrongly credited, there are still more of which priority in
28476 <lb></lb>description might be assigned to him. </s>
28477
28478 <s>While a greater number than four­<lb></lb>score of so-called species are
28479 given by Agricola and his predecessors, many <lb></lb>of these are, in our
28480 modern system, but varieties; for instance, some eight <lb></lb>or ten of the
28481 ancient species consist of one form or another of silica.</s>
28482 </p>
28483 <p type="main">
28484
28485 <s>Book I. is devoted to mineral characteristics—colour, brilliance,
28486 taste, <lb></lb>shape, hardness, etc., and to the classification of minerals;
28487 Book II., <lb></lb>“earths”—clay, Lemnian earth, chalk, ochre,
28488 etc.; Book III., “solidified <lb></lb>juices”—salt, <emph type="italics"></emph>nitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (soda and potash),
28489 saltpetre, alum, vitriol, chrysocolla, <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>caeruleum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (part azurite), orpiment, realgar,
28490 and sulphur; Book IV., camphor, <lb></lb>bitumen, coal, bituminous shales,
28491 amber; Book V., lodestone, bloodstone, <lb></lb>gypsum, talc, asbestos, mica,
28492 calamine, various fossils, geodes, emery, touch­<lb></lb>stones, pumice,
28493 fluorspar, and quartz; Book VI., gems and precious stones; <lb></lb>Book VII.,
28494 “rocks”—marble, serpentine, onyx, alabaster, limestone,
28495 etc.; <lb></lb>Book VIII., metals—gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, lead,
28496 tin, antimony, <lb></lb>bismuth, iron, and alloys, such as electrum, brass,
28497 etc.; Book IX., various <lb></lb>furnace operations, such as making brass,
28498 gilding, tinning, and products such <lb></lb>as slags, furnace accretions, <emph type="italics"></emph>pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (zinc oxide), copper
28499 flowers, litharge, <lb></lb>hearth-lead, verdigris, white-lead, red-lead, etc.;
28500 Book X., “compounds,” <lb></lb>embracing the description of a number
28501 of recognisable silver, copper, lead, <lb></lb>quicksilver, iron, tin, antimony,
28502 and zinc minerals, many of which we set <lb></lb>out more fully in Note 8, page
28503 108.</s>
28504 </p>
28505 <p type="main">
28506
28507 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28508 <s> This work also has always been <lb></lb>published in company with others. </s>
28509
28510 <s>The first edition was printed at Basel, <lb></lb><pb pagenum="595"></pb>1546; the
28511 second at Basel, 1558, which, being the edition revised and added to <lb></lb>by
28512 the author, has been used by us for reference. </s>
28513
28514 <s>There are five “books,” and <lb></lb>in the main they contain
28515 Agricola&#039;s philosophical views on geologic phenomena. <lb></lb></s>
28516
28517 <s>The largest portion of the actual text is occupied with refutations of the
28518 <lb></lb>ancient philosophers, the alchemists, and the astrologers; and these
28519 portions, <lb></lb>while they exhibit his ability in observation and in
28520 dialectics, make but dull <lb></lb>reading. </s>
28521
28522 <s>Those sections of the book which contain his own views, however, <lb></lb>are of
28523 the utmost importance in the history of science, and we reproduce
28524 <lb></lb>extensively the material relating to ore deposits in the footnotes on
28525 pages 43 <lb></lb>to 52. Briefly, Book I. is devoted to discussion of the origin
28526 and distribution <lb></lb>of ground waters and juices. </s>
28527
28528 <s>The latter part of this book and a portion of <lb></lb>Book II. are devoted to
28529 the origin of subterranean heat, which he assumes <lb></lb>is in the main due to
28530 burning bitumen—a genus which with him embraced <lb></lb>coal—and
28531 also, in a minor degree, to friction of internal winds and to <lb></lb>burning
28532 sulphur. </s>
28533
28534 <s>The remainder of Book II. is mainly devoted to the dis­<lb></lb>cussion of
28535 subterranean “air”, “vapour”, and
28536 “exhalations”, and he con­<lb></lb>ceives that volcanic
28537 eruptions and earthquakes are due to their agency, and <lb></lb>in these
28538 hypotheses he comes fairly close to the modern theory of eruptions <lb></lb>from
28539 explosions of steam. </s>
28540
28541 <s>“Vapour arises when the internal heat of the <lb></lb>earth or some hidden
28542 fire burns earth which is moistened with vapour. <lb></lb></s>
28543
28544 <s>When heat or subterranean fire meets with a great force of vapour which
28545 <lb></lb>cold has contracted and encompassed in every direction, then the
28546 vapour, <lb></lb>finding no outlet, tries to break through whatever is nearest
28547 to it, in order <lb></lb>to give place to the insistent and urgent cold. </s>
28548
28549 <s>Heat and cold cannot abide <lb></lb>together in one place, but expel and drive
28550 each other out of it by turns”.</s>
28551 </p>
28552 <p type="main">
28553
28554 <s>As he was, we believe, the first to recognise the fundamental agencies
28555 <lb></lb>of mountain sculpture, we consider it is of sufficient interest to
28556 warrant a <lb></lb>reproduction of his views on this subject: “Hills and
28557 mountains are pro­<lb></lb>duced by two forces, one of which is the power of
28558 water, and the other the <lb></lb>strength of the wind. </s>
28559
28560 <s>There are three forces which loosen and demolish <lb></lb>the mountains, for in
28561 this case, to the power of the water and the strength <lb></lb>of the wind we
28562 must add the fire in the interior of the earth. </s>
28563
28564 <s>Now we can <lb></lb>plainly see that a great abundance of water produces
28565 mountains, for the <lb></lb>torrents first of all wash out the soft earth, next
28566 carry away the harder <lb></lb>earth, and then roll down the rocks, and thus in
28567 a few years they excavate <lb></lb>the plains or slopes to a considerable depth;
28568 this may be noticed in moun­<lb></lb>tainous regions even by unskilled
28569 observers. </s>
28570
28571 <s>By such excavation to a <lb></lb>great depth through many ages, there rises an
28572 immense eminence on each <lb></lb>side. </s>
28573
28574 <s>When an eminence has thus arisen, the earth rolls down, loosened by
28575 <lb></lb>constant rain and split away by frost, and the rocks, unless they are
28576 exceed­<lb></lb>ingly firm, since their seams are similarly softened by the
28577 damp, roll down <lb></lb>into the excavations below. </s>
28578
28579 <s>This continues until the steep eminence is <lb></lb>changed into a slope. </s>
28580
28581 <s>Each side of the excavation is said to be a mountain, <lb></lb>just as the bottom
28582 is called a valley. </s>
28583
28584 <s>Moreover, streams, and to a far greater <lb></lb>extent rivers, effect the same
28585 results by their rushing and washing; for this <lb></lb>reason they are
28586 frequently seen flowing either between very high mountains <pb pagenum="596"></pb>which they have created, or close by the shore which borders them. . . .
28587 <lb></lb>Nor did the hollow places which now contain the seas all formerly
28588 exist, <lb></lb>nor yet the mountains which check and break their advance, but
28589 in many <lb></lb>parts there was a level plain, until the force of winds let
28590 loose upon it a <lb></lb>tumultuous sea and a scathing tide. </s>
28591
28592 <s>By a similar process the impact of <lb></lb>water entirely overthrows and
28593 flattens out hills and mountains. </s>
28594
28595 <s>But <lb></lb>these changes of local conditions, numerous and important as they
28596 are, are <lb></lb>not noticed by the common people to be taking place at the
28597 very moment <lb></lb>when they are happening, because, through their antiquity,
28598 the time, place, <lb></lb>and manner in which they began is far prior to human
28599 memory. </s>
28600
28601 <s>The wind <lb></lb>produces hills and mountains in two ways: either when set loose
28602 and free <lb></lb>from bonds, it violently moves and agitates the sand; or else
28603 when, after <lb></lb>having been driven into the hidden recesses of the earth by
28604 cold, as into a <lb></lb>prison, it struggles with a great effort to burst out. </s>
28605
28606 <s>For hills and mountains <lb></lb>are created in hot countries, whether they are
28607 situated by the sea coasts or <lb></lb>in districts remote from the sea, by the
28608 force of winds; these no longer held <lb></lb>in check by the valleys, but set
28609 free, heap up the sand and dust, which they <lb></lb>gather from all sides, to
28610 one spot, and a mass arises and grows together. </s>
28611
28612 <s>If <lb></lb>time and space allow, it grows together and hardens, but if it be not
28613 allowed <lb></lb>(and in truth this is more often the case), the same force
28614 again scatters the <lb></lb>sand far and wide. . . . Then, on the other hand, an
28615 earthquake <lb></lb>either rends and tears away part of a mountain, or engulfs
28616 and devours the <lb></lb>whole mountain in some fearful chasm. </s>
28617
28618 <s>In this way it is recorded the <lb></lb>Cybotus was destroyed, and it is believed
28619 that within the memory of man <lb></lb>an island under the rule of Denmark
28620 disappeared. </s>
28621
28622 <s>Historians tell us that <lb></lb>Taygetus suffered a loss in this way, and that
28623 Therasia was swallowed up <lb></lb>with the island of Thera. </s>
28624
28625 <s>Thus it is clear that water and the powerful <lb></lb>winds produce mountains,
28626 and also scatter and destroy them. </s>
28627
28628 <s>Fire only <lb></lb>consumes them, and does not produce at all, for part of the
28629 mountains— <lb></lb>usually the inner part—takes fire.”</s>
28630 </p>
28631 <p type="main">
28632
28633 <s>The major portion of Book III. is devoted to the origin of ore channels,
28634 <lb></lb>which we reproduce at some length on page 47. In the latter part of
28635 Book <lb></lb>III., and in Books IV. and V., he discusses the principal
28636 divisions of the mineral <lb></lb>kingdom given in <emph type="italics"></emph>De
28637 Natura Fossilium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the origin of their
28638 characteristics. <lb></lb></s>
28639
28640 <s>It involves a large amount of what now appears fruitless tilting at the
28641 Peripa­<lb></lb>tetics and the alchemists; but nevertheless, embracing, as
28642 Agricola did, the <lb></lb>fundamental Aristotelian elements, he must needs find
28643 in these same ele­<lb></lb>ments and their subordinate binary combinations
28644 cause for every variation in <lb></lb>external character.</s>
28645 </p>
28646 <p type="main">
28647
28648 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Bermannus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28649 <s> This, Agricola&#039;s first work in relation to mining, was appa­<lb></lb>rently
28650 first published at Basel, 1530. The work is in the form of a dialogue
28651 <lb></lb>between “Bermannus,” who is described as a miner,
28652 mineralogist, and “a <lb></lb>student of mathematics and poetry,”
28653 and “Nicolaus Ancon” and “Johannes <lb></lb>Neavius,”
28654 both scholars and physicians. </s>
28655
28656 <s>Ancon is supposed to be of philoso­<lb></lb>phical turn of mind and a student
28657 of Moorish literature, Naevius to be par­<lb></lb>ticularly learned in the
28658 writings of Dioscorides, Pliny, Galen, etc. </s>
28659
28660 <s>“Berman-<pb pagenum="597"></pb>nus” was probably an adaptation by
28661 Agricola of the name of his friend Lorenz <lb></lb>Berman, a prominent miner. </s>
28662
28663 <s>The book is in the main devoted to a correla­<lb></lb>tion of the minerals
28664 mentioned by the Ancients with those found in the Saxon <lb></lb>mines. </s>
28665
28666 <s>This phase is interesting as indicating the natural trend of Agricola&#039;s
28667 <lb></lb>scholastic mind when he first comes into contact with the sciences to
28668 which <lb></lb>he devoted himself. </s>
28669
28670 <s>The book opens with a letter of commendation from <lb></lb>Erasmus, of Rotterdam,
28671 and with the usual dedication and preface by the <lb></lb>author. </s>
28672
28673 <s>The three conversationalists are supposed to take walks among the <lb></lb>mines
28674 and to discuss, incidentally, matters which come to their attention;
28675 <lb></lb>therefore the book has no systematic or logical arrangement. </s>
28676
28677 <s>There are <lb></lb>occasional statements bearing on the history, management,
28678 titles, and methods <lb></lb>used in the mines, and on mining lore generally. </s>
28679
28680 <s>The mineralogical part, while <lb></lb>of importance from the point of view of
28681 giving the first description of several <lb></lb>minerals, is immensely improved
28682 upon in <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura Fossílíum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> published <lb></lb>15 years later. </s>
28683
28684 <s>It is of interest to find here the first appearance of the names <lb></lb>of many
28685 minerals which we have since adopted from the German into our own
28686 <lb></lb>nomenclature. </s>
28687
28688 <s>Of importance is the first description of bismuth, although, <lb></lb>as pointed
28689 out on page 433, the metal had been mentioned before. </s>
28690
28691 <s>In the <lb></lb>revised collection of collateral works published in 1558, the
28692 author makes <lb></lb>many important changes and adds some new material, but
28693 some of the later <lb></lb>editions were made from the unrevised older
28694 texts.</s>
28695 </p>
28696 <p type="main">
28697
28698 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Rerum Metallícarum
28699 Interpretatío.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28700 <s> This list of German equivalents <lb></lb>for Latin mineralogical terms was
28701 prepared by Agricola himself, and first <lb></lb>appears in the 1546 collection
28702 of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu et Causis, De Natura Fossilium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> etc., <lb></lb>being repeated in all subsequent
28703 publications of these works. </s>
28704
28705 <s>It consists of <lb></lb>some 500 Latin mineralogical and metallurgical terms,
28706 many of which are of <lb></lb>Agricola&#039;s own coinage. </s>
28707
28708 <s>It is of great help in translation and of great value <lb></lb>in the study of
28709 mineralogic nomenclature.</s>
28710 </p>
28711 <p type="main">
28712
28713 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Mensuris et Ponderibus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28714 <s> This work is devoted to a discussion of the <lb></lb>Greek and Roman weights and
28715 measures, with some correlation to those used <lb></lb>in Saxony. </s>
28716
28717 <s>It is a careful work still much referred to by students of these
28718 <lb></lb>subjects. </s>
28719
28720 <s>The first edition was published at Paris in 1533, and in the 1550
28721 <lb></lb>edition at Basel appears, for the first time, <emph type="italics"></emph>De
28722 Precío Metallorum et Monetís.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28723 </p>
28724 <p type="main">
28725
28726 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Veteribus et Novís Metallís.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28727 <s> This short work comprises 31 folio <lb></lb>pages, and first appears in the 1546
28728 collection of collateral works. </s>
28729
28730 <s>It consists <lb></lb>mainly of historical and geographical references to the
28731 occurrence of metals <lb></lb>and mines, culled from the Greek and Latin
28732 classics, together with some <lb></lb>information as to the history of the mines
28733 in Central Europe. </s>
28734
28735 <s>The latter <lb></lb>is the only original material, and unfortunately is not very
28736 extensive. </s>
28737
28738 <s>We <lb></lb>have incorporated some of this information in the footnotes.</s>
28739 </p>
28740 <p type="main">
28741
28742 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Animantibus Subterraneis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28743 <s> This short work was first printed in <lb></lb>Basel, 1549, and consists of one
28744 chapter of 23 folio pages. </s>
28745
28746 <s>Practically the whole <lb></lb>is devoted to the discussion of various animals
28747 who at least a portion of their <lb></lb>time live underground, such as
28748 hibernating, cave-dwelling, and burrowing <lb></lb>animals, together with
28749 cave-dwelling birds, lizards, crocodiles, serpents, <lb></lb>etc. </s>
28750
28751 <s>There are only a few lines of remote geological interest as to migration <pb pagenum="598"></pb>of animals imposed by geologic phenomena, such as
28752 earthquakes, floods, etc. <lb></lb></s>
28753
28754 <s>This book also discloses an occasional vein of credulity not to be expected
28755 from <lb></lb>the author&#039;s other works, in that he apparently believes
28756 Aristotle&#039;s story of <lb></lb>the flies which were born and lived only in the
28757 smelting furnace; and further, <lb></lb>the last paragraph in the book is
28758 devoted to underground gnomes. </s>
28759
28760 <s>This we <lb></lb>reproduce in the footnote on page 217.</s>
28761 </p>
28762 <p type="main">
28763
28764 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28765 <s> This work of four books, <lb></lb>comprising 83 folio pages, first appears in
28766 the 1546 collection. </s>
28767
28768 <s>As the title <lb></lb>indicates, the discussion is upon the substances which flow
28769 from the earth, <lb></lb>such as water, bitumen, gases, etc. </s>
28770
28771 <s>Altogether it is of microscopic value and <lb></lb>wholly uninteresting. </s>
28772
28773 <s>The major part refers to colour, taste, temperature, <lb></lb>medicinal uses of
28774 water, descriptions of rivers, lakes, swamps, and aqueducts.</s>
28775 </p>
28776 <figure></figure>
28777 <pb pagenum="599"></pb>
28778 <p type="head">
28779
28780 <s>BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.</s>
28781 </p>
28782 <p type="main">
28783
28784 <s>For the following we have mainly to thank Miss Kathleen Schlesinger, who has
28785 been <lb></lb>employed many months in following up every clue, and although the
28786 results display <lb></lb>very considerable literary activity on the part of the
28787 author, they do not by any means <lb></lb>indicate Miss Schlesinger&#039;s labours. </s>
28788
28789 <s>Agricola&#039;s works were many of them published at <lb></lb>various times in
28790 combination, and therefore to set out the title and the publication of each
28791 <lb></lb>work separately would involve much repetition of titles, and we
28792 consequently give the titles <lb></lb>of the various volumes arranged according
28793 to dates. </s>
28794
28795 <s>For instance, <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura Fossilium, De <lb></lb>Ortu et
28796 Causis, De Veteribus et Novis Metallis, De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex
28797 Terra,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>Interpretatio<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> have always been published
28798 together, and the Latin and Italian editions of <lb></lb>these works always
28799 include <emph type="italics"></emph>Bermannus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> as well. </s>
28800
28801 <s>Moreover, the Latin <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of <lb></lb>1657 includes all of these works.</s>
28802 </p>
28803 <p type="main">
28804
28805 <s>We mark with an asterisk the titles to editions which we have been able to
28806 authen­<lb></lb>ticate by various means from actual books. </s>
28807
28808 <s>Those unmarked are editions which we are <lb></lb>satisfied do exist, but the
28809 titles of which are possibly incomplete, as they are taken from <lb></lb>library
28810 catalogues, etc. </s>
28811
28812 <s>Other editions to which we find reference and of which we are not
28813 <lb></lb>certain are noted separately in the discussion later on.<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
28814 </p>
28815 <p type="head">
28816
28817 <s>*1530 (8vo).</s>
28818 </p>
28819 <p type="main">
28820
28821 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae Medici, Bermannus sive de re
28822 Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28823 </p>
28824 <p type="main">
28825
28826 <s>(Froben&#039;s mark).</s>
28827 </p>
28828 <p type="main">
28829
28830 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Basileae in aedibus Frobenianis Anno.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28831 <s> MDXXX.</s>
28832 </p>
28833 <p type="main">
28834
28835 <s>Bound with this edition is (p. </s>
28836
28837 <s>131-135), at least occasionally, <emph type="italics"></emph>Rerum metallicarum
28838 <lb></lb>appellationes juxta vernaculam Germanorum linguam, autori
28839 Plateano.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28840 </p>
28841 <p type="main">
28842
28843 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Basileae in officina Frobeniana,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Anno. </s>
28844
28845 <s>MDXXX.</s>
28846 </p>
28847 <p type="head">
28848
28849 <s>*1533 (8vo):</s>
28850 </p>
28851 <p type="main">
28852
28853 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae Medici libri quinque de Mensuris et
28854 Ponderibus: in quibus plaeraque <lb></lb>à Budaeo et Portio parum
28855 animadversa diligenter excutiuntur. </s>
28856
28857 <s>Opus nunc primum in lucem <lb></lb>aeditum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28858 </p>
28859 <p type="main">
28860
28861 <s>(Wechelus&#039;s Mark).</s>
28862 </p>
28863 <p type="main">
28864
28865 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Parisiis. </s>
28866
28867 <s>Excudebat Christianus Wechelus, in vico Iacobaeo, sub scuto Basileiensi,
28868 Anno<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>MDXXXIII.</s>
28869 </p>
28870 <p type="main">
28871
28872 <s>261 pages and index of 5 pages.</s>
28873 </p>
28874 <pb pagenum="600"></pb>
28875 <p type="head">
28876
28877 <s>*1533 (4to):</s>
28878 </p>
28879 <p type="main">
28880
28881 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae Medici Libri quinque. </s>
28882
28883 <s>De Mensuris et Ponderibus: In quibus <lb></lb>pleraque à Budaeo et Portio
28884 parum animadversa diligenter excutiuntur.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28885 </p>
28886 <p type="main">
28887
28888 <s>(F<gap></gap>oben&#039;s Mark).</s>
28889 </p>
28890 <p type="main">
28891
28892 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Basileae ex Officina Frobeniana Anno<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> MDXXXIII. <emph type="italics"></emph>Cum gratia et
28893 privilegio Caesareo <lb></lb>ad sex annos.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28894 </p>
28895 <p type="head">
28896
28897 <s>1534 (4to):</s>
28898 </p>
28899 <p type="main">
28900
28901 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae. </s>
28902
28903 <s>Epistola ad Plateanum, cui sunt adiecta aliquot loca castigata in <lb></lb>libris
28904 de mensuris et ponderibus nuper editis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28905 </p>
28906 <p type="main">
28907
28908 <s>Froben, Basel, 1534.</s>
28909 </p>
28910 <p type="head">
28911
28912 <s>*1535 (8vo):</s>
28913 </p>
28914 <p type="main">
28915
28916 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae Medici libri V. de Mensuris et
28917 Ponderibus: in quibus pleraque à <lb></lb>Budaeo et Portio parum
28918 animadversa diligenter excutiuntur.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28919 </p>
28920 <p type="main">
28921
28922 <s>(Printer&#039;s Mark).</s>
28923 </p>
28924 <p type="main">
28925
28926 <s>At the end of Index: <emph type="italics"></emph>Venitüs per Joan Anto. </s>
28927
28928 <s>de Nicolinis de Sabio, sumptu vero et <lb></lb>requisitione <expan abbr="Dñi">Dnni</expan> Melchionis Sessae. </s>
28929
28930 <s>Anno. </s>
28931
28932 <s><expan abbr="Dñi">Dnni</expan><emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> MDXXXV. <emph type="italics"></emph>Mense Julii.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 116 folios.</s>
28933 </p>
28934 <p type="main">
28935
28936 <s>On back of title page is given: <emph type="italics"></emph>Liber primus de
28937 mensuris Romanis, Secundus de men­<lb></lb>suris Graecis, Tertius de rerum
28938 quas metimur pondere, Quartus de ponderibus Romanis, <lb></lb>Quintus de
28939 ponderibus Graecis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28940 </p>
28941 <p type="head">
28942
28943 <s>*1541 (8vo):</s>
28944 </p>
28945 <p type="main">
28946
28947 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae Medici Bermannus sive de re
28948 metallica.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28949 </p>
28950 <p type="main">
28951
28952 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Parisiis. </s>
28953
28954 <s>Apud Hieronymum Gormontiú. </s>
28955
28956 <s>In Vico Jacobeo sub signotrium coronarum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>1541.</s>
28957 </p>
28958 <p type="head">
28959
28960 <s>*1546 (8vo):</s>
28961 </p>
28962 <p type="main">
28963
28964 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae medici Bermannus, sive de metallica
28965 ab accurata autoris recognitione <lb></lb>et emendatione nunc primum editus cum
28966 nomenclalura rerum metallicarum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28967 </p>
28968 <p type="main">
28969
28970 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Eorum Lipsiae In officina Valentini Papae
28971 Anno.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28972 <s> MDXLVI.</s>
28973 </p>
28974 <p type="head">
28975
28976 <s>*1546 (folio):</s>
28977 </p>
28978 <p type="main">
28979
28980 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae De ortu et causis subterraneorum Lib.
28981 V. </s>
28982
28983 <s>De natura eorum quae <lb></lb>effluunt ex terra Lib. </s>
28984
28985 <s>IIII. </s>
28986
28987 <s>De natura fossilium Lib. </s>
28988
28989 <s>X. </s>
28990
28991 <s>De veteribus et novis metallis, Lib. </s>
28992
28993 <s>II. <lb></lb></s>
28994
28995 <s>Bermannus sive De re Metallica dialogus. </s>
28996
28997 <s>Interpretatio Germanica vocum rei metallicae addito <lb></lb>Indice
28998 faecundissimo.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
28999 </p>
29000 <p type="main">
29001
29002 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Apud Hieron Frobenium et Nicolaum Episcopium
29003 Basileae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> MDXLVI. <emph type="italics"></emph>Cum
29004 privilegio <lb></lb>Imp. </s>
29005
29006 <s>Maiestatis ad quinquennium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29007 </p>
29008 <p type="head">
29009
29010 <s>*1549 (8vo):</s>
29011 </p>
29012 <p type="main">
29013
29014 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae de animantibus subterraneis
29015 Liber.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29016 </p>
29017 <p type="main">
29018
29019 <s>Froben, Basel, MDXLIX.</s>
29020 </p>
29021 <p type="head">
29022
29023 <s>*1550 (8vo):</s>
29024 </p>
29025 <p type="main">
29026
29027 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Di Georgio Agricola De la generatione de le cose, che
29028 sotto la terra sono, e de le cause de&#039; <lb></lb>loro effetti e natura, Lib. V. </s>
29029
29030 <s>De La Natura di quelle cose, che de la terra scorrono Lib. </s>
29031
29032 <s>IIII. </s>
29033
29034 <s>De <lb></lb>La Natura de le cose Fossili, e che sotto la terra si Cavano Lib. X. </s>
29035
29036 <s>De Le Minere antiche e <lb></lb>moderne Lib. II. </s>
29037
29038 <s>Il Bermanno, ò de le cose Metallice Dialogo, Recato tutto hora dal
29039 Latino <lb></lb>in Buona Lingua volgare.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29040 </p>
29041 <p type="main">
29042
29043 <s>(Vignette of Sybilla surrounded by the words)—<emph type="italics"></emph>Qv
29044 Al Piv Fermo E Il Mio Foglio È Il <lb></lb>Mio Presaggio.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29045 </p>
29046 <p type="main">
29047
29048 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Col Privilegio del Sommo Pontefice Papa Giulio III. </s>
29049
29050 <s>Et del Illustriss. </s>
29051
29052 <s>Senato Veneto per <lb></lb>anni.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29053 <s> XX.</s>
29054 </p>
29055 <p type="main">
29056
29057 <s>(Colophon). <emph type="italics"></emph>In Vinegia per Michele Tramezzino,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> MDL.</s>
29058 </p>
29059 <p type="head">
29060
29061 <s>*1550 (folio):</s>
29062 </p>
29063 <p type="main">
29064
29065 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae. </s>
29066
29067 <s>De Mensuris et ponderibus Rom. </s>
29068
29069 <s>atque Graec. </s>
29070
29071 <s>lib. V. </s>
29072
29073 <s>De externis <lb></lb>mensuris et ponderibus Lib. II. </s>
29074
29075 <s>Ad ea quae Andreas Alciatus denuo disputavit De Men­<lb></lb>suris et
29076 Ponderibus brevis defensio Lib. </s>
29077
29078 <s>I. </s>
29079
29080 <s>De Mensuris quibus intervalla metimur Lib. I. <lb></lb></s>
29081
29082 <s>De restituendis ponderibus atque mensuris. </s>
29083
29084 <s>Lib. I. </s>
29085
29086 <s>De precio metallorum et monetis. </s>
29087
29088 <s>Lib. <lb></lb></s>
29089
29090 <s>III.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29091 </p>
29092 <p type="main">
29093
29094 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Basileae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29095 <s> Froben. </s>
29096
29097 <s>MDL. <emph type="italics"></emph>Cum privilegio Imp. </s>
29098
29099 <s>Maiestatis ad quinquennium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
29100 </p>
29101 <p type="head">
29102
29103 <s>*1556 (folio):</s>
29104 </p>
29105 <p type="main">
29106
29107 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae De Re Metallica Libri XII. quibus
29108 Officia, Instrumenta, Machinae, ac <lb></lb>omnia denique ad Metallicam
29109 spectantia, non modo luculentissime describuntur, sed et per effigies,
29110 <lb></lb>suis locis insertas, adjunctis Latinis, Germanicisque appellationibus
29111 ita ob oculos ponuntur, <lb></lb>ut clarius tradi non possint Eiusdem De
29112 Animantibus Subterraneis Liber, ab Autore recognitus: <lb></lb>cum Indicibus
29113 diversis, quicquid in opere tractatum est, pulchre demonstrantibus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29114 </p>
29115 <p type="main">
29116
29117 <s>(Froben&#039;s Mark).</s>
29118 </p>
29119 <p type="main">
29120
29121 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Basileae MDLVI. </s>
29122
29123 <s>Cum Privilegio Imperatoris in annos V. et Galliarum Regis ad
29124 <lb></lb>Sexennium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29125 </p>
29126 <p type="main">
29127
29128 <s>Folio 538 pages and preface, glossary and index amounting to 86 pages. </s>
29129
29130 <s>This is the <lb></lb>first edition of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re
29131 Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29132 <s> We reproduce this title-page on page XIX.</s>
29133 </p>
29134 <pb pagenum="601"></pb>
29135 <p type="head">
29136
29137 <s>*1557 (folio):</s>
29138 </p>
29139 <p type="main">
29140
29141 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Vom Bergkwerck xii Bücher darinn alle Empter,
29142 Instrument, Gezeuge, unnd Alles zu disem <lb></lb>Handel gehörig, mitt
29143 schönen figuren vorbildet, und Klärlich beschriben seindt erstlich
29144 in <lb></lb>Lateinischer Sprach durch den Hochgelerten und weittberümpten
29145 Herrn Georgium Agricolam, <lb></lb>Doctorn und. </s>
29146
29147 <s>Bürgermeistern der Churfürstlichen statt Kempnitz, jezundt aber
29148 verteüscht durch <lb></lb>den Achtparen, unnd Hochgelerten Herrn Philippum
29149 Bechium, Philosophen, Artzer und in der <lb></lb>Loblichen Universitet zu Basel
29150 Professorn.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29151 </p>
29152 <p type="main">
29153
29154 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Gedruckt zu Basel durch Jeronymus Froben Und Niclausen
29155 Bischoff im 1557 Jar mitt <lb></lb>Keiserlicher Freyheit.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29156 </p>
29157 <p type="head">
29158
29159 <s>*1558 (folio):</s>
29160 </p>
29161 <p type="main">
29162
29163 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolac De ortu et causis subterraneorum Lib.
29164 V. </s>
29165
29166 <s>De natura eorum quae <lb></lb>effluunt ex terra Lib. </s>
29167
29168 <s>IV. </s>
29169
29170 <s>De natura fossilium Lib. </s>
29171
29172 <s>X. </s>
29173
29174 <s>De veteribus et novis meiallis Lib. </s>
29175
29176 <s>II. <lb></lb>Bermannus, sive De Re Metallica Dialogus Liber. </s>
29177
29178 <s>Interpretatio Germanica vocum rei metallicae, <lb></lb>addito duplici Indice,
29179 altero rerum, altero locorum Omnia ab ipso authore, cum haud poenitenda
29180 <lb></lb>accessione, recens recognita.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29181 </p>
29182 <p type="main">
29183
29184 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Froben, et Episcop. </s>
29185
29186 <s>Basileae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> MDLVIII. <emph type="italics"></emph>Cum Imp. </s>
29187
29188 <s>Maiestatis renovato privilegio ad quin­<lb></lb>quennium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29189 </p>
29190 <p type="main">
29191
29192 <s>270 pages and index. </s>
29193
29194 <s>As the title states, this is a revised edition by the author, and <lb></lb>as the
29195 changes are very considerable it should be the one used. </s>
29196
29197 <s>The Italian translation <lb></lb>and the 1612 Wittenberg edition, mentioned
29198 below, are taken from the 1546 edition, and are, <lb></lb>therefore, very
29199 imperfect.</s>
29200 </p>
29201 <p type="head">
29202
29203 <s>*1561 (folio):</s>
29204 </p>
29205 <p type="main">
29206
29207 <s>Second edition of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> including <emph type="italics"></emph>De Animantibus
29208 Subterraneis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> with same <lb></lb>title as the
29209 first edition except the addition, after the body of the title, of the words
29210 <emph type="italics"></emph>Atque <lb></lb>omnibus nunc iterum ad archetypum
29211 diligenter restitutis et castigatis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the year
29212 MDLXI. 502 <lb></lb>pages and 72 pages of glossary and index.</s>
29213 </p>
29214 <p type="head">
29215
29216 <s>*1563 (folio):</s>
29217 </p>
29218 <p type="main">
29219
29220 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Opera di Giorgio Agricola de L&#039;arte de Metalli Partita
29221 in XII. libri, ne quali si descrivano <lb></lb>tutte le sorti, e qualità
29222 de gli uffizii, de gli strumenti, delle macchine, e di tutte l&#039;altre cose
29223 attenenti <lb></lb>a cotal arte, non pure con parole chiare ma eziandio si
29224 mettano a luoghi loro le figure di dette <lb></lb>cose, ritratte al naturale,
29225 con l&#039;aggiunta de nomi di quelle, cotanto chiari, e spediti, che meglio non
29226 <lb></lb>si puo desiderare, o havere.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29227 </p>
29228 <p type="main">
29229
29230 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Aggiugnesi il libro del medesimo autore, che tratta de
29231 gl&#039; Animali di sottoterra da lui stesso <lb></lb>corretto et riveduto. </s>
29232
29233 <s>Tradotti in lingua Toscana da M. </s>
29234
29235 <s>Michelangelo Florio Fiorentino.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29236 </p>
29237 <p type="main">
29238
29239 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Con l&#039;Indice di tutte le cose piu notabili alla
29240 fine<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (Froben&#039;s mark) <emph type="italics"></emph>in
29241 Basilea per Hieronimo <lb></lb>Frobenio et Nicolao Episcopio,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> MDLXIII.</s>
29242 </p>
29243 <p type="main">
29244
29245 <s>542 pages with 6 pages of index.</s>
29246 </p>
29247 <p type="head">
29248
29249 <s>*1580 (folio):</s>
29250 </p>
29251 <p type="main">
29252
29253 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Bergwerck Buch: Darinn nicht Allain alle Empte
29254 Instrument Gezeug und alles so zu <lb></lb>diesem Handel gehörig mit
29255 figuren vorgebildet und klärlich beschriben, etc. </s>
29256
29257 <s>Durch den Hoch­<lb></lb>gelehrten . . . . Herrn Georgium Agricolam der
29258 Artzney Doctorn und Burgermeister <lb></lb>der Churfürstlichen Statt
29259 Kemnitz erstlich mit grossem fleyss mühe und arbeit in Latein
29260 beschriben <lb></lb>und in zwölff Bücher abgetheilt: Nachmals aber
29261 durch den Achtbarn und auch Hochgelehrten <lb></lb>Philippum Bechium Philosophen
29262 Artzt und in der Löblichen Universitet zu Basel Professorn <lb></lb>mit
29263 sonderm fleyss Teutscher Nation zu gut verteutscht und an Tag geben. </s>
29264
29265 <s>Allen Berckherrn <lb></lb>Gewercken Berckmeistern Geschwornen Schichtmeistern
29266 Steigern Berckheuwern Wäschern <lb></lb>und Schmeltzern nicht allein
29267 nützlich und dienstlich sondern auch zu wissem hochnotwendig.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29268 </p>
29269 <p type="main">
29270
29271 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Mit Römischer Keys. </s>
29272
29273 <s>May Freyheit nicht nachzutrucken.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29274 </p>
29275 <p type="main">
29276
29277 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Getruckt in der Keyserlichen Reichsstatt, Franckfort am
29278 Mayn, etc. </s>
29279
29280 <s>Im Jahr<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> MDLXXX.</s>
29281 </p>
29282 <p type="head">
29283
29284 <s>*1612 (12mo):</s>
29285 </p>
29286 <p type="main">
29287
29288 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae De ortu et causis subterraneorum Lib.
29289 V. </s>
29290
29291 <s>De natura eorum quae <lb></lb>effluunt ex terra, Lib. </s>
29292
29293 <s>IV. </s>
29294
29295 <s>De natura fossilium Lib. </s>
29296
29297 <s>X. </s>
29298
29299 <s>De veteribus et novis metallis Lib. </s>
29300
29301 <s>II. <lb></lb>Bermannus, sive de re metallica Dialogus. </s>
29302
29303 <s>Interpretatio Germanica vocum rei metallicae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29304 </p>
29305 <p type="main">
29306
29307 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Addito Indice faecundissimo, Plurimos jam annos
29308 à Germanis, et externarum quoque <lb></lb>nationum doctissimis viris,
29309 valde desiderati et expetiti.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29310 </p>
29311 <p type="main">
29312
29313 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Nunc vero in rei metallicae studiosorum gratiam
29314 recensiti, in certa capita distributi, <lb></lb>capitum argumentis, et nonnullis
29315 scholiis marginalibus illustrati à Johanne Sigfrido Philos: et
29316 <lb></lb>Medicinae Doctore et in illustri Julia Professore ordinario.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29317 </p>
29318 <p type="main">
29319
29320 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Accesserunt De metallicis rebus et nominibus
29321 observationes variae et eruditae, ex schedis <lb></lb>Georgii Fabricii, quibus
29322 ea potissimum explicantur, quae Georgius Agricola praeteriit.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29323 </p>
29324 <p type="main">
29325
29326 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Wittebergae Sumptibus Zachariae Schüreri
29327 Bibliopolae Typis Andreae Rüdingeri,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
29328 1612.</s>
29329 </p>
29330 <p type="main">
29331
29332 <s>There are 970 pages in the work of Agricola proper, the notes of Fabricius
29333 comprising <lb></lb>a further 44 pages, and the index 112 pages.</s>
29334 </p>
29335 <p type="head">
29336
29337 <s>*1614 (8vo):</s>
29338 </p>
29339 <p type="main">
29340
29341 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae De Animantibus Subterraneis Liber
29342 Hactenus à multis desideratus, <lb></lb>nunc vero in gratiam studiosorum
29343 seorsim editus, in certa capita divisus, capitum argumentis et
29344 <lb></lb>nonnullis marginalibus exornatus à Johanne Sigfrido, Phil. </s>
29345
29346 <s>&amp; Med. </s>
29347
29348 <s>Doctore,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> etc.</s>
29349 </p>
29350 <p type="main">
29351
29352 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Wittebergae, Typis Meisnerianis: Impensis Zachariae. </s>
29353
29354 <s>Schureri Bibliop. </s>
29355
29356 <s>Anno.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>MDCXIV.</s>
29357 </p>
29358 <pb pagenum="602"></pb>
29359 <p type="head">
29360
29361 <s>*1621 (folio):</s>
29362 </p>
29363 <p type="main">
29364
29365 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae Kempuicensis Medici ac Philosophi
29366 Clariss. </s>
29367
29368 <s>De Re Metallica Libri XII <lb></lb>Quibus Officia, Instrumenta, Machinae, ac
29369 omnia denique ad metallicam spectantia, non modo <lb></lb>Luculentissimè
29370 describuntur; sed et per effigies, suis locis insertas adjunctis Latinis. </s>
29371
29372 <s>German­<lb></lb>icisque; appellationibus, ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius
29373 tradi non possiut.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29374 </p>
29375 <p type="main">
29376
29377 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Ejusdem De Animantibus Subterrancis Liber, ab Autore
29378 recognitus cum Indicibus diversis <lb></lb>quicquid in Opere tractatum est,
29379 pulchrè demonstrantibus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29380 </p>
29381 <p type="main">
29382
29383 <s>(Vignette of man at assay furnace).</s>
29384 </p>
29385 <p type="main">
29386
29387 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Basileae Helvet. </s>
29388
29389 <s>Sumptibus itemque typis chalcographicis Ludovici Regis Anno<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> MDCXXI.</s>
29390 </p>
29391 <p type="main">
29392
29393 <s>502 pages and 58 pages glossary and mdices.</s>
29394 </p>
29395 <p type="head">
29396
29397 <s>*1621 (folio):</s>
29398 </p>
29399 <p type="main">
29400
29401 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Bergwerck Buch Darinnen nicht allein alle Empter
29402 Instrument Gezeug und alles so zu <lb></lb>disem Handel gehörig mit Figuren
29403 vorgchildet und klärlich beschrieben: . . . . Durch <lb></lb>den
29404 Hochgelehrten und weitberühmten Herrn Georgium Agricolam, der Artzney
29405 Doctorn und <lb></lb>Burgermeister der Churfürstlichen Statt Kemnitz
29406 Erstlich mit grossem fleiss mühe und arbeit in <lb></lb>Latein beschrieben
29407 und in zwölſſ Bücher abgetheilt: Nachmals aber durch
29408 den Achtbarn und <lb></lb>auch Hochgelehrten Philippum Bechium. </s>
29409
29410 <s>Philosophen, Artzt, und in der loblichen Universitet zu <lb></lb>Basel Professorn
29411 mit sonderm fleiss Teutscher Nation zu gut verteutscht und an Tag geben und
29412 <lb></lb>nun zum andern mal getruckt.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29413 </p>
29414 <p type="main">
29415
29416 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Allen Bergherrn Gewercken Bergmeistern Geschwornen
29417 Schichtmeistern Steigern <lb></lb>Berghäwern Wäschern unnd Schmeltzern
29418 nicht allein nutzlich und dienstlich sondern auch zu <lb></lb>wissen
29419 hochnohtwendig.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29420 </p>
29421 <p type="main">
29422
29423 <s>(Vignette of man at assay furnace).</s>
29424 </p>
29425 <p type="main">
29426
29427 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Getruckt zu Basel inverlegung Ludwig Königs Im
29428 Jahr,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> MDCXXI.</s>
29429 </p>
29430 <p type="main">
29431
29432 <s>491 pages 5 pages glossary—no index.</s>
29433 </p>
29434 <p type="head">
29435
29436 <s>*1657 (folio):</s>
29437 </p>
29438 <p type="main">
29439
29440 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae Kempnicensis Medici ac Philosophi
29441 Clariss. </s>
29442
29443 <s>De Re Metallica Libri <lb></lb>XII. </s>
29444
29445 <s>Quibus Officia, instrumenta, machinae, ac omnia denique ad metallicam
29446 spectantia, non <lb></lb>modo luculentissimè describuntur: sed et per
29447 effigies, suis locis insertas, adjunctis Latinis, <lb></lb>Germanicisque
29448 appellationibus, ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non possint. </s>
29449
29450 <s>Quibus <lb></lb>accesserunt hac ultima editione, Tractatus ejusdem argumenti, ab
29451 eodem conscripti, sequentes.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29452 </p>
29453 <p type="main">
29454
29455 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Animantibus Subterraneis Lib. I., De Ortu et Causis
29456 Subterraneorum Lib. </s>
29457
29458 <s>V., De <lb></lb>Natura eorum quae effluunt ex Terra Lib. IV., De Natura Fossilium
29459 Lib. X., De Veteribus et <lb></lb>Novis Metallis Lib. II., Bermannus sive de Re
29460 Metallica, Dialogus Lib. </s>
29461
29462 <s>I.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29463 </p>
29464 <p type="main">
29465
29466 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Cum Indicibus diversis, quicquid in Opere tractatum
29467 est, pulchrè demonstrantibus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29468 </p>
29469 <p type="main">
29470
29471 <s>(Vignette of assayer and furnace).</s>
29472 </p>
29473 <p type="main">
29474
29475 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Basileae Sumptibus et Typis Emanuelis König. </s>
29476
29477 <s>Anno<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> MDCLVII.</s>
29478 </p>
29479 <p type="main">
29480
29481 <s>Folio, 708 pages and 90 pages of glossary and indices. </s>
29482
29483 <s>This is a very serviceable <lb></lb>edition of all of Agricola&#039;s important works,
29484 and so far as we have noticed there are but few <lb></lb>typographical
29485 errors.</s>
29486 </p>
29487 <p type="head">
29488
29489 <s>*1778 (8vo):</s>
29490 </p>
29491 <p type="main">
29492
29493 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Gespräch vom Bergwesen, wegen seiner
29494 Fürtrefflich keit aus dem Lateinischen in das <lb></lb>Deutsche
29495 übersetzet, mit nützl. </s>
29496
29497 <s>Anmerkungen erläutert. </s>
29498
29499 <s>u. </s>
29500
29501 <s>mit einem ganz neuen Zusatze von <lb></lb>Zlüglicher Anstellung des
29502 Bergbaues u. </s>
29503
29504 <s>von der Zugutemachung der Erze auf den Hüttenwerken <lb></lb>versehen von
29505 Johann Gottlieb Stör.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29506 </p>
29507 <p type="main">
29508
29509 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Rotenburg a. </s>
29510
29511 <s>d. </s>
29512
29513 <s>Fulda, Hermstädt<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1778. 180 pages.</s>
29514 </p>
29515 <p type="head">
29516
29517 <s>*1806 (8vo):</s>
29518 </p>
29519 <p type="main">
29520
29521 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georg Agricola&#039;s Bermannus eine Einleitung in die
29522 metallurgischen Schriften desselben, <lb></lb>übersetzt und mit Exkursionen
29523 herausgegeben von Friedrich August Schmid. </s>
29524
29525 <s>Haushalts-und <lb></lb>Befahrungs-Protokollist im Churf. </s>
29526
29527 <s>vereinigten Bergamte zu St. </s>
29528
29529 <s>Annaberg.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29530 </p>
29531 <p type="main">
29532
29533 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Freyberg 1806. Bey Craz und Gerlach.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29534 </p>
29535 <p type="head">
29536
29537 <s>*1807-12 (8vo):</s>
29538 </p>
29539 <p type="main">
29540
29541 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Georg Agrikola&#039;s Mineralogische Schriften
29542 übersetzt und mit erläuternden Anmerkungen. <lb></lb></s>
29543
29544 <s>Begleitet von Ernst Lehmann Bergamts-Assessor, Berg-Gegen-und Receszschreiber
29545 in Dem <lb></lb>Königl. </s>
29546
29547 <s>Sächs. </s>
29548
29549 <s>Bergamte Voigtsberg der jenaischen Societät für die gesammte
29550 Mineralogie <lb></lb>Ehrenmitgliede.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29551 </p>
29552 <p type="main">
29553
29554 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Freyberg, 1807-12. Bey Craz und Gerlach.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29555 </p>
29556 <p type="main">
29557
29558 <s>This German translation consists of four parts: the first being <emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu et Causis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>the
29559 second <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura eorum quae effluunt ex
29560 terra,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the third in two volumes <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura <lb></lb>Fossilium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> the
29561 fourth <emph type="italics"></emph>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> with glossary and index to the four <lb></lb>parts.</s>
29562 </p>
29563 <p type="main">
29564
29565 <s>We give the following notes on other possible prints, as a great many
29566 references to the <lb></lb>above works occur in various quarters, of date other
29567 than the above. </s>
29568
29569 <s>Unless otherwise <lb></lb>convinced it is our belief that most of these refer to
29570 the prints given above, and are due to <lb></lb>error in giving titles or dates. </s>
29571
29572 <s>It is always possible that such prints do exist and have escaped <lb></lb>our
29573 search.</s>
29574 </p>
29575 <pb pagenum="603"></pb>
29576 <p type="main">
29577
29578 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29579 <s> Leupold, Richter, Schmid, van der Linden, Mercklinus and Eloy <lb></lb>give an
29580 8vo edition of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> without illustrations, Schweinfurt, 1607. We have <lb></lb>found no trace of
29581 this print. </s>
29582
29583 <s>Leupold, van der Linden, Richter, Schmid and Eloy mention <lb></lb>an 8vo
29584 edition, Wittenberg, 1614. It is our belief that this refers to the 1612
29585 Wittenberg <lb></lb>edition of the selected works, which contains a somewhat
29586 similar title referring in reality <lb></lb>to <emph type="italics"></emph>Bermannus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which was and is still
29587 continually confused with <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29588 <s> Ferguson <lb></lb>mentions a German edition, Schweinfurt, 8vo, 1687. We can find
29589 no trace of this; it may <lb></lb>refer to the 1607 Schweinfurt edition
29590 mentioned above.</s>
29591 </p>
29592 <p type="main">
29593
29594 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura Fossilium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29595 <s> Leupold and Gatter refer to a folio edition of 1550. This was <lb></lb>probably
29596 an error for either the 1546 or the 1558 editions. </s>
29597
29598 <s>Watt refers to an edition of 1561 <lb></lb>combined with <emph type="italics"></emph>De
29599 Medicatis Fonlibus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29600 <s> We find no trace of such edition, nor even that the <lb></lb>latter work was
29601 ever actually printed. </s>
29602
29603 <s>He also refers to an edition of 1614 and one of 1621, <lb></lb>this probably
29604 being an error for the 1612 edition of the subsidiary works and the <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re <lb></lb>Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of 1621.
29605 Leupold also refers to an edition of 1622, this probably being an error for
29606 <lb></lb>1612.</s>
29607 </p>
29608 <p type="main">
29609
29610 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu et Causis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29611 <s> Albinus, Hofmann, Jacobi, Schmid, Richter, and Reuss mention <lb></lb>an edition
29612 of 1544. This we believe to be an error in giving the date of the dedication
29613 instead <lb></lb>of that of the publication (1546). Albinus and Ferguson give an
29614 edition of 1555, which date <lb></lb>is, we believe, an error for 1558. Ferguson
29615 gives an edition of the Italian translation as <lb></lb>1559; we believe this
29616 should be 1550. Draud gives an edition of 1621; probably this <lb></lb>should be
29617 1612.</s>
29618 </p>
29619 <p type="main">
29620
29621 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Bermannus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29622 <s> Albinus, Schmid, Reuss, Richter, and Weinart give the first edition as
29623 <lb></lb>1528. We have been unable to learn of any actual copy of that date, and
29624 it is our belief that <lb></lb>the date is taken from the dedication instead of
29625 from the publication, and should be 1530. <lb></lb>Leupold, Schmid, and Reuss
29626 give an edition by Froben in 1549; we have been unable to <lb></lb>confirm this. </s>
29627
29628 <s>Leupold also gives an edition of 1550 (folio), and Jöcher gives an
29629 edition of <lb></lb>Geneva 1561 (folio); we have also been unable to find this,
29630 and believe the latter to be a <lb></lb>confusion with the <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of 1561, as it is unlikely that
29631 <emph type="italics"></emph>Bermannus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> would be
29632 pub­<lb></lb>lished by itself in folio. </s>
29633
29634 <s>The catalogue of the library at Siena (Vol. </s>
29635
29636 <s>III., p. </s>
29637
29638 <s>78) gives <emph type="italics"></emph>Il <lb></lb>Bermanno, Vinegia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1550, 8vo. </s>
29639
29640 <s>We have found no trace of this edition elsewhere.</s>
29641 </p>
29642 <p type="main">
29643
29644 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Mensuris et Ponderibus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29645 <s> Albinus and Schmid mention an edition of 1539, and one <lb></lb>of 1550. The
29646 Biographie Universelle, Paris, gives one of 1553, and Leupold one of 1714,
29647 all <lb></lb>of which we have been unable to find. </s>
29648
29649 <s>An epitome of this work was published at various <lb></lb>times, sometimes in
29650 connection with editions of Vitruvius; so far as we are aware on the
29651 <lb></lb>following dates, 1552, 1585, 1586, 1829. There also appear extracts in
29652 relation to liquid <lb></lb>measures in works entitled <emph type="italics"></emph>Vocabula rei numariae ponderum et mensurarum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
29653 etc. </s>
29654
29655 <s>Paul Eber <lb></lb>and Caspar Peucer, <emph type="italics"></emph>Lipsiae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1549, and in same Wittenberg, 1552.</s>
29656 </p>
29657 <p type="main">
29658
29659 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29660 <s> Watt gives an edition, Basel, 1530, and Paris, 1541; <lb></lb>we believe this is
29661 incorrect and refers to <emph type="italics"></emph>Bermannus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29662 <s> Reuss mentions a folio print of Basel, <lb></lb>1550. We consider this very
29663 unlikely.</s>
29664 </p>
29665 <p type="main">
29666
29667 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29668 <s> Albinus, Hofmann, Schmid, Jacobi, <lb></lb>Richter, Reuss, and Weinart give an
29669 edition of 1545. We believe this is again the dedication <lb></lb>instead of the
29670 publication date (1546).</s>
29671 </p>
29672 <p type="main">
29673
29674 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Animantibus Subterraneis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29675 <s> Van der Linden gives an edition at Schweinfurt, <lb></lb>8vo, 1607. Although we
29676 have been unable to find a copy, this slightly confirms the <lb></lb>possibility
29677 of an octavo edition of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of this date, as they were usually published
29678 <lb></lb>together. </s>
29679
29680 <s>Leupold gives assurance that he handled an octavo edition of Wittenberg,
29681 1612, <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>cum notis Johann Sigfridi.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29682 <s> We think he confused this with <emph type="italics"></emph>Bermannus sive de re
29683 metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>of that date and place. </s>
29684
29685 <s>Schmid, Richter, and Draud all refer to an edition similarly annotated,
29686 <lb></lb>Leipzig, 1613, 8vo. </s>
29687
29688 <s>We have no trace of it otherwise.</s>
29689 </p>
29690 <p type="head">
29691
29692 <s>UNPUBLISHED WORKS ON SUBJECTS RELATED TO MINING.</s>
29693 </p>
29694 <p type="main">
29695
29696 <s>Agricola apparently projected a complete series of works covering the whole
29697 range of <lb></lb>subjects relating to minerals: geology, mineralogy, mining,
29698 metallurgy, history of metals, <lb></lb>their uses, laws, etc. </s>
29699
29700 <s>In a letter<emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> from Fabricius to Meurer
29701 (March, 1553), the former states <lb></lb>that Agricola intended writing about
29702 30 books (chapters) in addition to those already pub­<lb></lb>lished, and to
29703 the twelve books <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which he was about to publish. </s>
29704
29705 <s>Apparently <lb></lb>a number of these works were either unfinished or unpublished
29706 at Agricola&#039;s death, for his <lb></lb>friend George Fabricius seems to have made
29707 some effort to secure their publication, but did <lb></lb>not succeed, through
29708 lack of sympathy on the part of Agricola&#039;s family. </s>
29709
29710 <s>Hofmann<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> states on <lb></lb>this matter:
29711 “His intentions were frustrated mainly through the lack of support
29712 with which <lb></lb>he was met by the heirs of the Mineralogist. </s>
29713
29714 <s>These, as he complains to a Councillor of the <lb></lb>Electorate, Christopher
29715 von Carlovitz, in 1556, and to Paul Eber in another letter, adopted <lb></lb>a
29716 grudging and ungracious tone with regard to his proposal to collect all
29717 Agricola&#039;s works <lb></lb>left behind, and they only consented to communicate to
29718 him as much as they were obliged <lb></lb><pb pagenum="604"></pb>by express command
29719 of the Prince. </s>
29720
29721 <s>At the Prince&#039;s command they showed him a little, <lb></lb>but he supposed that
29722 there was much more that they had suppressed or not preserved. <lb></lb></s>
29723
29724 <s>The attempt to purchase some of the works—the Elector had given
29725 Fabricius money for <lb></lb>the purpose (30 nummos unciales)—proved
29726 unavailing, owing to the disagreeableness of <lb></lb>Agricola&#039;s heirs. </s>
29727
29728 <s>It is no doubt due to these regrettable circumstances that all the works
29729 <lb></lb>of the industrious scholar did not come down to us.” The
29730 “disagreeableness” was pro­<lb></lb>bably due to the refusal of
29731 the Protestant townsfolk to allow the burial of Agricola in the
29732 <lb></lb>Cathedral at Chemnitz. </s>
29733
29734 <s>So far as we know the following are the unpublished or lost works.</s>
29735 </p>
29736 <p type="main">
29737
29738 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Jure et Legibus Metallicis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29739 <s> This work on mining law is mentioned at the end of <lb></lb>Book IV. of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and it is
29740 referred to by others apparently from that source. </s>
29741
29742 <s>We <lb></lb>have been unable to find any evidence that it was ever published.</s>
29743 </p>
29744 <p type="main">
29745
29746 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Varia temperie sive Constitutione Aeris.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29747 <s> In a letter<emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> to Johann Naevius,
29748 Agricola <lb></lb>refers to having a work in hand of this title.</s>
29749 </p>
29750 <p type="main">
29751
29752 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Metallis et Machinis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29753 <s> Hofmann<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> states that a work of this
29754 title by Agricola, dated <lb></lb>Basel 1543, was sold to someone in America by
29755 a Frankfort-on-Main bookseller in 1896. <lb></lb>This is apparently the only
29756 reference to it that we know of, and it is possibly a confusion of
29757 <lb></lb>titles or a “separate” of some chapters from <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29758 </p>
29759 <p type="main">
29760
29761 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu Metallorum Defensio ad Jacobum
29762 Scheckium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29763 <s> Referred to by Fabricius in a <lb></lb>letter<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> to Meurer. </s>
29764
29765 <s>If published was probably only a tract.</s>
29766 </p>
29767 <p type="main">
29768
29769 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Terrae Motu.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29770 <s> In a letter<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> from Agricola to
29771 Meurer (Jan. </s>
29772
29773 <s>1, 1544) is some reference <lb></lb>which might indicate that he was formulating
29774 a work on earthquakes under this title, or <lb></lb>perhaps may be only
29775 incidental to the portions of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu et
29776 Causis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> dealing with this subject.</s>
29777 </p>
29778 <p type="main">
29779
29780 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Commentariorum in quibus utriusque linguae scriptorum
29781 locos difficiles de rebus <lb></lb>subterraneis explicat, Libri VI.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29782 <s> Agricola apparently partially completed a work under some <lb></lb>such title as
29783 this, which was to embrace chapters entitled <emph type="italics"></emph>De
29784 Methodis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>De
29785 Demonstratione.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>The main object seems to
29786 have been a commentary on the terms and passages in the classics
29787 <lb></lb>relating to mining, mineralogy, etc. </s>
29788
29789 <s>It is mentioned in the Preface of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Veteribus et Novis
29790 <lb></lb>Metallis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and in a letter<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> from one of Froben&#039;s firm to Agricola in
29791 1548, where it is suggested <lb></lb>that Agricola should defer sending his new
29792 commentaries until the following spring. </s>
29793
29794 <s>The <lb></lb>work is mentioned by Albinus<emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, and in a letter from Georg Fabricius to Meurer on the 2nd <lb></lb>Jan. </s>
29795
29796 <s>1548,<emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> in another from G. Fabricius,
29797 to his brother Andreas on Oct. </s>
29798
29799 <s>28, 1555,<emph type="sup"></emph>14<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> and in <lb></lb>a third from
29800 Fabricius to Melanchthon on December 8th, 1555<emph type="sup"></emph>15<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>, in which regret is expressed <lb></lb>that the work was not
29801 completed by Agricola.<lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
29802 </p>
29803 <figure></figure>
29804 <pb pagenum="605"></pb>
29805 <p type="head">
29806
29807 <s>WRITINGS NOT RELATED TO MINING, INCLUDING LOST OR UNPUBLISHED <lb></lb>WORKS.</s>
29808 </p>
29809 <p type="main">
29810
29811 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Latin Grammar.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29812 <s> This was probably the first of Agricola&#039;s publications, the full title
29813 <lb></lb>to which is <emph type="italics"></emph>Georgii Agricolae Glaucii Libellus de
29814 prima ac simplici institutione grammatica. <lb></lb></s>
29815
29816 <s>Excusum Lipsiae in Officina Melchioris Lottheri. </s>
29817
29818 <s>Anno<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> MDXX. (4to), 24 folios.<emph type="sup"></emph>16<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> There is <lb></lb>some reason to believe that
29819 Agricola also published a Greek grammar, for there is a letter<emph type="sup"></emph>17<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end><lb></lb>from Agricola dated March 18th,
29820 1522, in which Henicus Camitianus is requested to send a <lb></lb>copy to
29821 Stephan Roth.</s>
29822 </p>
29823 <p type="main">
29824
29825 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Theological Tracts.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29826 <s> There are preserved in the Zwickau Rathsschul Library<emph type="sup"></emph>18<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> copies <lb></lb>by Stephan Roth of two tracts,
29827 the one entitled, <emph type="italics"></emph>Deum non esse auctorem
29828 Peccati,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> the <lb></lb>other. <emph type="italics"></emph>Religioso patri Petri Fontano, sacre theologie Doctori eximio Georgius
29829 Agricola salutem <lb></lb>dicit in Christo.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29830 <s> The former was written from Leipzig in 1522, and the latter, although
29831 <lb></lb>not dated, is assigned to the same period. </s>
29832
29833 <s>Both are printed in <emph type="italics"></emph>Zwei theologische Abhandlungen
29834 <lb></lb>des Georg Agricola,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> an article by Otto
29835 Clemen, <emph type="italics"></emph>Neuen Archiv für Sächsische
29836 Geschichte,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> etc., <lb></lb>Dresden, 1900. There is
29837 some reason (from a letter of Fabricius to Melanchthon, Dec. </s>
29838
29839 <s>8th, <lb></lb>1555) to believe that Agricola had completed a work on the
29840 unwritten traditions concerning <lb></lb>the Church. </s>
29841
29842 <s>There is no further trace of it.</s>
29843 </p>
29844 <p type="main">
29845
29846 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Galen.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29847 <s> Agricola appears to have been joint author with Andreas Asulanus and J. B.
29848 <lb></lb></s>
29849
29850 <s>Opizo of a revision of this well-known Greek work. </s>
29851
29852 <s>It was published at Venice in 1525, <lb></lb>under the title of <emph type="italics"></emph>Galeni Librorum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> etc., etc. </s>
29853
29854 <s>Agricola&#039;s name is mentioned in a prefatory <lb></lb>letter to Opizo by
29855 Asulanus.</s>
29856 </p>
29857 <p type="main">
29858
29859 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Bello adversus Turcam.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29860 <s> This political tract, directed against the Turks, was written in <lb></lb>Latin
29861 and first printed by Froben, Basel, 1528. It was translated into German
29862 apparently <lb></lb>by Agricola&#039;s friend Laurenz Berman, and published under the
29863 title <emph type="italics"></emph>Oration Anrede Und <lb></lb>Vormanunge . . . .
29864 widder den Türcken<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> by Frederich Peypus,
29865 Nuremberg, in 1531 <lb></lb>(8vo), and either in 1530 or 1531 by Wolfgang
29866 Stöckel, Dresden, 4to. </s>
29867
29868 <s>It was again printed <lb></lb>in Latin by Froben, Basel, 1538, 4to; by H.
29869 Grosius, Leipzig, 1594, 8vo; it was included <lb></lb>among other works
29870 published on the same subject by Nicholas Reusnerus, Leipzig, 1595; <lb></lb>by
29871 Michael Lantzenberger, Frankfurt-am-Main, 1597, 4to. </s>
29872
29873 <s>Further, there is reference by <lb></lb>Watt to an edition at Eisleben, 1603, of
29874 which we have no confirmation. </s>
29875
29876 <s>There is another <lb></lb>work on the subject, or a revision by the author
29877 mentioned by Albinus<emph type="sup"></emph>19<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> as having
29878 been, <lb></lb>after Agricola&#039;s death, sent to Froben by George Fabricius to be
29879 printed; nothing further <lb></lb>appears in this matter however.</s>
29880 </p>
29881 <p type="main">
29882
29883 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Peste.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29884 <s> This work on the Plague appears to have been first printed by Froben,
29885 <lb></lb>Basel, 1554, 8vo. </s>
29886
29887 <s>The work was republished at Schweinfurt, 1607, and at Augsburg in <lb></lb>1614,
29888 under various editors. </s>
29889
29890 <s>It would appear from Albinus<emph type="sup"></emph>20<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> that
29891 the work was revised by <lb></lb>Agricola and in Froben&#039;s hands for publication
29892 after the author&#039;s death.</s>
29893 </p>
29894 <p type="main">
29895
29896 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Medicatis Fontibus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29897 <s> This work is referred to by Agricola himself in <emph type="italics"></emph>De
29898 Natura <lb></lb>Eorum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>21<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> in the prefatory letter in <emph type="italics"></emph>De
29899 Veteribus et Novis Metallis;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and Albinus<emph type="sup"></emph>22<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> quotes a <lb></lb>letter of Agricola to
29900 Sebastian Munster on the subject. </s>
29901
29902 <s>Albinus states (<emph type="italics"></emph>Bergchronik,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
29903 p. </s>
29904
29905 <s>193) <lb></lb>that to his knowledge it had not yet been published. </s>
29906
29907 <s>Conrad Gesner, in his work <emph type="italics"></emph>Excerp­<lb></lb>torum et
29908 observationum de Thermis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which is reprinted in
29909 <emph type="italics"></emph>De Balneis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Venice,
29910 1553, after <lb></lb>Agricola&#039;s <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura Eorum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> states<emph type="sup"></emph>23<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
29911 concerning Agricola <emph type="italics"></emph>in libris quos de medicatis
29912 fontibus <lb></lb>instituerit copiosus se dicturum pollicetur.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29913 <s> Watts mentions it as having been published in 1549, <lb></lb>1561, 1614, and
29914 1621. He, however, apparently confuses it with <emph type="italics"></emph>De
29915 Natura Eorum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29916 <s> We <lb></lb>are unable to state whether it was ever printed or not. </s>
29917
29918 <s>A note of inquiry to the principal <lb></lb>libraries in Germany gave a negative
29919 result.</s>
29920 </p>
29921 <p type="main">
29922
29923 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Putredine solidas partes humani corporis
29924 corrumpente.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29925 <s> This work, according to <lb></lb>Albinus was received by Fabricius a year after
29926 Agricola&#039;s death, but whether it was published <lb></lb>or not is
29927 uncertain.<emph type="sup"></emph>24<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
29928 </p>
29929 <p type="main">
29930
29931 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Castigationes in Hippocratem et Galenum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29932 <s> This work is referred to by Agricola in the <lb></lb>preface of <emph type="italics"></emph>Bermannus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and Albinus<emph type="sup"></emph>25<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> mentions several letters referring
29933 to the preparation <lb></lb>of the work. </s>
29934
29935 <s>There is no evidence of publication.</s>
29936 </p>
29937 <p type="main">
29938
29939 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Typographia Mysnae et Toringiae.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
29940 <s> It seems from Agricola&#039;s letter<emph type="sup"></emph>26<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> to
29941 Munster that <lb></lb>Agricola prepared some sort of a work on the history of
29942 Saxony and of the Royal Family
29943 <lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="606"></pb>thereof at the command of the Elector and sent it to him when finished,
29944 but it was never <lb></lb>published as written by Agricola. </s>
29945
29946 <s>Albinus, Hofmann, and Struve give some details of letters <lb></lb>in reference
29947 to it. </s>
29948
29949 <s>Fabricius in a letter<emph type="sup"></emph>27<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> dated Nov. </s>
29950
29951 <s>11, 1536 asks Meurer to send Agricola <lb></lb>some material for it; in a letter
29952 from Fabricius to Meurer dated Oct. </s>
29953
29954 <s>30, 1554, it appears <lb></lb>that the Elector had granted Agricola 200 thalers
29955 to assist in the work. </s>
29956
29957 <s>After Agricola&#039;s <lb></lb>death the material seems to have been handed over to
29958 Fabricius, who made use of it (as he <lb></lb>states in the preface) in
29959 preparing the work he was commissioned by the Elector to write, <lb></lb>the
29960 title of which was, <emph type="italics"></emph>Originum illustrissimae stirpis
29961 Saxonicae Libri,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and was published in
29962 <lb></lb>Leipzig, 1597. It includes on page 880 a fragment of a work entitled
29963 <emph type="italics"></emph>Oratio de rebus Gestis <lb></lb>Ernesti et Alberti
29964 Ducum Saxoniae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> by Agricola.</s>
29965 </p>
29966 <p type="head">
29967
29968 <s>WORKS WRONGLY ATTRIBUTED TO GEORGIUS AGRICOLA.</s>
29969 </p>
29970 <p type="main">
29971
29972 <s>The following works have been at one time or another wrongly attributed to
29973 Georgius <lb></lb>Agricola:—</s>
29974 </p>
29975 <p type="main">
29976
29977 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Galerazeya sive Revelator Secretorum De Lapide
29978 Philosophorum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Cologne, 1531 and <lb></lb>1534, by
29979 one Daniel Agricola, which is merely a controversial book with a
29980 catch-title, used <lb></lb>by Catholics for converting heretics.</s>
29981 </p>
29982 <p type="main">
29983
29984 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Rechter Gebrauch der Alchimey,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> a book of miscellaneous receipts which treats very <lb></lb>slightly of
29985 transmutation.<emph type="sup"></emph>28<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end></s>
29986 </p>
29987 <p type="main">
29988
29989 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Chronik der Stadt Freiberg<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> by
29990 a Georg Agricola (died 1630), a preacher at Freiberg.</s>
29991 </p>
29992 <p type="main">
29993
29994 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Dominatores Saxonici,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> by the
29995 same author.</s>
29996 </p>
29997 <p type="main">
29998
29999 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Breviarum de Asse<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> by
30000 Guillaume Bude.</s>
30001 </p>
30002 <p type="main">
30003
30004 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>De Inventione Dialectica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> by
30005 Rudolph Agricola.<lb></lb><lb></lb></s>
30006 </p>
30007 <figure></figure>
30008 <pb></pb>
30009 <p type="head">
30010
30011 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>APPENDIX B.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
30012 </p>
30013 <p type="head">
30014
30015 <s>ANCIENT AUTHORS.</s>
30016 </p>
30017 <p type="main">
30018
30019 <s>We give the following brief notes on early works containing some reference to
30020 miner­<lb></lb>alogy, mining, or metallurgy, to indicate the literature
30021 available to Agricola and for historical <lb></lb>notes bearing upon the
30022 subject. </s>
30023
30024 <s>References to these works in the footnotes may be most <lb></lb>easily consulted
30025 through the personal index.</s>
30026 </p>
30027 <p type="main">
30028
30029 <s>GREEK AUTHORS.—Only a very limited Greek literature upon subjects
30030 allied to <lb></lb>mining or natural science survives. </s>
30031
30032 <s>The whole of the material of technical interest could be <lb></lb>reproduced on
30033 less than twenty of these pages. </s>
30034
30035 <s>Those of most importance are: Aristotle <lb></lb>(384-322 B.C.), Theophrastus
30036 (371-288 B.C.), Diodorus Siculus (1st Century B.C.), Strabo <lb></lb>(64
30037 B.C.—25 A.D.), and Dioscorides (1st Century A.D.).</s>
30038 </p>
30039 <p type="main">
30040
30041 <s>Aristotle, apart from occasional mineralogical or metallurgical references in
30042 <emph type="italics"></emph>De Mira­<lb></lb>bilibus,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is mostly of interest as the author of the Peripatetic theory of the
30043 elements and the <lb></lb>relation of these to the origin of stones and metals. </s>
30044
30045 <s>Agricola was, to a considerable measure, <lb></lb>a follower of this school, and
30046 their views colour much of his writings. </s>
30047
30048 <s>We, however, discuss <lb></lb>elsewhere<emph type="sup"></emph>1<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>
30049 at what point he departed from them. </s>
30050
30051 <s>Especially in <emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu et Causis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> does he <lb></lb>quote largely from Aristotle&#039;s <emph type="italics"></emph>Meteorologica, Physica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>De Coelo<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> on these subjects. </s>
30052
30053 <s>There <lb></lb>is a spurious work on stones attributed to Aristotle of some
30054 interest to mineralogists. </s>
30055
30056 <s>It was <lb></lb>probably the work of some Arab early in the Middle Ages.</s>
30057 </p>
30058 <p type="main">
30059
30060 <s>Theophrastus, the principal disciple of Aristotle, appears to have written at
30061 least two <lb></lb>works relating to our subject—one “On
30062 Stones”, and the other on metals, mining or metal­<lb></lb>lurgy, but
30063 the latter is not extant. </s>
30064
30065 <s>The work “On Stones” was first printed in Venice in <lb></lb>1498,
30066 and the Greek text, together with a fair English translation by Sir John
30067 Hill, was <lb></lb>published in London in 1746 under the title
30068 “Theophrastus on Stones”; the translation is, <lb></lb>however,
30069 somewhat coloured with Hill&#039;s views on mineralogy. </s>
30070
30071 <s>The work comprises 120 <lb></lb>short paragraphs, and would, if reproduced, cover
30072 but about four of these pages. </s>
30073
30074 <s>In the <lb></lb>first paragraphs are the Peripatetic view of the origin of stones
30075 and minerals, and upon the <lb></lb>foundation of Aristotle he makes some
30076 modifications. </s>
30077
30078 <s>The principal interest in Theophrastus&#039; <lb></lb>work is the description of
30079 minerals; the information given is, however, such as might be
30080 pos­<lb></lb>sessed by any ordinary workman, and betrays no particular
30081 abilities for natural philosophy. <lb></lb></s>
30082
30083 <s>He enumerates various exterior characteristics, such as colour, tenacity,
30084 hardness, smooth­<lb></lb>ness, density, fusibility, lustre, and
30085 transparence, and their quality of reproduction, and then <lb></lb>proceeds to
30086 describe various substances, but usually omits his enumerated
30087 characteristics. <lb></lb></s>
30088
30089 <s>Apart from the then known metals and certain “earths” (ochre,
30090 marls, clay, etc.), it is possible <lb></lb>to identify from his descriptions
30091 the following rocks and minerals:—marble, pumice, onyx, <lb></lb>gypsum,
30092 pyrites, coal, bitumen, amber, azurite, chrysocolla, realgar, orpiment,
30093 cinnabar, <lb></lb>quartz in various forms, lapis lazuli, emerald, sapphire,
30094 diamond, and ruby. </s>
30095
30096 <s>Altogether there <lb></lb>are some sixteen distinct mineral species. </s>
30097
30098 <s>He also describes the touchstone and its uses, the <lb></lb>making of white-lead
30099 and verdigris, and of quicksilver from cinnabar.</s>
30100 </p>
30101 <p type="main">
30102
30103 <s>Diodorus Siculus was a Greek native of Sicily. </s>
30104
30105 <s>His “historical library” consisted of <lb></lb>some 40 books, of
30106 which parts of 15 are extant. </s>
30107
30108 <s>The first print was in Latin, 1472, and in <lb></lb>Greek in 1539; the first
30109 translation into English was by Thomas Stocker, London, 1568, and <lb></lb>later
30110 by G. Booth, 1700. We have relied upon Booth&#039;s translation, but with some
30111 amend­<lb></lb>ments by friends, to gain more literal statement. </s>
30112
30113 <s>Diodorus, so far as relates to our subject, <lb></lb>gives merely the occasional
30114 note of a traveller. </s>
30115
30116 <s>The most interesting paragraphs are his <lb></lb>quotation from Agatharchides on
30117 Egyptian mining and upon British tin.</s>
30118 </p>
30119 <p type="main">
30120
30121 <s>Strabo was also a geographer. </s>
30122
30123 <s>His work consists of 17 books, and practically all <lb></lb>survive. </s>
30124
30125 <s>We have relied upon the most excellent translation of Hamilton and Falconer,
30126 <lb></lb>London, 1903, the only one in English. </s>
30127
30128 <s>Mines and minerals did not escape such an acute <lb></lb>geographer, and the
30129 matters of greatest interest are those with relation to Spanish mines.</s>
30130 </p>
30131 <p type="main">
30132
30133 <s>Dioscorides was a Greek physician who wrote entirely from the standpoint of
30134 materia <lb></lb>medica, most of his work being devoted to herbs; but Book V. is
30135 devoted to minerals and <lb></lb>rocks, and their preparation for medicinal
30136 purposes. </s>
30137
30138 <s>The work has never been translated <lb></lb>into English, and we have relied upon
30139 the Latin translation of Matthioli, Venice, 1565, and notes <lb></lb>upon the
30140 Greek text prepared for us by Mr. </s>
30141
30142 <s>C. Katopodes. </s>
30143
30144 <s>In addition to most of the sub­<lb></lb>stances known before, he, so far as
30145 can be identified, adds schist, <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (blende or calamine), <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>chalcitis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (copper sulphide), <emph type="italics"></emph>misy, melanteria, sory<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (copper
30146 or iron sulphide oxidation minerals). <lb></lb>He describes the making of
30147 certain artificial products, such as copper oxides, vitriol, litharge,
30148 <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>pompholyx,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and
30149 <emph type="italics"></emph>spodos<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (zinc and / or
30150 arsenical oxides). His principal interest for us, however, <lb></lb>lies in the
30151 processes set out for making his medicines.</s>
30152 </p>
30153 <p type="main">
30154
30155 <s>Occasional scraps of information relating to the metals or mines in some
30156 connection <lb></lb>are to be found in many other Greek writers, and in
30157 quotations by them from others which are <lb></lb>not now extant, such as
30158 Polybius, Posidonius, etc. </s>
30159
30160 <s>The poets occasionally throw a gleam <pb pagenum="608"></pb>of light on ancient
30161 metallurgy, as for instance in Homer&#039;s description of Vulcan&#039;s foundry:
30162 <lb></lb>while the historians, philosophers, statesmen, and physicians, among
30163 them Herodotus, <lb></lb>Xenophon, Demosthenes, Galen, and many others, have
30164 left some incidental references to the <lb></lb>metals and mining, helpful to
30165 gleaners from a field, which has been almost exhausted by time. <lb></lb></s>
30166
30167 <s>Even Archimedes made pumps, and Hero surveying instruments for mines.</s>
30168 </p>
30169 <p type="main">
30170
30171 <s>ROMAN AUTHORS.—Pre-eminent among all ancient writers on these subjects
30172 is, of <lb></lb>course. </s>
30173
30174 <s>Pliny, and in fact, except some few lines by Vitruvius, there is practically
30175 little else <lb></lb>in extant Roman literature of technical interest, for the
30176 metallurgical metaphors of the poets <lb></lb>and orators were threadbare by
30177 this time, and do not excite so much interest as upon their <lb></lb>first
30178 appearance among the Greeks and Hebrews.</s>
30179 </p>
30180 <p type="main">
30181
30182 <s>Pliny (Caius Plinius Secundus) was born 23 A.D., and was killed by eruption
30183 of Vesuvius <lb></lb>79 A.D. </s>
30184
30185 <s>His Natural History should be more properly called an encyclopædia, the
30186 whole <lb></lb>comprising 37 books; but only portions of the last four books
30187 relate to our subject, and over <lb></lb>one-half of the material there is upon
30188 precious stones. </s>
30189
30190 <s>To give some rough idea of the small <lb></lb>quantity of even this, the most
30191 voluminous of ancient works upon our subject, we have made <lb></lb>an estimate
30192 that the portions of metallurgical character would cover, say, three pages
30193 of <lb></lb>this text, on mining two pages, on building and precious stones
30194 about ten pages. </s>
30195
30196 <s>Pliny <lb></lb>and Dioscorides were contemporaries, and while Pliny nowhere
30197 refers to the Greek, internal <lb></lb>evidence is most convincing, either that
30198 they drew from the same source, or that Pliny drew <lb></lb>from Dioscorides. </s>
30199
30200 <s>We have, therefore, throughout the text given precedence in time to the
30201 <lb></lb>Greek author in matters of historical interest. </s>
30202
30203 <s>The works of Pliny were first printed at Venice <lb></lb>in 1469. They have
30204 passed dozens of editions in various languages, and have been twice
30205 <lb></lb>translated into English. </s>
30206
30207 <s>The first translation by Philemon Holland, London, 1601, is quite
30208 <lb></lb>impossible. </s>
30209
30210 <s>The second translation, by Bostock and Riley, London, 1855, was a great
30211 <lb></lb>advance, and the notes are most valuable, but in general the work has
30212 suffered from a freedom <lb></lb>justifiable in the translation of poetry, but
30213 not in science. </s>
30214
30215 <s>We have relied upon the Latin <lb></lb>edition of Janus, Leipzig, 1870. The
30216 frequent quotations in our footnotes are sufficient <lb></lb>indication of the
30217 character of Pliny&#039;s work. </s>
30218
30219 <s>In general it should be remembered that he was <lb></lb>himself but a compiler of
30220 information from others, and, so far as our subjects are concerned, <lb></lb>of
30221 no other experience than most travellers. </s>
30222
30223 <s>When one considers the reliability of such <lb></lb>authors to-day on technical
30224 subjects, respect for Pliny is much enhanced. </s>
30225
30226 <s>Further, the text <lb></lb>is no doubt much corrupted through the generations of
30227 transcription before it was set in type. <lb></lb></s>
30228
30229 <s>So far as can be identified with any assurance, Pliny adds but few distinct
30230 minerals to those <lb></lb>enumerated by Theophrastus and Dioscorides. </s>
30231
30232 <s>For his metallurgical and mining information <lb></lb>we refer to the footnotes,
30233 and in general it may be said that while those skilled in metallurgy
30234 <lb></lb>can dimly see in his statements many metallurgical operations, there is
30235 little that does not <lb></lb>require much deduction to arrive at a conclusion. </s>
30236
30237 <s>On geology he offers no new philosophical <lb></lb>deductions of consequence; the
30238 remote connection of building stones is practically all that <lb></lb>can be
30239 enumerated, lest one build some assumption of a knowledge of ore-deposits on
30240 the <lb></lb>use of the word “vein”. </s>
30241
30242 <s>One point of great interest to this work is that in his search for Latin
30243 <lb></lb>terms for technical purposes Agricola relied almost wholly upon Pliny,
30244 and by some devotion <lb></lb>to the latter we have been able to disentangle
30245 some very puzzling matters of nomenclature <lb></lb>in <emph type="italics"></emph>De
30246 Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of which the term <emph type="italics"></emph>molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> may be cited as a
30247 case in point.</s>
30248 </p>
30249 <p type="main">
30250
30251 <s>Vitruvius was a Roman architect of note of the 1st Century B.C. </s>
30252
30253 <s>His work of ten <lb></lb>books contains some very minor references to pumps and
30254 machinery, building stones, and the <lb></lb>preparation of pigments, the latter
30255 involving operations from which metallurgical deductions <lb></lb>can
30256 occasionally be safely made. </s>
30257
30258 <s>His works were apparently first printed in Rome in 1496. <lb></lb>There are many
30259 editions in various languages, the first English translation being from the
30260 <lb></lb>French in 1692. We have relied upon the translation of Joseph Gwilt,
30261 London, 1875, with <lb></lb>such alterations as we have considered
30262 necessary.</s>
30263 </p>
30264 <p type="main">
30265
30266 <s>MEDIÆVAL AUTHORS. </s>
30267
30268 <s>For convenience we group under this heading the writers <lb></lb>of interest from
30269 Roman times to the awakening of learning in the early 16th Century.
30270 <lb></lb></s>
30271
30272 <s>Apart from Theophilus, they are mostly alchemists; but, nevertheless, some
30273 are of great <lb></lb>importance in the history of metallurgy and chemistry. </s>
30274
30275 <s>Omitting a horde of lesser lights <lb></lb>upon whom we have given some data
30276 under the author&#039;s preface, the works principally con­<lb></lb>cerned are
30277 those ascribed to Avicenna, Theophilus, Geber, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon,
30278 <lb></lb>and Basil Valentine. </s>
30279
30280 <s>Judging from the Preface to <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and from quotations in his <lb></lb>subsidiary works,
30281 Agricola must have been not only familiar with a wide range of alchemistic
30282 <lb></lb>material, but also with a good deal of the Arabic literature, which had
30283 been translated into <lb></lb>Latin. </s>
30284
30285 <s>The Arabs were, of course, the only race which kept the light of science
30286 burning <lb></lb>during the Dark Ages, and their works were in considerable
30287 vogue at Agricola&#039;s time.</s>
30288 </p>
30289 <p type="main">
30290
30291 <s>Avicenna (980-1037) was an Arabian physician of great note, a translator of
30292 the Greek <lb></lb>classics into Arabic, and a follower of Aristotle to the
30293 extent of attempting to reconcile the <lb></lb>Peripatetic elements with those
30294 of the alchemists. </s>
30295
30296 <s>He is chiefly known to the world through <lb></lb>the works which he compiled on
30297 medicine, mostly from the Greek and Latin authors. </s>
30298
30299 <s>These <lb></lb>works for centuries dominated the medical world, and were used in
30300 certain European Univer­<lb></lb>sities until the 17th century. </s>
30301
30302 <s>A great many works are attributed to him, and he is copiously <lb></lb>quoted by
30303 Agricola, principally in his <emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu et
30304 Causis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> apparently for the purpose of
30305 <lb></lb>exposure.</s>
30306 </p>
30307 <pb pagenum="609"></pb>
30308 <p type="main">
30309
30310 <s>Theophilus was a Monk and the author of a most illuminating work, largely
30311 upon <lb></lb>working metal and its decoration for ecclesiastical purposes. </s>
30312
30313 <s>An excellent translation, with <lb></lb>the Latin text, was published by Robert
30314 Hendrie, London, 1847, under the title “An Essay <lb></lb>upon various
30315 Arts, in three books, by Theophilus, called also Rugerus, Priest and
30316 Monk.” <lb></lb>Hendrie, for many sufficient reasons, places the period of
30317 Theophilus as the latter half of the <lb></lb>11th century. </s>
30318
30319 <s>The work is mainly devoted to preparing pigments, making glass, and working
30320 <lb></lb>metals, and their conversion into ecclesiastical paraphernalia, such as
30321 mural decoration, <lb></lb>pictures, windows, chalices, censers, bells, organs,
30322 etc. </s>
30323
30324 <s>However, he incidentally describes <lb></lb>the making of metallurgical furnaces,
30325 cupellation, parting gold and silver by cementation <lb></lb>with salt, and by
30326 melting with sulphur, the smelting of copper, liquating lead from it, and
30327 the <lb></lb>refining of copper under a blast with poling.</s>
30328 </p>
30329 <p type="main">
30330
30331 <s>Geber was until recent years considered to be an Arab alchemist of a period
30332 somewhere <lb></lb>between the 7th and 12th centuries. </s>
30333
30334 <s>A mere bibliography of the very considerable literature <lb></lb>which exists in
30335 discussion of who, where, and at what time the author was, would fill pages.
30336 <lb></lb></s>
30337
30338 <s>Those who are interested may obtain a start upon such references from Hermann
30339 Kopp&#039;s <emph type="italics"></emph>Bei­<lb></lb>träge zur Geschichte der
30340 Chemie,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Braunschweig, 1875, and in John
30341 Ferguson&#039;s <emph type="italics"></emph>Bibliotheca Chemica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>Glasgow, 1906. Berthelot, in his <emph type="italics"></emph>Chimie au Moyen Age,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Paris,
30342 1893, considers the works under <lb></lb>the name of Geber were not in the main
30343 of Arabic origin, but composed by some Latin scholar <lb></lb>in the 13th
30344 century. </s>
30345
30346 <s>In any event, certain works were, under this name, printed in Latin as
30347 <lb></lb>early as 1470-80, and have passed innumerable editions since. </s>
30348
30349 <s>They were first translated into <lb></lb>English by Richard Russell, London,
30350 1678, and we have relied upon this and the Nuremberg <lb></lb>edition in Latin
30351 of 1541. This work, even assuming Berthelot&#039;s view, is one of the most
30352 <lb></lb>important in the history of chemistry and metallurgy, and is
30353 characterised by a directness <lb></lb>of statement unique among alchemists. </s>
30354
30355 <s>The making of the mineral acids—certainly nitric and <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>aqua regia,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and perhaps
30356 hydrochloric and sulphuric—are here first described. </s>
30357
30358 <s>The author <lb></lb>was familiar with saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, and alkali, and
30359 with the acids he prepared many <lb></lb>salts for the first time. </s>
30360
30361 <s>He was familiar with amalgamation, cupellation, the separation of <lb></lb>gold
30362 and silver by cementation with salt and by nitric acid. </s>
30363
30364 <s>His views on the primary com­<lb></lb>position of bodies dominated the
30365 alchemistic world for centuries. </s>
30366
30367 <s>He contended that all <lb></lb>metals were composed of “spiritual”
30368 sulphur (or arsenic, which he seems to consider a special <lb></lb>form of
30369 sulphur) and quicksilver, varying proportions and qualities yielding
30370 different metals. <lb></lb></s>
30371
30372 <s>The more the quicksilver, the more “perfect” the metal.</s>
30373 </p>
30374 <p type="main">
30375
30376 <s>Albertus Magnus (Albert von Bollstadt) was a Dominican Monk, afterwards
30377 Bishop, <lb></lb>born about 1205, and died about 1280. He was rated the most
30378 learned man of his time, and <lb></lb>evidence of his literary activities lies
30379 in the complete edition of his works issued by Pierre <lb></lb>Jammy, Lyons,
30380 1651, which comprises 21 folio volumes. </s>
30381
30382 <s>However, there is little doubt that <lb></lb>a great number of works attributed
30383 to him, especially upon alchemy, are spurious. </s>
30384
30385 <s>He <lb></lb>covered a wide range of theology, logic, alchemy, and natural
30386 science, and of the latter the <lb></lb>following works which concern our
30387 subject are considered genuine:—<emph type="italics"></emph>De Rebus
30388 Metallicis et <lb></lb>Mineralibus, De Generatione et Corruptione,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>De Meteoris.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
30389 <s> They are little more than <lb></lb>compilations and expositions of the classics
30390 muddled with the writings of the Arabs, and in <lb></lb>general an attempt to
30391 conciliate the Peripatetic and Alchemistic schools. </s>
30392
30393 <s>His position in the <lb></lb>history of science has been greatly over-estimated. </s>
30394
30395 <s>However, his mineralogy is, except for <lb></lb>books on gems, the only writing
30396 of any consequence at all on the subject between Pliny and <lb></lb>Agricola,
30397 and while there are but two or three minerals mentioned which are not to be
30398 found <lb></lb>in the ancient authors, this work, nevertheless, deserves some
30399 place in the history of science, <lb></lb>especially as some attempt at
30400 classification is made. </s>
30401
30402 <s>Agricola devotes some thousands of <lb></lb>words to the refutation of his
30403 “errors.”</s>
30404 </p>
30405 <p type="main">
30406
30407 <s>Roger Bacon (1214-1294) was a Franciscan Friar, a lecturer at Oxford, and a
30408 man of <lb></lb>considerable scientific attainments for his time. </s>
30409
30410 <s>He was the author of a large number of <lb></lb>mathematical, philosophical, and
30411 alchemistic treatises. </s>
30412
30413 <s>The latter are of some importance <lb></lb>in the history of chemistry, but have
30414 only minute bearing upon metallurgy, and this chiefly <lb></lb>as being one of
30415 the earliest to mention saltpetre.</s>
30416 </p>
30417 <p type="main">
30418
30419 <s>Basil Valentine is the reputed author of a number of alchemistic works, of
30420 which none <lb></lb>appeared in print until early in the 17th century. </s>
30421
30422 <s>Internal evidence seems to indicate that <lb></lb>the “Triumphant Chariot
30423 of Antimony” is the only one which may possibly be authentic, <lb></lb>and
30424 could not have been written prior to the end of the 15th or early 16th
30425 century, although <lb></lb>it has been variously placed as early as 1350. To
30426 this work has been accredited the first <lb></lb>mention of sulphuric and
30427 hydrochloric acid, the separation of gold and silver by the use of
30428 <lb></lb>antimony (sulphide), the reduction of the antimony sulphide to the
30429 metal, the extraction of <lb></lb>copper by the precipitation of the sulphate
30430 with iron, and the discovery of various antimonial <lb></lb>salts. </s>
30431
30432 <s>At the time of the publication of works ascribed to Valentine practically all
30433 these <lb></lb>things were well known, and had been previously described. </s>
30434
30435 <s>We are, therefore, in much doubt <lb></lb>as to whether this author really
30436 deserves any notice in the history of metallurgy.</s>
30437 </p>
30438 <p type="main">
30439
30440 <s>EARLY 16TH CENTURY WORKS. </s>
30441
30442 <s>During the 16th century, and prior to <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re
30443 <lb></lb>Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> there are only three works of
30444 importance from the point of view of mining tech­<lb></lb>nology—the
30445 <emph type="italics"></emph>Nützlich Bergbüchlin,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> the <emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and Biringuccio&#039;s
30446 <emph type="italics"></emph>De La Pirotechnia.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>There are also some minor works by the alchemists of some interest
30447 for isolated statements, <lb></lb>particularly those of Paracelsus. </s>
30448
30449 <s>The three works mentioned, however, represent such a <pb pagenum="610"></pb>stride of advance over anything previous, that they merit careful
30450 consideration.</s>
30451 </p>
30452 <p type="main">
30453
30454 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Eyn Nützlich Bergbüchlin.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
30455 <s> Under this title we frequently refer to a little booklet on <lb></lb>veins and
30456 ores, published at the beginning of the 16th century. </s>
30457
30458 <s>The title page of our copy is <lb></lb>as below:—</s>
30459 </p>
30460 <p type="caption">
30461
30462 <s><expan abbr="Eiñ">Einm</expan> nüb lith Berg <lb></lb>büchlin
30463 von allen Metal <lb></lb>len/als Golt/Silber/Zcyn/Rupfer
30464 <lb></lb>erts/<gap></gap>iſen ſtein/Bleyerts/<gap></gap>nd <lb></lb><gap></gap>om
30465 Quec<gap></gap>ſilber.</s>
30466 </p>
30467 <figure></figure>
30468 <p type="main">
30469
30470 <s>This book is small 8vo, comprises 24 folios without pagination, and has no
30471 typographical <lb></lb>indications upon the title page, but the last line in the
30472 book reads: <emph type="italics"></emph>Gedruckt zu Erffurd durch <lb></lb>Johan
30473 Loersfelt,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> 1527. Another edition in our
30474 possession, that of “Frankfurt am Meyn”, <lb></lb>1533, by Christian
30475 Egenolph, is entitled <emph type="italics"></emph>Bergwerk und
30476 Probierbüchlin,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> etc., and contains,
30477 <lb></lb>besides the above, an extract and plates from the <emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (referred to later on),
30478 and a few <lb></lb>recipes for assay tests. </s>
30479
30480 <s>All of these booklets, of which we find mention, comprise instructions
30481 <lb></lb>from Daniel, a skilled miner, to Knappius, “his mining
30482 boy”. </s>
30483
30484 <s>Although the little books of <lb></lb>this title are all anonymous, we are
30485 convinced, largely from the statement in the Preface of <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> that one
30486 Calbus of Freiberg was the original author of this work. </s>
30487
30488 <s>Agricola <lb></lb>says: “Two books have been written in our tongue: the one
30489 on the assaying of mineral sub­<lb></lb>stances and metals, somewhat
30490 confused, whose author is unknown; the other ‘On Veins’, <lb></lb>of
30491 which Pandulfus Anglus is also said to have written, <emph type="italics"></emph>although the German book was written <lb></lb>by Calbus of Freiberg, a
30492 well-known doctor; but neither of them accomplished the task he had
30493 <lb></lb>begun.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>” He again refers to Calbus
30494 at the end of Book III.<emph type="sup"></emph>2<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and gives
30495 <lb></lb>an almost verbatim quotation from the <emph type="italics"></emph>Nützlich Bergbüchlin.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
30496 <s> Jacobi<emph type="sup"></emph>3<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> says: “Calbus
30497 <lb></lb>Fribergius, so called by Agricola himself, is certainly no other than
30498 the Freiberg doctor, <lb></lb>Rühlein von C(K)albe.” There are also
30499 certain internal evidences that support Agricola&#039;s <lb></lb>statement, for the
30500 work was evidently written in Meissen, and the statement of Agricola that
30501 <lb></lb>the book was unfinished is borne out by a short dialogue at the end of
30502 the earlier editions, <lb></lb>designed to introduce further discussion. </s>
30503
30504 <s>Calbus (or Dr. </s>
30505
30506 <s>Ulrich Rühlein von Kalbe) was a very <lb></lb>active citizen of Freiberg,
30507 having been a town councillor in 1509, burgomaster in 1514, a
30508 <lb></lb>mathematician, mining surveyor, founder of a school of liberal arts,
30509 and in general a physician. <lb></lb></s>
30510
30511 <s>He died in 1523.<emph type="sup"></emph>4<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> The book possesses
30512 great literary interest, as it is, so far as we are aware, <lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="611"></pb>undoubtedly the first work on mining geology, and in
30513 consequence we have spent some effort <lb></lb>in endeavour to find the date of
30514 its first appearance. </s>
30515
30516 <s>Through the courtesy of M. Polain, <lb></lb>who has carefully examined for us the
30517 <emph type="italics"></emph>Nützlich Bergbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> described in Marie Pellechet&#039;s <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>Catalogue Général des Incunables des
30518 Bibliothèques Publiques de France,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>5<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> we have ascertained <lb></lb>that it is
30519 similar as regards text and woodcuts to the Erfurt edition, 1527. This copy
30520 in the <lb></lb>Bibliothèque Nationale is without typographical
30521 indications, and M. </s>
30522
30523 <s>Polain considers it <lb></lb>very possible that it is the original edition
30524 printed at the end of the fifteenth or begininng of <lb></lb>the sixteenth
30525 centuries. </s>
30526
30527 <s>Mr. </s>
30528
30529 <s>Bennett Brough,<emph type="sup"></emph>6<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> quoting Hans von
30530 Dechen,<emph type="sup"></emph>7<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> states that the
30531 <lb></lb>first edition was printed at Augsburg in 1505, no copy of which seems
30532 to be extant. </s>
30533
30534 <s>The <lb></lb>Librarian at the School of Mines at Freiberg has kindly furnished us
30535 with the following notes <lb></lb>as to the titles of the copies in that
30536 Institution:—(1) <emph type="italics"></emph>Eyn Wolgeordent und
30537 Nützlich Bergbüch­<lb></lb>lein,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> etc.,
30538 Worms, 1512<emph type="sup"></emph>8<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> and 1518<emph type="sup"></emph>9<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> (the place and date are written in);
30539 (2) the same as ours <lb></lb>(1527); (3) the same, Heinrich Steyner, Augsburg,
30540 1534; (4) the same, 1539. On comparing <lb></lb>these various editions (to which
30541 may be added one probably published in Nürnberg by Fried­<lb></lb>rich
30542 Peypus in 1532<emph type="sup"></emph>10<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end>) we find that they
30543 fall into two very distinct groups, characterised by <lb></lb>their contents and
30544 by two entirely different sets of woodcuts.</s>
30545 </p>
30546 <p type="head">
30547
30548 <s>GROUP I.</s>
30549 </p>
30550 <p type="main">
30551
30552 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>(a) Eyn Nützlich Bergbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (in <emph type="italics"></emph>Bibl. </s>
30553
30554 <s>Nat.,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Paris) before 1500 (?).</s>
30555 </p>
30556 <p type="main">
30557
30558 <s>(<emph type="italics"></emph>b<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>) Ditto, Erfurt, 1527.</s>
30559 </p>
30560 <p type="head">
30561
30562 <s>GROUP II.</s>
30563 </p>
30564 <p type="main">
30565
30566 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>(c) Wolgeordent Nützlich
30567 Bergbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Worms, Peter Schöfern,
30568 1512.</s>
30569 </p>
30570 <p type="main">
30571
30572 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>(d) Wolgeordent Nützlich
30573 Bergbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Worms, Peter Schöfern,
30574 1518.</s>
30575 </p>
30576 <p type="main">
30577
30578 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>(e) Bergbüchlin von Erkantnus der
30579 Berckwerck,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Nürnberg, undated, 1532
30580 (?).</s>
30581 </p>
30582 <p type="main">
30583
30584 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>(f) Bergwerckbuch &amp; Probirbuch,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Christian Egenolph, Frankfurt-am-Meyn, 1533.</s>
30585 </p>
30586 <p type="main">
30587
30588 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>(g) Wolgeordent Nützlich
30589 Bergbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Augsburg, Heinrich Steyner,
30590 1534.</s>
30591 </p>
30592 <p type="main">
30593
30594 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>(h) Wolgeordent Nützlich
30595 Bergbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Augsburg, Heinrich Steyner,
30596 1539.</s>
30597 </p>
30598 <p type="main">
30599
30600 <s>There are also others of later date toward the end of the sixteenth
30601 century.</s>
30602 </p>
30603 <p type="main">
30604
30605 <s>The <emph type="italics"></emph>Büchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of Group I.
30606 terminate after the short dialogue between Daniel and Knappius <lb></lb>with the
30607 words: <emph type="italics"></emph>Mitt welchen das kleinspeissig ertz geschmeltzt
30608 soll werden;<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> whereas in those of <lb></lb>Group II.
30609 these words are followed by a short explanation of the signs used in the
30610 woodcuts, <lb></lb>and by directions for colouring the woodcuts, and in some
30611 cases by several pages containing <lb></lb>definitions of some 92 mining terms. </s>
30612
30613 <s>In the editions of Group I. the woodcut on the title page <lb></lb>represents a
30614 miner hewing ore in a vein and two others working a windlass. </s>
30615
30616 <s>In those of <lb></lb>Group II. the woodcut on the title page represents one miner
30617 hewing on the surface, another to <lb></lb>the right carting away ore in a
30618 handcart, and two others carrying between them a heavy <lb></lb>timber. </s>
30619
30620 <s>In our opinion Group I. represents the older and original work of Calbus; but
30621 as we <lb></lb>have not seen the copy in the <emph type="italics"></emph>Bibliothèque Nationale,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the Augsburg
30622 edition of 1505 has only <lb></lb>so far been traced to Veith&#039;s catalogue,<emph type="sup"></emph>11<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> the question of the first edition
30623 cannot be considered <lb></lb>settled at present. </s>
30624
30625 <s>In any event, it appears that the material grafted on in the second group
30626 <lb></lb>was later, and by various authors.</s>
30627 </p>
30628 <p type="main">
30629
30630 <s>The earliest books comprise ten chapters, in which Daniel delivers about
30631 6,000 words <lb></lb>of instruction. </s>
30632
30633 <s>The first four chapters are devoted to the description of veins and the
30634 origin <lb></lb>of the metals, of the remaining six chapters one each to silver,
30635 gold, tin, copper, iron, <lb></lb>lead, and quicksilver. </s>
30636
30637 <s>Among the mining terms are explained the meaning of country rock <lb></lb>(<emph type="italics"></emph>zechstein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), hanging and
30638 footwalls (<emph type="italics"></emph>hangends<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and
30639 <emph type="italics"></emph>liegends<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), the strike
30640 (<emph type="italics"></emph>streichen<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), dip (<emph type="italics"></emph>fallen<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), <lb></lb>and outcrop
30641 (<emph type="italics"></emph>ausgehen<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>). Of the
30642 latter two varieties are given, one of the “whole vein,”
30643 <lb></lb>the other of the <emph type="italics"></emph>gesteins,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which may be the ore-shoot. </s>
30644
30645 <s>Various veins are illustrated, and also <lb></lb>for the first time a mining
30646 compass. </s>
30647
30648 <s>The account of the origin of the metals is a muddle <lb></lb>of the Peripatetics,
30649 the alchemists, and the astrologers, for which acknowledgment to Albertus
30650 <lb></lb>Magnus is given. </s>
30651
30652 <s>They are represented to originate from quicksilver and sulphur through
30653 <lb></lb>heat, cold, dampness, and dryness, and are drawn out as exhalations
30654 through the veins, each <lb></lb>metal owing its origin to the special influence
30655 of some planet; the Moon for silver, Saturn for <lb></lb>lead, etc. </s>
30656
30657 <s>Two types of veins are mentioned, “standing” (<emph type="italics"></emph>stehendergang<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>) and flat (<emph type="italics"></emph>flach­<lb></lb>gang<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).
30658 Stringers are given the same characteristics as veins, but divided into
30659 hanging, foot­<lb></lb>wall, and other varieties. </s>
30660
30661 <s>Prominence is also given to the <emph type="italics"></emph>geschick<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (selvage seams or joints?).
30662 <lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><lb></lb><pb pagenum="612"></pb>The importance of the
30663 bearing of the junctions of veins and stringers on enrichment is
30664 elabor­<lb></lb>ated upon, and veins of east-west strike lying upon a south
30665 slope are considered the best. <lb></lb></s>
30666
30667 <s>From the following notes it will be seen that two or three other types of
30668 deposits besides veins <lb></lb>are referred to.</s>
30669 </p>
30670 <p type="main">
30671
30672 <s>In describing silver veins, of peculiar interest is the mention of the
30673 association of bismuth <lb></lb>(<emph type="italics"></emph>wismuth<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), this being, we believe, the first mention of that
30674 metal, galena (<emph type="italics"></emph>glantz<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>),
30675 quartz (<emph type="italics"></emph>quertz<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), <lb></lb>spar
30676 (<emph type="italics"></emph>spar<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), hornstone (<emph type="italics"></emph>hornstein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), ironstone and
30677 pyrites (<emph type="italics"></emph>kies<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>), are
30678 mentioned as gangue <lb></lb>materials, “according to the mingling of the
30679 various vapours.” The term <emph type="italics"></emph>glasertz<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is used, <lb></lb>but it is difficult to say if silver
30680 glance is meant; if so, it is the first mention of this mineral. <lb></lb></s>
30681
30682 <s>So far as we know, this is the first use of any of the terms in print. </s>
30683
30684 <s>Gold alluvial is described, <lb></lb>part of the gold being assumed as generated
30685 in the gravel. </s>
30686
30687 <s>The best alluvial is in streams <lb></lb>running east and west. </s>
30688
30689 <s>The association of gold with pyrites is mentioned, and the pyrites is
30690 <lb></lb>found “in some places as a complete stratum carried through
30691 horizontally, and is called a <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>schwebender
30692 gang.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>” This sort of occurrence is not
30693 considered very good “because the work <lb></lb>of the heavens can be but
30694 little completed on account of the unsuitability of the position.”
30695 <lb></lb>Gold pyrites that comes in veins is better. </s>
30696
30697 <s>Tin is mentioned as found in alluvial, and also in <lb></lb>veins, the latter
30698 being better or worse, according to the amount of pyrites, although the
30699 latter <lb></lb>can be burned off. </s>
30700
30701 <s>Tin-stone is found in masses, copper ore in schist and in veins sometimes
30702 <lb></lb>with pyrites. </s>
30703
30704 <s>The ore from veins is better than schist. </s>
30705
30706 <s>Iron ore is found in masses, and <lb></lb>sometimes in veins; the latter is the
30707 best. </s>
30708
30709 <s>“The iron veins with good hanging-and foot­<lb></lb>walls are not to be
30710 despised, especially if their strike be from east to west, their dip to the
30711 <lb></lb>south, the foot-wall and outcrop to the north, then if the ironstone is
30712 followed down, the <lb></lb>vein usually reveals gold or other valuable
30713 ore”. </s>
30714
30715 <s>Lead ore is found in <emph type="italics"></emph>schwebenden gang<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and <emph type="italics"></emph>stehenden gang.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
30716 <s> Quicksilver, like other ore, is sometimes found in brown earth, and
30717 <lb></lb>sometimes, again, in caves where it has run out like water. </s>
30718
30719 <s>The classification of veins is the <lb></lb>same as in <emph type="italics"></emph>De
30720 Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><emph type="sup"></emph>12<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> The book generally, however, seems to have raised
30721 Agricola&#039;s <lb></lb>opposition, for the quotations are given in order to be
30722 demolished.</s>
30723 </p>
30724 <p type="main">
30725
30726 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
30727 <s> Agricola refers in the Preface of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re
30728 Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> to a work in German <lb></lb>on assaying
30729 and refining metals, and it is our belief that it was to some one of the
30730 little assay <lb></lb>books published early in the 16th century. </s>
30731
30732 <s>There are several of them, seemingly revised <lb></lb>editions of each other; in
30733 the early ones no author&#039;s name appears, although among the <lb></lb>later
30734 editions various names appear on the title page. </s>
30735
30736 <s>An examination of these little books <lb></lb>discloses the fact that their main
30737 contents are identical, for they are really collections of <lb></lb>recipes
30738 after the order of cookery books, and intended rather to refresh the memory
30739 of those </s>
30740 </p>
30741 <p type="caption">
30742
30743 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>Probier büch<gap></gap><emph.end type="bold"></emph.end><lb></lb>lein/auff Bold/Silber/tupffer/ <lb></lb>vnd Sley/Unch allerlay Metall
30744 <lb></lb>wie mandie zů nus arbayten <expan abbr="vñ">vnm</expan>
30745 <lb></lb>Probierenſoll.</s>
30746 </p>
30747 <p type="caption">
30748
30749 <s><gap></gap><expan abbr="llẽ">llem</expan>
30750 Müngmayſtern/Warbeytt/Bdt <lb></lb>werc<gap></gap>ern/Berc<gap></gap><expan abbr="leuten/vñtauff">leuten/vnntauff</expan>
30751 <expan abbr="leütẽ">leütem</expan>
30752 <lb></lb><gap></gap>er Metall zů nus mitgroſſem fleyhzů
30753 <lb></lb>ſamengebracht.<lb></lb><figure id="fig4"></figure><pb pagenum="613"></pb>already skilled than to instruct the novice. </s>
30754
30755 <s>The books appear to have grown by accretions <lb></lb>from many sources, for a
30756 large number of methods are given over and over again in the same <lb></lb>book
30757 with slight variations. </s>
30758
30759 <s>We reproduce the title page of our earliest copy.</s>
30760 </p>
30761 <p type="main">
30762
30763 <s>The following is a list of these booklets so far as we have been able to
30764 discover actual <lb></lb>copies:—<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table6"></arrow.to.target></s>
30765 </p>
30766 <table>
30767 <table.target id="table6"></table.target>
30768 <row>
30769 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Date.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30770 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Place.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30771 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Publisher.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30772 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Title (Short).<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30773 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Author.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30774 </row>
30775 <row>
30776 <cell>Un-known</cell>
30777 <cell>Unknown</cell>
30778 <cell>Unknown</cell>
30779 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30780 <cell>Anon.</cell>
30781 </row>
30782 <row>
30783 <cell>(Undated; but catalogue of British Museum suggests Augsburg,
30784 1510.)</cell>
30785 <cell></cell>
30786 <cell></cell>
30787 <cell></cell>
30788 <cell></cell>
30789 </row>
30790 <row>
30791 <cell>1524</cell>
30792 <cell>Magdeburg</cell>
30793 <cell></cell>
30794 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probirbüchleyn tzu Gotteslob<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30795 <cell>Anon.</cell>
30796 </row>
30797 <row>
30798 <cell>1531</cell>
30799 <cell>Augsburg</cell>
30800 <cell>Unknown</cell>
30801 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbuch aller Sachsischer Ertze<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30802 <cell>Anon.</cell>
30803 </row>
30804 <row>
30805 <cell>1533</cell>
30806 <cell>Frankfurt a. Meyn</cell>
30807 <cell></cell>
30808 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Bergwerck und Probierbüch-lein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30809 <cell>Anon.</cell>
30810 </row>
30811 <row>
30812 <cell>1534</cell>
30813 <cell>Augsburg</cell>
30814 <cell>Heinrich Stey-ner, 8vo.</cell>
30815 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probirbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30816 <cell>Anon.</cell>
30817 </row>
30818 <row>
30819 <cell>1546</cell>
30820 <cell>Augsburg</cell>
30821 <cell>Ditto, ditto</cell>
30822 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probirbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30823 <cell>Anon.</cell>
30824 </row>
30825 <row>
30826 <cell>1549</cell>
30827 <cell>Augsburg</cell>
30828 <cell>Ditto, ditto</cell>
30829 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probirbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30830 <cell>Anon.</cell>
30831 </row>
30832 <row>
30833 <cell>1564</cell>
30834 <cell>Augsburg</cell>
30835 <cell>Math. Francke, 4to</cell>
30836 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probirbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30837 <cell>Zach. Lochner</cell>
30838 </row>
30839 <row>
30840 <cell>1573</cell>
30841 <cell>Augsburg</cell>
30842 <cell>8vo.</cell>
30843 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probirbuch<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30844 <cell>Sam. Zimmermann</cell>
30845 </row>
30846 <row>
30847 <cell>1574</cell>
30848 <cell>Franckfurt a. Meyn</cell>
30849 <cell></cell>
30850 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30851 <cell>Anon.</cell>
30852 </row>
30853 <row>
30854 <cell>1578</cell>
30855 <cell>Ditto</cell>
30856 <cell></cell>
30857 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein Fremde und subtile
30858 Kunst<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30859 <cell>Cyriacus Schreittmann</cell>
30860 </row>
30861 <row>
30862 <cell>1580</cell>
30863 <cell>Ditto</cell>
30864 <cell></cell>
30865 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30866 <cell>Anon.</cell>
30867 </row>
30868 <row>
30869 <cell>1595</cell>
30870 <cell>Ditto</cell>
30871 <cell></cell>
30872 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein darinn gründ-licher
30873 Bericht<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30874 <cell>Modestin Fachs</cell>
30875 </row>
30876 <row>
30877 <cell>1607</cell>
30878 <cell>Dresden</cell>
30879 <cell>4to</cell>
30880 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Metallische Probier Kunst<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30881 <cell></cell>
30882 </row>
30883 <row>
30884 <cell></cell>
30885 <cell></cell>
30886 <cell></cell>
30887 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Bericht vom Ursprung und Erkenntniss der
30888 Metallis-chen erze<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30889 <cell>C. C. Schindler</cell>
30890 </row>
30891 <row>
30892 <cell>1669</cell>
30893 <cell>Amsterdam</cell>
30894 <cell></cell>
30895 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein darinn gründ-licher
30896 Bericht<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30897 <cell>Modestin Fachs</cell>
30898 </row>
30899 <row>
30900 <cell>1678</cell>
30901 <cell>Leipzig</cell>
30902 <cell></cell>
30903 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein darinn gründ-licher
30904 Bericht<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30905 <cell>Modestin Fachs</cell>
30906 </row>
30907 <row>
30908 <cell>1689</cell>
30909 <cell>Leipzig</cell>
30910 <cell></cell>
30911 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein darinn gründ-licher
30912 Bericht<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30913 <cell>Modestin Fachs</cell>
30914 </row>
30915 <row>
30916 <cell>1695</cell>
30917 <cell>Nürnberg</cell>
30918 <cell>12mo.</cell>
30919 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Deutliche Vorstellung der Pro-bier
30920 Kunst<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30921 <cell>Anon.</cell>
30922 </row>
30923 <row>
30924 <cell>1744</cell>
30925 <cell>Lübeck</cell>
30926 <cell>8vo.</cell>
30927 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Neu-eröffnete Probier Buch<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30928 <cell>Anon.</cell>
30929 </row>
30930 <row>
30931 <cell>1755</cell>
30932 <cell>Frankfurt and Leipzig</cell>
30933 <cell>8vo.</cell>
30934 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Scheid-Künstler . . . alle Ertz und Metalle
30935 . . . probiren<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30936 <cell>Anon.</cell>
30937 </row>
30938 <row>
30939 <cell>1782</cell>
30940 <cell>Rotenburg an der Fulde</cell>
30941 <cell>8vo.</cell>
30942 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbuch aus Erfahrung aufgesetzt<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
30943 <cell>K. A. Scheidt</cell>
30944 </row>
30945 </table>
30946 <p type="main">
30947
30948 <s>As mentioned under the <emph type="italics"></emph>Nützlich
30949 Bergbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> our copy of that work,
30950 printed in 1533, <lb></lb>contains only a portion of the <emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
30951 <s> Ferguson<emph type="sup"></emph>13<emph.end type="sup"></emph.end> mentions an edition of
30952 1608, and the <lb></lb>Freiberg School of Mines Catalogue gives also Frankfort,
30953 1608, and Nürnberg, 1706. The <lb></lb>British Museum copy of earliest
30954 date, like the title page reproduced, contains no date. </s>
30955
30956 <s>The <lb></lb>title page woodcut, however, in the Museum copy is referred from
30957 that above, possibly indi­<lb></lb>cating an earlier date of the Museum
30958 copy.</s>
30959 </p>
30960 <p type="main">
30961
30962 <s>The booklets enumerated above vary a great deal in contents, the successive
30963 prints <lb></lb>representing a sort of growth by accretion. </s>
30964
30965 <s>The first portion of our earliest edition is devoted <lb></lb>to weights, in
30966 which the system of “lesser weights” (the principle of the
30967 “assay ton”) is <lb></lb>explained. </s>
30968
30969 <s>Following this are exhaustive lists of touch-needles of various composition.
30970 <lb></lb></s>
30971
30972 <s>Directions are given with regard to assay furnaces, cupels, muffles,
30973 scorifiers, and crucibles, <lb></lb>granulated and leaf metals, for washing,
30974 roasting, and the preparation of assay charges. <lb></lb></s>
30975
30976 <s>Various reagents, including glass-gall, litharge, salt, iron filings, lead,
30977 “alkali”, talc, argol, <lb></lb>saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, alum,
30978 vitriol, lime, sulphur, antimony, <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua
30979 fortis,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or <emph type="italics"></emph>scheid­<lb></lb>wasser,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> etc., are made use
30980 of. </s>
30981
30982 <s>Various assays are described and directions given for crucible,
30983 <lb></lb>scorification, and cupellation tests. </s>
30984
30985 <s>The latter part of the book is devoted to the refining <lb></lb>and parting of
30986 precious metals. </s>
30987
30988 <s>Instructions are given for the separation of silver from iron, <lb></lb>from
30989 lead, and from antimony; of gold from silver with antimony (sulphide) and
30990 sulphur, or <lb></lb>with sulphur alone, with “<emph type="italics"></emph>scheidwasser,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>” and by cementation with
30991 salt; of gold from copper <lb></lb>with sulphur and with lead. </s>
30992
30993 <s>The amalgamation of gold and silver is mentioned.</s>
30994 </p>
30995 <pb pagenum="614"></pb>
30996 <p type="main">
30997
30998 <s>The book is diffuse and confused, and without arrangement or system, yet a
30999 little <lb></lb>consideration enables one of experience to understand most
31000 statements. </s>
31001
31002 <s>There are over 120 <lb></lb>recipes, with, as said before, much repetition; for
31003 instance, the parting of gold and silver <lb></lb>by use of sulphur is given
31004 eight times in different places. </s>
31005
31006 <s>The final line of the book is: “Take <lb></lb>this in good part, dear
31007 reader, after it, please God, there will be a better.” In truth,
31008 however, <lb></lb>there are books on assaying four centuries younger that are
31009 worse. </s>
31010
31011 <s>This is, without doubt, <lb></lb>the first written word on assaying, and it
31012 displays that art already full grown, so far as con­<lb></lb>cerns gold and
31013 silver, and to some extent copper and lead; for if we eliminate the words
31014 <lb></lb>dependent on the atomic theory from modern works on dry assaying, there
31015 has been but very <lb></lb>minor progress. </s>
31016
31017 <s>The art could not, however, have reached this advanced stage but by slow
31018 <lb></lb>accretion, and no doubt this collection of recipes had been handed from
31019 father to son long <lb></lb>before the 16th century. </s>
31020
31021 <s>It is of wider interest that these booklets represent the first milestone
31022 <lb></lb>on the road to quantitative analysis, and in this light they have been
31023 largely ignored by the <lb></lb>historians of chemistry. </s>
31024
31025 <s>Internal evidence in Book VII. of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re
31026 Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> together with <lb></lb>the reference in
31027 the Preface, leave little doubt that Agricola was familiar with these
31028 book­<lb></lb>lets. </s>
31029
31030 <s>His work, however, is arranged more systematically, each operation stated
31031 more clearly, <lb></lb>with more detail and fresh items; and further, he gives
31032 methods of determining copper and <lb></lb>lead which are but minutely touched
31033 upon in the <emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> while the directions as to tin, <lb></lb>bismuth,
31034 quicksilver, and iron are entirely new.</s>
31035 </p>
31036 <p type="main">
31037
31038 <s>Biringuccio (Vanuccio). We practically know nothing about this author. </s>
31039
31040 <s>From the <lb></lb>preface to the first edition of his work it appears he was
31041 styled a mathematician, but in the <lb></lb>text^{14} he certainly states that
31042 he was most of his time engaged in metallurgical operations, <lb></lb>and that
31043 in pursuit of such knowledge he had visited Germany. </s>
31044
31045 <s>The work was in Italian, <lb></lb>published at Venice in 1540, the title page of
31046 the first edition as below:—</s>
31047 </p>
31048 <figure></figure>
31049 <pb pagenum="615"></pb>
31050 <p type="main">
31051
31052 <s>It comprises ten chapters in 168 folios demi-octavo. </s>
31053
31054 <s>Other Italian editions of which <lb></lb>we find some record are the second at
31055 Venice, 1552; third, Venice, 1558; fourth, Venice, <lb></lb>1559: fifth,
31056 Bologna, 1678. A French translation, by Jacques Vincent, was published in
31057 <lb></lb>Paris, 1556, and this translation was again published at Rouen in 1627.
31058 Of the ten chapters the <lb></lb>last six are almost wholly devoted to metal
31059 working and founding, and it is more largely for <lb></lb>this description of
31060 the methods of making artillery, <expan abbr="munitĩons">munitinons</expan> of war and bells that the book <lb></lb>is celebrated. </s>
31061
31062 <s>In any event, with the exception of a quotation which we give on page 297 on
31063 <lb></lb>silver amalgamation, there is little of interest on our subject in the
31064 latter chapters. </s>
31065
31066 <s>The <lb></lb>first four chapters are undoubtedly of importance in the history of
31067 metallurgical literature, <lb></lb>and represent the first work on smelting. </s>
31068
31069 <s>The descriptions are, however, very diffuse, difficult <lb></lb>to follow, and
31070 lack arrangement and detail. </s>
31071
31072 <s>But like the <emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> the fact that it was <lb></lb>written prior to <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> demands
31073 attention for it which it would not otherwise receive. <lb></lb></s>
31074
31075 <s>The ores of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and iron are described, but much
31076 interrupted with <lb></lb>denunciations of the alchemists. </s>
31077
31078 <s>There is little of geological or mineralogical interest, he too <lb></lb>holding
31079 to a muddle of the classic elements astrology and alchemy. </s>
31080
31081 <s>He has nothing of con­<lb></lb>sequence to say on mining, and dismisses
31082 concentration with a few words. </s>
31083
31084 <s>Upon assaying <lb></lb>his work is not so useful as the <emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
31085 <s> On ore smelting he describes the reduction <lb></lb>of iron and lead ores and
31086 cupriferous silver or gold ores with lead. </s>
31087
31088 <s>He gives the barest <lb></lb>description of a blast furnace, but adds an
31089 interesting account of a <emph type="italics"></emph>reverbero<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> furnace. </s>
31090
31091 <s>He <lb></lb>describes liquation as consisting of one operation; the subsequent
31092 treatment of the copper <lb></lb>by refining with an oxidising blast, but does
31093 not mention poling; the cupellation of argen­<lb></lb>tiferous lead and the
31094 reduction of the litharge; the manufacture of nitric acid and that
31095 <lb></lb>method of parting gold and silver. </s>
31096
31097 <s>He also gives the method of parting with antimony and <lb></lb>sulphur, and by
31098 cementation with common salt. </s>
31099
31100 <s>Among the side issues, he describes the <lb></lb>method of making brass with
31101 calamine; of making steel; of distilling quicksilver; of melting <lb></lb>out
31102 sulphur; of making vitriol and alum. </s>
31103
31104 <s>He states that <emph type="italics"></emph>arsenico<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and
31105 <emph type="italics"></emph>orpimento<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>etrisa­<lb></lb>gallio<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
31106 (realgar) are the same substance, and are used to colour copper white.</s>
31107 </p>
31108 <p type="main">
31109
31110 <s>In general, Biringuccio should be accredited with the first description (as
31111 far as we <lb></lb>are aware) of silver amalgamation, of a reverberatory
31112 furnace, and of liquation, although the <lb></lb>description is not complete. </s>
31113
31114 <s>Also he is, so far as we are aware, the first to mention cobalt <lb></lb>blue
31115 (<emph type="italics"></emph>Zaffre<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>) and manganese,
31116 although he classed them as “half” metals. </s>
31117
31118 <s>His descriptions <lb></lb>are far inferior to Agricola&#039;s; they do not compass
31119 anything like the same range of metal­<lb></lb>lurgy, and betray the lack of
31120 a logical mind.</s>
31121 </p>
31122 <p type="main">
31123
31124 <s><emph type="italics"></emph>Other works.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
31125 <s> There are several works devoted to mineralogy, dating from the fifteenth
31126 <lb></lb>and early sixteenth centuries, which were, no doubt, available to
31127 Agricola in the compilation of <lb></lb>his <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura
31128 Fossilium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
31129 <s> They are, however, practically all compiled from the jeweller&#039;s point
31130 <lb></lb>of view rather than from that of the miner. </s>
31131
31132 <s>Among them we may mention the poem on <lb></lb>precious stones by Marbodaeus, an
31133 author who lived from 1035 to 1123, but which was first <lb></lb>printed at
31134 Vienna in 1511; <emph type="italics"></emph>Speculum Lapidum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> a work on precious stones, by Camilli Leonardi,
31135 <lb></lb>first printed in Venice in 1502. A work of wider interest to
31136 mineralogists is that by Christoph <lb></lb>Entzelt (or Enzelius, Encelio,
31137 Encelius, as it is variously given), entitled <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re
31138 Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and first printed in 1551. The
31139 work is five years later than <emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura
31140 Fossilium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> but contains <lb></lb>much new material
31141 and was available to Agricola prior to his revised editions.</s>
31142 </p>
31143 <figure></figure>
31144 <pb></pb>
31145 <p type="head">
31146
31147 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>APPENDIX C.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
31148 </p>
31149 <p type="head">
31150
31151 <s>WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.</s>
31152 </p>
31153 <p type="main">
31154
31155 <s>As stated in the preface, the nomenclature to be adopted for weights and
31156 measures <lb></lb>has presented great difficulty. </s>
31157
31158 <s>Agricola uses, throughout, the Roman and the Romanized <lb></lb>Greek scales, but
31159 in many cases he uses these terms merely as lingual equivalents for the
31160 <lb></lb>German quantities of his day. </s>
31161
31162 <s>Moreover the classic language sometimes failed him, where­<lb></lb>upon he
31163 coined new Latin terms adapted from the Roman scale, and thus added further
31164 <lb></lb>confusion. </s>
31165
31166 <s>We can, perhaps, make the matter clearer by an illustration of a case in
31167 weights. <lb></lb></s>
31168
31169 <s>The Roman <emph type="italics"></emph>centúmpondium,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> composed of 100 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
31170 the old German <emph type="italics"></emph>centner<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of
31171 100 <emph type="italics"></emph>pfundt,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and the
31172 English hundredweight of 112 pounds can be called lingual equivalents. </s>
31173
31174 <s>The first <lb></lb>weighs about 494,600 Troy grains, the second 721,900, and the
31175 third 784,000. While the <lb></lb>divisions of the <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and the <emph type="italics"></emph>centner<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> are the same, the <emph type="italics"></emph>libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> is divided into 12 <emph type="italics"></emph>unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end><lb></lb>and the <emph type="italics"></emph>pfundt<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> into 16 <emph type="italics"></emph>untzen,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and in most places a
31176 summation of the units given proves that <lb></lb>the author had in mind the
31177 Roman ratios. </s>
31178
31179 <s>However, on p. </s>
31180
31181 <s>509 he makes the direct statement <lb></lb>that the <emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> weighs 146 <emph type="italics"></emph>librae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> which would be about
31182 the correct weight if the <lb></lb><emph type="italics"></emph>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> referred to was a <emph type="italics"></emph>centner.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
31183 <s> If we take an example such as “each <emph type="italics"></emph>centum­<lb></lb>pondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of lead contains one
31184 <emph type="italics"></emph>uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> of silver”,
31185 and reduce it according to purely lingual equiva­<lb></lb>lents, we should
31186 find that it runs 24.3 Troy ounces per short ton, on the basis of Roman
31187 <lb></lb>values, and 18.25 ounces per short ton, on the basis of old German. </s>
31188
31189 <s>If we were to trans­<lb></lb>late these into English lingual equivalents of
31190 one ounce per hundredweight, then the value <lb></lb>would be 17.9 ounces per
31191 short ton.</s>
31192 </p>
31193 <p type="main">
31194
31195 <s>Several possibilities were open in translation: first, to calculate the
31196 values accur­<lb></lb>ately in the English units; second, to adopt the
31197 nearest English lingual equivalent; third, <lb></lb>to introduce the German
31198 scale of the period; or, fourth, to leave the original Latin in the
31199 <lb></lb>text. </s>
31200
31201 <s>The first would lead to an indefinite number of decimals and to constant
31202 doubt as to <lb></lb>whether the values, upon which calculations were to be
31203 based, were Roman or German. </s>
31204
31205 <s>The <lb></lb>second, that is the substitution of lingual equivalents, is
31206 objectionable, not only because <lb></lb>it would indicate values not meant by
31207 the author, but also because we should have, like <lb></lb>Agricola, to coin new
31208 terms to accommodate the lapses in the scales, or again to use decimals.
31209 <lb></lb></s>
31210
31211 <s>In the third case, that is in the use of the old German scale, while it would
31212 be easier to adapt <lb></lb>than the English, it would be more unfamiliar to
31213 most readers than the Latin, and not so <lb></lb>expressive in print, and
31214 further, in some cases would present the same difficulties of
31215 cal­<lb></lb>culation as in using the English scale. </s>
31216
31217 <s>Nor does the contemporary German translation of <emph type="italics"></emph>De
31218 <lb></lb>Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> prove of help, for its
31219 translator adopted only lingual equivalents, and in conse­<lb></lb>quence
31220 the summation of his weights often gives incorrect results. </s>
31221
31222 <s>From all these possibilities <lb></lb>we have chosen the fourth, that is simply
31223 to reproduce the Latin terms for both weights and <lb></lb>measures. </s>
31224
31225 <s>We have introduced into the footnotes such reductions to the English scale as
31226 we <lb></lb>considered would interest readers. </s>
31227
31228 <s>We have, however, digressed from the rule in two cases, <lb></lb>in the adoption
31229 of “foot” for the Latin <emph type="italics"></emph>pes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and “fathom” for <emph type="italics"></emph>passus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></s>
31230 <s> Apart from the fact <lb></lb>that these were not cases where accuracy is
31231 involved, Agricola himself explains (p. </s>
31232
31233 <s>77) <lb></lb>that he means the German values for these particular terms, which,
31234 fortunately, fairly closely <lb></lb>approximate to the English. </s>
31235
31236 <s>Further, we have adopted the Anglicized words “digit”,
31237 <lb></lb>“palm”, and “cubit”, instead of their Latin
31238 forms.</s>
31239 </p>
31240 <p type="main">
31241
31242 <s>For purposes of reference, we reproduce the principal Roman and old German
31243 scales, <lb></lb>in so far as they are used by Agricola in this work, with their
31244 values in English. </s>
31245
31246 <s>All students <lb></lb>of weights and measures will realize that these values are
31247 but approximate, and that this is <lb></lb>not an occasion to enter upon a
31248 discussion of the variations in different periods or by different
31249 <lb></lb>authorities. </s>
31250
31251 <s>Agricola himself is the author of one of the standard works on Ancient
31252 Weights <lb></lb>and Measures (see Appendix A), and further gives fairly
31253 complete information on contem­<lb></lb>porary scales of weight and fineness
31254 for precious metals in Book VII. p. </s>
31255
31256 <s>262 etc., to which <lb></lb>we refer readers.</s>
31257 </p>
31258 <p type="head">
31259
31260 <s>ROMAN SCALES OF WEIGHTS.<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table7"></arrow.to.target></s>
31261 </p>
31262 <pb pagenum="617"></pb>
31263 <table>
31264 <table.target id="table7"></table.target>
31265 <row>
31266 <cell></cell>
31267 <cell></cell>
31268 <cell></cell>
31269 <cell></cell>
31270 <cell>Troy Grains.</cell>
31271 </row>
31272 <row>
31273 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Siliqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31274 <cell>=</cell>
31275 <cell>..</cell>
31276 <cell>..</cell>
31277 <cell>2.87</cell>
31278 </row>
31279 <row>
31280 <cell>6 <emph type="italics"></emph>Siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31281 <cell>=</cell>
31282 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Scripulum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31283 <cell>..</cell>
31284 <cell>17.2</cell>
31285 </row>
31286 <row>
31287 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>Scripula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31288 <cell>=</cell>
31289 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31290 <cell>..</cell>
31291 <cell>68.7</cell>
31292 </row>
31293 <row>
31294 <cell>6 <emph type="italics"></emph>Sextulae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31295 <cell>=</cell>
31296 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31297 <cell>..</cell>
31298 <cell>412.2</cell>
31299 </row>
31300 <row>
31301 <cell>12 <emph type="italics"></emph>Unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31302 <cell>=</cell>
31303 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Libra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31304 <cell>..</cell>
31305 <cell>4946.4</cell>
31306 </row>
31307 <row>
31308 <cell>100 <emph type="italics"></emph>Librae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31309 <cell>=</cell>
31310 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31311 <cell>..</cell>
31312 <cell>494640.0</cell>
31313 </row>
31314 <row>
31315 <cell></cell>
31316 <cell></cell>
31317 <cell>Also</cell>
31318 <cell></cell>
31319 <cell></cell>
31320 </row>
31321 <row>
31322 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Scripulum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31323 <cell>=</cell>
31324 <cell>..</cell>
31325 <cell>..</cell>
31326 <cell>17.2</cell>
31327 </row>
31328 <row>
31329 <cell>3 <emph type="italics"></emph>Scripula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31330 <cell>=</cell>
31331 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Drachma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31332 <cell>..</cell>
31333 <cell>51.5</cell>
31334 </row>
31335 <row>
31336 <cell>2 <emph type="italics"></emph>Drachmae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31337 <cell>=</cell>
31338 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31339 <cell>..</cell>
31340 <cell>103.0</cell>
31341 </row>
31342 <row>
31343 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>Sicilici<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31344 <cell>=</cell>
31345 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31346 <cell>..</cell>
31347 <cell>412.2</cell>
31348 </row>
31349 <row>
31350 <cell>8 <emph type="italics"></emph>Unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31351 <cell>=</cell>
31352 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> ..</cell>
31353 <cell>..</cell>
31354 <cell>3297.6</cell>
31355 </row>
31356 </table>
31357 <p type="head">
31358
31359 <s>SCALE OF FINENESS</s>
31360 </p>
31361 <p type="head">
31362
31363 <s>(AGRICOLA&#039;S ADAPTATION).<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table8"></arrow.to.target></s>
31364 </p>
31365 <table>
31366 <table.target id="table8"></table.target>
31367 <row>
31368 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>Siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31369 <cell>=</cell>
31370 <cell>1 Unit of <emph type="italics"></emph>Siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31371 </row>
31372 <row>
31373 <cell>3 <emph type="italics"></emph>Units of Siliquae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31374 <cell>=</cell>
31375 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Semi-sextula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31376 </row>
31377 <row>
31378 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>Semi-sextulae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31379 <cell>=</cell>
31380 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Duella<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31381 </row>
31382 <row>
31383 <cell>24 <emph type="italics"></emph>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31384 <cell>=</cell>
31385 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Bes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31386 </row>
31387 </table>
31388 <p type="head">
31389
31390 <s>OLD GERMAN SCALE OF WEIGHTS.<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table9"></arrow.to.target></s>
31391 </p>
31392 <table>
31393 <table.target id="table9"></table.target>
31394 <row>
31395 <cell></cell>
31396 <cell></cell>
31397 <cell></cell>
31398 <cell></cell>
31399 <cell>Troy Grains.</cell>
31400 </row>
31401 <row>
31402 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Pfennig<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31403 <cell>=</cell>
31404 <cell>..</cell>
31405 <cell>..</cell>
31406 <cell>14.1</cell>
31407 </row>
31408 <row>
31409 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>Pfennige<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31410 <cell>=</cell>
31411 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Quintlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31412 <cell>..</cell>
31413 <cell>56.4</cell>
31414 </row>
31415 <row>
31416 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>Quintlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31417 <cell>=</cell>
31418 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Loth<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31419 <cell>..</cell>
31420 <cell>225.6</cell>
31421 </row>
31422 <row>
31423 <cell>2 <emph type="italics"></emph>Loth<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31424 <cell>=</cell>
31425 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Untzen<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31426 <cell>..</cell>
31427 <cell>451.2</cell>
31428 </row>
31429 <row>
31430 <cell>8 <emph type="italics"></emph>Untzen<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31431 <cell>=</cell>
31432 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Mark<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31433 <cell>..</cell>
31434 <cell>3609.6</cell>
31435 </row>
31436 <row>
31437 <cell>2 <emph type="italics"></emph>Mark<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31438 <cell>=</cell>
31439 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Pfundt<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31440 <cell>..</cell>
31441 <cell>7219.2</cell>
31442 </row>
31443 <row>
31444 <cell>100 <emph type="italics"></emph>Pfundt<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31445 <cell>=</cell>
31446 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Centner<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31447 <cell>..</cell>
31448 <cell>721920.0</cell>
31449 </row>
31450 </table>
31451 <p type="head">
31452
31453 <s>SCALE OF FINENESS.<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table10"></arrow.to.target></s>
31454 </p>
31455 <table>
31456 <table.target id="table10"></table.target>
31457 <row>
31458 <cell>3 <emph type="italics"></emph>Grenlin<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31459 <cell>=</cell>
31460 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Gran<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31461 </row>
31462 <row>
31463 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>Gran<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31464 <cell>=</cell>
31465 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Krat<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31466 </row>
31467 <row>
31468 <cell>24 <emph type="italics"></emph>Krat<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31469 <cell>=</cell>
31470 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Mark<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31471 </row>
31472 </table>
31473 <p type="head">
31474
31475 <s>ROMAN LONG MEASURE.<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table11"></arrow.to.target></s>
31476 </p>
31477 <table>
31478 <table.target id="table11"></table.target>
31479 <row>
31480 <cell></cell>
31481 <cell></cell>
31482 <cell></cell>
31483 <cell></cell>
31484 <cell>Inches.</cell>
31485 </row>
31486 <row>
31487 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Digitus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31488 <cell>=</cell>
31489 <cell>..</cell>
31490 <cell>..</cell>
31491 <cell>.726</cell>
31492 </row>
31493 <row>
31494 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>Digiti<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31495 <cell>=</cell>
31496 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Palmus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31497 <cell>..</cell>
31498 <cell>2.90</cell>
31499 </row>
31500 <row>
31501 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>Palmi<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31502 <cell>=</cell>
31503 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Pes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31504 <cell>..</cell>
31505 <cell>11.61</cell>
31506 </row>
31507 <row>
31508 <cell>1 1/2 <emph type="italics"></emph>Pedes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31509 <cell>=</cell>
31510 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Cubitus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31511 <cell>..</cell>
31512 <cell>17.41</cell>
31513 </row>
31514 <row>
31515 <cell>5 <emph type="italics"></emph>Pedes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31516 <cell>=</cell>
31517 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Passus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31518 <cell>..</cell>
31519 <cell>58.1</cell>
31520 </row>
31521 </table>
31522 <p type="head">
31523
31524 <s>Also<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table12"></arrow.to.target></s>
31525 </p>
31526 <table>
31527 <table.target id="table12"></table.target>
31528 <row>
31529 <cell>1 Roman <emph type="italics"></emph>Uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31530 <cell>=</cell>
31531 <cell></cell>
31532 <cell>..</cell>
31533 <cell>.97</cell>
31534 </row>
31535 <row>
31536 <cell>12 <emph type="italics"></emph>Unciae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31537 <cell>=</cell>
31538 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31539 <cell>..</cell>
31540 <cell>11.61</cell>
31541 </row>
31542 </table>
31543 <p type="head">
31544
31545 <s>GREEK LONG MEASURE.<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table13"></arrow.to.target></s>
31546 </p>
31547 <table>
31548 <table.target id="table13"></table.target>
31549 <row>
31550 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Dactylos<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31551 <cell>=</cell>
31552 <cell>..</cell>
31553 <cell>..</cell>
31554 <cell>.758</cell>
31555 </row>
31556 <row>
31557 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>Dactyloi<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31558 <cell>=</cell>
31559 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Palaiste<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31560 <cell>..</cell>
31561 <cell>3.03</cell>
31562 </row>
31563 <row>
31564 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>Palaistai<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31565 <cell>=</cell>
31566 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Pous<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31567 <cell>..</cell>
31568 <cell>12.135</cell>
31569 </row>
31570 <row>
31571 <cell>1 1/2 <emph type="italics"></emph>Pous<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31572 <cell></cell>
31573 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Pechus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31574 <cell>..</cell>
31575 <cell>18.20</cell>
31576 </row>
31577 <row>
31578 <cell>6 <emph type="italics"></emph>Pous<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31579 <cell>=</cell>
31580 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Oryguia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31581 <cell>..</cell>
31582 <cell>72.81</cell>
31583 </row>
31584 </table>
31585 <p type="head">
31586
31587 <s>OLD GERMAN LONG MEASURE.<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table14"></arrow.to.target></s>
31588 </p>
31589 <table>
31590 <table.target id="table14"></table.target>
31591 <row>
31592 <cell></cell>
31593 <cell></cell>
31594 <cell></cell>
31595 <cell>Inches.</cell>
31596 </row>
31597 <row>
31598 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Querfinger<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31599 <cell>=</cell>
31600 <cell>..</cell>
31601 <cell>..</cell>
31602 <cell>.703</cell>
31603 </row>
31604 <row>
31605 <cell>16 <emph type="italics"></emph>Querfinger<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31606 <cell>=</cell>
31607 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Werckschuh<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31608 <cell>..</cell>
31609 <cell>11.247</cell>
31610 </row>
31611 <row>
31612 <cell>2 <emph type="italics"></emph>Werckschuh<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31613 <cell>=</cell>
31614 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Elle<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31615 <cell>..</cell>
31616 <cell>22.494</cell>
31617 </row>
31618 <row>
31619 <cell>3 <emph type="italics"></emph>Elle<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31620 <cell>=</cell>
31621 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Lachter<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31622 <cell>..</cell>
31623 <cell>67.518</cell>
31624 </row>
31625 </table>
31626 <p type="head">
31627
31628 <s>Also<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table15"></arrow.to.target></s>
31629 </p>
31630 <table>
31631 <table.target id="table15"></table.target>
31632 <row>
31633 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Zoll<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31634 <cell>=</cell>
31635 <cell>..</cell>
31636 <cell>..</cell>
31637 <cell>.85</cell>
31638 </row>
31639 <row>
31640 <cell>12 <emph type="italics"></emph>Zoll<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31641 <cell>=</cell>
31642 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Werkschuh<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31643 <cell></cell>
31644 <cell></cell>
31645 </row>
31646 </table>
31647 <p type="head">
31648
31649 <s>ROMAN LIQUID MEASURE.<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table16"></arrow.to.target></s>
31650 </p>
31651 <table>
31652 <table.target id="table16"></table.target>
31653 <row>
31654 <cell></cell>
31655 <cell></cell>
31656 <cell></cell>
31657 <cell>Cubic</cell>
31658 <cell>inches.</cell>
31659 <cell></cell>
31660 <cell>Pints.</cell>
31661 </row>
31662 <row>
31663 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Quartarius<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31664 <cell>=</cell>
31665 <cell></cell>
31666 <cell>..</cell>
31667 <cell>8.6</cell>
31668 <cell>..</cell>
31669 <cell>.247</cell>
31670 </row>
31671 <row>
31672 <cell>4 <emph type="italics"></emph>Quartarii<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31673 <cell>=</cell>
31674 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Sextarius<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31675 <cell>..</cell>
31676 <cell>31.4</cell>
31677 <cell>..</cell>
31678 <cell>.991</cell>
31679 </row>
31680 <row>
31681 <cell>6 <emph type="italics"></emph>Sextarii<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31682 <cell>=</cell>
31683 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Congius<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31684 <cell>..</cell>
31685 <cell>206.4</cell>
31686 <cell>..</cell>
31687 <cell>5.947</cell>
31688 </row>
31689 <row>
31690 <cell>16 <emph type="italics"></emph>Sextarii<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31691 <cell>=</cell>
31692 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Modius<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31693 <cell>..</cell>
31694 <cell>550.4</cell>
31695 <cell>..</cell>
31696 <cell>15.867</cell>
31697 </row>
31698 <row>
31699 <cell>8 <emph type="italics"></emph>Congii<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31700 <cell>=</cell>
31701 <cell>1 <emph type="italics"></emph>Amphora<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31702 <cell>..</cell>
31703 <cell>1650.0</cell>
31704 <cell>..</cell>
31705 <cell>47.577</cell>
31706 </row>
31707 </table>
31708 <p type="head">
31709
31710 <s>(Agricola nowhere uses the Saxon liquid measures, nor do they fall into units
31711 comparable <lb></lb>with the Roman).</s>
31712 </p>
31713 <pb></pb>
31714 <figure></figure>
31715 <pb></pb>
31716 <p type="head">
31717
31718 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>GENERAL INDEX.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
31719 </p>
31720 <p type="main">
31721
31722 <s>NOTE.—The numbers in heavy type refer to the Text; <lb></lb>those in plain
31723 type to the Footnotes, Appendices, etc.<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table17"></arrow.to.target></s>
31724 </p>
31725 <table>
31726 <table.target id="table17"></table.target>
31727 <row>
31728 <cell></cell>
31729 <cell>PAGE</cell>
31730 </row>
31731 <row>
31732 <cell>ABANDONMENT OF MINES</cell>
31733 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>217<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31734 </row>
31735 <row>
31736 <cell>ABERTHAM.</cell>
31737 <cell></cell>
31738 </row>
31739 <row>
31740 <cell>Mines at</cell>
31741 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>74; 92;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 74</cell>
31742 </row>
31743 <row>
31744 <cell>ABOLITE</cell>
31745 <cell>113</cell>
31746 </row>
31747 <row>
31748 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Abstrich<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31749 <cell>465; 492</cell>
31750 </row>
31751 <row>
31752 <cell>ABYDOS.</cell>
31753 <cell></cell>
31754 </row>
31755 <row>
31756 <cell>Gold mines of</cell>
31757 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 27</cell>
31758 </row>
31759 <row>
31760 <cell>Lead figure from</cell>
31761 <cell>390</cell>
31762 </row>
31763 <row>
31764 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Abrug<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31765 <cell>464; 465; 475</cell>
31766 </row>
31767 <row>
31768 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Achates<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> AGATE).</cell>
31769 <cell></cell>
31770 </row>
31771 <row>
31772 <cell>ACCIDENTS TO MINERS</cell>
31773 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>214—218<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31774 </row>
31775 <row>
31776 <cell>ACCOUNTS (Mining)</cell>
31777 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>96—98<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31778 </row>
31779 <row>
31780 <cell>ADIT</cell>
31781 <cell>101</cell>
31782 </row>
31783 <row>
31784 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Aeris flos<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Copper
31785 Flowers).</cell>
31786 <cell></cell>
31787 </row>
31788 <row>
31789 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Aeris squama<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Copper Scales).</cell>
31790 <cell></cell>
31791 </row>
31792 <row>
31793 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Aes caldarium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31794 <cell>109</cell>
31795 </row>
31796 <row>
31797 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Aes luteum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31798 <cell>109</cell>
31799 </row>
31800 <row>
31801 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Aes nigrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31802 <cell>109</cell>
31803 </row>
31804 <row>
31805 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Aes purum fossile<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
31806 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Native
31807 Copper).</cell>
31808 <cell></cell>
31809 </row>
31810 <row>
31811 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Aes rude plumbei coloris<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Copper
31812 Glance).</cell>
31813 <cell></cell>
31814 </row>
31815 <row>
31816 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Aes ustum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Roasted
31817 Copper).</cell>
31818 <cell></cell>
31819 </row>
31820 <row>
31821 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Aetites<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31822 <cell>2</cell>
31823 </row>
31824 <row>
31825 <cell>AFRICA.</cell>
31826 <cell></cell>
31827 </row>
31828 <row>
31829 <cell>Iron</cell>
31830 <cell>420</cell>
31831 </row>
31832 <row>
31833 <cell>Tin</cell>
31834 <cell>412</cell>
31835 </row>
31836 <row>
31837 <cell>AGATE</cell>
31838 <cell>114</cell>
31839 </row>
31840 <row>
31841 <cell>AGRICULTURE.</cell>
31842 <cell></cell>
31843 </row>
31844 <row>
31845 <cell>Mining compared with</cell>
31846 <cell>5</cell>
31847 </row>
31848 <row>
31849 <cell>AILMENTS OF MINERS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Maladies of Miners).</cell>
31850 <cell></cell>
31851 </row>
31852 <row>
31853 <cell>AIR CURRENTS IN MINES</cell>
31854 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>121; 200<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31855 </row>
31856 <row>
31857 <cell>ALABASTER</cell>
31858 <cell>114</cell>
31859 </row>
31860 <row>
31861 <cell>ALCHEMISTS</cell>
31862 <cell>XXVII—XXX; 44; 608</cell>
31863 </row>
31864 <row>
31865 <cell>Agricola&#039;s opinion of</cell>
31866 <cell>XII; <emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31867 </row>
31868 <row>
31869 <cell>Amalgamation</cell>
31870 <cell>297</cell>
31871 </row>
31872 <row>
31873 <cell>Assaying</cell>
31874 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>248;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 219</cell>
31875 </row>
31876 <row>
31877 <cell>Discovery of acids</cell>
31878 <cell>439; 460</cell>
31879 </row>
31880 <row>
31881 <cell>Distillation</cell>
31882 <cell>441</cell>
31883 </row>
31884 <row>
31885 <cell>ALJUSTREL TABLET</cell>
31886 <cell>83—84</cell>
31887 </row>
31888 <row>
31889 <cell>ALKALI</cell>
31890 <cell>558</cell>
31891 </row>
31892 <row>
31893 <cell>ALLOYS. ASSAYING OF</cell>
31894 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>247—252<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31895 </row>
31896 <row>
31897 <cell>ALLUVIAL MINING</cell>
31898 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>321—348;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
31899 330—332</cell>
31900 </row>
31901 <row>
31902 <cell>ALSTON MOOR.</cell>
31903 <cell>84</cell>
31904 </row>
31905 <row>
31906 <cell>ALTENBERG</cell>
31907 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXXI;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> VI.</cell>
31908 </row>
31909 <row>
31910 <cell>Collapse of mine</cell>
31911 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>216<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31912 </row>
31913 <row>
31914 <cell>Miners poisoned</cell>
31915 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>214<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31916 </row>
31917 <row>
31918 <cell>Tin working appliances</cell>
31919 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>290; 304; 318<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31920 </row>
31921 <row>
31922 <cell>ALUM</cell>
31923 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>564—568;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
31924 564—570</cell>
31925 </row>
31926 <row>
31927 <cell>A solidified juice</cell>
31928 <cell>1</cell>
31929 </row>
31930 <row>
31931 <cell>Elizabethan Charter</cell>
31932 <cell>283</cell>
31933 </row>
31934 <row>
31935 <cell>In roasted pyrites</cell>
31936 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>350<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31937 </row>
31938 <row>
31939 <cell>In <emph type="italics"></emph>Sal artificiosus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
31940 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>463<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31941 </row>
31942 <row>
31943 <cell>Latin and German terms</cell>
31944 <cell>220; 221</cell>
31945 </row>
31946 <row>
31947 <cell>Papal monopoly</cell>
31948 <cell>570</cell>
31949 </row>
31950 <row>
31951 <cell>Use in making nitric acid</cell>
31952 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>439;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 460</cell>
31953 </row>
31954 <row>
31955 <cell>AMALGAM.</cell>
31956 <cell></cell>
31957 </row>
31958 <row>
31959 <cell>Parting the gold from</cell>
31960 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>298;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 297</cell>
31961 </row>
31962 <row>
31963 <cell>AMALGAMATION</cell>
31964 <cell>297</cell>
31965 </row>
31966 <row>
31967 <cell>Of gilt objects</cell>
31968 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>461<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31969 </row>
31970 <row>
31971 <cell>Mills</cell>
31972 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>295—299<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31973 </row>
31974 <row>
31975 <cell>AMBER</cell>
31976 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>34;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 35</cell>
31977 </row>
31978 <row>
31979 <cell>AMETHYST</cell>
31980 <cell>114</cell>
31981 </row>
31982 <row>
31983 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Amiantus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Asbestos).</cell>
31984 <cell></cell>
31985 </row>
31986 <row>
31987 <cell>AMPULLA</cell>
31988 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>445—447;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 220</cell>
31989 </row>
31990 <row>
31991 <cell>ANNABERG</cell>
31992 <cell>VI; <emph type="bold"></emph>XXI; 42; 75;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 75</cell>
31993 </row>
31994 <row>
31995 <cell>Profits</cell>
31996 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>92<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
31997 </row>
31998 <row>
31999 <cell>ANT, VENOMOUS</cell>
32000 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>216<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32001 </row>
32002 <row>
32003 <cell>ANTIMONY</cell>
32004 <cell>220; 428; 354</cell>
32005 </row>
32006 <row>
32007 <cell>Minerals</cell>
32008 <cell>110</cell>
32009 </row>
32010 <row>
32011 <cell>Smelting of</cell>
32012 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>440; 428<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32013 </row>
32014 <row>
32015 <cell>Use as type-metal</cell>
32016 <cell>2; 429</cell>
32017 </row>
32018 <row>
32019 <cell>ANTIMONY SULPHIDE</cell>
32020 <cell>220; 428; 451</cell>
32021 </row>
32022 <row>
32023 <cell>Parting gold and silver with</cell>
32024 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>451;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 451; 461</cell>
32025 </row>
32026 <row>
32027 <cell>Parting gold from copper</cell>
32028 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>463<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32029 </row>
32030 <row>
32031 <cell>Parting silver and iron</cell>
32032 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>544<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32033 </row>
32034 <row>
32035 <cell>ANTWERP, SCALE OF WEIGHTS</cell>
32036 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>263<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32037 </row>
32038 <row>
32039 <cell>APEX LAW</cell>
32040 <cell>81; 83—86</cell>
32041 </row>
32042 <row>
32043 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Aqua regia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
32044 <cell>439; 441; 354</cell>
32045 </row>
32046 <row>
32047 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Aqua valeus (see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
32048 Nitric Acid)</cell>
32049 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>439—443;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 439;
32050 220</cell>
32051 </row>
32052 <row>
32053 <cell>Clarification with silver</cell>
32054 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>443;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 443</cell>
32055 </row>
32056 <row>
32057 <cell>Cleansing gold-dust with</cell>
32058 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>396<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32059 </row>
32060 <row>
32061 <cell>Parting precious metals with</cell>
32062 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>443—447<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32063 </row>
32064 <row>
32065 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Arbores dissectae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
32066 (Lagging)</cell>
32067 <cell>101</cell>
32068 </row>
32069 <row>
32070 <cell>ARCHIMEDES, SCREW OF</cell>
32071 <cell>149</cell>
32072 </row>
32073 <row>
32074 <cell>ARCHITECTURE.</cell>
32075 <cell></cell>
32076 </row>
32077 <row>
32078 <cell>Knowledge necessary for miners</cell>
32079 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>4<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32080 </row>
32081 <row>
32082 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Area fodinarum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Meer).</cell>
32083 <cell></cell>
32084 </row>
32085 <row>
32086 <cell>ARGENTIFEROUS COPPER ORES, SMELTING OF</cell>
32087 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>404—407<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32088 </row>
32089 <row>
32090 <cell>ARGENTITE</cell>
32091 <cell>109</cell>
32092 </row>
32093 <row>
32094 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Argentum purum in venis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Native
32095 Silver).</cell>
32096 <cell></cell>
32097 </row>
32098 <row>
32099 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Argentum rude plumbei coloris<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>Silver Glance).</cell>
32100 <cell></cell>
32101 </row>
32102 <row>
32103 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Argentum rude rubrum translucidum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>(<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
32104 Ruby Silver).</cell>
32105 <cell></cell>
32106 </row>
32107 <row>
32108 <cell>ARGOL</cell>
32109 <cell>234; 220</cell>
32110 </row>
32111 <row>
32112 <cell>As a flux</cell>
32113 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>234; 238; 243<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32114 </row>
32115 <row>
32116 <cell>Use in melting silver nitrate</cell>
32117 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>447<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32118 </row>
32119 <row>
32120 <cell>Use in smelting gold dust</cell>
32121 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>396—398<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32122 </row>
32123 <row>
32124 <cell>ARGONAUTS</cell>
32125 <cell>330</cell>
32126 </row>
32127 <row>
32128 <cell>ARITHMETICAL SCIENCE.</cell>
32129 <cell></cell>
32130 </row>
32131 <row>
32132 <cell>Knowledge necessary for miners</cell>
32133 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>4<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32134 </row>
32135 <row>
32136 <cell>ARMENIA, STONE OF</cell>
32137 <cell>115</cell>
32138 </row>
32139 <row>
32140 <cell>ARSENIC (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
32141 Orpiment <emph type="italics"></emph>and<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>Realgar)</cell>
32142 <cell>111; 214</cell>
32143 </row>
32144 <row>
32145 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Arsenicum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
32146 <cell>111</cell>
32147 </row>
32148 <row>
32149 <cell>ARSENOPYRITE</cell>
32150 <cell>111</cell>
32151 </row>
32152 <row>
32153 <cell>ASBESTOS</cell>
32154 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>440;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 440; 114</cell>
32155 </row>
32156 <row>
32157 <cell>ASH-COLOURED COPPER</cell>
32158 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>539—540;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 540;
32159 523—524; 492</cell>
32160 </row>
32161 <row>
32162 <cell>From liquation</cell>
32163 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>529—530<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32164 </row>
32165 <row>
32166 <cell>ASHES WHICH WOOL DYERS USE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Potash)</cell>
32167 <cell>233; 559; 220</cell>
32168 </row>
32169 <row>
32170 <cell>Use in assaying</cell>
32171 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>236—238<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32172 </row>
32173 <row>
32174 <cell>ASH OF LEAD</cell>
32175 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>237—238;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 237;
32176 220</cell>
32177 </row>
32178 <row>
32179 <cell>ASH OF MUSK IVY (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Potash and <emph type="italics"></emph>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
32180 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>236—238;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 220</cell>
32181 </row>
32182 <row>
32183 <cell>ASPHALT</cell>
32184 <cell>581</cell>
32185 </row>
32186 <row>
32187 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Asphaltites<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Dead Sea).</cell>
32188 <cell></cell>
32189 </row>
32190 <row>
32191 <cell>ASSAY BALANCES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
32192 Balances).</cell>
32193 <cell></cell>
32194 </row>
32195 <row>
32196 <cell>ASSAY FLUXES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
32197 Fluxes).</cell>
32198 <cell></cell>
32199 </row>
32200 <row>
32201 <cell>ASSAY FURNACES</cell>
32202 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>224—228;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 220</cell>
32203 </row>
32204 <row>
32205 <cell>Crucible</cell>
32206 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>226—227<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32207 </row>
32208 <row>
32209 <cell>Muffle</cell>
32210 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>224—228; 239<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32211 </row>
32212 <row>
32213 <cell>ASSAYING (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also Probierbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
32214 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>219;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 219; 220; 354</cell>
32215 </row>
32216 <row>
32217 <cell>Amalgamation</cell>
32218 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>243<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32219 </row>
32220 <row>
32221 <cell>Bismuth</cell>
32222 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>247<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32223 </row>
32224 <row>
32225 <cell>Copper</cell>
32226 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>244<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32227 </row>
32228 <row>
32229 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
32230 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>240<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32231 </row>
32232 <row>
32233 <cell>Gold and silver alloys</cell>
32234 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>248<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32235 </row>
32236 <row>
32237 <cell>Gold ore</cell>
32238 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>242—244<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32239 </row>
32240 <row>
32241 <cell>Iron ore</cell>
32242 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>247<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32243 </row>
32244 <row>
32245 <cell>Lead</cell>
32246 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>245—246<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32247 </row>
32248 <row>
32249 <cell>Silver</cell>
32250 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>242—245<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32251 </row>
32252 <row>
32253 <cell>Silver and copper alloys</cell>
32254 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>249—250<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32255 </row>
32256 <row>
32257 <cell>Tin</cell>
32258 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>246<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32259 </row>
32260 <row>
32261 <cell>Tin and silver alloys</cell>
32262 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>251<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32263 </row>
32264 <row>
32265 <cell>ASSAY MUFFLES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
32266 Muffles).</cell>
32267 <cell></cell>
32268 </row>
32269 <row>
32270 <cell>ASSAY TON</cell>
32271 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>261;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 242</cell>
32272 </row>
32273 <row>
32274 <cell>ASSYRIAN COPPER</cell>
32275 <cell>402</cell>
32276 </row>
32277 <row>
32278 <cell>ASTHMA</cell>
32279 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>214<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32280 </row>
32281 <row>
32282 <cell>ASTRONOMY.</cell>
32283 <cell></cell>
32284 </row>
32285 <row>
32286 <cell>Knowledge necessary for miners</cell>
32287 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>4<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32288 </row>
32289 <row>
32290 <cell>ATARNEA.</cell>
32291 <cell></cell>
32292 </row>
32293 <row>
32294 <cell>Mines near</cell>
32295 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 27</cell>
32296 </row>
32297 <row>
32298 <cell>ATHENS.</cell>
32299 <cell></cell>
32300 </row>
32301 <row>
32302 <cell>Mining law</cell>
32303 <cell>83</cell>
32304 </row>
32305 <row>
32306 <cell>Sea power and mines</cell>
32307 <cell>27</cell>
32308 </row>
32309 <pb pagenum="620"></pb>
32310 <row>
32311 <cell>ATHENS.</cell>
32312 <cell></cell>
32313 </row>
32314 <row>
32315 <cell>Silver mines (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mt.
32316 Laurion, Mines of).</cell>
32317 <cell></cell>
32318 </row>
32319 <row>
32320 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Atramentum Sutorium (see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Vitriol)</cell>
32321 <cell>572; 110</cell>
32322 </row>
32323 <row>
32324 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Atramentum Sutorium candidum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
32325 <cell>113</cell>
32326 </row>
32327 <row>
32328 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Atramentum Sutorium rubrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
32329 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>274;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 274</cell>
32330 </row>
32331 <row>
32332 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Aurichalcum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
32333 <cell>409; 404</cell>
32334 </row>
32335 <row>
32336 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Auripigmentum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Orpiment).</cell>
32337 <cell></cell>
32338 </row>
32339 <row>
32340 <cell>AZURE</cell>
32341 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>1;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 109; 220</cell>
32342 </row>
32343 <row>
32344 <cell>An indication of copper</cell>
32345 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32346 </row>
32347 <row>
32348 <cell>An indication of gold</cell>
32349 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>117<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32350 </row>
32351 <row>
32352 <cell>Colour of flame</cell>
32353 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32354 </row>
32355 <row>
32356 <cell>AZURITE</cell>
32357 <cell>109; 220; 402</cell>
32358 </row>
32359 <row>
32360 <cell>BABEL, TOWER OF</cell>
32361 <cell>582</cell>
32362 </row>
32363 <row>
32364 <cell>BABYLONIA.</cell>
32365 <cell></cell>
32366 </row>
32367 <row>
32368 <cell>Bitumen in</cell>
32369 <cell>582</cell>
32370 </row>
32371 <row>
32372 <cell>Use of lead</cell>
32373 <cell>391</cell>
32374 </row>
32375 <row>
32376 <cell>BABYTACE.</cell>
32377 <cell></cell>
32378 </row>
32379 <row>
32380 <cell>Gold buried by inhabitants</cell>
32381 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32382 </row>
32383 <row>
32384 <cell>BAEBELO</cell>
32385 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>42;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 42</cell>
32386 </row>
32387 <row>
32388 <cell>BALANCES</cell>
32389 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>224; 264—265<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32390 </row>
32391 <row>
32392 <cell>BARITE</cell>
32393 <cell>115</cell>
32394 </row>
32395 <row>
32396 <cell>BARMASTER, OF HIGH PEAK</cell>
32397 <cell>77</cell>
32398 </row>
32399 <row>
32400 <cell>BARS, FOR FURNACE WORK</cell>
32401 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>382<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32402 </row>
32403 <row>
32404 <cell>BASKETS, FOR HOISTING</cell>
32405 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>153<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32406 </row>
32407 <row>
32408 <cell>BATEA</cell>
32409 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>156<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32410 </row>
32411 <row>
32412 <cell>BEER</cell>
32413 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>230;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 220</cell>
32414 </row>
32415 <row>
32416 <cell>BELL, TO CALL WORKMEN</cell>
32417 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>100<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32418 </row>
32419 <row>
32420 <cell>BELLOWS</cell>
32421 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>362—373; 419<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32422 </row>
32423 <row>
32424 <cell>Ancient use of</cell>
32425 <cell>354; 355; 362</cell>
32426 </row>
32427 <row>
32428 <cell>Assay furnace</cell>
32429 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>226; 245<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32430 </row>
32431 <row>
32432 <cell>Mine ventilation with</cell>
32433 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>207—210<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32434 </row>
32435 <row>
32436 <cell>BENI HASSEN, INSCRIPTIONS AT</cell>
32437 <cell>586</cell>
32438 </row>
32439 <row>
32440 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Berg-geel<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
32441 <cell>111</cell>
32442 </row>
32443 <row>
32444 <cell>BERGMEISTER</cell>
32445 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>33; 81; 95; 77;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 77;
32446 78</cell>
32447 </row>
32448 <row>
32449 <cell>Deals with forfeited shares</cell>
32450 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>92—93<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32451 </row>
32452 <row>
32453 <cell>Jurors</cell>
32454 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>96<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32455 </row>
32456 <row>
32457 <cell>BERGMEISTER&#039;S CLERK</cell>
32458 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>95;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
32459 </row>
32460 <row>
32461 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Bergzinober<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Quicksilver).</cell>
32462 <cell></cell>
32463 </row>
32464 <row>
32465 <cell>BERMIUS (BERMIUM), MT. (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mt. Bermius).</cell>
32466 <cell></cell>
32467 </row>
32468 <row>
32469 <cell>BISMUTH</cell>
32470 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>433;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 354; 220</cell>
32471 </row>
32472 <row>
32473 <cell>Assaying ores of</cell>
32474 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>247<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32475 </row>
32476 <row>
32477 <cell>Indication of silver</cell>
32478 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32479 </row>
32480 <row>
32481 <cell>Minerals</cell>
32482 <cell>2; 111</cell>
32483 </row>
32484 <row>
32485 <cell>Smelting of</cell>
32486 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>433—437; 400<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32487 </row>
32488 <row>
32489 <cell>The “roof of silver”</cell>
32490 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>117;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 433</cell>
32491 </row>
32492 <row>
32493 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Zaffre<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
32494 <cell>112</cell>
32495 </row>
32496 <row>
32497 <cell>BITUMEN.</cell>
32498 <cell></cell>
32499 </row>
32500 <row>
32501 <cell>Ancient knowledge of</cell>
32502 <cell>220; 581—582; 354</cell>
32503 </row>
32504 <row>
32505 <cell>Colour of fumes</cell>
32506 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32507 </row>
32508 <row>
32509 <cell>Dead Sea</cell>
32510 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>33<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32511 </row>
32512 <row>
32513 <cell>Distillation</cell>
32514 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>581<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32515 </row>
32516 <row>
32517 <cell>From springs</cell>
32518 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>582<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32519 </row>
32520 <row>
32521 <cell>Harmful to metals</cell>
32522 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>273<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32523 </row>
32524 <row>
32525 <cell>Roasting from ore</cell>
32526 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>273; 276; 351<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32527 </row>
32528 <row>
32529 <cell>Solidified juice</cell>
32530 <cell>1</cell>
32531 </row>
32532 <row>
32533 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Bituminosa cadmia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (see
32534 <emph type="italics"></emph>Cadmia bituminosa<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
32535 <cell></cell>
32536 </row>
32537 <row>
32538 <cell>BLAST, REGULATION OF</cell>
32539 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>380; 386<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32540 </row>
32541 <row>
32542 <cell>BLASTING</cell>
32543 <cell>119</cell>
32544 </row>
32545 <row>
32546 <cell>BLENDE</cell>
32547 <cell>113</cell>
32548 </row>
32549 <row>
32550 <cell>BLEYBERG</cell>
32551 <cell>239</cell>
32552 </row>
32553 <row>
32554 <cell>BLOODSTONE</cell>
32555 <cell>111; 2</cell>
32556 </row>
32557 <row>
32558 <cell>BLOOM</cell>
32559 <cell>420</cell>
32560 </row>
32561 <row>
32562 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Blutstein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Ironstone).</cell>
32563 <cell></cell>
32564 </row>
32565 <row>
32566 <cell>BOHEMIA.</cell>
32567 <cell></cell>
32568 </row>
32569 <row>
32570 <cell>Antimony sulphide</cell>
32571 <cell>428</cell>
32572 </row>
32573 <row>
32574 <cell>Pestilential vapours</cell>
32575 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>216<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32576 </row>
32577 <row>
32578 <cell>Sifting ore in</cell>
32579 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>293<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32580 </row>
32581 <row>
32582 <cell>Smelting</cell>
32583 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>384<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32584 </row>
32585 <row>
32586 <cell>BONE-ASH</cell>
32587 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>230;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 466</cell>
32588 </row>
32589 <row>
32590 <cell>BORAX</cell>
32591 <cell>560; 221; 110</cell>
32592 </row>
32593 <row>
32594 <cell>Method of manufacture</cell>
32595 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>560<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32596 </row>
32597 <row>
32598 <cell>Use in gold smelting</cell>
32599 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>444; 457; 464<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32600 </row>
32601 <row>
32602 <cell>Use in assaying</cell>
32603 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>245; 246<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32604 </row>
32605 <row>
32606 <cell>BORNITE</cell>
32607 <cell>109</cell>
32608 </row>
32609 <row>
32610 <cell>BOUNDARY STONES</cell>
32611 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>87;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 129</cell>
32612 </row>
32613 <row>
32614 <cell>BOUNDARIES</cell>
32615 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>77; 147<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32616 </row>
32617 <row>
32618 <cell>BOWLS FOR ALLUVIAL WASHING</cell>
32619 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>322; 324; 334; 336<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32620 </row>
32621 <row>
32622 <cell>BRASS</cell>
32623 <cell>410; 354; 2</cell>
32624 </row>
32625 <row>
32626 <cell>Ancient methods of making</cell>
32627 <cell>404—405; 112</cell>
32628 </row>
32629 <row>
32630 <cell>BREAKING ORE</cell>
32631 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>117—119<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32632 </row>
32633 <row>
32634 <cell>BRICK DUST.</cell>
32635 <cell></cell>
32636 </row>
32637 <row>
32638 <cell>Used in cementation</cell>
32639 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>454;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 454</cell>
32640 </row>
32641 <row>
32642 <cell>Used in making nitric acid</cell>
32643 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>440<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32644 </row>
32645 <row>
32646 <cell>BRINE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
32647 Salt).</cell>
32648 <cell></cell>
32649 </row>
32650 <row>
32651 <cell>Evaporation of</cell>
32652 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>547—548<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32653 </row>
32654 <row>
32655 <cell>BRITAIN.</cell>
32656 <cell></cell>
32657 </row>
32658 <row>
32659 <cell>Lead-silver smelting</cell>
32660 <cell>392</cell>
32661 </row>
32662 <row>
32663 <cell>Miners mentioned by Pliny</cell>
32664 <cell>83</cell>
32665 </row>
32666 <row>
32667 <cell>Tin trade</cell>
32668 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>411—413<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32669 </row>
32670 <row>
32671 <cell>BRITISH MUSEUM.</cell>
32672 <cell></cell>
32673 </row>
32674 <row>
32675 <cell>Egyptian gold-mining</cell>
32676 <cell>399</cell>
32677 </row>
32678 <row>
32679 <cell>Egyptian lead</cell>
32680 <cell>390</cell>
32681 </row>
32682 <row>
32683 <cell>Egyptian steel</cell>
32684 <cell>402</cell>
32685 </row>
32686 <row>
32687 <cell>BROMYRITE</cell>
32688 <cell>109</cell>
32689 </row>
32690 <row>
32691 <cell>BRONZE.</cell>
32692 <cell></cell>
32693 </row>
32694 <row>
32695 <cell>Historical notes</cell>
32696 <cell>411; 402; 354</cell>
32697 </row>
32698 <row>
32699 <cell>BRONZE AGE.</cell>
32700 <cell>355; <emph type="bold"></emph>402; 411<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32701 </row>
32702 <row>
32703 <cell>BRYLE (Outcrop).</cell>
32704 <cell>101</cell>
32705 </row>
32706 <row>
32707 <cell>BUCKETS, FOR HOISTING ORE</cell>
32708 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>153—154; 157<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32709 </row>
32710 <row>
32711 <cell>BUDDLE</cell>
32712 <cell>281; 282; 267</cell>
32713 </row>
32714 <row>
32715 <cell>Divided</cell>
32716 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>302—303<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32717 </row>
32718 <row>
32719 <cell>Simple</cell>
32720 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>300—302; 312—315<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32721 </row>
32722 <row>
32723 <cell>BULLION, POURING INTO BARS</cell>
32724 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>382<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32725 </row>
32726 <row>
32727 <cell>BURNING ORE</cell>
32728 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>231; 273;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 267</cell>
32729 </row>
32730 <row>
32731 <cell>BURNT ALUM</cell>
32732 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>233;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 565; 221</cell>
32733 </row>
32734 <row>
32735 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Cadmia (see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Zinc,
32736 <emph type="italics"></emph>Pompholy<gap></gap>,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>and
32737 Cobalt)</cell>
32738 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>542;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 542;
32739 112—113</cell>
32740 </row>
32741 <row>
32742 <cell>Ancient ore of brass</cell>
32743 <cell>410</cell>
32744 </row>
32745 <row>
32746 <cell>From dust chambers</cell>
32747 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>394<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32748 </row>
32749 <row>
32750 <cell>From liquation</cell>
32751 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>539;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 542</cell>
32752 </row>
32753 <row>
32754 <cell>From roasting matte</cell>
32755 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>349<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32756 </row>
32757 <row>
32758 <cell>Poisonous to miners</cell>
32759 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>214;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 214</cell>
32760 </row>
32761 <row>
32762 <cell>Roasting</cell>
32763 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>276<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32764 </row>
32765 <row>
32766 <cell>Smelting for gold and silver</cell>
32767 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>410<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32768 </row>
32769 <row>
32770 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Cadmia bituminosa<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
32771 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>276;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 273; 113</cell>
32772 </row>
32773 <row>
32774 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Cadmia fornacis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Furnace
32775 Accre-tions).</cell>
32776 <cell></cell>
32777 </row>
32778 <row>
32779 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Cadmia fossilis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Calamine <emph type="italics"></emph>and<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>Blende).</cell>
32780 <cell></cell>
32781 </row>
32782 <row>
32783 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Cadmia metallica (see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Cobalt)</cell>
32784 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>403;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 113</cell>
32785 </row>
32786 <row>
32787 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Caeruleum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Azure).</cell>
32788 <cell></cell>
32789 </row>
32790 <row>
32791 <cell>CAKES OF MELTED PYRITES</cell>
32792 <cell>379; 222</cell>
32793 </row>
32794 <row>
32795 <cell>A flux</cell>
32796 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>234<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32797 </row>
32798 <row>
32799 <cell>Roasting of</cell>
32800 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>349—351<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32801 </row>
32802 <row>
32803 <cell>Use in smelting</cell>
32804 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>379<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32805 </row>
32806 <row>
32807 <cell>CALAËM (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
32808 Zinc)</cell>
32809 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>409<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32810 </row>
32811 <row>
32812 <cell>CALAMINE</cell>
32813 <cell>112; 113; 409; 410</cell>
32814 </row>
32815 <row>
32816 <cell>CALCITE</cell>
32817 <cell>114</cell>
32818 </row>
32819 <row>
32820 <cell>CALCSPAR</cell>
32821 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 114</cell>
32822 </row>
32823 <row>
32824 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Caldarium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
32825 COPPER</cell>
32826 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>512; 542;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 404; 511</cell>
32827 </row>
32828 <row>
32829 <cell>CALDRONS, FOR EVAPORATING SALTS</cell>
32830 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>548<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32831 </row>
32832 <row>
32833 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Calmei<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Calamine).</cell>
32834 <cell></cell>
32835 </row>
32836 <row>
32837 <cell>CAMEROS.</cell>
32838 <cell></cell>
32839 </row>
32840 <row>
32841 <cell>Zinc found at</cell>
32842 <cell>409</cell>
32843 </row>
32844 <row>
32845 <cell>CAMPHOR</cell>
32846 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>238;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 238; 221</cell>
32847 </row>
32848 <row>
32849 <cell>CAM-SHAFT</cell>
32850 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>282—283;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 267</cell>
32851 </row>
32852 <row>
32853 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Canales<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (Ore
32854 Channels)</cell>
32855 <cell>43; 46; 47</cell>
32856 </row>
32857 <row>
32858 <cell>Ore shoots in</cell>
32859 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>117<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32860 </row>
32861 <row>
32862 <cell>CANNON</cell>
32863 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>11<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32864 </row>
32865 <row>
32866 <cell>CARDINAL POINTS</cell>
32867 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>57; 58<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32868 </row>
32869 <row>
32870 <cell>CARNELIAN</cell>
32871 <cell>114</cell>
32872 </row>
32873 <row>
32874 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Carneol<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Carnelian).</cell>
32875 <cell></cell>
32876 </row>
32877 <row>
32878 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Carni<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
32879 <cell>390</cell>
32880 </row>
32881 <row>
32882 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
32883 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>483<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32884 </row>
32885 <row>
32886 <cell>Smelting of lead ores</cell>
32887 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>390<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32888 </row>
32889 <row>
32890 <cell>CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS.</cell>
32891 <cell></cell>
32892 </row>
32893 <row>
32894 <cell>Liquation practice in</cell>
32895 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>540; 544<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32896 </row>
32897 <row>
32898 <cell>Sieves</cell>
32899 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>289<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32900 </row>
32901 <row>
32902 <cell>Stamp-milling</cell>
32903 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>319<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32904 </row>
32905 <row>
32906 <cell>CARTHAGE.</cell>
32907 <cell></cell>
32908 </row>
32909 <row>
32910 <cell>Mines in Spain</cell>
32911 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>27<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32912 </row>
32913 <row>
32914 <cell>CASTULO (Cazlona)</cell>
32915 <cell>42</cell>
32916 </row>
32917 <row>
32918 <cell>CEMENTATION (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
32919 Parting Gold from Silver)</cell>
32920 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>453—457;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 453;
32921 458</cell>
32922 </row>
32923 <row>
32924 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
32925 <cell>616; 242; 509</cell>
32926 </row>
32927 <row>
32928 <cell>Scale of weights</cell>
32929 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>260—261<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32930 </row>
32931 <row>
32932 <cell>CERAGURITE</cell>
32933 <cell>109</cell>
32934 </row>
32935 <row>
32936 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Cerussa<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> White-lead).</cell>
32937 <cell></cell>
32938 </row>
32939 <row>
32940 <cell>CERUSSITE</cell>
32941 <cell>110</cell>
32942 </row>
32943 <row>
32944 <cell>CHAIN PUMPS</cell>
32945 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>171—175<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32946 </row>
32947 <row>
32948 <cell>CHALCANTHITE</cell>
32949 <cell>110</cell>
32950 </row>
32951 <row>
32952 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Chalcanthum (see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
32953 Vitriol)</cell>
32954 <cell>109; 572</cell>
32955 </row>
32956 <pb pagenum="621"></pb>
32957 <row>
32958 <cell>CHALCEDONY</cell>
32959 <cell>114</cell>
32960 </row>
32961 <row>
32962 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Chal<gap></gap><emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
32963 <cell>573; 109</cell>
32964 </row>
32965 <row>
32966 <cell>Indication of copper</cell>
32967 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
32968 </row>
32969 <row>
32970 <cell>CHALCOCITE</cell>
32971 <cell>109; 402</cell>
32972 </row>
32973 <row>
32974 <cell>CHALCOPYRITE</cell>
32975 <cell>109</cell>
32976 </row>
32977 <row>
32978 <cell>CHALDEAN ANTIMONY</cell>
32979 <cell>429</cell>
32980 </row>
32981 <row>
32982 <cell>CHEMISTRY.</cell>
32983 <cell></cell>
32984 </row>
32985 <row>
32986 <cell>Origin</cell>
32987 <cell>XXVII; 220</cell>
32988 </row>
32989 <row>
32990 <cell>CHEMNITZ.</cell>
32991 <cell></cell>
32992 </row>
32993 <row>
32994 <cell>Agricola appointed city physician</cell>
32995 <cell>VII.</cell>
32996 </row>
32997 <row>
32998 <cell>Agricola elected burgomaster</cell>
32999 <cell>VIII; IX.</cell>
33000 </row>
33001 <row>
33002 <cell>Quarrel over Agricola&#039;s burial</cell>
33003 <cell>XI.</cell>
33004 </row>
33005 <row>
33006 <cell>CHINA, GRAND CANAL OF</cell>
33007 <cell>129</cell>
33008 </row>
33009 <row>
33010 <cell>CHINESE.</cell>
33011 <cell></cell>
33012 </row>
33013 <row>
33014 <cell>Early copper smelting</cell>
33015 <cell>402</cell>
33016 </row>
33017 <row>
33018 <cell>Early iron</cell>
33019 <cell>421</cell>
33020 </row>
33021 <row>
33022 <cell>Early silver metallurgy</cell>
33023 <cell>391</cell>
33024 </row>
33025 <row>
33026 <cell>Early zinc smelting</cell>
33027 <cell>409</cell>
33028 </row>
33029 <row>
33030 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Chrysocolla (see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33031 Borax)</cell>
33032 <cell>110; 221; 584; 1</cell>
33033 </row>
33034 <row>
33035 <cell>Collection in vats</cell>
33036 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>584<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33037 </row>
33038 <row>
33039 <cell>Colour of fumes</cell>
33040 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33041 </row>
33042 <row>
33043 <cell>Indication of copper</cell>
33044 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33045 </row>
33046 <row>
33047 <cell>Indication of gold</cell>
33048 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>117<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33049 </row>
33050 <row>
33051 <cell>Mineral</cell>
33052 <cell>109</cell>
33053 </row>
33054 <row>
33055 <cell>Smelting of</cell>
33056 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>401<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33057 </row>
33058 <row>
33059 <cell>CHURCH, SHARE IN MINES</cell>
33060 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>91<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33061 </row>
33062 <row>
33063 <cell>CIMOLITE</cell>
33064 <cell>31</cell>
33065 </row>
33066 <row>
33067 <cell>CINNABAR (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33068 Quicksilver <emph type="italics"></emph>and Minium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
33069 <cell></cell>
33070 </row>
33071 <row>
33072 <cell>CLAIM, IN AMERICAN TITLE</cell>
33073 <cell>77</cell>
33074 </row>
33075 <row>
33076 <cell>CLOTH.</cell>
33077 <cell></cell>
33078 </row>
33079 <row>
33080 <cell>Lining sluices</cell>
33081 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>322<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33082 </row>
33083 <row>
33084 <cell>Ventilation by shaking</cell>
33085 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>210<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33086 </row>
33087 <row>
33088 <cell>COAL</cell>
33089 <cell>34</cell>
33090 </row>
33091 <row>
33092 <cell>COBALT</cell>
33093 <cell>354; 542; 112—113</cell>
33094 </row>
33095 <row>
33096 <cell>Cobalt-blue</cell>
33097 <cell>112; 433</cell>
33098 </row>
33099 <row>
33100 <cell>From lead smelting</cell>
33101 <cell>408</cell>
33102 </row>
33103 <row>
33104 <cell>King Hiram&#039;s experience with</cell>
33105 <cell>214</cell>
33106 </row>
33107 <row>
33108 <cell>Poisonous to miners</cell>
33109 <cell>214</cell>
33110 </row>
33111 <row>
33112 <cell>Relation to <emph type="italics"></emph>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
33113 <cell>112</cell>
33114 </row>
33115 <row>
33116 <cell>Relation to bismuth</cell>
33117 <cell>435</cell>
33118 </row>
33119 <row>
33120 <cell>Smelting ores of</cell>
33121 <cell>401</cell>
33122 </row>
33123 <row>
33124 <cell>COBALT-ARSENIC MINERALS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>Arsenic).</cell>
33125 <cell></cell>
33126 </row>
33127 <row>
33128 <cell>COBALTITE</cell>
33129 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>113<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33130 </row>
33131 <row>
33132 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Cobaltum cineraceum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33133 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33134 Smallite).</cell>
33135 <cell></cell>
33136 </row>
33137 <row>
33138 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Cobaltum ferri colore<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33139 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33140 Cobaltite).</cell>
33141 <cell></cell>
33142 </row>
33143 <row>
33144 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Cobaltum nigrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Abolite).</cell>
33145 <cell></cell>
33146 </row>
33147 <row>
33148 <cell>COINERS</cell>
33149 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>95;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
33150 </row>
33151 <row>
33152 <cell>COINS</cell>
33153 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>251—253; 457<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33154 </row>
33155 <row>
33156 <cell>COLCHIS.</cell>
33157 <cell></cell>
33158 </row>
33159 <row>
33160 <cell>Alluvial gold washing</cell>
33161 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>330<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33162 </row>
33163 <row>
33164 <cell>COLOGNE.</cell>
33165 <cell></cell>
33166 </row>
33167 <row>
33168 <cell>Scale of weights</cell>
33169 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>263<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33170 </row>
33171 <row>
33172 <cell>COMPANIES, MINING</cell>
33173 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>89—93;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 90</cell>
33174 </row>
33175 <row>
33176 <cell>Fraudulent dealing</cell>
33177 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>22<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33178 </row>
33179 <row>
33180 <cell>Investment in</cell>
33181 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>29<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33182 </row>
33183 <row>
33184 <cell>COMPASS</cell>
33185 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>141—142;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 56;
33186 129</cell>
33187 </row>
33188 <row>
33189 <cell>Divisions of the</cell>
33190 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>56; 57<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33191 </row>
33192 <row>
33193 <cell>Swiss</cell>
33194 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>145;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 137</cell>
33195 </row>
33196 <row>
33197 <cell>CONCENTRATES.</cell>
33198 <cell></cell>
33199 </row>
33200 <row>
33201 <cell>From washing liquation products</cell>
33202 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>542<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33203 </row>
33204 <row>
33205 <cell>Sintering of</cell>
33206 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>401<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33207 </row>
33208 <row>
33209 <cell>Smelting of</cell>
33210 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>394; 396—399; 401<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33211 </row>
33212 <row>
33213 <cell>CONCENTRATION</cell>
33214 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>267—348;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 279;
33215 354</cell>
33216 </row>
33217 <row>
33218 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Congius<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
33219 <cell>153; 172; 617</cell>
33220 </row>
33221 <row>
33222 <cell>CONSTANTINOPLE, ALUM TRADE</cell>
33223 <cell>569</cell>
33224 </row>
33225 <row>
33226 <cell>CONSUMPTION.</cell>
33227 <cell></cell>
33228 </row>
33229 <row>
33230 <cell>Miners liable to</cell>
33231 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>214<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33232 </row>
33233 <row>
33234 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Conterfei<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Zinc).</cell>
33235 <cell></cell>
33236 </row>
33237 <row>
33238 <cell>CONTRACTS, METHOD OF SETTING</cell>
33239 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>96<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33240 </row>
33241 <row>
33242 <cell>COPIAPITE</cell>
33243 <cell>111</cell>
33244 </row>
33245 <row>
33246 <cell>COPPER (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33247 Liquation)</cell>
33248 <cell>109; 402; 511</cell>
33249 </row>
33250 <row>
33251 <cell>Assay of</cell>
33252 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>244; 249<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33253 </row>
33254 <row>
33255 <cell>Granulation of</cell>
33256 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>250<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33257 </row>
33258 <row>
33259 <cell>Indications of</cell>
33260 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33261 </row>
33262 <row>
33263 <cell>Parting from gold</cell>
33264 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>462—464<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33265 </row>
33266 <row>
33267 <cell>Parting gold from silver</cell>
33268 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>448—451;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 448</cell>
33269 </row>
33270 <row>
33271 <cell>Ratio in liquation cakes</cell>
33272 <cell>505; 506</cell>
33273 </row>
33274 <row>
33275 <cell>Residues from liquation</cell>
33276 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>521<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33277 </row>
33278 <row>
33279 <cell>Rosette</cell>
33280 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>538<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33281 </row>
33282 <row>
33283 <cell>COPPER-FILINGS</cell>
33284 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>233;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 233; 221</cell>
33285 </row>
33286 <row>
33287 <cell>COPPER FLOWERS</cell>
33288 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>538;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 110; 233; 538</cell>
33289 </row>
33290 <row>
33291 <cell>Pliny&#039;s description</cell>
33292 <cell>404</cell>
33293 </row>
33294 <row>
33295 <cell>COPPER GLANCE</cell>
33296 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>401;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 109</cell>
33297 </row>
33298 <row>
33299 <cell>COPPER MATTE.</cell>
33300 <cell></cell>
33301 </row>
33302 <row>
33303 <cell>Roasting</cell>
33304 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>350<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33305 </row>
33306 <row>
33307 <cell>Smelting</cell>
33308 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>404—407<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33309 </row>
33310 <row>
33311 <cell>COPPER ORE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33312 Copper Smelting, <emph type="italics"></emph>etc.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
33313 <cell>109</cell>
33314 </row>
33315 <row>
33316 <cell>Assaying</cell>
33317 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>244—245<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33318 </row>
33319 <row>
33320 <cell>COPPER PYRITES</cell>
33321 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>117;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 109</cell>
33322 </row>
33323 <row>
33324 <cell>COPPER REFINING</cell>
33325 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>530—538;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 354; 492;
33326 535—536</cell>
33327 </row>
33328 <row>
33329 <cell>Breaking cakes</cell>
33330 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>501—503<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33331 </row>
33332 <row>
33333 <cell>Enrichment of silver by settling</cell>
33334 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>510<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33335 </row>
33336 <row>
33337 <cell>Roman method</cell>
33338 <cell>404</cell>
33339 </row>
33340 <row>
33341 <cell>Rosette copper</cell>
33342 <cell>535</cell>
33343 </row>
33344 <row>
33345 <cell>COPPER SCALES</cell>
33346 <cell>110; 221; 233; 539</cell>
33347 </row>
33348 <row>
33349 <cell>Use in assaying</cell>
33350 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>245<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33351 </row>
33352 <row>
33353 <cell>COPPER SCHISTS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mannsfeld Copper Slates)</cell>
33354 <cell>127</cell>
33355 </row>
33356 <row>
33357 <cell>Method of smelting</cell>
33358 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>408<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33359 </row>
33360 <row>
33361 <cell>COPPER SMELTING</cell>
33362 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>388—390; 401; 404;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
33363 402</cell>
33364 </row>
33365 <row>
33366 <cell>Invention of appliances</cell>
33367 <cell>353—354</cell>
33368 </row>
33369 <row>
33370 <cell>CORNWALL.</cell>
33371 <cell></cell>
33372 </row>
33373 <row>
33374 <cell>Ancient tin mining</cell>
33375 <cell>413</cell>
33376 </row>
33377 <row>
33378 <cell>Early German miners</cell>
33379 <cell>282</cell>
33380 </row>
33381 <row>
33382 <cell>Early mining law</cell>
33383 <cell>85</cell>
33384 </row>
33385 <row>
33386 <cell>Early ore dressing</cell>
33387 <cell>282</cell>
33388 </row>
33389 <row>
33390 <cell>Influence on German mining</cell>
33391 <cell>283</cell>
33392 </row>
33393 <row>
33394 <cell>“Knockers”</cell>
33395 <cell>217</cell>
33396 </row>
33397 <row>
33398 <cell>Mining terms</cell>
33399 <cell>77; 101; 267; 282</cell>
33400 </row>
33401 <row>
33402 <cell>Royal Geol. Soc. Transactions</cell>
33403 <cell>84</cell>
33404 </row>
33405 <row>
33406 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Coticula<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Touchstone).</cell>
33407 <cell></cell>
33408 </row>
33409 <row>
33410 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Counterfeht<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Zinc).</cell>
33411 <cell></cell>
33412 </row>
33413 <row>
33414 <cell>CRANE.</cell>
33415 <cell></cell>
33416 </row>
33417 <row>
33418 <cell>For cupellation furnaces</cell>
33419 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>476—477<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33420 </row>
33421 <row>
33422 <cell>For lead cakes</cell>
33423 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>500<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33424 </row>
33425 <row>
33426 <cell>For liquation cakes</cell>
33427 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>514<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33428 </row>
33429 <row>
33430 <cell>CREMNITZ.</cell>
33431 <cell></cell>
33432 </row>
33433 <row>
33434 <cell>Age of mines</cell>
33435 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>5<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33436 </row>
33437 <row>
33438 <cell>Width of veins</cell>
33439 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>52<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33440 </row>
33441 <row>
33442 <cell>CRINOID STEMS</cell>
33443 <cell>115</cell>
33444 </row>
33445 <row>
33446 <cell>CROPPINGS</cell>
33447 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>37;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 37</cell>
33448 </row>
33449 <row>
33450 <cell>CROSSCUTS</cell>
33451 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>106<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33452 </row>
33453 <row>
33454 <cell>CROWBARS</cell>
33455 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>152<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33456 </row>
33457 <row>
33458 <cell>CRUCIBLE.</cell>
33459 <cell></cell>
33460 </row>
33461 <row>
33462 <cell>Assay</cell>
33463 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>228; 230; 241; 245;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
33464 221</cell>
33465 </row>
33466 <row>
33467 <cell>Of blast furnaces</cell>
33468 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>376; 377<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33469 </row>
33470 <row>
33471 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Crudaria<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
33472 <cell>65</cell>
33473 </row>
33474 <row>
33475 <cell>CRUSHING MILLS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33476 Stamp-mill <emph type="italics"></emph>and<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>Mills).</cell>
33477 <cell></cell>
33478 </row>
33479 <row>
33480 <cell>CRUSHING ORE</cell>
33481 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>231; 279—287;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
33482 279</cell>
33483 </row>
33484 <row>
33485 <cell>CRYSTAL (<emph type="italics"></emph>Crystallum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
33486 <cell>114</cell>
33487 </row>
33488 <row>
33489 <cell>CUMBERLAND.</cell>
33490 <cell></cell>
33491 </row>
33492 <row>
33493 <cell>Early report on ores of</cell>
33494 <cell>267</cell>
33495 </row>
33496 <row>
33497 <cell>Roman lead furnaces</cell>
33498 <cell>392</cell>
33499 </row>
33500 <row>
33501 <cell>CUP-BEARER.</cell>
33502 <cell></cell>
33503 </row>
33504 <row>
33505 <cell>Right to a meer</cell>
33506 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>81<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33507 </row>
33508 <row>
33509 <cell>CUPELLATION</cell>
33510 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>464—483;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
33511 465—466</cell>
33512 </row>
33513 <row>
33514 <cell>Buildings and furnaces</cell>
33515 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>464—472;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 492</cell>
33516 </row>
33517 <row>
33518 <cell>Brightening of the silver</cell>
33519 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>241; 475<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33520 </row>
33521 <row>
33522 <cell>In assaying</cell>
33523 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>240<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33524 </row>
33525 <row>
33526 <cell>In “tests”</cell>
33527 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>483<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33528 </row>
33529 <row>
33530 <cell>Latin and German terms</cell>
33531 <cell>221; 492</cell>
33532 </row>
33533 <row>
33534 <cell>Litharge</cell>
33535 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>475<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33536 </row>
33537 <row>
33538 <cell>CUPELS</cell>
33539 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>228—230;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 221;
33540 466</cell>
33541 </row>
33542 <row>
33543 <cell>Drying of</cell>
33544 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>240<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33545 </row>
33546 <row>
33547 <cell>Moulds</cell>
33548 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>231<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33549 </row>
33550 <row>
33551 <cell>CUPRIC OXIDE</cell>
33552 <cell>221</cell>
33553 </row>
33554 <row>
33555 <cell>CUPRITE</cell>
33556 <cell>109; 402</cell>
33557 </row>
33558 <row>
33559 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Cyanus (see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33560 Azurite)</cell>
33561 <cell>110</cell>
33562 </row>
33563 <row>
33564 <cell>CYPRUS.</cell>
33565 <cell></cell>
33566 </row>
33567 <row>
33568 <cell>Ancient copper smelting</cell>
33569 <cell>402</cell>
33570 </row>
33571 <row>
33572 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Dach<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
33573 <cell>127</cell>
33574 </row>
33575 <row>
33576 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Dactylos<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
33577 <cell>617; 78</cell>
33578 </row>
33579 <row>
33580 <cell>DANGERS TO MINERS</cell>
33581 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>214—218<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33582 </row>
33583 <row>
33584 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Darrlinge<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
33585 <cell>492</cell>
33586 </row>
33587 <row>
33588 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Darrofen<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
33589 <cell>492</cell>
33590 </row>
33591 <row>
33592 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Darrsöhle<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
33593 <cell>492</cell>
33594 </row>
33595 <row>
33596 <cell>DAWLING, OF A VEIN</cell>
33597 <cell>101</cell>
33598 </row>
33599 <row>
33600 <cell>DEAD SEA.</cell>
33601 <cell></cell>
33602 </row>
33603 <row>
33604 <cell>Bitumen in</cell>
33605 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>33<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33606 </row>
33607 <row>
33608 <cell>DECEMVIRAL COLLEGE</cell>
33609 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>96<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33610 </row>
33611 <row>
33612 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Decumanus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Tithe
33613 Gatherer).</cell>
33614 <cell></cell>
33615 </row>
33616 <row>
33617 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Demensum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Measure).</cell>
33618 <cell></cell>
33619 </row>
33620 <row>
33621 <cell>DEMONS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33622 Gnomes)</cell>
33623 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>217;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 217</cell>
33624 </row>
33625 <pb pagenum="622"></pb>
33626 <row>
33627 <cell>DERBYSHIRE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33628 High Peak).</cell>
33629 <cell></cell>
33630 </row>
33631 <row>
33632 <cell>Early ore washing</cell>
33633 <cell>281</cell>
33634 </row>
33635 <row>
33636 <cell>Introduction jigging sieve</cell>
33637 <cell>283</cell>
33638 </row>
33639 <row>
33640 <cell>Mining law</cell>
33641 <cell>77; 84—85</cell>
33642 </row>
33643 <row>
33644 <cell>DESCENT INTO MINES</cell>
33645 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>212<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33646 </row>
33647 <row>
33648 <cell>DEVON.</cell>
33649 <cell></cell>
33650 </row>
33651 <row>
33652 <cell>Mining law</cell>
33653 <cell>85</cell>
33654 </row>
33655 <row>
33656 <cell>DILLEUGHER</cell>
33657 <cell>267</cell>
33658 </row>
33659 <row>
33660 <cell>DIOPTRA</cell>
33661 <cell>129</cell>
33662 </row>
33663 <row>
33664 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Diphrygum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
33665 <cell>404</cell>
33666 </row>
33667 <row>
33668 <cell>DIP OF VEINS</cell>
33669 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>65—75<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33670 </row>
33671 <row>
33672 <cell>DIPPAS</cell>
33673 <cell>101</cell>
33674 </row>
33675 <row>
33676 <cell>DIPPERS</cell>
33677 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>157<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33678 </row>
33679 <row>
33680 <cell>Of pumps</cell>
33681 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>172<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33682 </row>
33683 <row>
33684 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Discretores<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Sorters).</cell>
33685 <cell></cell>
33686 </row>
33687 <row>
33688 <cell>DISTILLATION</cell>
33689 <cell>441</cell>
33690 </row>
33691 <row>
33692 <cell>For making nitric acid</cell>
33693 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>441<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33694 </row>
33695 <row>
33696 <cell>Of amalgam</cell>
33697 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>244<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33698 </row>
33699 <row>
33700 <cell>Of quicksilver</cell>
33701 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>426—432<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33702 </row>
33703 <row>
33704 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Distributor<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
33705 <cell>78</cell>
33706 </row>
33707 <row>
33708 <cell>DIVINING ROD</cell>
33709 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>38—40;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 38; 40</cell>
33710 </row>
33711 <row>
33712 <cell>DIVISIONS OF THE COMPASS</cell>
33713 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>56; 57<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33714 </row>
33715 <row>
33716 <cell>DRAINAGE OF MINES</cell>
33717 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>121; 171—198<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33718 </row>
33719 <row>
33720 <cell>With buckets</cell>
33721 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>171<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33722 </row>
33723 <row>
33724 <cell>With chain pumps</cell>
33725 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>172<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33726 </row>
33727 <row>
33728 <cell>With rag and chain pumps</cell>
33729 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>188<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33730 </row>
33731 <row>
33732 <cell>With suction pumps</cell>
33733 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>172<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33734 </row>
33735 <row>
33736 <cell>With water bags</cell>
33737 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>198<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33738 </row>
33739 <row>
33740 <cell>DRAWING.</cell>
33741 <cell></cell>
33742 </row>
33743 <row>
33744 <cell>Knowledge necessary for miners</cell>
33745 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>4<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33746 </row>
33747 <row>
33748 <cell>DRIFTS</cell>
33749 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>104; 105;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 101</cell>
33750 </row>
33751 <row>
33752 <cell>Timbering of</cell>
33753 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>125<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33754 </row>
33755 <row>
33756 <cell>DRUSY VEINS</cell>
33757 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>107;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 107</cell>
33758 </row>
33759 <row>
33760 <cell>“DRYING” LIQUATION RESIDUES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see
33761 also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Liquation)</cell>
33762 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>527—529;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 491;
33763 492</cell>
33764 </row>
33765 <row>
33766 <cell>Furnaces for</cell>
33767 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>521; 526;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 492</cell>
33768 </row>
33769 <row>
33770 <cell>Silver extracted by</cell>
33771 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>529<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33772 </row>
33773 <row>
33774 <cell>Slags from</cell>
33775 <cell>523</cell>
33776 </row>
33777 <row>
33778 <cell>DUMPS, WORKING OF</cell>
33779 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>30<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33780 </row>
33781 <row>
33782 <cell>DUST CHAMBERS</cell>
33783 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>394; 416;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 354</cell>
33784 </row>
33785 <row>
33786 <cell>DUTINS (Timbers)</cell>
33787 <cell>101</cell>
33788 </row>
33789 <row>
33790 <cell>DYNAMITE</cell>
33791 <cell>119</cell>
33792 </row>
33793 <row>
33794 <cell>“EARTHS.”</cell>
33795 <cell></cell>
33796 </row>
33797 <row>
33798 <cell>Agricola&#039;s view of</cell>
33799 <cell>1; 46; 48</cell>
33800 </row>
33801 <row>
33802 <cell>Extraordinary</cell>
33803 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>115<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33804 </row>
33805 <row>
33806 <cell>Peripatetic view of</cell>
33807 <cell>46; 47</cell>
33808 </row>
33809 <row>
33810 <cell>EGYPTIANS.</cell>
33811 <cell></cell>
33812 </row>
33813 <row>
33814 <cell>Alluvial mining</cell>
33815 <cell>330</cell>
33816 </row>
33817 <row>
33818 <cell>Antimony</cell>
33819 <cell>428</cell>
33820 </row>
33821 <row>
33822 <cell>Bronze</cell>
33823 <cell>402; 411</cell>
33824 </row>
33825 <row>
33826 <cell>Copper smelting</cell>
33827 <cell>402</cell>
33828 </row>
33829 <row>
33830 <cell>Crushing and concentration</cell>
33831 <cell>279</cell>
33832 </row>
33833 <row>
33834 <cell>Furnaces</cell>
33835 <cell>355</cell>
33836 </row>
33837 <row>
33838 <cell>Glass making</cell>
33839 <cell>586</cell>
33840 </row>
33841 <row>
33842 <cell>Gold mining</cell>
33843 <cell>399</cell>
33844 </row>
33845 <row>
33846 <cell>Iron</cell>
33847 <cell>421</cell>
33848 </row>
33849 <row>
33850 <cell>Maps</cell>
33851 <cell>129</cell>
33852 </row>
33853 <row>
33854 <cell>Mining law</cell>
33855 <cell>83</cell>
33856 </row>
33857 <row>
33858 <cell>Silver and lead metallurgy</cell>
33859 <cell>390</cell>
33860 </row>
33861 <row>
33862 <cell>Tin</cell>
33863 <cell>411; 412</cell>
33864 </row>
33865 <row>
33866 <cell>EGYPTIAN SCREW (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33867 Archimedes, Screw of).</cell>
33868 <cell></cell>
33869 </row>
33870 <row>
33871 <cell>EIFEL.</cell>
33872 <cell></cell>
33873 </row>
33874 <row>
33875 <cell>Spalling ore</cell>
33876 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>272<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33877 </row>
33878 <row>
33879 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Eisenertz<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Ironstone).</cell>
33880 <cell></cell>
33881 </row>
33882 <row>
33883 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Eisenglantz<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Ironstone).</cell>
33884 <cell></cell>
33885 </row>
33886 <row>
33887 <cell>EISLEBEN.</cell>
33888 <cell></cell>
33889 </row>
33890 <row>
33891 <cell>Heap roasting</cell>
33892 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>279;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 274</cell>
33893 </row>
33894 <row>
33895 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Electrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
33896 <cell>458; 2; 35</cell>
33897 </row>
33898 <row>
33899 <cell>ELEMENTS, PERIPATETIC THEORY OF</cell>
33900 <cell>44</cell>
33901 </row>
33902 <row>
33903 <cell>EMERY</cell>
33904 <cell>115</cell>
33905 </row>
33906 <row>
33907 <cell>ERBISDORFF.</cell>
33908 <cell></cell>
33909 </row>
33910 <row>
33911 <cell>Tin strakes</cell>
33912 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>304<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33913 </row>
33914 <row>
33915 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Excoctores<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Smelters).</cell>
33916 <cell></cell>
33917 </row>
33918 <row>
33919 <cell>EXHALATIONS.</cell>
33920 <cell></cell>
33921 </row>
33922 <row>
33923 <cell>From veins</cell>
33924 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>38; 44<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33925 </row>
33926 <row>
33927 <cell>EXHAUSTED LIQUATION CAKES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>Liquation Cakes, Exhausted).</cell>
33928 <cell></cell>
33929 </row>
33930 <row>
33931 <cell>FANS, VENTILATION</cell>
33932 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>203—207<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33933 </row>
33934 <row>
33935 <cell>FATHOM</cell>
33936 <cell>616; <emph type="bold"></emph>77;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
33937 </row>
33938 <row>
33939 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Federwis (see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33940 Asbestos)</cell>
33941 <cell>114; 274</cell>
33942 </row>
33943 <row>
33944 <cell>FELDSPAR</cell>
33945 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>114<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33946 </row>
33947 <row>
33948 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Ferrugo<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Iron-rust).</cell>
33949 <cell></cell>
33950 </row>
33951 <row>
33952 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Ferrum purum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Native Iron).</cell>
33953 <cell></cell>
33954 </row>
33955 <row>
33956 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Fibræ<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Stringers).</cell>
33957 <cell></cell>
33958 </row>
33959 <row>
33960 <cell>FINENESS, SCALES OF</cell>
33961 <cell>253; 617</cell>
33962 </row>
33963 <row>
33964 <cell>FIRE-SETTING</cell>
33965 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>118—120;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
33966 118—119</cell>
33967 </row>
33968 <row>
33969 <cell>FIRSTUM MINES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33970 Fürst).</cell>
33971 <cell></cell>
33972 </row>
33973 <row>
33974 <cell>FISSURE VEIN (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
33975 V<emph type="italics"></emph>ena profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
33976 <cell></cell>
33977 </row>
33978 <row>
33979 <cell>FLAME.</cell>
33980 <cell></cell>
33981 </row>
33982 <row>
33983 <cell>Determination of metal by</cell>
33984 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33985 </row>
33986 <row>
33987 <cell>Determination of required flux by</cell>
33988 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33989 </row>
33990 <row>
33991 <cell>FLINT, AS A FLUX</cell>
33992 <cell>380</cell>
33993 </row>
33994 <row>
33995 <cell>FLOAT, FROM VEINS</cell>
33996 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>37<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
33997 </row>
33998 <row>
33999 <cell>FLOOKAN</cell>
34000 <cell>101</cell>
34001 </row>
34002 <row>
34003 <cell>FLUE-DUST</cell>
34004 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>394—396<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34005 </row>
34006 <row>
34007 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Fluores<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Fluorspar).</cell>
34008 <cell></cell>
34009 </row>
34010 <row>
34011 <cell>FLUORSPAR</cell>
34012 <cell>115; 380; 381</cell>
34013 </row>
34014 <row>
34015 <cell>Indication of ore</cell>
34016 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34017 </row>
34018 <row>
34019 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Flüsse<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Fluorspar).</cell>
34020 <cell></cell>
34021 </row>
34022 <row>
34023 <cell>FLUXES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34024 Argol, Saltpetre, Limestone, Stones which easily melt, <emph type="italics"></emph>etc.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
34025 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>232—239;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 232; 237;
34026 380; 221</cell>
34027 </row>
34028 <row>
34029 <cell>Basic</cell>
34030 <cell>237</cell>
34031 </row>
34032 <row>
34033 <cell>De-sulphurizing</cell>
34034 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>236;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 237</cell>
34035 </row>
34036 <row>
34037 <cell>For smelting</cell>
34038 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>379; 380; 386; 390<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34039 </row>
34040 <row>
34041 <cell>Reducing</cell>
34042 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>236;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 237</cell>
34043 </row>
34044 <row>
34045 <cell>Stock fluxes for assaying</cell>
34046 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>236<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34047 </row>
34048 <row>
34049 <cell>Sulphurizing</cell>
34050 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>236;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 237</cell>
34051 </row>
34052 <row>
34053 <cell>FOOTWALL</cell>
34054 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>68; 117<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34055 </row>
34056 <row>
34057 <cell>FOREHEARTH</cell>
34058 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>356; 375—378; 386;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
34059 355</cell>
34060 </row>
34061 <row>
34062 <cell>For tin furnaces</cell>
34063 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>411; 413<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34064 </row>
34065 <row>
34066 <cell>FOREMAN (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mining
34067 Foreman).</cell>
34068 <cell></cell>
34069 </row>
34070 <row>
34071 <cell>FOREST-FIRES</cell>
34072 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>36;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 36</cell>
34073 </row>
34074 <row>
34075 <cell>FOREST OF DEAN</cell>
34076 <cell>84</cell>
34077 </row>
34078 <row>
34079 <cell>FOREST OF MENDIP</cell>
34080 <cell>84</cell>
34081 </row>
34082 <row>
34083 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Formae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
34084 <cell>101</cell>
34085 </row>
34086 <row>
34087 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Fossa latens (see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34088 Drifts)</cell>
34089 <cell>101</cell>
34090 </row>
34091 <row>
34092 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Fossa latens transversa (see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>Crosscuts)</cell>
34093 <cell>101</cell>
34094 </row>
34095 <row>
34096 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Fossores<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Miners).</cell>
34097 <cell></cell>
34098 </row>
34099 <row>
34100 <cell>FOUNDERS&#039; HOARDS</cell>
34101 <cell>355; 402</cell>
34102 </row>
34103 <row>
34104 <cell>FRACTIONAL MEERS</cell>
34105 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>80<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34106 </row>
34107 <row>
34108 <cell>FRANCE.</cell>
34109 <cell></cell>
34110 </row>
34111 <row>
34112 <cell>Mediæval mining law</cell>
34113 <cell>84</cell>
34114 </row>
34115 <row>
34116 <cell>FREE MINING CITIES</cell>
34117 <cell>84</cell>
34118 </row>
34119 <row>
34120 <cell>FREIBERG</cell>
34121 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXXI.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34122 </row>
34123 <row>
34124 <cell>Age of the mines</cell>
34125 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>5<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34126 </row>
34127 <row>
34128 <cell>Bergmeister</cell>
34129 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>95<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34130 </row>
34131 <row>
34132 <cell>Division of shares</cell>
34133 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>81; 90; 91<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34134 </row>
34135 <row>
34136 <cell>First discovery of veins</cell>
34137 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>35;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 36</cell>
34138 </row>
34139 <row>
34140 <cell>Flooding of mines</cell>
34141 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>218<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34142 </row>
34143 <row>
34144 <cell>Method of cupellation</cell>
34145 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>482<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34146 </row>
34147 <row>
34148 <cell>FULLERS&#039; EARTH</cell>
34149 <cell>115</cell>
34150 </row>
34151 <row>
34152 <cell>FUMES.</cell>
34153 <cell></cell>
34154 </row>
34155 <row>
34156 <cell>From heated ore</cell>
34157 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34158 </row>
34159 <row>
34160 <cell>Poisonous</cell>
34161 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>215—216<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34162 </row>
34163 <row>
34164 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Fundamentum (see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34165 Footwall)</cell>
34166 <cell>101</cell>
34167 </row>
34168 <row>
34169 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Fundgrube (see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34170 Meer)</cell>
34171 <cell>77</cell>
34172 </row>
34173 <row>
34174 <cell>FURNACES</cell>
34175 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>374—378; 386; 388;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
34176 355; 492</cell>
34177 </row>
34178 <row>
34179 <cell>Assaying (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Assay
34180 Furnaces).</cell>
34181 <cell></cell>
34182 </row>
34183 <row>
34184 <cell>Bismuth smelting</cell>
34185 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>433—437<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34186 </row>
34187 <row>
34188 <cell>Burning tin concentrates</cell>
34189 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>349<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34190 </row>
34191 <row>
34192 <cell>Cementation</cell>
34193 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>455<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34194 </row>
34195 <row>
34196 <cell>Copper smelting</cell>
34197 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>401—408<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34198 </row>
34199 <row>
34200 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
34201 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>467—468; 482—483</cell>
34202 </row>
34203 <row>
34204 <cell>“Drying” liquated copper</cell>
34205 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>522—526<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34206 </row>
34207 <row>
34208 <cell>Enriching copper bottoms</cell>
34209 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>510<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34210 </row>
34211 <row>
34212 <cell>Gold and silver ores</cell>
34213 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>382—384<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34214 </row>
34215 <row>
34216 <cell>Heating copper cakes</cell>
34217 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>503<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34218 </row>
34219 <row>
34220 <cell>Iron smelting</cell>
34221 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>420—421;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 420</cell>
34222 </row>
34223 <row>
34224 <cell>Latin and German terms</cell>
34225 <cell>220</cell>
34226 </row>
34227 <row>
34228 <cell>Lead ores</cell>
34229 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>408—410<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34230 </row>
34231 <row>
34232 <cell>Liquation of silver</cell>
34233 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>515<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34234 </row>
34235 <row>
34236 <cell>Melting lead cakes</cell>
34237 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>498<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34238 </row>
34239 <row>
34240 <cell>Nitric acid making</cell>
34241 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>441<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34242 </row>
34243 <row>
34244 <cell>Parting precious metals with anti-mony</cell>
34245 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>452—453<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34246 </row>
34247 <row>
34248 <cell>Quicksilver distillation</cell>
34249 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>426—432<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34250 </row>
34251 <row>
34252 <cell>Refining copper</cell>
34253 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>531—533<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34254 </row>
34255 <row>
34256 <cell>Refining silver</cell>
34257 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>483; 489<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34258 </row>
34259 <row>
34260 <cell>Refining tin</cell>
34261 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>418<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34262 </row>
34263 <row>
34264 <cell>Roasting</cell>
34265 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>276—277<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34266 </row>
34267 <row>
34268 <cell>Smelting liquation slags</cell>
34269 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>507<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34270 </row>
34271 <row>
34272 <cell>Tin smelting</cell>
34273 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>411—413; 419<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34274 </row>
34275 <pb pagenum="623"></pb>
34276 <row>
34277 <cell>FURNACE ACCRETIONS</cell>
34278 <cell>113; 221; 492</cell>
34279 </row>
34280 <row>
34281 <cell>Removal of</cell>
34282 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>376<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34283 </row>
34284 <row>
34285 <cell>FURNACE HOODS</cell>
34286 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>494<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34287 </row>
34288 <row>
34289 <cell>FORST.</cell>
34290 <cell></cell>
34291 </row>
34292 <row>
34293 <cell>Mines of</cell>
34294 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>24;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 24</cell>
34295 </row>
34296 <row>
34297 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Gaarherd<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34298 Refining-hearth).</cell>
34299 <cell></cell>
34300 </row>
34301 <row>
34302 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Gaarmachen<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Copper
34303 Refining).</cell>
34304 <cell></cell>
34305 </row>
34306 <row>
34307 <cell>GAD</cell>
34308 <cell>150</cell>
34309 </row>
34310 <row>
34311 <cell>GALENA</cell>
34312 <cell>51; 109; 110; 221</cell>
34313 </row>
34314 <row>
34315 <cell>Bismuth distinguished from</cell>
34316 <cell>3</cell>
34317 </row>
34318 <row>
34319 <cell>Smelting of</cell>
34320 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>400—401<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34321 </row>
34322 <row>
34323 <cell>GANGUE MINERALS</cell>
34324 <cell>48</cell>
34325 </row>
34326 <row>
34327 <cell>GARLIC.</cell>
34328 <cell></cell>
34329 </row>
34330 <row>
34331 <cell>Magnet weakened by</cell>
34332 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>39<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34333 </row>
34334 <row>
34335 <cell>GARNETS</cell>
34336 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>334<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34337 </row>
34338 <row>
34339 <cell>GASES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34340 Fumes)</cell>
34341 <cell></cell>
34342 </row>
34343 <row>
34344 <cell>From fire-setting</cell>
34345 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>120<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34346 </row>
34347 <row>
34348 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Gedigen eisen, silher,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34349 etc. (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Native Iron,
34350 Silver, etc.).</cell>
34351 <cell></cell>
34352 </row>
34353 <row>
34354 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Gel atrament<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see Misy<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
34355 <cell></cell>
34356 </row>
34357 <row>
34358 <cell>GEMS</cell>
34359 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>115;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 1</cell>
34360 </row>
34361 <row>
34362 <cell>GEOLOGY.</cell>
34363 <cell></cell>
34364 </row>
34365 <row>
34366 <cell>Agricola&#039;s views</cell>
34367 <cell>595</cell>
34368 </row>
34369 <row>
34370 <cell>GERMANS.</cell>
34371 <cell></cell>
34372 </row>
34373 <row>
34374 <cell>English mining influenced by</cell>
34375 <cell>283</cell>
34376 </row>
34377 <row>
34378 <cell>Mining men imported into England</cell>
34379 <cell>282</cell>
34380 </row>
34381 <row>
34382 <cell>Ore-dressing methods</cell>
34383 <cell>281—282</cell>
34384 </row>
34385 <row>
34386 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Geschwornen<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (in Saxon
34387 mines)</cell>
34388 <cell>77</cell>
34389 </row>
34390 <row>
34391 <cell>GEYER</cell>
34392 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXXI; 42;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> VI.</cell>
34393 </row>
34394 <row>
34395 <cell>Shafts</cell>
34396 <cell>102</cell>
34397 </row>
34398 <row>
34399 <cell>Tin-strakes</cell>
34400 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>304<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34401 </row>
34402 <row>
34403 <cell>GILDING</cell>
34404 <cell>460</cell>
34405 </row>
34406 <row>
34407 <cell>Removal from objects</cell>
34408 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>460; 464<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34409 </row>
34410 <row>
34411 <cell>GIPS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34412 Gypsum).</cell>
34413 <cell></cell>
34414 </row>
34415 <row>
34416 <cell>GITTELDE.</cell>
34417 <cell></cell>
34418 </row>
34419 <row>
34420 <cell>Smelting of lead ore</cell>
34421 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>391<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34422 </row>
34423 <row>
34424 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Glantz<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Galena).</cell>
34425 <cell></cell>
34426 </row>
34427 <row>
34428 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Glasertz<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Silver Glance).</cell>
34429 <cell></cell>
34430 </row>
34431 <row>
34432 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Glasköpfe<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Ironstone).</cell>
34433 <cell></cell>
34434 </row>
34435 <row>
34436 <cell>GLASS</cell>
34437 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>534—592<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34438 </row>
34439 <row>
34440 <cell>Blowing</cell>
34441 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>592<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34442 </row>
34443 <row>
34444 <cell>Furnaces</cell>
34445 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>586—590<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34446 </row>
34447 <row>
34448 <cell>From sand</cell>
34449 <cell>380</cell>
34450 </row>
34451 <row>
34452 <cell>GLASS-GALLS</cell>
34453 <cell>235; 221</cell>
34454 </row>
34455 <row>
34456 <cell>As a flux</cell>
34457 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235; 238; 243; 246<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34458 </row>
34459 <row>
34460 <cell>Use in parting gold from copper</cell>
34461 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>464<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34462 </row>
34463 <row>
34464 <cell>Use in smelting gold concentrates</cell>
34465 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>397; 398<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34466 </row>
34467 <row>
34468 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Glette<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Litharge).</cell>
34469 <cell></cell>
34470 </row>
34471 <row>
34472 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Glimmer<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mica).</cell>
34473 <cell></cell>
34474 </row>
34475 <row>
34476 <cell>GNOMES.</cell>
34477 <cell></cell>
34478 </row>
34479 <row>
34480 <cell>In mines</cell>
34481 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>217;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 112; 214; 217</cell>
34482 </row>
34483 <row>
34484 <cell>GOBLINS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34485 Gnomes).</cell>
34486 <cell></cell>
34487 </row>
34488 <row>
34489 <cell>GOD&#039;S GIFT MINE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34490 Gottsgaab Mine).</cell>
34491 <cell></cell>
34492 </row>
34493 <row>
34494 <cell>GOLD (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Gold
34495 Ores, Parting, Smelting, Stamp-Mill, <emph type="italics"></emph>etc.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
34496 <cell></cell>
34497 </row>
34498 <row>
34499 <cell>Alluvial mining</cell>
34500 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>321—336;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 330</cell>
34501 </row>
34502 <row>
34503 <cell>Alluvial streams</cell>
34504 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>75<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34505 </row>
34506 <row>
34507 <cell>Amalgamation</cell>
34508 <cell>297</cell>
34509 </row>
34510 <row>
34511 <cell>Gold-dust</cell>
34512 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>396<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34513 </row>
34514 <row>
34515 <cell>Historical notes</cell>
34516 <cell>399; 354</cell>
34517 </row>
34518 <row>
34519 <cell>Indications of</cell>
34520 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>108; 116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34521 </row>
34522 <row>
34523 <cell>Lust for, not the fault of the metal</cell>
34524 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>16<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34525 </row>
34526 <row>
34527 <cell>Minerals</cell>
34528 <cell>108</cell>
34529 </row>
34530 <row>
34531 <cell>Minerals associated with</cell>
34532 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>108—109<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34533 </row>
34534 <row>
34535 <cell>Smelting of ores</cell>
34536 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>381—382; 386; 388; 390; 396<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34537 </row>
34538 <row>
34539 <cell>Wickedness caused by</cell>
34540 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9—10<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34541 </row>
34542 <row>
34543 <cell>GOLD CONCENTRATES</cell>
34544 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>396—399;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 398</cell>
34545 </row>
34546 <row>
34547 <cell>GOLDEN FLEECE</cell>
34548 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>330;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 330</cell>
34549 </row>
34550 <row>
34551 <cell>GOLD ORES</cell>
34552 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>107—108<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34553 </row>
34554 <row>
34555 <cell>Amalgamation</cell>
34556 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>295—299;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 297</cell>
34557 </row>
34558 <row>
34559 <cell>Assay by amalgamation</cell>
34560 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>243—244<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34561 </row>
34562 <row>
34563 <cell>Assay by fire</cell>
34564 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>242—243<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34565 </row>
34566 <row>
34567 <cell>Flux used in assaying</cell>
34568 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34569 </row>
34570 <row>
34571 <cell>Flux used in smelting</cell>
34572 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>398<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34573 </row>
34574 <row>
34575 <cell>Smelting in blast furnace</cell>
34576 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>398—400<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34577 </row>
34578 <row>
34579 <cell>Smelting cupriferous ores</cell>
34580 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>404—407<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34581 </row>
34582 <row>
34583 <cell>Smelting in lead bath</cell>
34584 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>399<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34585 </row>
34586 <row>
34587 <cell>Smelting pyritiferous ore</cell>
34588 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>398—401<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34589 </row>
34590 <row>
34591 <cell>Stamp-milling</cell>
34592 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>321<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34593 </row>
34594 <row>
34595 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Goldstein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Touchstone).</cell>
34596 <cell></cell>
34597 </row>
34598 <row>
34599 <cell>GOSLAR</cell>
34600 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>5; 37;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 37</cell>
34601 </row>
34602 <row>
34603 <cell>Lead smelting</cell>
34604 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>408<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34605 </row>
34606 <row>
34607 <cell>Native zine vitriol</cell>
34608 <cell>572</cell>
34609 </row>
34610 <row>
34611 <cell>Roasting ores</cell>
34612 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>274;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 274</cell>
34613 </row>
34614 <row>
34615 <cell>Spalling hard ore</cell>
34616 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>271<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34617 </row>
34618 <row>
34619 <cell>GOSLARITE</cell>
34620 <cell>113; 572</cell>
34621 </row>
34622 <row>
34623 <cell>GOTTSGAAB MINE</cell>
34624 <cell>VI; VII; <emph type="bold"></emph>74;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 74</cell>
34625 </row>
34626 <row>
34627 <cell>GOUNCE</cell>
34628 <cell>267</cell>
34629 </row>
34630 <row>
34631 <cell>GRAND CANAL OF CHINA</cell>
34632 <cell>129</cell>
34633 </row>
34634 <row>
34635 <cell>GRANULATION METHODS FOR BULLION</cell>
34636 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>444<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34637 </row>
34638 <row>
34639 <cell>GRANULATION OF COPPER</cell>
34640 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>250<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34641 </row>
34642 <row>
34643 <cell>GREEKS.</cell>
34644 <cell></cell>
34645 </row>
34646 <row>
34647 <cell>Antimony</cell>
34648 <cell>428</cell>
34649 </row>
34650 <row>
34651 <cell>Brass making</cell>
34652 <cell>410</cell>
34653 </row>
34654 <row>
34655 <cell>Copper smelting</cell>
34656 <cell>403</cell>
34657 </row>
34658 <row>
34659 <cell>Iron and steel making</cell>
34660 <cell>421</cell>
34661 </row>
34662 <row>
34663 <cell>Metallurgy from Egypt</cell>
34664 <cell>402</cell>
34665 </row>
34666 <row>
34667 <cell>Mining law</cell>
34668 <cell>83</cell>
34669 </row>
34670 <row>
34671 <cell>Ore dressing</cell>
34672 <cell>281</cell>
34673 </row>
34674 <row>
34675 <cell>Quicksilver</cell>
34676 <cell>432</cell>
34677 </row>
34678 <row>
34679 <cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell>
34680 <cell>391</cell>
34681 </row>
34682 <row>
34683 <cell>Smelting appliances</cell>
34684 <cell>355</cell>
34685 </row>
34686 <row>
34687 <cell>GREY ANTIMONY (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also Stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
34688 <cell>110; 221; 428</cell>
34689 </row>
34690 <row>
34691 <cell>GRIFFINS</cell>
34692 <cell>331</cell>
34693 </row>
34694 <row>
34695 <cell>GROOM OF THE CHAMBER.</cell>
34696 <cell></cell>
34697 </row>
34698 <row>
34699 <cell>Right to a meer</cell>
34700 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>81<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34701 </row>
34702 <row>
34703 <cell>GROOVE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34704 Shafts)</cell>
34705 <cell>101</cell>
34706 </row>
34707 <row>
34708 <cell>GROUND SLUICES</cell>
34709 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>336—337<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34710 </row>
34711 <row>
34712 <cell>GROUND WATERS</cell>
34713 <cell>46—48</cell>
34714 </row>
34715 <row>
34716 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Grünspan<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Verdigris).</cell>
34717 <cell></cell>
34718 </row>
34719 <row>
34720 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Gulden<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
34721 <cell>92; 419</cell>
34722 </row>
34723 <row>
34724 <cell>GUNPOWDER.</cell>
34725 <cell></cell>
34726 </row>
34727 <row>
34728 <cell>First use for blasting in mines</cell>
34729 <cell>119</cell>
34730 </row>
34731 <row>
34732 <cell>Invention of</cell>
34733 <cell>562</cell>
34734 </row>
34735 <row>
34736 <cell>GYPSUM</cell>
34737 <cell>114</cell>
34738 </row>
34739 <row>
34740 <cell>HADE</cell>
34741 <cell>101</cell>
34742 </row>
34743 <row>
34744 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Haematites<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Ironstone).</cell>
34745 <cell></cell>
34746 </row>
34747 <row>
34748 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Halinitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Saltpetre).</cell>
34749 <cell></cell>
34750 </row>
34751 <row>
34752 <cell>HALLE, SALT INDUSTRY</cell>
34753 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>552<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34754 </row>
34755 <row>
34756 <cell>HAMMERS</cell>
34757 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>151<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34758 </row>
34759 <row>
34760 <cell>With water power</cell>
34761 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>423<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34762 </row>
34763 <row>
34764 <cell>HANGINGWALL</cell>
34765 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>68; 117<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34766 </row>
34767 <row>
34768 <cell>HARZ MINERS.</cell>
34769 <cell></cell>
34770 </row>
34771 <row>
34772 <cell>Agricola consulted</cell>
34773 <cell>VII.</cell>
34774 </row>
34775 <row>
34776 <cell>Antimony sulphide</cell>
34777 <cell>428</cell>
34778 </row>
34779 <row>
34780 <cell>First mining charter</cell>
34781 <cell>84</cell>
34782 </row>
34783 <row>
34784 <cell>First stamp-mill</cell>
34785 <cell>282</cell>
34786 </row>
34787 <row>
34788 <cell>Pumps</cell>
34789 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>194<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34790 </row>
34791 <row>
34792 <cell>HAULING APPLIANCES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Whims <emph type="italics"></emph>and<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Windlasses)</cell>
34793 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>160—168;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 149</cell>
34794 </row>
34795 <row>
34796 <cell>HEAP ROASTING</cell>
34797 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>274—276<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34798 </row>
34799 <row>
34800 <cell>HEARTH-LEAD (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also Molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
34801 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>475;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 476; 110; 221</cell>
34802 </row>
34803 <row>
34804 <cell>As a flux</cell>
34805 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>232<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34806 </row>
34807 <row>
34808 <cell>Use in smelting</cell>
34809 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>379; 398; 400<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34810 </row>
34811 <row>
34812 <cell>HEARTHS.</cell>
34813 <cell></cell>
34814 </row>
34815 <row>
34816 <cell>For bismuth smelting</cell>
34817 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>433—437<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34818 </row>
34819 <row>
34820 <cell>For melting lead</cell>
34821 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>390; 498<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34822 </row>
34823 <row>
34824 <cell>HEAVENLY HOST MINE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see Himmelisch
34825 Höz<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mine).</cell>
34826 <cell></cell>
34827 </row>
34828 <row>
34829 <cell>HEAVY SPAR</cell>
34830 <cell>115</cell>
34831 </row>
34832 <row>
34833 <cell>HEBREWS.</cell>
34834 <cell></cell>
34835 </row>
34836 <row>
34837 <cell>Knowledge of antimony</cell>
34838 <cell>428</cell>
34839 </row>
34840 <row>
34841 <cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell>
34842 <cell>391</cell>
34843 </row>
34844 <row>
34845 <cell>Term for tin</cell>
34846 <cell>412</cell>
34847 </row>
34848 <row>
34849 <cell>HEMATITE</cell>
34850 <cell>111</cell>
34851 </row>
34852 <row>
34853 <cell>HEMICYCLE (<emph type="italics"></emph>Hemicyclium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
34854 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>137—138<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34855 </row>
34856 <row>
34857 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Heraclion<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Lodestone).</cell>
34858 <cell></cell>
34859 </row>
34860 <row>
34861 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Herdplei<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Hearth-Lead).</cell>
34862 <cell></cell>
34863 </row>
34864 <row>
34865 <cell>HIERO, KING</cell>
34866 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>247;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 247</cell>
34867 </row>
34868 <row>
34869 <cell>HIGH PEAK (Derbyshire).</cell>
34870 <cell></cell>
34871 </row>
34872 <row>
34873 <cell>Mining law</cell>
34874 <cell>84</cell>
34875 </row>
34876 <row>
34877 <cell>Nomenclature in mines</cell>
34878 <cell>77</cell>
34879 </row>
34880 <row>
34881 <cell>Saxon customs, connection with</cell>
34882 <cell>77; 85</cell>
34883 </row>
34884 <row>
34885 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Himmelisch Höz<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34886 MINE</cell>
34887 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>74; 92;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 75</cell>
34888 </row>
34889 <row>
34890 <cell>HOE</cell>
34891 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>152<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34892 </row>
34893 <row>
34894 <cell>HOLIDAYS OF MINERS</cell>
34895 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>99<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34896 </row>
34897 <row>
34898 <cell>HORN SILVER</cell>
34899 <cell>109</cell>
34900 </row>
34901 <row>
34902 <cell>HORNS OF DEER</cell>
34903 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>230<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34904 </row>
34905 <row>
34906 <cell>HORNSTONE</cell>
34907 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 114</cell>
34908 </row>
34909 <row>
34910 <cell>HUNGARY.</cell>
34911 <cell></cell>
34912 </row>
34913 <row>
34914 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
34915 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>483<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34916 </row>
34917 <pb pagenum="624"></pb>
34918 <row>
34919 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Hüttenrauch<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34920 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see Pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
34921 <cell></cell>
34922 </row>
34923 <row>
34924 <cell>IGLAU, CHARTER OF</cell>
34925 <cell>84</cell>
34926 </row>
34927 <row>
34928 <cell>INCENSE IN CUPELLATION FURNACES</cell>
34929 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>472<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34930 </row>
34931 <row>
34932 <cell>INDICATIONS OF ORE</cell>
34933 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>106; 107; 116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34934 </row>
34935 <row>
34936 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Ingestores<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Shovellers).</cell>
34937 <cell></cell>
34938 </row>
34939 <row>
34940 <cell>INDIA.</cell>
34941 <cell></cell>
34942 </row>
34943 <row>
34944 <cell>Steel</cell>
34945 <cell>423</cell>
34946 </row>
34947 <row>
34948 <cell>Zinc</cell>
34949 <cell>409</cell>
34950 </row>
34951 <row>
34952 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Intervenium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
34953 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>51; 50<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34954 </row>
34955 <row>
34956 <cell>INVESTMENT IN MINES</cell>
34957 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26—29<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34958 </row>
34959 <row>
34960 <cell>IRON</cell>
34961 <cell>420; 354; 111</cell>
34962 </row>
34963 <row>
34964 <cell>Cast</cell>
34965 <cell>420</cell>
34966 </row>
34967 <row>
34968 <cell>Censure of</cell>
34969 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>11<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34970 </row>
34971 <row>
34972 <cell>Indications of</cell>
34973 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34974 </row>
34975 <row>
34976 <cell>Malleable</cell>
34977 <cell>420</cell>
34978 </row>
34979 <row>
34980 <cell>Smelting</cell>
34981 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>420—426<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34982 </row>
34983 <row>
34984 <cell>Sulphur harmſul to</cell>
34985 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>273<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34986 </row>
34987 <row>
34988 <cell>IRON AGE</cell>
34989 <cell>420</cell>
34990 </row>
34991 <row>
34992 <cell>IRON FILINGS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
34993 Iron-Scales)</cell>
34994 <cell>221</cell>
34995 </row>
34996 <row>
34997 <cell>Use in assaying</cell>
34998 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>234; 238; 246<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
34999 </row>
35000 <row>
35001 <cell>IRON ORE.</cell>
35002 <cell></cell>
35003 </row>
35004 <row>
35005 <cell>Assaying of</cell>
35006 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>247<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35007 </row>
35008 <row>
35009 <cell>Smelting of</cell>
35010 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>420—426<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35011 </row>
35012 <row>
35013 <cell>IRON-RUST</cell>
35014 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116; 474;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 1; 111</cell>
35015 </row>
35016 <row>
35017 <cell>IRON-SCALES</cell>
35018 <cell>221</cell>
35019 </row>
35020 <row>
35021 <cell>Flux</cell>
35022 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>234<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35023 </row>
35024 <row>
35025 <cell>Use in smelting gold</cell>
35026 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>398<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35027 </row>
35028 <row>
35029 <cell>Use in smelting silver</cell>
35030 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>400<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35031 </row>
35032 <row>
35033 <cell>Use in making nitric acid</cell>
35034 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>440<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35035 </row>
35036 <row>
35037 <cell>Use in parting gold from copper</cell>
35038 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>464<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35039 </row>
35040 <row>
35041 <cell>IRON-SLAG.</cell>
35042 <cell>221</cell>
35043 </row>
35044 <row>
35045 <cell>As a flux</cell>
35046 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>234; 235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35047 </row>
35048 <row>
35049 <cell>IRONSTONE</cell>
35050 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>390;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 111</cell>
35051 </row>
35052 <row>
35053 <cell>ITALIANS.</cell>
35054 <cell></cell>
35055 </row>
35056 <row>
35057 <cell>Alluvial mining in Germany</cell>
35058 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>334<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35059 </row>
35060 <row>
35061 <cell>ITALY.</cell>
35062 <cell></cell>
35063 </row>
35064 <row>
35065 <cell>Mining formerly forbidden</cell>
35066 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>8<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35067 </row>
35068 <row>
35069 <cell>JADE</cell>
35070 <cell>114</cell>
35071 </row>
35072 <row>
35073 <cell>JAPAN.</cell>
35074 <cell></cell>
35075 </row>
35076 <row>
35077 <cell>Steel</cell>
35078 <cell>423</cell>
35079 </row>
35080 <row>
35081 <cell>JASPER</cell>
35082 <cell>111; 2</cell>
35083 </row>
35084 <row>
35085 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Jaspis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
35086 <cell>114</cell>
35087 </row>
35088 <row>
35089 <cell>JET</cell>
35090 <cell>34</cell>
35091 </row>
35092 <row>
35093 <cell>JIGGING SIEVE</cell>
35094 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>310;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 267; 283</cell>
35095 </row>
35096 <row>
35097 <cell>JOACHIMSTHAL</cell>
35098 <cell>VI.</cell>
35099 </row>
35100 <row>
35101 <cell>First stamp-mill</cell>
35102 <cell>281</cell>
35103 </row>
35104 <row>
35105 <cell>Mining shares and profits</cell>
35106 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>91; 92<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35107 </row>
35108 <row>
35109 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Jüdenstein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see Lapis Judaicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
35110 <cell></cell>
35111 </row>
35112 <row>
35113 <cell>JUICES</cell>
35114 <cell>1; 47</cell>
35115 </row>
35116 <row>
35117 <cell>Agricola&#039;s theory</cell>
35118 <cell>46; 52</cell>
35119 </row>
35120 <row>
35121 <cell>From springs and streams</cell>
35122 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>33<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35123 </row>
35124 <row>
35125 <cell>Stone juice</cell>
35126 <cell>46; 49</cell>
35127 </row>
35128 <row>
35129 <cell>Tastes of</cell>
35130 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>34<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35131 </row>
35132 <row>
35133 <cell>JUICES, SOLIDIFIED.</cell>
35134 <cell></cell>
35135 </row>
35136 <row>
35137 <cell>Agricola&#039;s view of</cell>
35138 <cell>1; 49</cell>
35139 </row>
35140 <row>
35141 <cell>Extraction of metals from</cell>
35142 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>350<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35143 </row>
35144 <row>
35145 <cell>Preparation of</cell>
35146 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>545<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35147 </row>
35148 <row>
35149 <cell>JULIAN ALPS.</cell>
35150 <cell></cell>
35151 </row>
35152 <row>
35153 <cell>Stamp-milling in</cell>
35154 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>319<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35155 </row>
35156 <row>
35157 <cell>JUNCTIONS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Veins,
35158 Intersections of).</cell>
35159 <cell></cell>
35160 </row>
35161 <row>
35162 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Jurati<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Jurors).</cell>
35163 <cell></cell>
35164 </row>
35165 <row>
35166 <cell>JURORS</cell>
35167 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>22; 92; 96;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
35168 </row>
35169 <row>
35170 <cell>In English mining custom</cell>
35171 <cell>85</cell>
35172 </row>
35173 <row>
35174 <cell>Relations to Bergmeister</cell>
35175 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>95;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 77</cell>
35176 </row>
35177 <row>
35178 <cell>JUSTINIAN CODE.</cell>
35179 <cell></cell>
35180 </row>
35181 <row>
35182 <cell>Mines</cell>
35183 <cell>84</cell>
35184 </row>
35185 <row>
35186 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Kalchstein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Limestone).</cell>
35187 <cell></cell>
35188 </row>
35189 <row>
35190 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Kammschale<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
35191 <cell>127</cell>
35192 </row>
35193 <row>
35194 <cell>KAOLINITE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35195 Porcelain Clay).</cell>
35196 <cell></cell>
35197 </row>
35198 <row>
35199 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Katzensilber<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mica).</cell>
35200 <cell></cell>
35201 </row>
35202 <row>
35203 <cell>KING.</cell>
35204 <cell></cell>
35205 </row>
35206 <row>
35207 <cell>Deputy</cell>
35208 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>94<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35209 </row>
35210 <row>
35211 <cell>Right to a meer</cell>
35212 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>81<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35213 </row>
35214 <row>
35215 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Kinstock<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Liquation Cakes,
35216 Exhausted).</cell>
35217 <cell></cell>
35218 </row>
35219 <row>
35220 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Kis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Pyrites).</cell>
35221 <cell></cell>
35222 </row>
35223 <row>
35224 <cell>KNOCKERS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35225 Gnomes).</cell>
35226 <cell></cell>
35227 </row>
35228 <row>
35229 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Kobelt<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Cobalt).</cell>
35230 <cell></cell>
35231 </row>
35232 <row>
35233 <cell>KÖLERGANG VEIN</cell>
35234 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>42<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35235 </row>
35236 <row>
35237 <cell>KÖNIGSBERG.</cell>
35238 <cell></cell>
35239 </row>
35240 <row>
35241 <cell>Fire-setting</cell>
35242 <cell>119</cell>
35243 </row>
35244 <row>
35245 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Kupferglas ertz<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Copper Glance).</cell>
35246 <cell></cell>
35247 </row>
35248 <row>
35249 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Kupferschiefer<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Copper
35250 Schists).</cell>
35251 <cell></cell>
35252 </row>
35253 <row>
35254 <cell>KUTTENBLRG.</cell>
35255 <cell></cell>
35256 </row>
35257 <row>
35258 <cell>Depths of shafts</cell>
35259 <cell>102</cell>
35260 </row>
35261 <row>
35262 <cell>LABOUR CONDITION IN MINING TITLE.</cell>
35263 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>92;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 83—85</cell>
35264 </row>
35265 <row>
35266 <cell>LACEDAEMONIANS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35267 Spartans).</cell>
35268 <cell></cell>
35269 </row>
35270 <row>
35271 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Lachter<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Fathom).</cell>
35272 <cell></cell>
35273 </row>
35274 <row>
35275 <cell>LADDERWAYS IN SHAFTS</cell>
35276 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>124; 212<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35277 </row>
35278 <row>
35279 <cell>LADLE FOR BULLION</cell>
35280 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>382<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35281 </row>
35282 <row>
35283 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Lapis aerarius<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Copper Ore).</cell>
35284 <cell></cell>
35285 </row>
35286 <row>
35287 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Lapis alabandicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
35288 <cell>380</cell>
35289 </row>
35290 <row>
35291 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Lapis Judaicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
35292 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>115;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 115</cell>
35293 </row>
35294 <row>
35295 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Lapis specularis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35296 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Gypsum).</cell>
35297 <cell></cell>
35298 </row>
35299 <row>
35300 <cell>LATHS (Lagging)</cell>
35301 <cell>101</cell>
35302 </row>
35303 <row>
35304 <cell>LA TOLFA.</cell>
35305 <cell></cell>
35306 </row>
35307 <row>
35308 <cell>Alum manufacture</cell>
35309 <cell>565</cell>
35310 </row>
35311 <row>
35312 <cell>Discovery of</cell>
35313 <cell>570</cell>
35314 </row>
35315 <row>
35316 <cell>LAURION (LAURIUM), Mr. (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mr. LAURION, MINES OF).</cell>
35317 <cell></cell>
35318 </row>
35319 <row>
35320 <cell>LAUTENTAL, LIQUATION AT</cell>
35321 <cell>491</cell>
35322 </row>
35323 <row>
35324 <cell>LAW (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mining
35325 Law).</cell>
35326 <cell></cell>
35327 </row>
35328 <row>
35329 <cell>LAW-SUITS OVER SHARES IN MINES</cell>
35330 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>94<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35331 </row>
35332 <row>
35333 <cell>LEAD</cell>
35334 <cell>354; 390; 110</cell>
35335 </row>
35336 <row>
35337 <cell>Censure of</cell>
35338 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>11<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35339 </row>
35340 <row>
35341 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
35342 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>464—483<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35343 </row>
35344 <row>
35345 <cell>Melting prior to liquation</cell>
35346 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>500<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35347 </row>
35348 <row>
35349 <cell>In liquation cakes</cell>
35350 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>505—506;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 505;
35351 506</cell>
35352 </row>
35353 <row>
35354 <cell>Refining silver</cell>
35355 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>483—490<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35356 </row>
35357 <row>
35358 <cell>Smelting of ores</cell>
35359 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>388—392; 400<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35360 </row>
35361 <row>
35362 <cell>Use in assaying</cell>
35363 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>232; 239; 242; 244; 249; 251<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35364 </row>
35365 <row>
35366 <cell>Washing in sluices</cell>
35367 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>347<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35368 </row>
35369 <row>
35370 <cell>LEAD-ASH</cell>
35371 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>237;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 237; 221</cell>
35372 </row>
35373 <row>
35374 <cell>As a flux</cell>
35375 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>234<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35376 </row>
35377 <row>
35378 <cell>Use in parting gold from copper</cell>
35379 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>463<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35380 </row>
35381 <row>
35382 <cell>LEAD BATH</cell>
35383 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>381<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35384 </row>
35385 <row>
35386 <cell>LEAD-GLASS</cell>
35387 <cell>236</cell>
35388 </row>
35389 <row>
35390 <cell>LEAD GRANULES</cell>
35391 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>239; 463;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 221</cell>
35392 </row>
35393 <row>
35394 <cell>LEADING (in liquation)</cell>
35395 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>304; 507; 513;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 491; 492;
35396 504</cell>
35397 </row>
35398 <row>
35399 <cell>Components of the charge</cell>
35400 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>505—509<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35401 </row>
35402 <row>
35403 <cell>LEAD OCHRE</cell>
35404 <cell>232; 110; 221</cell>
35405 </row>
35406 <row>
35407 <cell>LEAD ORE.</cell>
35408 <cell></cell>
35409 </row>
35410 <row>
35411 <cell>Assay methods</cell>
35412 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>245—246<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35413 </row>
35414 <row>
35415 <cell>Roasting</cell>
35416 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>275<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35417 </row>
35418 <row>
35419 <cell>Smelting in blast furnace</cell>
35420 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>390; 408<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35421 </row>
35422 <row>
35423 <cell>LEASE, IN AUSTRALIAN TITLE</cell>
35424 <cell>77</cell>
35425 </row>
35426 <row>
35427 <cell>LEAVES PREPARATION OF BULLION INTO</cell>
35428 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>444<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35429 </row>
35430 <row>
35431 <cell>LEBERTHAL</cell>
35432 <cell>24</cell>
35433 </row>
35434 <row>
35435 <cell>LEES OF <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> WHICH
35436 SEPARATES GOLD FROM SILVER</cell>
35437 <cell>234; 443; 221</cell>
35438 </row>
35439 <row>
35440 <cell>As a flux</cell>
35441 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>234; 238<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35442 </row>
35443 <row>
35444 <cell>LEES OF VINEGAR (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Argol)</cell>
35445 <cell>221</cell>
35446 </row>
35447 <row>
35448 <cell>As a flux</cell>
35449 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>234; 236; 243;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 234</cell>
35450 </row>
35451 <row>
35452 <cell>LEES OF WINE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35453 Argol).</cell>
35454 <cell></cell>
35455 </row>
35456 <row>
35457 <cell>LEMNOS, ISLAND OF</cell>
35458 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>31<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35459 </row>
35460 <row>
35461 <cell>LEMNIAN EARTH</cell>
35462 <cell>31</cell>
35463 </row>
35464 <row>
35465 <cell>LEPROSY OF HOUSE WALLS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Salt-petre).</cell>
35466 <cell></cell>
35467 </row>
35468 <row>
35469 <cell>LEVEL (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35470 Drift)</cell>
35471 <cell>101</cell>
35472 </row>
35473 <row>
35474 <cell>LEVEL, PLUMMET (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35475 Plummet Level)</cell>
35476 <cell></cell>
35477 </row>
35478 <row>
35479 <cell>LIMESTONE</cell>
35480 <cell>114; 221</cell>
35481 </row>
35482 <row>
35483 <cell>As a flux</cell>
35484 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>236; 390<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35485 </row>
35486 <row>
35487 <cell>LIMONITE</cell>
35488 <cell>111</cell>
35489 </row>
35490 <row>
35491 <cell>LIMP</cell>
35492 <cell>267</cell>
35493 </row>
35494 <row>
35495 <cell>LINARES.</cell>
35496 <cell></cell>
35497 </row>
35498 <row>
35499 <cell>Hannibal&#039;s mines near</cell>
35500 <cell>42</cell>
35501 </row>
35502 <row>
35503 <cell>LIPARI ISLANDS.</cell>
35504 <cell></cell>
35505 </row>
35506 <row>
35507 <cell>Alum from</cell>
35508 <cell>566</cell>
35509 </row>
35510 <row>
35511 <cell>LIQUATED SILVER-LEAD (<emph type="italics"></emph>see Stannum and<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Silver-lead).</cell>
35512 <cell></cell>
35513 </row>
35514 <row>
35515 <cell>LIQUATION</cell>
35516 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>519—521;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 491;
35517 519</cell>
35518 </row>
35519 <row>
35520 <cell>Ash-coloured copper from</cell>
35521 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>529<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35522 </row>
35523 <row>
35524 <cell>Buildings for</cell>
35525 <cell>491</cell>
35526 </row>
35527 <row>
35528 <cell>Furnace</cell>
35529 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>515—518;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 492</cell>
35530 </row>
35531 <row>
35532 <cell>Historical note on</cell>
35533 <cell>494</cell>
35534 </row>
35535 <row>
35536 <cell>Losses</cell>
35537 <cell>491; 539</cell>
35538 </row>
35539 <row>
35540 <cell>Nomenclature</cell>
35541 <cell>492</cell>
35542 </row>
35543 <row>
35544 <cell>LIQUATION CAKES</cell>
35545 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>505—509;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 492; 505;
35546 506</cell>
35547 </row>
35548 <row>
35549 <cell>Enrichment of the lead</cell>
35550 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>512;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 512</cell>
35551 </row>
35552 <row>
35553 <cell>Extraction of silver from</cell>
35554 <cell>512</cell>
35555 </row>
35556 <row>
35557 <cell>From bye-products of liquation</cell>
35558 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>539—540<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35559 </row>
35560 <row>
35561 <cell>From copper bottoms</cell>
35562 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>512;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 512</cell>
35563 </row>
35564 <pb pagenum="625"></pb>
35565 <row>
35566 <cell>Proportion of lead in rich silver copper</cell>
35567 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>509<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35568 </row>
35569 <row>
35570 <cell>LIQUATION CAKES, EXHAUSTED</cell>
35571 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>521—526; 406;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 492;
35572 520</cell>
35573 </row>
35574 <row>
35575 <cell>LIQUATION SLAGS</cell>
35576 <cell>509; 492; 541</cell>
35577 </row>
35578 <row>
35579 <cell>Furnaces for</cell>
35580 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>507<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35581 </row>
35582 <row>
35583 <cell>Treatment of</cell>
35584 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>541<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35585 </row>
35586 <row>
35587 <cell>LIQUATION THORNS</cell>
35588 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>522; 539;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 492; 539;
35589 540</cell>
35590 </row>
35591 <row>
35592 <cell>From cupellation</cell>
35593 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>543;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 543</cell>
35594 </row>
35595 <row>
35596 <cell>From “drying” copper residues</cell>
35597 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>529<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35598 </row>
35599 <row>
35600 <cell>LITHARGE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35601 Cupellation)</cell>
35602 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>475; 232—238;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 466;
35603 476; 110; 222</cell>
35604 </row>
35605 <row>
35606 <cell>Use in reducing silver nitrate</cell>
35607 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>447<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35608 </row>
35609 <row>
35610 <cell>Use in smelting</cell>
35611 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>379; 398; 400<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35612 </row>
35613 <row>
35614 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Lithargyrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Litharge).</cell>
35615 <cell></cell>
35616 </row>
35617 <row>
35618 <cell>LODESTONE</cell>
35619 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>115;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 111; 115; 2</cell>
35620 </row>
35621 <row>
35622 <cell>Compass</cell>
35623 <cell>57</cell>
35624 </row>
35625 <row>
35626 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Los Pozos de Anibal<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
35627 <cell>42</cell>
35628 </row>
35629 <row>
35630 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Lotores<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Washers).</cell>
35631 <cell></cell>
35632 </row>
35633 <row>
35634 <cell>LUSITANIA.</cell>
35635 <cell></cell>
35636 </row>
35637 <row>
35638 <cell>Gold alluvial</cell>
35639 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>347<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35640 </row>
35641 <row>
35642 <cell>Sluices for gold washing</cell>
35643 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>325<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35644 </row>
35645 <row>
35646 <cell>Tin smelting</cell>
35647 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>419<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35648 </row>
35649 <row>
35650 <cell>LUTE</cell>
35651 <cell>1</cell>
35652 </row>
35653 <row>
35654 <cell>Preparation of for furnace linings</cell>
35655 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>375—376<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35656 </row>
35657 <row>
35658 <cell>LYDIA.</cell>
35659 <cell></cell>
35660 </row>
35661 <row>
35662 <cell>Mining law</cell>
35663 <cell>83</cell>
35664 </row>
35665 <row>
35666 <cell>The King&#039;s mines</cell>
35667 <cell>27</cell>
35668 </row>
35669 <row>
35670 <cell>LYE</cell>
35671 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>558;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 221; 233</cell>
35672 </row>
35673 <row>
35674 <cell>Use in making fluxes</cell>
35675 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>236<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35676 </row>
35677 <row>
35678 <cell>Use in parting</cell>
35679 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>463<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35680 </row>
35681 <row>
35682 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Magister Metallicorum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35683 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35684 Bergmeister).</cell>
35685 <cell></cell>
35686 </row>
35687 <row>
35688 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Magister Monetariorum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35689 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Master of the
35690 Mint).</cell>
35691 <cell></cell>
35692 </row>
35693 <row>
35694 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Magnes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Lodestone <emph type="italics"></emph>and<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Man-ganese)</cell>
35695 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>584;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 111; 115; 584</cell>
35696 </row>
35697 <row>
35698 <cell>MAGNET</cell>
35699 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>247<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35700 </row>
35701 <row>
35702 <cell>Garlic</cell>
35703 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>39<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35704 </row>
35705 <row>
35706 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Magnetis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mica).</cell>
35707 <cell></cell>
35708 </row>
35709 <row>
35710 <cell>MAGNETITE</cell>
35711 <cell>111</cell>
35712 </row>
35713 <row>
35714 <cell>MALACHITE</cell>
35715 <cell>109; 221</cell>
35716 </row>
35717 <row>
35718 <cell>MALADIES OF MINERS</cell>
35719 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>214—217<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35720 </row>
35721 <row>
35722 <cell>MALTHA</cell>
35723 <cell>581</cell>
35724 </row>
35725 <row>
35726 <cell>MANAGER (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mine
35727 Manager).</cell>
35728 <cell></cell>
35729 </row>
35730 <row>
35731 <cell>MANGANESE</cell>
35732 <cell>586; 354</cell>
35733 </row>
35734 <row>
35735 <cell>MANNSFELD COPPER SLATES</cell>
35736 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>126—127; 279;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 127;
35737 273</cell>
35738 </row>
35739 <row>
35740 <cell>MAP-MAKING</cell>
35741 <cell>129</cell>
35742 </row>
35743 <row>
35744 <cell>MARBLE</cell>
35745 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>115;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 2; 114</cell>
35746 </row>
35747 <row>
35748 <cell>MARCASITE</cell>
35749 <cell>111; 112; 409</cell>
35750 </row>
35751 <row>
35752 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Marga<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Marl).</cell>
35753 <cell></cell>
35754 </row>
35755 <row>
35756 <cell>MARIENBERG</cell>
35757 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXXI;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> VI.</cell>
35758 </row>
35759 <row>
35760 <cell>MARL</cell>
35761 <cell>114</cell>
35762 </row>
35763 <row>
35764 <cell>MARMELSTEIN (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35765 Marble).</cell>
35766 <cell></cell>
35767 </row>
35768 <row>
35769 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Marmor<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Marble).</cell>
35770 <cell></cell>
35771 </row>
35772 <row>
35773 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Marmor alabastrites<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35774 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35775 Alabaster).</cell>
35776 <cell></cell>
35777 </row>
35778 <row>
35779 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Marmor glarea<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
35780 <cell>114</cell>
35781 </row>
35782 <row>
35783 <cell>MASSICOT (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35784 Lead Ochre)</cell>
35785 <cell>110; 221; 232</cell>
35786 </row>
35787 <row>
35788 <cell>MASTER OF THE HORSE</cell>
35789 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>81<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35790 </row>
35791 <row>
35792 <cell>MASTER OF THE MINT</cell>
35793 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>95;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
35794 </row>
35795 <row>
35796 <cell>MATTE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Cakes of
35797 Melted Pyrites).</cell>
35798 <cell></cell>
35799 </row>
35800 <row>
35801 <cell>MATTE SMELTING</cell>
35802 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>404—407<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35803 </row>
35804 <row>
35805 <cell>MEASURE (unit of mining area)</cell>
35806 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>78;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
35807 </row>
35808 <row>
35809 <cell>MEASURES</cell>
35810 <cell>616—617; 78; 550</cell>
35811 </row>
35812 <row>
35813 <cell>MEDICINE.</cell>
35814 <cell></cell>
35815 </row>
35816 <row>
35817 <cell>Knowledge necessary for miners</cell>
35818 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>3<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35819 </row>
35820 <row>
35821 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Medulla saxorum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Porcelain
35822 Clay).</cell>
35823 <cell></cell>
35824 </row>
35825 <row>
35826 <cell>MEER</cell>
35827 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>77—89<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35828 </row>
35829 <row>
35830 <cell>Boundary stones</cell>
35831 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>87<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35832 </row>
35833 <row>
35834 <cell>On <emph type="italics"></emph>vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
35835 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>87<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35836 </row>
35837 <row>
35838 <cell>On <emph type="italics"></emph>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
35839 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>86<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35840 </row>
35841 <row>
35842 <cell>MEISSEN.</cell>
35843 <cell></cell>
35844 </row>
35845 <row>
35846 <cell>Duraps from mines</cell>
35847 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>312<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35848 </row>
35849 <row>
35850 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Melanteria<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
35851 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>117;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 112; 573</cell>
35852 </row>
35853 <row>
35854 <cell>Indication of copper</cell>
35855 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35856 </row>
35857 <row>
35858 <cell>MELANTERITE</cell>
35859 <cell>111</cell>
35860 </row>
35861 <row>
35862 <cell>MELOS, ISLAND OF</cell>
35863 <cell>566</cell>
35864 </row>
35865 <row>
35866 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Menning<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Red-lead).</cell>
35867 <cell></cell>
35868 </row>
35869 <row>
35870 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Mergel<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Marl).</cell>
35871 <cell></cell>
35872 </row>
35873 <row>
35874 <cell>METALS</cell>
35875 <cell>2; 44; 51</cell>
35876 </row>
35877 <row>
35878 <cell>Advantages and uses</cell>
35879 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>19; 20<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35880 </row>
35881 <row>
35882 <cell>Necessity to man</cell>
35883 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXV; 12—13<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35884 </row>
35885 <row>
35886 <cell>Not responsible for evil passions</cell>
35887 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35888 </row>
35889 <row>
35890 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Metreta<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
35891 <cell>153</cell>
35892 </row>
35893 <row>
35894 <cell>MEXICO</cell>
35895 <cell></cell>
35896 </row>
35897 <row>
35898 <cell>Patio process</cell>
35899 <cell>297</cell>
35900 </row>
35901 <row>
35902 <cell>MICA</cell>
35903 <cell>114</cell>
35904 </row>
35905 <row>
35906 <cell>MIDDLE AGES, MINING LAW OF</cell>
35907 <cell>84</cell>
35908 </row>
35909 <row>
35910 <cell>MILLS FOR GRINDING ORE</cell>
35911 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>294—299;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 280</cell>
35912 </row>
35913 <row>
35914 <cell>MIMES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
35915 Gnomes)</cell>
35916 <cell>217</cell>
35917 </row>
35918 <row>
35919 <cell>MINE CAPTAIN</cell>
35920 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 77</cell>
35921 </row>
35922 <row>
35923 <cell>MINE MANAGER</cell>
35924 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>97; 98;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 77; 78</cell>
35925 </row>
35926 <row>
35927 <cell>MINERAL KINGDOM, AGRICOLA&#039;S DIVISIONS OF</cell>
35928 <cell>1</cell>
35929 </row>
35930 <row>
35931 <cell>MINERALS</cell>
35932 <cell>594; 108; 48; 51</cell>
35933 </row>
35934 <row>
35935 <cell>Compound</cell>
35936 <cell>2; 51</cell>
35937 </row>
35938 <row>
35939 <cell>Mixed</cell>
35940 <cell>2; 51</cell>
35941 </row>
35942 <row>
35943 <cell>MINERS</cell>
35944 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>1—4; 25;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
35945 </row>
35946 <row>
35947 <cell>Duties and punishments</cell>
35948 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>100; 22<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35949 </row>
35950 <row>
35951 <cell>Law (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mining
35952 Law).</cell>
35953 <cell></cell>
35954 </row>
35955 <row>
35956 <cell>Litigation among</cell>
35957 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>21<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35958 </row>
35959 <row>
35960 <cell>Slaves as</cell>
35961 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>23<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35962 </row>
35963 <row>
35964 <cell>MINES.</cell>
35965 <cell></cell>
35966 </row>
35967 <row>
35968 <cell>Abandonment of</cell>
35969 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>217<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35970 </row>
35971 <row>
35972 <cell>Conditions desirable</cell>
35973 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>30—33<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35974 </row>
35975 <row>
35976 <cell>Investments in</cell>
35977 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26—29<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35978 </row>
35979 <row>
35980 <cell>Management of</cell>
35981 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>25; 26<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35982 </row>
35983 <row>
35984 <cell>Names of</cell>
35985 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>42<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35986 </row>
35987 <row>
35988 <cell>MINES ROYAL, COMPANY OF</cell>
35989 <cell>283</cell>
35990 </row>
35991 <row>
35992 <cell>MINING (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Sett,
35993 Lease, Claim, Meer, <emph type="italics"></emph>etc.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
35994 <cell></cell>
35995 </row>
35996 <row>
35997 <cell>Criticisms of</cell>
35998 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>4—12<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
35999 </row>
36000 <row>
36001 <cell>Harmless and honourable</cell>
36002 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>14; 20; 23<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36003 </row>
36004 <row>
36005 <cell>Methods of breaking ore</cell>
36006 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>117—118<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36007 </row>
36008 <row>
36009 <cell>Stoping</cell>
36010 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>125<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36011 </row>
36012 <row>
36013 <cell>MINING CLERK</cell>
36014 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>93; 95; 96;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
36015 </row>
36016 <row>
36017 <cell>MINING COMPANIES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
36018 Companies, Mining).</cell>
36019 <cell></cell>
36020 </row>
36021 <row>
36022 <cell>MINING FOREMAN</cell>
36023 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>98—99;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
36024 </row>
36025 <row>
36026 <cell>Frauds by</cell>
36027 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>21—22<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36028 </row>
36029 <row>
36030 <cell>MINING LAW</cell>
36031 <cell>82—86</cell>
36032 </row>
36033 <row>
36034 <cell>Boundary stones</cell>
36035 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>87<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36036 </row>
36037 <row>
36038 <cell>Drainage requirements</cell>
36039 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>92—93<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36040 </row>
36041 <row>
36042 <cell>England</cell>
36043 <cell>84—86</cell>
36044 </row>
36045 <row>
36046 <cell>Europe</cell>
36047 <cell>84</cell>
36048 </row>
36049 <row>
36050 <cell>Forfeiture of title</cell>
36051 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>92—93<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36052 </row>
36053 <row>
36054 <cell>France</cell>
36055 <cell>84</cell>
36056 </row>
36057 <row>
36058 <cell>Greek and Roman</cell>
36059 <cell>83</cell>
36060 </row>
36061 <row>
36062 <cell>Middle Ages</cell>
36063 <cell>84—85</cell>
36064 </row>
36065 <row>
36066 <cell>Right of Overlord, Landowner, State and Miner</cell>
36067 <cell>82</cell>
36068 </row>
36069 <row>
36070 <cell>Tunnels</cell>
36071 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>88—89<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36072 </row>
36073 <row>
36074 <cell>MINING PREFECT</cell>
36075 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26; 94;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
36076 </row>
36077 <row>
36078 <cell>MINING RIGHTS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
36079 Mining Law <emph type="italics"></emph>and<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>Meer).</cell>
36080 <cell></cell>
36081 </row>
36082 <row>
36083 <cell>MINING TERMS, OLD ENGLISH</cell>
36084 <cell>77; 101</cell>
36085 </row>
36086 <row>
36087 <cell>MINING TOOLS</cell>
36088 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>149—153<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36089 </row>
36090 <row>
36091 <cell>Buckets for ore</cell>
36092 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>153—154<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36093 </row>
36094 <row>
36095 <cell>Buckets for water</cell>
36096 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>157<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36097 </row>
36098 <row>
36099 <cell>Trucks</cell>
36100 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>156<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36101 </row>
36102 <row>
36103 <cell>Wheelbarrows</cell>
36104 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>155<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36105 </row>
36106 <row>
36107 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Minium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36108 <cell>111</cell>
36109 </row>
36110 <row>
36111 <cell>Quicksilver from</cell>
36112 <cell>433</cell>
36113 </row>
36114 <row>
36115 <cell>Red-lead</cell>
36116 <cell>232</cell>
36117 </row>
36118 <row>
36119 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Minium secundarium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
36120 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
36121 Red-lead).</cell>
36122 <cell></cell>
36123 </row>
36124 <row>
36125 <cell>MISPICKEL (<emph type="italics"></emph>Mistpuckel<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
36126 <cell>111</cell>
36127 </row>
36128 <row>
36129 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Misy<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (the
36130 mineral)</cell>
36131 <cell>573; 111; 403</cell>
36132 </row>
36133 <row>
36134 <cell>An indication of copper</cell>
36135 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36136 </row>
36137 <row>
36138 <cell>Use in parting gold and silver</cell>
36139 <cell>459</cell>
36140 </row>
36141 <row>
36142 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Mitlere und obere offenbrüche<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>Furnace Accretions).</cell>
36143 <cell></cell>
36144 </row>
36145 <row>
36146 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Modius<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36147 <cell>617; 405</cell>
36148 </row>
36149 <row>
36150 <cell>MOGLITZ.</cell>
36151 <cell></cell>
36152 </row>
36153 <row>
36154 <cell>Tin working</cell>
36155 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>318<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36156 </row>
36157 <row>
36158 <cell>MOIL</cell>
36159 <cell>150</cell>
36160 </row>
36161 <row>
36162 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36163 <cell>110; 221; 476; 400; 408</cell>
36164 </row>
36165 <row>
36166 <cell>Term for lead carbonates</cell>
36167 <cell>400; 408</cell>
36168 </row>
36169 <row>
36170 <cell>Molybdenite</cell>
36171 <cell>477</cell>
36172 </row>
36173 <row>
36174 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Monetarius<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Coiners).</cell>
36175 <cell></cell>
36176 </row>
36177 <row>
36178 <cell>MONEY, ASSAYING OF</cell>
36179 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>251—252<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36180 </row>
36181 <row>
36182 <cell>MORANO GLASS FACTORIES</cell>
36183 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>592<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36184 </row>
36185 <row>
36186 <cell>MORAVIA.</cell>
36187 <cell></cell>
36188 </row>
36189 <row>
36190 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
36191 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>483<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36192 </row>
36193 <row>
36194 <cell>Stamp-milling</cell>
36195 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>321<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36196 </row>
36197 <row>
36198 <cell>Washing gold ore</cell>
36199 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>324<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36200 </row>
36201 <row>
36202 <cell>MORDANTS</cell>
36203 <cell>569</cell>
36204 </row>
36205 <row>
36206 <cell>MORTAR-BOX</cell>
36207 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>279—280; 312; 319;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
36208 267</cell>
36209 </row>
36210 <pb pagenum="626"></pb>
36211 <row>
36212 <cell>MOUNTAINS.</cell>
36213 <cell></cell>
36214 </row>
36215 <row>
36216 <cell>Formation of</cell>
36217 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>595<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36218 </row>
36219 <row>
36220 <cell>MT. BERMIUS.</cell>
36221 <cell></cell>
36222 </row>
36223 <row>
36224 <cell>Gold Mines of</cell>
36225 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 27</cell>
36226 </row>
36227 <row>
36228 <cell>MT. LAURION, MINES OF</cell>
36229 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>27;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 27—29; 391</cell>
36230 </row>
36231 <row>
36232 <cell>Crushing and concentration of ores</cell>
36233 <cell>281</cell>
36234 </row>
36235 <row>
36236 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
36237 <cell>465</cell>
36238 </row>
36239 <row>
36240 <cell>Mining law</cell>
36241 <cell>83</cell>
36242 </row>
36243 <row>
36244 <cell>Smelting appliances</cell>
36245 <cell>355</cell>
36246 </row>
36247 <row>
36248 <cell>Xenophon on</cell>
36249 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>6<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36250 </row>
36251 <row>
36252 <cell>MT. SINAI.</cell>
36253 <cell></cell>
36254 </row>
36255 <row>
36256 <cell>Ancient copper smelting</cell>
36257 <cell>355; 402</cell>
36258 </row>
36259 <row>
36260 <cell>MUFFLE FURNACES</cell>
36261 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>224—228; 239<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36262 </row>
36263 <row>
36264 <cell>MUFFLES</cell>
36265 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>227; 239;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 222</cell>
36266 </row>
36267 <row>
36268 <cell>Refining silver</cell>
36269 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>489—490<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36270 </row>
36271 <row>
36272 <cell>MÜHLBERG, BATTLE OF</cell>
36273 <cell>X.</cell>
36274 </row>
36275 <row>
36276 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Murrhina<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Chalcedony).</cell>
36277 <cell></cell>
36278 </row>
36279 <row>
36280 <cell>MUSKETS</cell>
36281 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>11<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36282 </row>
36283 <row>
36284 <cell>MYCENAE.</cell>
36285 <cell></cell>
36286 </row>
36287 <row>
36288 <cell>Copper</cell>
36289 <cell>402</cell>
36290 </row>
36291 <row>
36292 <cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell>
36293 <cell>391</cell>
36294 </row>
36295 <row>
36296 <cell>NAMES OF MINES</cell>
36297 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>42<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36298 </row>
36299 <row>
36300 <cell>NAPHTHA</cell>
36301 <cell>581</cell>
36302 </row>
36303 <row>
36304 <cell>NATIVE COPPER</cell>
36305 <cell>109</cell>
36306 </row>
36307 <row>
36308 <cell>NATIVE IRON</cell>
36309 <cell>111</cell>
36310 </row>
36311 <row>
36312 <cell>NATIVE MINERALS</cell>
36313 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>107<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36314 </row>
36315 <row>
36316 <cell>NATIVE SILVER</cell>
36317 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>269;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 109</cell>
36318 </row>
36319 <row>
36320 <cell>NATRON (<emph type="italics"></emph>see Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
36321 <cell></cell>
36322 </row>
36323 <row>
36324 <cell>NEOLITHIC FURNACES</cell>
36325 <cell>355</cell>
36326 </row>
36327 <row>
36328 <cell>NEUSOHL, METHOD OF SCREENING ORE</cell>
36329 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>290<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36330 </row>
36331 <row>
36332 <cell>NEWBOTTLE ABBEY</cell>
36333 <cell>35</cell>
36334 </row>
36335 <row>
36336 <cell>NITOCRIS, BRIDGE OF</cell>
36337 <cell>391</cell>
36338 </row>
36339 <row>
36340 <cell>NITRIC ACID (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also Aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
36341 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>439—443;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 460; 439;
36342 354</cell>
36343 </row>
36344 <row>
36345 <cell>Assay parting gold and silver</cell>
36346 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>248<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36347 </row>
36348 <row>
36349 <cell>Testing silver regulus with</cell>
36350 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>449<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36351 </row>
36352 <row>
36353 <cell>Use in cleaning gold dust</cell>
36354 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>396<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36355 </row>
36356 <row>
36357 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Soda)</cell>
36358 <cell>558; 110</cell>
36359 </row>
36360 <row>
36361 <cell>NOMENCLATURE</cell>
36362 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>I;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 267</cell>
36363 </row>
36364 <row>
36365 <cell>Mining law</cell>
36366 <cell>77; 78</cell>
36367 </row>
36368 <row>
36369 <cell>Mining officials</cell>
36370 <cell>77; 78</cell>
36371 </row>
36372 <row>
36373 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Norici<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36374 <cell>388</cell>
36375 </row>
36376 <row>
36377 <cell>Conveyance of ore</cell>
36378 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>169<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36379 </row>
36380 <row>
36381 <cell>NORMANS.</cell>
36382 <cell></cell>
36383 </row>
36384 <row>
36385 <cell>Mining Law in England</cell>
36386 <cell>85</cell>
36387 </row>
36388 <row>
36389 <cell>NOTARY</cell>
36390 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>94;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
36391 </row>
36392 <row>
36393 <cell>NUBIA.</cell>
36394 <cell></cell>
36395 </row>
36396 <row>
36397 <cell>Early gold-mining</cell>
36398 <cell>399</cell>
36399 </row>
36400 <row>
36401 <cell>NUREMBERG, SCALE OF WEIGHTS</cell>
36402 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>264<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36403 </row>
36404 <row>
36405 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Obolus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36406 <cell>25</cell>
36407 </row>
36408 <row>
36409 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Ochra nativa<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36410 <cell>111</cell>
36411 </row>
36412 <row>
36413 <cell>OCHRE YELLOW</cell>
36414 <cell>111</cell>
36415 </row>
36416 <row>
36417 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Ofſenbrüche<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
36418 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Furnace
36419 Accretions).</cell>
36420 <cell></cell>
36421 </row>
36422 <row>
36423 <cell>OLYNTHUS.</cell>
36424 <cell></cell>
36425 </row>
36426 <row>
36427 <cell>Betrayal to Philip of Macedon</cell>
36428 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36429 </row>
36430 <row>
36431 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Operculum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36432 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>441;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 222</cell>
36433 </row>
36434 <row>
36435 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Orbis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36436 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>141;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 137</cell>
36437 </row>
36438 <row>
36439 <cell>ORE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see various. metals,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Assaying, Mining, <emph type="italics"></emph>etc.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
36440 <cell></cell>
36441 </row>
36442 <row>
36443 <cell>ORE CHANNELS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see Canales<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
36444 <cell></cell>
36445 </row>
36446 <row>
36447 <cell>ORE DEPOSITS, THEORY OF</cell>
36448 <cell>XIII; 43—53</cell>
36449 </row>
36450 <row>
36451 <cell>ORE DRESSING</cell>
36452 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>267—351<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36453 </row>
36454 <row>
36455 <cell>Burning</cell>
36456 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>273<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36457 </row>
36458 <row>
36459 <cell>Hand spalling</cell>
36460 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>271—272<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36461 </row>
36462 <row>
36463 <cell>Sorting</cell>
36464 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>268—271<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36465 </row>
36466 <row>
36467 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Orguia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36468 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>78;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78; 617</cell>
36469 </row>
36470 <row>
36471 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Orichalcum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see Aurichalcum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
36472 <cell></cell>
36473 </row>
36474 <row>
36475 <cell>ORPIMENT</cell>
36476 <cell>111; 1; 222</cell>
36477 </row>
36478 <row>
36479 <cell>Colour of fumes</cell>
36480 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36481 </row>
36482 <row>
36483 <cell>Harmful to metals</cell>
36484 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>273<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36485 </row>
36486 <row>
36487 <cell>Indication of gold, etc.</cell>
36488 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36489 </row>
36490 <row>
36491 <cell>Roasted from ore</cell>
36492 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>273<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36493 </row>
36494 <row>
36495 <cell>Use in assaying</cell>
36496 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>237<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36497 </row>
36498 <row>
36499 <cell>OUTCROPS</cell>
36500 <cell>68; 43</cell>
36501 </row>
36502 <row>
36503 <cell>OX-BLOOD IN SALT MAKING</cell>
36504 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>552<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36505 </row>
36506 <row>
36507 <cell>PACTOLUS, GOLD SANDS OF</cell>
36508 <cell>27</cell>
36509 </row>
36510 <row>
36511 <cell>PARK&#039;S PROCESS</cell>
36512 <cell>465</cell>
36513 </row>
36514 <row>
36515 <cell>PARTING GOLD FROM COPPER</cell>
36516 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>462—464<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36517 </row>
36518 <row>
36519 <cell>PARTING GOLD FROM SILVER</cell>
36520 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>443—460;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
36521 458—463</cell>
36522 </row>
36523 <row>
36524 <cell>Antimony sulphide</cell>
36525 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>451—452;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
36526 451—452; 461</cell>
36527 </row>
36528 <row>
36529 <cell>PARTING GOLD FROM SILVER.</cell>
36530 <cell></cell>
36531 </row>
36532 <row>
36533 <cell>Cementation</cell>
36534 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>453—457; 453—454; 458<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36535 </row>
36536 <row>
36537 <cell>Chlorine gas</cell>
36538 <cell>458; 462</cell>
36539 </row>
36540 <row>
36541 <cell>Electrolysis</cell>
36542 <cell>458; 462</cell>
36543 </row>
36544 <row>
36545 <cell>Nitric acid</cell>
36546 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>443—447;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 443; 447;
36547 460</cell>
36548 </row>
36549 <row>
36550 <cell>Nitric acid (in assaying)</cell>
36551 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>247—249<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36552 </row>
36553 <row>
36554 <cell>Sulphur and copper</cell>
36555 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>448—451;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 448;
36556 461</cell>
36557 </row>
36558 <row>
36559 <cell>Sulphuric acid</cell>
36560 <cell>458; 462</cell>
36561 </row>
36562 <row>
36563 <cell>PARTITIONS</cell>
36564 <cell>493</cell>
36565 </row>
36566 <row>
36567 <cell>PASSAU, PEACE OF</cell>
36568 <cell>IX.</cell>
36569 </row>
36570 <row>
36571 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Passus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36572 <cell>616; 78</cell>
36573 </row>
36574 <row>
36575 <cell>PATIO PROCESS</cell>
36576 <cell>297—298</cell>
36577 </row>
36578 <row>
36579 <cell>PATTINSON&#039;S PROCESS</cell>
36580 <cell>465</cell>
36581 </row>
36582 <row>
36583 <cell>PEAK, THE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> High
36584 Peak).</cell>
36585 <cell></cell>
36586 </row>
36587 <row>
36588 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pentremites<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36589 <cell>115</cell>
36590 </row>
36591 <row>
36592 <cell>PERGAMUM.</cell>
36593 <cell></cell>
36594 </row>
36595 <row>
36596 <cell>Brazen ox of</cell>
36597 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>11<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36598 </row>
36599 <row>
36600 <cell>Mines near</cell>
36601 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26; 27<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36602 </row>
36603 <row>
36604 <cell>PERIPATETICS</cell>
36605 <cell>XII.</cell>
36606 </row>
36607 <row>
36608 <cell>Theory of ore deposits</cell>
36609 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>47;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 44</cell>
36610 </row>
36611 <row>
36612 <cell>View of wealth</cell>
36613 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>18<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36614 </row>
36615 <row>
36616 <cell>PERSIANS.</cell>
36617 <cell></cell>
36618 </row>
36619 <row>
36620 <cell>Ancient mining law</cell>
36621 <cell>83</cell>
36622 </row>
36623 <row>
36624 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36625 <cell>616; 78</cell>
36626 </row>
36627 <row>
36628 <cell>PESTLES</cell>
36629 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>231; 483<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36630 </row>
36631 <row>
36632 <cell>PETROLEUM</cell>
36633 <cell>581—582</cell>
36634 </row>
36635 <row>
36636 <cell>PHALARIS. BRAZEN BULL OF</cell>
36637 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>11<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36638 </row>
36639 <row>
36640 <cell>PHILOSOPHY.</cell>
36641 <cell></cell>
36642 </row>
36643 <row>
36644 <cell>Knowledge necessary for miners</cell>
36645 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>3<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36646 </row>
36647 <row>
36648 <cell>PHOENICIANS.</cell>
36649 <cell></cell>
36650 </row>
36651 <row>
36652 <cell>Copper and bronze</cell>
36653 <cell>402</cell>
36654 </row>
36655 <row>
36656 <cell>In Thasos</cell>
36657 <cell>24</cell>
36658 </row>
36659 <row>
36660 <cell>Tin</cell>
36661 <cell>411—412</cell>
36662 </row>
36663 <row>
36664 <cell>PICKS</cell>
36665 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>152—153<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36666 </row>
36667 <row>
36668 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pickscheifer<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Ash-coloured
36669 Copper).</cell>
36670 <cell></cell>
36671 </row>
36672 <row>
36673 <cell>PLACER MINING</cell>
36674 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>321—348<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36675 </row>
36676 <row>
36677 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pleigeel<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Lead Ochre).</cell>
36678 <cell></cell>
36679 </row>
36680 <row>
36681 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pleiweis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> White-lead).</cell>
36682 <cell></cell>
36683 </row>
36684 <row>
36685 <cell>PLEYGANG VEIN</cell>
36686 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>42<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36687 </row>
36688 <row>
36689 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Plumbago<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36690 <cell>110</cell>
36691 </row>
36692 <row>
36693 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Plumbum candidum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36694 <cell>110; 3; 473</cell>
36695 </row>
36696 <row>
36697 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Plumbum cinereum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36698 <cell>111; 3</cell>
36699 </row>
36700 <row>
36701 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Plumbum nigrum lutei coloris<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36702 <cell>110; 3</cell>
36703 </row>
36704 <row>
36705 <cell>PLUMMET LEVEL.</cell>
36706 <cell></cell>
36707 </row>
36708 <row>
36709 <cell>Standing</cell>
36710 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>143;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 137</cell>
36711 </row>
36712 <row>
36713 <cell>Suspended</cell>
36714 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>145; 146;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 137</cell>
36715 </row>
36716 <row>
36717 <cell>POCKETS IN ALLUVIAL STUICES</cell>
36718 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>322—330<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36719 </row>
36720 <row>
36721 <cell>POISONOUS FUMES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
36722 Fumes).</cell>
36723 <cell></cell>
36724 </row>
36725 <row>
36726 <cell>POLAND.</cell>
36727 <cell></cell>
36728 </row>
36729 <row>
36730 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
36731 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>483<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36732 </row>
36733 <row>
36734 <cell>Lead ore washing</cell>
36735 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>347<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36736 </row>
36737 <row>
36738 <cell>Lead smelting</cell>
36739 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>392<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36740 </row>
36741 <row>
36742 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Poletae,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> TABLETS OF
36743 THE</cell>
36744 <cell>83</cell>
36745 </row>
36746 <row>
36747 <cell>POLING COPPER</cell>
36748 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>531—538;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
36749 535—536</cell>
36750 </row>
36751 <row>
36752 <cell>POMPEIOPOLIS.</cell>
36753 <cell></cell>
36754 </row>
36755 <row>
36756 <cell>Arsenic mine at</cell>
36757 <cell>111</cell>
36758 </row>
36759 <row>
36760 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36761 <cell>394; 113—114; 403</cell>
36762 </row>
36763 <row>
36764 <cell>From copper refinings</cell>
36765 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>538<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36766 </row>
36767 <row>
36768 <cell>From cupellation</cell>
36769 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>476<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36770 </row>
36771 <row>
36772 <cell>From dust-chambers</cell>
36773 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>394<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36774 </row>
36775 <row>
36776 <cell>From roasting ore</cell>
36777 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>278<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36778 </row>
36779 <row>
36780 <cell>Poisonous</cell>
36781 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>214;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 215</cell>
36782 </row>
36783 <row>
36784 <cell>Used for brass making</cell>
36785 <cell>410</cell>
36786 </row>
36787 <row>
36788 <cell>PORCELAIN CLAY</cell>
36789 <cell>115</cell>
36790 </row>
36791 <row>
36792 <cell>POTASH</cell>
36793 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>558—559;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 558; 233;
36794 220</cell>
36795 </row>
36796 <row>
36797 <cell>In <emph type="italics"></emph>Sal artificiosus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36798 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>463<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36799 </row>
36800 <row>
36801 <cell>POTTERY, EGYPTIAN</cell>
36802 <cell>391</cell>
36803 </row>
36804 <row>
36805 <cell>POTOSI</cell>
36806 <cell>298</cell>
36807 </row>
36808 <row>
36809 <cell>POZOS DE ANIBAL, LOS</cell>
36810 <cell>42</cell>
36811 </row>
36812 <row>
36813 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pous<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36814 <cell>617; 78</cell>
36815 </row>
36816 <row>
36817 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Praefectus cuniculi<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36818 <cell>78</cell>
36819 </row>
36820 <row>
36821 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Praefectus fodinae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
36822 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mine
36823 Manager).</cell>
36824 <cell></cell>
36825 </row>
36826 <row>
36827 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Praefectus metallorum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
36828 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mining
36829 Prefect).</cell>
36830 <cell></cell>
36831 </row>
36832 <row>
36833 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Praeses cuniculi<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36834 <cell>78</cell>
36835 </row>
36836 <row>
36837 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Praeses fodinae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mining
36838 Foreman).</cell>
36839 <cell></cell>
36840 </row>
36841 <row>
36842 <cell>PRECIOUS AND BASE METALS</cell>
36843 <cell>439</cell>
36844 </row>
36845 <row>
36846 <cell>PRIMGAP</cell>
36847 <cell>80</cell>
36848 </row>
36849 <row>
36850 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Procurator metallorum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36851 <cell>83</cell>
36852 </row>
36853 <row>
36854 <cell>PROSPECTING</cell>
36855 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>35<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36856 </row>
36857 <row>
36858 <cell>PROUSTITE</cell>
36859 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>109<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36860 </row>
36861 <row>
36862 <cell>PUMPS</cell>
36863 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>171—200;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 149</cell>
36864 </row>
36865 <row>
36866 <cell>Chain</cell>
36867 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>171—175<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36868 </row>
36869 <row>
36870 <cell>Rag and chain</cell>
36871 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>188—200<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36872 </row>
36873 <pb pagenum="627"></pb>
36874 <row>
36875 <cell>Suction</cell>
36876 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>175—188<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36877 </row>
36878 <row>
36879 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Purgator argents<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
36880 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Silver
36881 Refiner).</cell>
36882 <cell></cell>
36883 </row>
36884 <row>
36885 <cell>PURSER</cell>
36886 <cell>77</cell>
36887 </row>
36888 <row>
36889 <cell>PUTROLI</cell>
36890 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>501<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36891 </row>
36892 <row>
36893 <cell>PYRARGYRITK</cell>
36894 <cell>109</cell>
36895 </row>
36896 <row>
36897 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pyriten argenium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
36898 <cell>408</cell>
36899 </row>
36900 <row>
36901 <cell>PYRITES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
36902 Cakes of Melted Pyrites)</cell>
36903 <cell>51; 111; 112; 1</cell>
36904 </row>
36905 <row>
36906 <cell>As a flux</cell>
36907 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>234<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36908 </row>
36909 <row>
36910 <cell>Assay for gold</cell>
36911 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>243<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36912 </row>
36913 <row>
36914 <cell>In tin concentrates</cell>
36915 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>348<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36916 </row>
36917 <row>
36918 <cell>Latin and German terms</cell>
36919 <cell>222</cell>
36920 </row>
36921 <row>
36922 <cell>Roasting</cell>
36923 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>273—274<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36924 </row>
36925 <row>
36926 <cell>Roasting cakes of</cell>
36927 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>349—351<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36928 </row>
36929 <row>
36930 <cell>Smelting for gold and silver</cell>
36931 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>399; 401<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36932 </row>
36933 <row>
36934 <cell>Used in making vitriol</cell>
36935 <cell>578</cell>
36936 </row>
36937 <row>
36938 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pyrites aerosus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Copper
36939 Pyrites).</cell>
36940 <cell></cell>
36941 </row>
36942 <row>
36943 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pyrites aurei coloris<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
36944 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Copper
36945 Pyrites).</cell>
36946 <cell></cell>
36947 </row>
36948 <row>
36949 <cell>QUARTZ (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
36950 Stones which easily melt)</cell>
36951 <cell>114</cell>
36952 </row>
36953 <row>
36954 <cell>As a flux</cell>
36955 <cell>380</cell>
36956 </row>
36957 <row>
36958 <cell>An indication of ore</cell>
36959 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36960 </row>
36961 <row>
36962 <cell>Material of glass</cell>
36963 <cell>380</cell>
36964 </row>
36965 <row>
36966 <cell>Silver ore</cell>
36967 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>113<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36968 </row>
36969 <row>
36970 <cell>Smelting of</cell>
36971 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>401<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36972 </row>
36973 <row>
36974 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Quarzum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Quartz).</cell>
36975 <cell></cell>
36976 </row>
36977 <row>
36978 <cell>QUERTZE</cell>
36979 <cell>380</cell>
36980 </row>
36981 <row>
36982 <cell>QUICKSILVER</cell>
36983 <cell>432; 2; 354; 111</cell>
36984 </row>
36985 <row>
36986 <cell>Amalgamation of gilt objects</cell>
36987 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>461<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36988 </row>
36989 <row>
36990 <cell>Amalgamation of gold dust</cell>
36991 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>396<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
36992 </row>
36993 <row>
36994 <cell>Amalgamation of gold ores</cell>
36995 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>297;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 297</cell>
36996 </row>
36997 <row>
36998 <cell>Assaying methods</cell>
36999 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>247<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37000 </row>
37001 <row>
37002 <cell>Ore</cell>
37003 <cell>426—432</cell>
37004 </row>
37005 <row>
37006 <cell>Use in assaying gold ore</cell>
37007 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>243<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37008 </row>
37009 <row>
37010 <cell>RAG AND CHAIN PUMPS</cell>
37011 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>188—200<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37012 </row>
37013 <row>
37014 <cell>RAKE VEINS</cell>
37015 <cell>101</cell>
37016 </row>
37017 <row>
37018 <cell>RAMMELSBERG.</cell>
37019 <cell></cell>
37020 </row>
37021 <row>
37022 <cell>Collapse of mines</cell>
37023 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>216<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37024 </row>
37025 <row>
37026 <cell>Discovery</cell>
37027 <cell>37</cell>
37028 </row>
37029 <row>
37030 <cell>Early vitriol making</cell>
37031 <cell>572</cell>
37032 </row>
37033 <row>
37034 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Rauchstein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37035 <cell>127</cell>
37036 </row>
37037 <row>
37038 <cell>REALGAR</cell>
37039 <cell>1; 111; 222</cell>
37040 </row>
37041 <row>
37042 <cell>Colour of fumes</cell>
37043 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37044 </row>
37045 <row>
37046 <cell>Harmful to metals</cell>
37047 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>273<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37048 </row>
37049 <row>
37050 <cell>Indication of ore</cell>
37051 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37052 </row>
37053 <row>
37054 <cell>Roasted from ore</cell>
37055 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>273<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37056 </row>
37057 <row>
37058 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Rederstein (see Trochitis).<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37059 <cell></cell>
37060 </row>
37061 <row>
37062 <cell>RED-LEAD</cell>
37063 <cell>232; 110; 222</cell>
37064 </row>
37065 <row>
37066 <cell>Use in parting gold from copper</cell>
37067 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>463<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37068 </row>
37069 <row>
37070 <cell>Use in parting gold from silver</cell>
37071 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>459<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37072 </row>
37073 <row>
37074 <cell>REFINED SALT</cell>
37075 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>454; 463;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 233</cell>
37076 </row>
37077 <row>
37078 <cell>REFINERY FOR SILVER AND COPPER</cell>
37079 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>491—498<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37080 </row>
37081 <row>
37082 <cell>REFINING GOLD FROM COPPER</cell>
37083 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>462—464<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37084 </row>
37085 <row>
37086 <cell>REFINING GOLD FROM SILVER</cell>
37087 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>443—458<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37088 </row>
37089 <row>
37090 <cell>REFINING-HEARTH</cell>
37091 <cell>492</cell>
37092 </row>
37093 <row>
37094 <cell>REFINING SILVER</cell>
37095 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>483—490;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 465;
37096 484</cell>
37097 </row>
37098 <row>
37099 <cell>REFINING SILVER FROM LEAD</cell>
37100 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>464<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37101 </row>
37102 <row>
37103 <cell>REFORMATION, THE</cell>
37104 <cell>V; VIII.</cell>
37105 </row>
37106 <row>
37107 <cell>RE-OPENING OF OLD MINES</cell>
37108 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>217<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37109 </row>
37110 <row>
37111 <cell>REVIVAL OF LEARNING.</cell>
37112 <cell></cell>
37113 </row>
37114 <row>
37115 <cell>Agricola&#039;s position in</cell>
37116 <cell>XIII.</cell>
37117 </row>
37118 <row>
37119 <cell>REWARD LEASE, IN AUSTRALIAN LAW</cell>
37120 <cell>77</cell>
37121 </row>
37122 <row>
37123 <cell>RHAETIA</cell>
37124 <cell>388</cell>
37125 </row>
37126 <row>
37127 <cell>RHAETIAN ALPS.</cell>
37128 <cell></cell>
37129 </row>
37130 <row>
37131 <cell>Stamp milling in</cell>
37132 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>319<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37133 </row>
37134 <row>
37135 <cell>RING-FIRE</cell>
37136 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>448<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37137 </row>
37138 <row>
37139 <cell>RIO TINTO MINES.</cell>
37140 <cell></cell>
37141 </row>
37142 <row>
37143 <cell>Roman methods of smelting</cell>
37144 <cell>405</cell>
37145 </row>
37146 <row>
37147 <cell>Roman water-wheels</cell>
37148 <cell>149</cell>
37149 </row>
37150 <row>
37151 <cell>RISKS OF MINING</cell>
37152 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>28—29<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37153 </row>
37154 <row>
37155 <cell>RITHER (a horse)</cell>
37156 <cell>101</cell>
37157 </row>
37158 <row>
37159 <cell>ROASTED COPPER</cell>
37160 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>233;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 233; 222</cell>
37161 </row>
37162 <row>
37163 <cell>ROASTING</cell>
37164 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>273—279;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 267</cell>
37165 </row>
37166 <row>
37167 <cell>Heap roasting</cell>
37168 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>274—275<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37169 </row>
37170 <row>
37171 <cell>In furnaces</cell>
37172 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>276<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37173 </row>
37174 <row>
37175 <cell>Mattes</cell>
37176 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>349—351<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37177 </row>
37178 <row>
37179 <cell>Prior to assaying</cell>
37180 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>231<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37181 </row>
37182 <row>
37183 <cell>ROCKS</cell>
37184 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>119;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 2</cell>
37185 </row>
37186 <row>
37187 <cell>ROCK-SALT</cell>
37188 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>548;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 222</cell>
37189 </row>
37190 <row>
37191 <cell>Use in cementation</cell>
37192 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>454<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37193 </row>
37194 <row>
37195 <cell>ROMAN ALUM</cell>
37196 <cell>565</cell>
37197 </row>
37198 <row>
37199 <cell>ROMANS.</cell>
37200 <cell></cell>
37201 </row>
37202 <row>
37203 <cell>Amalgamation</cell>
37204 <cell>297</cell>
37205 </row>
37206 <row>
37207 <cell>Antimony</cell>
37208 <cell>428</cell>
37209 </row>
37210 <row>
37211 <cell>Brass making</cell>
37212 <cell>410</cell>
37213 </row>
37214 <row>
37215 <cell>Companies</cell>
37216 <cell>90</cell>
37217 </row>
37218 <row>
37219 <cell>Copper smelting</cell>
37220 <cell>404—405</cell>
37221 </row>
37222 <row>
37223 <cell>Mining law</cell>
37224 <cell>83</cell>
37225 </row>
37226 <row>
37227 <cell>Minium Company</cell>
37228 <cell>232</cell>
37229 </row>
37230 <row>
37231 <cell>Quicksilver</cell>
37232 <cell>433</cell>
37233 </row>
37234 <row>
37235 <cell>Roasting</cell>
37236 <cell>267</cell>
37237 </row>
37238 <row>
37239 <cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell>
37240 <cell>392</cell>
37241 </row>
37242 <row>
37243 <cell>Washing of ore</cell>
37244 <cell>281</cell>
37245 </row>
37246 <row>
37247 <cell>ROSETTE COPPER</cell>
37248 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>538;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 535</cell>
37249 </row>
37250 <row>
37251 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Rosgeel<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Realgar).</cell>
37252 <cell></cell>
37253 </row>
37254 <row>
37255 <cell>RUBY COPPER</cell>
37256 <cell>109; 402</cell>
37257 </row>
37258 <row>
37259 <cell>RUBY SILVER</cell>
37260 <cell>51; 109</cell>
37261 </row>
37262 <row>
37263 <cell>Assaying of</cell>
37264 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>244<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37265 </row>
37266 <row>
37267 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
37268 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>473<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37269 </row>
37270 <row>
37271 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Rudis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Ores</cell>
37272 <cell>108</cell>
37273 </row>
37274 <row>
37275 <cell>RUST (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37276 Iron-rust).</cell>
37277 <cell></cell>
37278 </row>
37279 <row>
37280 <cell>SABINES</cell>
37281 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37282 </row>
37283 <row>
37284 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Saigerdörner<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37285 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Liquation
37286 Thorns).</cell>
37287 <cell></cell>
37288 </row>
37289 <row>
37290 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Saigerwerk (see Stannum).<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37291 <cell></cell>
37292 </row>
37293 <row>
37294 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Salamander har<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Asbestos).</cell>
37295 <cell></cell>
37296 </row>
37297 <row>
37298 <cell>Salamis, Battle of</cell>
37299 <cell>27</cell>
37300 </row>
37301 <row>
37302 <cell>Sal-ammoniac</cell>
37303 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>560;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 560; 222</cell>
37304 </row>
37305 <row>
37306 <cell>In cements for parting gold and silver</cell>
37307 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>454—457<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37308 </row>
37309 <row>
37310 <cell>In making <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37311 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>441<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37312 </row>
37313 <row>
37314 <cell>Uses in cupellation</cell>
37315 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>474<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37316 </row>
37317 <row>
37318 <cell>Uses in making <emph type="italics"></emph>aqua regia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37319 <cell>460</cell>
37320 </row>
37321 <row>
37322 <cell>Uses in parting gold from copper</cell>
37323 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>463<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37324 </row>
37325 <row>
37326 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sal artificiosus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37327 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>236; 463;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 236</cell>
37328 </row>
37329 <row>
37330 <cell>In assaying</cell>
37331 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>242<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37332 </row>
37333 <row>
37334 <cell>As a flux</cell>
37335 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>234<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37336 </row>
37337 <row>
37338 <cell>SALT</cell>
37339 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>545; 556;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 546; 233;
37340 222</cell>
37341 </row>
37342 <row>
37343 <cell>As a flux</cell>
37344 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>234—238<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37345 </row>
37346 <row>
37347 <cell>Pans</cell>
37348 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>545; 546<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37349 </row>
37350 <row>
37351 <cell>Solidified juice</cell>
37352 <cell>1</cell>
37353 </row>
37354 <row>
37355 <cell>Use in cementation</cell>
37356 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>454;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 454</cell>
37357 </row>
37358 <row>
37359 <cell>Use in parting gold from copper</cell>
37360 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>463; 464<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37361 </row>
37362 <row>
37363 <cell>Use in smelting ores</cell>
37364 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>396; 400<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37365 </row>
37366 <row>
37367 <cell>Wells</cell>
37368 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>546—547<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37369 </row>
37370 <row>
37371 <cell>SALT MADE FROM ASHES OF MUSK IVY</cell>
37372 <cell>560; 233</cell>
37373 </row>
37374 <row>
37375 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sal torrefactus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37376 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>242;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 222; 233</cell>
37377 </row>
37378 <row>
37379 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sal tostus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37380 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>233;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 233; 222</cell>
37381 </row>
37382 <row>
37383 <cell>SALTPETRE</cell>
37384 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>561—564;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 561; 562;
37385 222</cell>
37386 </row>
37387 <row>
37388 <cell>As a flux</cell>
37389 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>233; 236—238; 245; 247<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37390 </row>
37391 <row>
37392 <cell>In smelting gold concentrates</cell>
37393 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>398<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37394 </row>
37395 <row>
37396 <cell>Uses in cementation</cell>
37397 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>454;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 454</cell>
37398 </row>
37399 <row>
37400 <cell>Uses in making nitric acid</cell>
37401 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>439; 440; 447; 454<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37402 </row>
37403 <row>
37404 <cell>Uses in melting silver nitrate</cell>
37405 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>447<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37406 </row>
37407 <row>
37408 <cell>SAMPLING COPPER BULLION</cell>
37409 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>249<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37410 </row>
37411 <row>
37412 <cell>SAND</cell>
37413 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>117<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37414 </row>
37415 <row>
37416 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sandaraca<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Realgar).</cell>
37417 <cell></cell>
37418 </row>
37419 <row>
37420 <cell>SANDIVER (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37421 Glass-galls).</cell>
37422 <cell></cell>
37423 </row>
37424 <row>
37425 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sarda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Carnelian).</cell>
37426 <cell></cell>
37427 </row>
37428 <row>
37429 <cell>SAXONY.</cell>
37430 <cell></cell>
37431 </row>
37432 <row>
37433 <cell>High Peak customs from</cell>
37434 <cell>77; 85</cell>
37435 </row>
37436 <row>
37437 <cell>Political state in Agricola&#039;s time.</cell>
37438 <cell>VIII; IX.</cell>
37439 </row>
37440 <row>
37441 <cell>Reformation</cell>
37442 <cell>IX.</cell>
37443 </row>
37444 <row>
37445 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Saxum calcis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Limestone).</cell>
37446 <cell></cell>
37447 </row>
37448 <row>
37449 <cell>SCALES OF FINENESS</cell>
37450 <cell>253; 617</cell>
37451 </row>
37452 <row>
37453 <cell>SCAPTE-HYLE, MINES OF</cell>
37454 <cell>23</cell>
37455 </row>
37456 <row>
37457 <cell>SCHEMNITZ.</cell>
37458 <cell></cell>
37459 </row>
37460 <row>
37461 <cell>Age of mines</cell>
37462 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>5<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37463 </row>
37464 <row>
37465 <cell>Gunpowder for blasting</cell>
37466 <cell>119</cell>
37467 </row>
37468 <row>
37469 <cell>Pumps</cell>
37470 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>194<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37471 </row>
37472 <row>
37473 <cell>SCHIST</cell>
37474 <cell>222</cell>
37475 </row>
37476 <row>
37477 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Schistos<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Ironstone).</cell>
37478 <cell></cell>
37479 </row>
37480 <row>
37481 <cell>SCHLACKENWALD.</cell>
37482 <cell></cell>
37483 </row>
37484 <row>
37485 <cell>Ore washing</cell>
37486 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>304<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37487 </row>
37488 <row>
37489 <cell>SCHMALKALDEN LEAGUE</cell>
37490 <cell>IX.</cell>
37491 </row>
37492 <row>
37493 <cell>SCHMALKALDEN WAR</cell>
37494 <cell>IX; X.</cell>
37495 </row>
37496 <row>
37497 <cell>SCHNEEBERG</cell>
37498 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXXI;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> VI.</cell>
37499 </row>
37500 <row>
37501 <cell>Cobalt</cell>
37502 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>435<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37503 </row>
37504 <row>
37505 <cell>Depth of shafts</cell>
37506 <cell>102</cell>
37507 </row>
37508 <row>
37509 <cell>Ore stamping</cell>
37510 <cell>281</cell>
37511 </row>
37512 <row>
37513 <cell>Shares</cell>
37514 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>91<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37515 </row>
37516 <row>
37517 <cell>St. George mine</cell>
37518 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>92;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 74; 75</cell>
37519 </row>
37520 <row>
37521 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Schwartz-atrament<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (see
37522 <emph type="italics"></emph>Melanteria<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> and <emph type="italics"></emph>Sory<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
37523 <cell></cell>
37524 </row>
37525 <pb pagenum="628"></pb>
37526 <row>
37527 <cell>SCORIFICATION ASSAY</cell>
37528 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>239<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37529 </row>
37530 <row>
37531 <cell>SCORIFIER</cell>
37532 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>228; 230;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 222</cell>
37533 </row>
37534 <row>
37535 <cell>Assays in</cell>
37536 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>238; 239<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37537 </row>
37538 <row>
37539 <cell>SCREENING ORE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37540 Sifting Ore).</cell>
37541 <cell></cell>
37542 </row>
37543 <row>
37544 <cell>SCREENS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37545 Screening)</cell>
37546 <cell>267</cell>
37547 </row>
37548 <row>
37549 <cell>In stamp-mill</cell>
37550 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>315<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37551 </row>
37552 <row>
37553 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Scriba fodinarum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37554 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mining
37555 Clerk).</cell>
37556 <cell></cell>
37557 </row>
37558 <row>
37559 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Scriba magistri metallicorum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>Bergmeister&#039;s Clerk).</cell>
37560 <cell></cell>
37561 </row>
37562 <row>
37563 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Scriba partium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Share Clerk).</cell>
37564 <cell></cell>
37565 </row>
37566 <row>
37567 <cell>SCUM OF LEAD FROM CUPELLATION</cell>
37568 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>475<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37569 </row>
37570 <row>
37571 <cell>SCYTHIANS.</cell>
37572 <cell></cell>
37573 </row>
37574 <row>
37575 <cell>Wealth condemned</cell>
37576 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37577 </row>
37578 <row>
37579 <cell>SEAMS IN THE ROCKS</cell>
37580 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>72;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 43; 47</cell>
37581 </row>
37582 <row>
37583 <cell>Indications of ore</cell>
37584 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>67; 107<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37585 </row>
37586 <row>
37587 <cell>SEA-WATER, SALT FROM</cell>
37588 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>545—546<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37589 </row>
37590 <row>
37591 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sesterce<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37592 <cell>448</cell>
37593 </row>
37594 <row>
37595 <cell>SETT</cell>
37596 <cell>77</cell>
37597 </row>
37598 <row>
37599 <cell>SETTLING PITS</cell>
37600 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>316;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 267</cell>
37601 </row>
37602 <row>
37603 <cell>SHAFT-HOUSES</cell>
37604 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>102<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37605 </row>
37606 <row>
37607 <cell>SHAFTS</cell>
37608 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>102—107; 122—124<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37609 </row>
37610 <row>
37611 <cell>Surveys of</cell>
37612 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>129—135<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37613 </row>
37614 <row>
37615 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Venae cumulatae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37616 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>128<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37617 </row>
37618 <row>
37619 <cell>SHAKES</cell>
37620 <cell>101</cell>
37621 </row>
37622 <row>
37623 <cell>SHARE CLERK</cell>
37624 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>97; 93;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
37625 </row>
37626 <row>
37627 <cell>SHARE IN MINES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37628 Companies, Mining).</cell>
37629 <cell></cell>
37630 </row>
37631 <row>
37632 <cell>SHEARS FOR CUTTING NATIVE SILVER</cell>
37633 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>269<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37634 </row>
37635 <row>
37636 <cell>SHIFT</cell>
37637 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>99;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 92</cell>
37638 </row>
37639 <row>
37640 <cell>SHOES (stamp)</cell>
37641 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>285—286;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 267</cell>
37642 </row>
37643 <row>
37644 <cell>SHOVELLERS</cell>
37645 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>153; 169;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
37646 </row>
37647 <row>
37648 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sideritis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Lodestone).</cell>
37649 <cell></cell>
37650 </row>
37651 <row>
37652 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Siegelstein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Lodestone).</cell>
37653 <cell></cell>
37654 </row>
37655 <row>
37656 <cell>SIEVES.</cell>
37657 <cell></cell>
37658 </row>
37659 <row>
37660 <cell>For charcoal</cell>
37661 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>375<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37662 </row>
37663 <row>
37664 <cell>For crushed ore</cell>
37665 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>287—293; 341<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37666 </row>
37667 <row>
37668 <cell>SIFTING ORE</cell>
37669 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>287—293<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37670 </row>
37671 <row>
37672 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Signator publicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37673 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Notary).</cell>
37674 <cell></cell>
37675 </row>
37676 <row>
37677 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Silberweis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Mica).</cell>
37678 <cell></cell>
37679 </row>
37680 <row>
37681 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Silex<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37682 <cell>114; 118</cell>
37683 </row>
37684 <row>
37685 <cell>SILVER (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37686 Assaying, Liquation, Parting, Refining, <emph type="italics"></emph>etc<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
37687 <cell>390; 354; 109</cell>
37688 </row>
37689 <row>
37690 <cell>Amalgamation</cell>
37691 <cell>297; 300</cell>
37692 </row>
37693 <row>
37694 <cell>Assaying</cell>
37695 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>248—251<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37696 </row>
37697 <row>
37698 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
37699 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>464—483; 241<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37700 </row>
37701 <row>
37702 <cell>“Drying” copper residues from liquation</cell>
37703 <cell>529</cell>
37704 </row>
37705 <row>
37706 <cell>Enrichment in copper bottoms</cell>
37707 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>510;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 510</cell>
37708 </row>
37709 <row>
37710 <cell>Exhausted liquation cakes</cell>
37711 <cell>524</cell>
37712 </row>
37713 <row>
37714 <cell>Indicated by bismuth, etc.</cell>
37715 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37716 </row>
37717 <row>
37718 <cell>Liquation</cell>
37719 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>505—507;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 506; 509;
37720 512</cell>
37721 </row>
37722 <row>
37723 <cell>Parting from gold (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37724 Parting Gold and Silver).</cell>
37725 <cell></cell>
37726 </row>
37727 <row>
37728 <cell>Parting from iron</cell>
37729 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>544;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 544</cell>
37730 </row>
37731 <row>
37732 <cell>Precipitation from solution in copper bowl</cell>
37733 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>444<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37734 </row>
37735 <row>
37736 <cell>Refining</cell>
37737 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>483—490;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 465;
37738 484</cell>
37739 </row>
37740 <row>
37741 <cell>Smelting of ores</cell>
37742 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>381—382; 386; 388; 390; 400; 402<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37743 </row>
37744 <row>
37745 <cell>Use in clarification of nitric acid</cell>
37746 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>443;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 443</cell>
37747 </row>
37748 <row>
37749 <cell>SILVER, RUBY (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Ruby
37750 Silver).</cell>
37751 <cell></cell>
37752 </row>
37753 <row>
37754 <cell>SILVER GLANCE</cell>
37755 <cell>109</cell>
37756 </row>
37757 <row>
37758 <cell>Assaying</cell>
37759 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>244<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37760 </row>
37761 <row>
37762 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
37763 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>473<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37764 </row>
37765 <row>
37766 <cell>Dressing</cell>
37767 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>269<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37768 </row>
37769 <row>
37770 <cell>SILVER-LEAD ALLOY (<emph type="italics"></emph>see Stannum, etc.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
37771 <cell></cell>
37772 </row>
37773 <row>
37774 <cell>SILVER ORES</cell>
37775 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>109;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 109</cell>
37776 </row>
37777 <row>
37778 <cell>Assaying</cell>
37779 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>242—244<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37780 </row>
37781 <row>
37782 <cell>Assaying cupriferous ores</cell>
37783 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>245<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37784 </row>
37785 <row>
37786 <cell>Fluxes required in assaying</cell>
37787 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37788 </row>
37789 <row>
37790 <cell>Smelting cupriferous ores</cell>
37791 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>404—407<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37792 </row>
37793 <row>
37794 <cell>SILVER-PLATING</cell>
37795 <cell>460</cell>
37796 </row>
37797 <row>
37798 <cell>SILVER REFINER</cell>
37799 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>95;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
37800 </row>
37801 <row>
37802 <cell>SILVER REFINING (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37803 Refining).</cell>
37804 <cell></cell>
37805 </row>
37806 <row>
37807 <cell>SILVER VEINS</cell>
37808 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>117<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37809 </row>
37810 <row>
37811 <cell>SINGING BY MINERS</cell>
37812 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>118<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37813 </row>
37814 <row>
37815 <cell>SINTERING CONCENTRATES</cell>
37816 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>401<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37817 </row>
37818 <row>
37819 <cell>SLAGS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37820 Liquation Slags)</cell>
37821 <cell>222</cell>
37822 </row>
37823 <row>
37824 <cell>From blast furnace</cell>
37825 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>379; 381<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37826 </row>
37827 <row>
37828 <cell>From liquation</cell>
37829 <cell>491; 492; 523</cell>
37830 </row>
37831 <row>
37832 <cell>SLAVES AS MINERS</cell>
37833 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>23;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 83</cell>
37834 </row>
37835 <row>
37836 <cell>In Greek mines</cell>
37837 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>25;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 25; 28</cell>
37838 </row>
37839 <row>
37840 <cell>SLOUGH (tunnel)</cell>
37841 <cell>101</cell>
37842 </row>
37843 <row>
37844 <cell>SLUICES</cell>
37845 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>319; 322—348<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37846 </row>
37847 <row>
37848 <cell>SMALLITE</cell>
37849 <cell>113</cell>
37850 </row>
37851 <row>
37852 <cell>SMALT</cell>
37853 <cell>112</cell>
37854 </row>
37855 <row>
37856 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Smega<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37857 <cell>404</cell>
37858 </row>
37859 <row>
37860 <cell>SMELTERS</cell>
37861 <cell>78</cell>
37862 </row>
37863 <row>
37864 <cell>SMELTING (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also various metals<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
37865 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>379—390;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
37866 353—355</cell>
37867 </row>
37868 <row>
37869 <cell>Assaying compared</cell>
37870 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>220<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37871 </row>
37872 <row>
37873 <cell>Building for</cell>
37874 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>355—361<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37875 </row>
37876 <row>
37877 <cell>Objects of</cell>
37878 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>353<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37879 </row>
37880 <row>
37881 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Smirgel<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Emery).</cell>
37882 <cell></cell>
37883 </row>
37884 <row>
37885 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Smiris<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Emery).</cell>
37886 <cell></cell>
37887 </row>
37888 <row>
37889 <cell>SMYRNA.</cell>
37890 <cell></cell>
37891 </row>
37892 <row>
37893 <cell>Mines near</cell>
37894 <cell>27</cell>
37895 </row>
37896 <row>
37897 <cell>SNAKE-BITES</cell>
37898 <cell>31</cell>
37899 </row>
37900 <row>
37901 <cell>SODA (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
37902 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>558; 559;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 233; 222</cell>
37903 </row>
37904 <row>
37905 <cell>As a flux</cell>
37906 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>233; 234<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37907 </row>
37908 <row>
37909 <cell>Historical notes</cell>
37910 <cell>558; 354</cell>
37911 </row>
37912 <row>
37913 <cell>Solidified juice</cell>
37914 <cell>1</cell>
37915 </row>
37916 <row>
37917 <cell>SOLE</cell>
37918 <cell>101</cell>
37919 </row>
37920 <row>
37921 <cell>SOLIDIFIED JUICES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37922 Juices, Solidified).</cell>
37923 <cell></cell>
37924 </row>
37925 <row>
37926 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Solifuga<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37927 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>216;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 216</cell>
37928 </row>
37929 <row>
37930 <cell>SORTERS</cell>
37931 <cell>78</cell>
37932 </row>
37933 <row>
37934 <cell>SORTING ORE</cell>
37935 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>268—271<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37936 </row>
37937 <row>
37938 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sory<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37939 <cell>112; 403; 573</cell>
37940 </row>
37941 <row>
37942 <cell>Sows</cell>
37943 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>376; 386;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 376</cell>
37944 </row>
37945 <row>
37946 <cell>SPAIN (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37947 Lusitania).</cell>
37948 <cell></cell>
37949 </row>
37950 <row>
37951 <cell>Ancient silver-lead mines</cell>
37952 <cell>149; 392</cell>
37953 </row>
37954 <row>
37955 <cell>Ancient silver mines of Carthage</cell>
37956 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>27<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37957 </row>
37958 <row>
37959 <cell>Ancient tin mines</cell>
37960 <cell>411—412</cell>
37961 </row>
37962 <row>
37963 <cell>SPALLING ORE</cell>
37964 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>271—272<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37965 </row>
37966 <row>
37967 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Spangen (see Trochitis).<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
37968 <cell></cell>
37969 </row>
37970 <row>
37971 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Spanschgrün<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37972 (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
37973 Verdigris).</cell>
37974 <cell></cell>
37975 </row>
37976 <row>
37977 <cell>SPARTANS.</cell>
37978 <cell></cell>
37979 </row>
37980 <row>
37981 <cell>Gold and silver forbidden</cell>
37982 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
37983 </row>
37984 <row>
37985 <cell>Interference with Athenian mines</cell>
37986 <cell>27</cell>
37987 </row>
37988 <row>
37989 <cell>SPAT (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Heavy
37990 Spar).</cell>
37991 <cell></cell>
37992 </row>
37993 <row>
37994 <cell>SPELTER</cell>
37995 <cell>409</cell>
37996 </row>
37997 <row>
37998 <cell>SPHALERITE</cell>
37999 <cell>113</cell>
38000 </row>
38001 <row>
38002 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Spiauter<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38003 <cell>409</cell>
38004 </row>
38005 <row>
38006 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Spiesglas (see Stibium).<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38007 <cell></cell>
38008 </row>
38009 <row>
38010 <cell>SPINES OF FISHES FOR CUPELS</cell>
38011 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>230<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38012 </row>
38013 <row>
38014 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Spodos<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38015 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>538;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 394; 113; 114</cell>
38016 </row>
38017 <row>
38018 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Spuma argenti<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Litharge).</cell>
38019 <cell></cell>
38020 </row>
38021 <row>
38022 <cell>STAFFORDSHIRE.</cell>
38023 <cell></cell>
38024 </row>
38025 <row>
38026 <cell>First pumping engine</cell>
38027 <cell>149</cell>
38028 </row>
38029 <row>
38030 <cell>STALAGMITES</cell>
38031 <cell>114</cell>
38032 </row>
38033 <row>
38034 <cell>STALL ROASTING</cell>
38035 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>350—351<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38036 </row>
38037 <row>
38038 <cell>STAMP</cell>
38039 <cell>267</cell>
38040 </row>
38041 <row>
38042 <cell>For breaking copper cakes</cell>
38043 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>501—503<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38044 </row>
38045 <row>
38046 <cell>For crushing crucible lining</cell>
38047 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>373—375<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38048 </row>
38049 <row>
38050 <cell>STAMPING REFINED SILVER</cell>
38051 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>489<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38052 </row>
38053 <row>
38054 <cell>STAMP-MILL</cell>
38055 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>279—287;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
38056 281—282; 267</cell>
38057 </row>
38058 <row>
38059 <cell>Wet ore</cell>
38060 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>312—314; 319—321<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38061 </row>
38062 <row>
38063 <cell>STANDING PLUMMET LEVEL (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>Plummet Level).</cell>
38064 <cell></cell>
38065 </row>
38066 <row>
38067 <cell>STANNARIES</cell>
38068 <cell>85</cell>
38069 </row>
38070 <row>
38071 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Stannum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38072 <cell>473; 2; 384; 492</cell>
38073 </row>
38074 <row>
38075 <cell>STEEL</cell>
38076 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>423—426;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
38077 422—423; 354</cell>
38078 </row>
38079 <row>
38080 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Steiger<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38081 <cell>77</cell>
38082 </row>
38083 <row>
38084 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Steinmack<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Porcelain
38085 Clay).</cell>
38086 <cell></cell>
38087 </row>
38088 <row>
38089 <cell>STEMPLE (stull)</cell>
38090 <cell>101</cell>
38091 </row>
38092 <row>
38093 <cell>STEPHANITE</cell>
38094 <cell>109</cell>
38095 </row>
38096 <row>
38097 <cell>STERNEN MINE</cell>
38098 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>92;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 75</cell>
38099 </row>
38100 <row>
38101 <cell>STEWARD (of High Peak mines)</cell>
38102 <cell>77</cell>
38103 </row>
38104 <row>
38105 <cell>ST. GEORGE MINE (Schneeberg)</cell>
38106 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>92;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 74; 75</cell>
38107 </row>
38108 <row>
38109 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Antimony <emph type="italics"></emph>and<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Anti-mony
38110 Sulphide)</cell>
38111 <cell>110; 428; 2; 221</cell>
38112 </row>
38113 <row>
38114 <cell>Flux to be added to</cell>
38115 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38116 </row>
38117 <row>
38118 <cell>In assaying</cell>
38119 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>237—239<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38120 </row>
38121 <row>
38122 <cell>In cementation</cell>
38123 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>458—460<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38124 </row>
38125 <row>
38126 <cell>Indication of silver</cell>
38127 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38128 </row>
38129 <row>
38130 <cell>In making nitric acid</cell>
38131 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>440<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38132 </row>
38133 <row>
38134 <cell>In parting gold and silver</cell>
38135 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>451—452; 459<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38136 </row>
38137 <row>
38138 <cell>In parting gold from copper</cell>
38139 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>464<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38140 </row>
38141 <row>
38142 <cell>In treatment of gold concentrates</cell>
38143 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>396; 397<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38144 </row>
38145 <row>
38146 <cell>STIBNITE</cell>
38147 <cell>428; 451</cell>
38148 </row>
38149 <row>
38150 <cell>ST. LORENTZ MINE</cell>
38151 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>74; 92<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38152 </row>
38153 <row>
38154 <cell>STOCKWERKE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see Vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
38155 <cell></cell>
38156 </row>
38157 <row>
38158 <cell>STOICS.</cell>
38159 <cell></cell>
38160 </row>
38161 <row>
38162 <cell>Views on wealth</cell>
38163 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>18<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38164 </row>
38165 <row>
38166 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Stomoma<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38167 <cell>423</cell>
38168 </row>
38169 <row>
38170 <cell>STONE JUICE</cell>
38171 <cell>46; 49</cell>
38172 </row>
38173 <pb pagenum="629"></pb>
38174 <row>
38175 <cell>STONES.</cell>
38176 <cell></cell>
38177 </row>
38178 <row>
38179 <cell>Agricola&#039;s view of</cell>
38180 <cell>2; 46; 49</cell>
38181 </row>
38182 <row>
38183 <cell>Various orders of fusibility</cell>
38184 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>380<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38185 </row>
38186 <row>
38187 <cell>“STONES WHICH EASILY MELT” (<emph type="italics"></emph>see
38188 also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Quartz)</cell>
38189 <cell>380; 222</cell>
38190 </row>
38191 <row>
38192 <cell>As a flux</cell>
38193 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>233; 236;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 233</cell>
38194 </row>
38195 <row>
38196 <cell>In making nitric acid</cell>
38197 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>440<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38198 </row>
38199 <row>
38200 <cell>In smelting</cell>
38201 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>379; 380; 390<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38202 </row>
38203 <row>
38204 <cell>Smelting of</cell>
38205 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>401<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38206 </row>
38207 <row>
38208 <cell>STOOL (of a drift)</cell>
38209 <cell>101</cell>
38210 </row>
38211 <row>
38212 <cell>STOPE</cell>
38213 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>126<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38214 </row>
38215 <row>
38216 <cell>STOPING</cell>
38217 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>125<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38218 </row>
38219 <row>
38220 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Venae cumulatae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38221 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>128<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38222 </row>
38223 <row>
38224 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38225 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>126; 127<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38226 </row>
38227 <row>
38228 <cell>STRAKE</cell>
38229 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>303—310;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 267;
38230 282</cell>
38231 </row>
38232 <row>
38233 <cell>Canvas</cell>
38234 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>307—310; 314; 316;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
38235 267</cell>
38236 </row>
38237 <row>
38238 <cell>Egyptians</cell>
38239 <cell>280</cell>
38240 </row>
38241 <row>
38242 <cell>Greeks</cell>
38243 <cell>281</cell>
38244 </row>
38245 <row>
38246 <cell>Short</cell>
38247 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>306—307;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 267</cell>
38248 </row>
38249 <row>
38250 <cell>Washing tin concentrates</cell>
38251 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>341—343<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38252 </row>
38253 <row>
38254 <cell>STRATA</cell>
38255 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>126<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38256 </row>
38257 <row>
38258 <cell>STREAMING</cell>
38259 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>316—318<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38260 </row>
38261 <row>
38262 <cell>STRINGERS</cell>
38263 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>70;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 43; 47; 70</cell>
38264 </row>
38265 <row>
38266 <cell>Indication of ore</cell>
38267 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>106<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38268 </row>
38269 <row>
38270 <cell>Mining method</cell>
38271 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>128<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38272 </row>
38273 <row>
38274 <cell>STYRIA</cell>
38275 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>388<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38276 </row>
38277 <row>
38278 <cell>SUBTERRANEAN HEAT</cell>
38279 <cell>46; 595</cell>
38280 </row>
38281 <row>
38282 <cell>SUCTION PUMPS</cell>
38283 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>175—188<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38284 </row>
38285 <row>
38286 <cell>SULPHIDES</cell>
38287 <cell>267; 355</cell>
38288 </row>
38289 <row>
38290 <cell>SULPHUR</cell>
38291 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>578—581;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 579;
38292 222</cell>
38293 </row>
38294 <row>
38295 <cell>Colour of fumes</cell>
38296 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38297 </row>
38298 <row>
38299 <cell>Harmful to metals</cell>
38300 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>273<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38301 </row>
38302 <row>
38303 <cell>In assaying</cell>
38304 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235—238<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38305 </row>
38306 <row>
38307 <cell>In parting gold from copper</cell>
38308 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>463;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 462</cell>
38309 </row>
38310 <row>
38311 <cell>In parting gold from silver</cell>
38312 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>448—451;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 448;
38313 461</cell>
38314 </row>
38315 <row>
38316 <cell>In smelting gold dust</cell>
38317 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>396<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38318 </row>
38319 <row>
38320 <cell>Roasted from ores</cell>
38321 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>273; 276<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38322 </row>
38323 <row>
38324 <cell>Solidified juice</cell>
38325 <cell>1</cell>
38326 </row>
38327 <row>
38328 <cell>SULPHUR “NOT EXPOSED TO THE FIRE.”</cell>
38329 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>458; 463;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 579</cell>
38330 </row>
38331 <row>
38332 <cell>SURVEYOR&#039;S FIELD</cell>
38333 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>137; 144;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 142</cell>
38334 </row>
38335 <row>
38336 <cell>SURVEYING</cell>
38337 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>128—148;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 129</cell>
38338 </row>
38339 <row>
38340 <cell>Necessary for miners</cell>
38341 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>4<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38342 </row>
38343 <row>
38344 <cell>Rod</cell>
38345 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>137—138<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38346 </row>
38347 <row>
38348 <cell>SUSPENDED PLUMMET LEVEL (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>Plummet Level).</cell>
38349 <cell></cell>
38350 </row>
38351 <row>
38352 <cell>SWISS COMPASS</cell>
38353 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>145;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 137</cell>
38354 </row>
38355 <row>
38356 <cell>SWISS SURVEYORS</cell>
38357 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>145<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38358 </row>
38359 <row>
38360 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Symposium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38361 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>91<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38362 </row>
38363 <row>
38364 <cell>TAP-HOLE</cell>
38365 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>378; 386<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38366 </row>
38367 <row>
38368 <cell>TAPPETS</cell>
38369 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>282; 319;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 267</cell>
38370 </row>
38371 <row>
38372 <cell>TAPPING-BAR</cell>
38373 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>381<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38374 </row>
38375 <row>
38376 <cell>TARSHISH, TIN TRADE</cell>
38377 <cell>412</cell>
38378 </row>
38379 <row>
38380 <cell>TARTAR (Cream of)</cell>
38381 <cell>220; 234</cell>
38382 </row>
38383 <row>
38384 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Tectum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
38385 (Hangingwall)</cell>
38386 <cell>101</cell>
38387 </row>
38388 <row>
38389 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Terra sigillata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Lemnian Earth).</cell>
38390 <cell></cell>
38391 </row>
38392 <row>
38393 <cell>“TESTS”, REFINING SILVER IN</cell>
38394 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>483—490;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 465;
38395 484</cell>
38396 </row>
38397 <row>
38398 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Thaler<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38399 <cell>92</cell>
38400 </row>
38401 <row>
38402 <cell>THASOS, MINES OF</cell>
38403 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>23; 95;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 23</cell>
38404 </row>
38405 <row>
38406 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Theamedes<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38407 <cell>115</cell>
38408 </row>
38409 <row>
38410 <cell>THEODOSIAN CODE.</cell>
38411 <cell></cell>
38412 </row>
38413 <row>
38414 <cell>Mines</cell>
38415 <cell>84</cell>
38416 </row>
38417 <row>
38418 <cell>THORNS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Liquation
38419 Thorns).</cell>
38420 <cell></cell>
38421 </row>
38422 <row>
38423 <cell>THURINGIA.</cell>
38424 <cell></cell>
38425 </row>
38426 <row>
38427 <cell>Roasting pyrites</cell>
38428 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>276<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38429 </row>
38430 <row>
38431 <cell>Sluices of gold washing</cell>
38432 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>327<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38433 </row>
38434 <row>
38435 <cell>TIGNA (Wall plate)</cell>
38436 <cell>101</cell>
38437 </row>
38438 <row>
38439 <cell>TIMBERING.</cell>
38440 <cell></cell>
38441 </row>
38442 <row>
38443 <cell>Of ladderways and shafts</cell>
38444 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>122; 123; 124<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38445 </row>
38446 <row>
38447 <cell>Of stopes</cell>
38448 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>126<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38449 </row>
38450 <row>
38451 <cell>Of tunnels and drifts</cell>
38452 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>124—125<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38453 </row>
38454 <row>
38455 <cell>TIN</cell>
38456 <cell>411—413; 354; 110</cell>
38457 </row>
38458 <row>
38459 <cell>Alluvial mining</cell>
38460 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>336—340<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38461 </row>
38462 <row>
38463 <cell>Assaying ore</cell>
38464 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>246<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38465 </row>
38466 <row>
38467 <cell>Assaying for silver</cell>
38468 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>251<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38469 </row>
38470 <row>
38471 <cell>Colour of fumes</cell>
38472 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>235<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38473 </row>
38474 <row>
38475 <cell>Concentrates</cell>
38476 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>340—342; 348—349<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38477 </row>
38478 <row>
38479 <cell>Cornish treatment</cell>
38480 <cell>282</cell>
38481 </row>
38482 <row>
38483 <cell>Refining</cell>
38484 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>418—419<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38485 </row>
38486 <row>
38487 <cell>Smelting</cell>
38488 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>411—420<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38489 </row>
38490 <row>
38491 <cell>Stamp-milling</cell>
38492 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>312—317<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38493 </row>
38494 <row>
38495 <cell>Streaming</cell>
38496 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>316—318<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38497 </row>
38498 <row>
38499 <cell>TIN.</cell>
38500 <cell></cell>
38501 </row>
38502 <row>
38503 <cell>Washing</cell>
38504 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>298; 302; 304<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38505 </row>
38506 <row>
38507 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Tincar<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> or <emph type="italics"></emph>Tincal<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Borax).</cell>
38508 <cell></cell>
38509 </row>
38510 <row>
38511 <cell>TITHE GATHERER</cell>
38512 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>81; 95; 98;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
38513 </row>
38514 <row>
38515 <cell>TITHE ON METALS</cell>
38516 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>81;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 82</cell>
38517 </row>
38518 <row>
38519 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Toden Kopfſ<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38520 <cell>235</cell>
38521 </row>
38522 <row>
38523 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Tofstein (see Tophus).<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38524 <cell></cell>
38525 </row>
38526 <row>
38527 <cell>TOLFA, LA (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> La
38528 Tolta).</cell>
38529 <cell></cell>
38530 </row>
38531 <row>
38532 <cell>TOOLS</cell>
38533 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>149—153<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38534 </row>
38535 <row>
38536 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Topfstein (see Tophus).<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38537 <cell></cell>
38538 </row>
38539 <row>
38540 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Tophus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38541 <cell>233; 114; 222</cell>
38542 </row>
38543 <row>
38544 <cell>As a flux</cell>
38545 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>233; 237; 390<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38546 </row>
38547 <row>
38548 <cell>TORTURES.</cell>
38549 <cell></cell>
38550 </row>
38551 <row>
38552 <cell>With metals</cell>
38553 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>11<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38554 </row>
38555 <row>
38556 <cell>Without metals</cell>
38557 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>17<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38558 </row>
38559 <row>
38560 <cell>TOUCH-NEEDLES</cell>
38561 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>253—260;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 253</cell>
38562 </row>
38563 <row>
38564 <cell>TOUCHSTONE</cell>
38565 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>253—253;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 252; 354;
38566 458; 222</cell>
38567 </row>
38568 <row>
38569 <cell>Mineral</cell>
38570 <cell>114</cell>
38571 </row>
38572 <row>
38573 <cell>Uses</cell>
38574 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>243; 248; 447<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38575 </row>
38576 <row>
38577 <cell>TRADE-ROUTES.</cell>
38578 <cell></cell>
38579 </row>
38580 <row>
38581 <cell>Salt-deposits influence on</cell>
38582 <cell>546</cell>
38583 </row>
38584 <row>
38585 <cell>TRANSPORT OF ORE</cell>
38586 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>168—169<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38587 </row>
38588 <row>
38589 <cell>TRENT, BISHOP OF.</cell>
38590 <cell></cell>
38591 </row>
38592 <row>
38593 <cell>Charter (1185)</cell>
38594 <cell>84</cell>
38595 </row>
38596 <row>
38597 <cell>TRIANGLES IN SURVEYING</cell>
38598 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>129—137<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38599 </row>
38600 <row>
38601 <cell>TRIPOLI</cell>
38602 <cell>115</cell>
38603 </row>
38604 <row>
38605 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Trochitis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38606 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>115;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 115</cell>
38607 </row>
38608 <row>
38609 <cell>TROLLEY</cell>
38610 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>480; 500; 514<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38611 </row>
38612 <row>
38613 <cell>TROY.</cell>
38614 <cell></cell>
38615 </row>
38616 <row>
38617 <cell>Lead found in</cell>
38618 <cell>391</cell>
38619 </row>
38620 <row>
38621 <cell>TROY WEIGHTS</cell>
38622 <cell>616; 617; 242</cell>
38623 </row>
38624 <row>
38625 <cell>TRUCKS</cell>
38626 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>156<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38627 </row>
38628 <row>
38629 <cell>TUNNELS</cell>
38630 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>102;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 101</cell>
38631 </row>
38632 <row>
38633 <cell>Law</cell>
38634 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>88—93<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38635 </row>
38636 <row>
38637 <cell>Surveys of</cell>
38638 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>130—141<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38639 </row>
38640 <row>
38641 <cell>Timbering</cell>
38642 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>124<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38643 </row>
38644 <row>
38645 <cell>TURIN PAPYRUS</cell>
38646 <cell>129; 399</cell>
38647 </row>
38648 <row>
38649 <cell>TURN (winze)</cell>
38650 <cell>101</cell>
38651 </row>
38652 <row>
38653 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Tuteneque<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38654 <cell>409</cell>
38655 </row>
38656 <row>
38657 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Tuttanego<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38658 <cell>409</cell>
38659 </row>
38660 <row>
38661 <cell>TUTTY</cell>
38662 <cell>394</cell>
38663 </row>
38664 <row>
38665 <cell>TWITCHES OF THE VEIN</cell>
38666 <cell>101</cell>
38667 </row>
38668 <row>
38669 <cell>TWYER</cell>
38670 <cell>376</cell>
38671 </row>
38672 <row>
38673 <cell>TYE</cell>
38674 <cell>267</cell>
38675 </row>
38676 <row>
38677 <cell>TYPE.</cell>
38678 <cell></cell>
38679 </row>
38680 <row>
38681 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Stibium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> used
38682 for</cell>
38683 <cell>2; 429</cell>
38684 </row>
38685 <row>
38686 <cell>TYRANTS.</cell>
38687 <cell></cell>
38688 </row>
38689 <row>
38690 <cell>Inimical to miners</cell>
38691 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>32<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38692 </row>
38693 <row>
38694 <cell>TYROLESE.</cell>
38695 <cell></cell>
38696 </row>
38697 <row>
38698 <cell>Smelting</cell>
38699 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>388; 404<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38700 </row>
38701 <row>
38702 <cell>ULCERS</cell>
38703 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>214;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 31</cell>
38704 </row>
38705 <row>
38706 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (length)</cell>
38707 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>78;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 616; 78</cell>
38708 </row>
38709 <row>
38710 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Uncia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (weight)</cell>
38711 <cell>616; 242</cell>
38712 </row>
38713 <row>
38714 <cell>UNDERCURRENTS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
38715 Sluices).</cell>
38716 <cell></cell>
38717 </row>
38718 <row>
38719 <cell>UNITED STATES.</cell>
38720 <cell></cell>
38721 </row>
38722 <row>
38723 <cell>Apex law</cell>
38724 <cell>82</cell>
38725 </row>
38726 <row>
38727 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Vectiarii<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Windlass Men).</cell>
38728 <cell></cell>
38729 </row>
38730 <row>
38731 <cell>VEINS</cell>
38732 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>43; 64—69; 106—107;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 47</cell>
38733 </row>
38734 <row>
38735 <cell>Barren</cell>
38736 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>72; 107<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38737 </row>
38738 <row>
38739 <cell>Direction of</cell>
38740 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>54—58<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38741 </row>
38742 <row>
38743 <cell>Drusy</cell>
38744 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>72; 73; 107<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38745 </row>
38746 <row>
38747 <cell>Hardness variable</cell>
38748 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>117<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38749 </row>
38750 <row>
38751 <cell>Indications</cell>
38752 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>35—38<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38753 </row>
38754 <row>
38755 <cell>Intersections of</cell>
38756 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>65; 66; 67; 106; 107<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38757 </row>
38758 <row>
38759 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Vena.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38760 <cell></cell>
38761 </row>
38762 <row>
38763 <cell>Use of term</cell>
38764 <cell>43; 47</cell>
38765 </row>
38766 <row>
38767 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38768 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>46; 49; 70;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 43; 47</cell>
38769 </row>
38770 <row>
38771 <cell>Mining method</cell>
38772 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>128<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38773 </row>
38774 <row>
38775 <cell>Mining rights</cell>
38776 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>87<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38777 </row>
38778 <row>
38779 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38780 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>41; 45; 53; 60—61;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 43;
38781 47</cell>
38782 </row>
38783 <row>
38784 <cell>Junctions with <emph type="italics"></emph>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38785 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>67; 68<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38786 </row>
38787 <row>
38788 <cell>Mining method</cell>
38789 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>126—127<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38790 </row>
38791 <row>
38792 <cell>Mining rights</cell>
38793 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>83—86<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38794 </row>
38795 <row>
38796 <cell>Washing lead ore from</cell>
38797 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>347<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38798 </row>
38799 <row>
38800 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38801 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>44; 51; 60; 62; 63; 68; 69;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
38802 43; 47</cell>
38803 </row>
38804 <row>
38805 <cell>Cross veins</cell>
38806 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>65<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38807 </row>
38808 <row>
38809 <cell>Functions</cell>
38810 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>65; 66; 67; 68<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38811 </row>
38812 <row>
38813 <cell>Mining rights</cell>
38814 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>79—83<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38815 </row>
38816 <row>
38817 <cell>VENETIAN GLASS</cell>
38818 <cell>222</cell>
38819 </row>
38820 <row>
38821 <cell>Factories</cell>
38822 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>592<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38823 </row>
38824 <row>
38825 <cell>In assaying</cell>
38826 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>238; 245; 246<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38827 </row>
38828 <pb pagenum="630"></pb>
38829 <row>
38830 <cell>VENETIAN GLASS.</cell>
38831 <cell></cell>
38832 </row>
38833 <row>
38834 <cell>In cupellation</cell>
38835 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>474<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38836 </row>
38837 <row>
38838 <cell>VENICE.</cell>
38839 <cell></cell>
38840 </row>
38841 <row>
38842 <cell>Glass-factories</cell>
38843 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>592<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38844 </row>
38845 <row>
38846 <cell>Parting with nitric acid</cell>
38847 <cell>461</cell>
38848 </row>
38849 <row>
38850 <cell>Scale of weights</cell>
38851 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>264<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38852 </row>
38853 <row>
38854 <cell>VENTILATION</cell>
38855 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>200—212; 121<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38856 </row>
38857 <row>
38858 <cell>With bellows</cell>
38859 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>207—210<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38860 </row>
38861 <row>
38862 <cell>With fans</cell>
38863 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>203—207<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38864 </row>
38865 <row>
38866 <cell>With linen cloths</cell>
38867 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>210<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38868 </row>
38869 <row>
38870 <cell>With windsails</cell>
38871 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>200—203<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38872 </row>
38873 <row>
38874 <cell>VERDIGRIS</cell>
38875 <cell>440; 1; 110; 222</cell>
38876 </row>
38877 <row>
38878 <cell>In cementation</cell>
38879 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>454; 457<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38880 </row>
38881 <row>
38882 <cell>Indication of ore</cell>
38883 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38884 </row>
38885 <row>
38886 <cell>In making nitric acid</cell>
38887 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>440<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38888 </row>
38889 <row>
38890 <cell>In parting gold from copper</cell>
38891 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>464<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38892 </row>
38893 <row>
38894 <cell>VERMILION.</cell>
38895 <cell></cell>
38896 </row>
38897 <row>
38898 <cell>Adulteration with red-lead</cell>
38899 <cell>232</cell>
38900 </row>
38901 <row>
38902 <cell>Poisonous</cell>
38903 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>215<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38904 </row>
38905 <row>
38906 <cell>VILLACENSE LEAD</cell>
38907 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>239;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 239</cell>
38908 </row>
38909 <row>
38910 <cell>VINEGAR.</cell>
38911 <cell></cell>
38912 </row>
38913 <row>
38914 <cell>Use in breaking rocks</cell>
38915 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>119;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 118</cell>
38916 </row>
38917 <row>
38918 <cell>Use in cleansing quicksilver</cell>
38919 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>426<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38920 </row>
38921 <row>
38922 <cell>Use in roasting matte</cell>
38923 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>349<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38924 </row>
38925 <row>
38926 <cell>Use in softening ore</cell>
38927 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>231<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38928 </row>
38929 <row>
38930 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Virgula divina<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Divining Rod).</cell>
38931 <cell></cell>
38932 </row>
38933 <row>
38934 <cell>VITRIOL</cell>
38935 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>571;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 572; 403; 222; 1</cell>
38936 </row>
38937 <row>
38938 <cell>In assaying</cell>
38939 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>237—238<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38940 </row>
38941 <row>
38942 <cell>In cementation</cell>
38943 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>454;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 454</cell>
38944 </row>
38945 <row>
38946 <cell>Indication of copper</cell>
38947 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>116<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38948 </row>
38949 <row>
38950 <cell>In making nitric acid</cell>
38951 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>439—440<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38952 </row>
38953 <row>
38954 <cell>In roasted ores</cell>
38955 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>350<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38956 </row>
38957 <row>
38958 <cell>In <emph type="italics"></emph>sal artificiosus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
38959 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>463<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38960 </row>
38961 <row>
38962 <cell>Native</cell>
38963 <cell>111</cell>
38964 </row>
38965 <row>
38966 <cell>Native blue</cell>
38967 <cell>109</cell>
38968 </row>
38969 <row>
38970 <cell>Native white</cell>
38971 <cell>113</cell>
38972 </row>
38973 <row>
38974 <cell>Red</cell>
38975 <cell>274</cell>
38976 </row>
38977 <row>
38978 <cell>White</cell>
38979 <cell>454</cell>
38980 </row>
38981 <row>
38982 <cell>VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS</cell>
38983 <cell>595</cell>
38984 </row>
38985 <row>
38986 <cell>WASHERS</cell>
38987 <cell>78</cell>
38988 </row>
38989 <row>
38990 <cell>WASHING ORE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
38991 Concentration, Screening Ore, <emph type="italics"></emph>etc.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>)</cell>
38992 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>300—310<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38993 </row>
38994 <row>
38995 <cell>WATER-BAGS</cell>
38996 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>157—159; 198<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
38997 </row>
38998 <row>
38999 <cell>WATER-BUCKETS</cell>
39000 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>157—158<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39001 </row>
39002 <row>
39003 <cell>WATER-WHEELS</cell>
39004 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>187; 283; 286; 319<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39005 </row>
39006 <row>
39007 <cell>WATER-TANK, UNDER BLAST FUR-NACES</cell>
39008 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>356—357<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39009 </row>
39010 <row>
39011 <cell>WEALTH</cell>
39012 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>7—20<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39013 </row>
39014 <row>
39015 <cell>WEDGES</cell>
39016 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>150<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39017 </row>
39018 <row>
39019 <cell>WEIGHTS</cell>
39020 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>260—264;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>
39021 616—617; 242; 253</cell>
39022 </row>
39023 <row>
39024 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Weisser Kis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39025 <cell>111</cell>
39026 </row>
39027 <row>
39028 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Werckschuh<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39029 <cell>617; 78</cell>
39030 </row>
39031 <row>
39032 <cell>WESTPHALIA.</cell>
39033 <cell></cell>
39034 </row>
39035 <row>
39036 <cell>Smelting lead ore</cell>
39037 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>391<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39038 </row>
39039 <row>
39040 <cell>Spalling ore</cell>
39041 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>272<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39042 </row>
39043 <row>
39044 <cell>WHEELBARROWS</cell>
39045 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>154<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39046 </row>
39047 <row>
39048 <cell>WHIMS</cell>
39049 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>164—167<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39050 </row>
39051 <row>
39052 <cell>WHITE-LEAD</cell>
39053 <cell>440; 354; 110; 232</cell>
39054 </row>
39055 <row>
39056 <cell>WHITE SCHIST</cell>
39057 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>234; 390;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 234; 222</cell>
39058 </row>
39059 <row>
39060 <cell>WINDING APPLIANCES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Hauling Appliances).</cell>
39061 <cell></cell>
39062 </row>
39063 <row>
39064 <cell>WINDLASSES</cell>
39065 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>160; 171;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 149</cell>
39066 </row>
39067 <row>
39068 <cell>WINDLASS MEN</cell>
39069 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>160;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
39070 </row>
39071 <row>
39072 <cell>WINDS.</cell>
39073 <cell></cell>
39074 </row>
39075 <row>
39076 <cell>Greek and Roman names</cell>
39077 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>58<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39078 </row>
39079 <row>
39080 <cell>Sailors&#039; names</cell>
39081 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>59; 60<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39082 </row>
39083 <row>
39084 <cell>WINDS (winze)</cell>
39085 <cell>101</cell>
39086 </row>
39087 <row>
39088 <cell>WINDSAILS</cell>
39089 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>200—203<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39090 </row>
39091 <row>
39092 <cell>WINZES</cell>
39093 <cell>102</cell>
39094 </row>
39095 <row>
39096 <cell>WITTENBERG, CAPITULATION OF</cell>
39097 <cell>IX.</cell>
39098 </row>
39099 <row>
39100 <cell>WIZARDS.</cell>
39101 <cell></cell>
39102 </row>
39103 <row>
39104 <cell>Divining rods</cell>
39105 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>40<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39106 </row>
39107 <row>
39108 <cell>WORKMEN</cell>
39109 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>98; 100<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39110 </row>
39111 <row>
39112 <cell>WOUGHS</cell>
39113 <cell>101</cell>
39114 </row>
39115 <row>
39116 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Zaffre<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39117 <cell>112</cell>
39118 </row>
39119 <row>
39120 <cell>ZEITZ</cell>
39121 <cell>XI.</cell>
39122 </row>
39123 <row>
39124 <cell>ZINC (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also Cadmia, and<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Cobalt).</cell>
39125 <cell></cell>
39126 </row>
39127 <row>
39128 <cell>Historical notes</cell>
39129 <cell>408—410; 354</cell>
39130 </row>
39131 <row>
39132 <cell>Minerals</cell>
39133 <cell>112—113</cell>
39134 </row>
39135 <row>
39136 <cell>ZINCK (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
39137 Zinc).</cell>
39138 <cell></cell>
39139 </row>
39140 <row>
39141 <cell>ZINC OXIDES</cell>
39142 <cell>113; 354</cell>
39143 </row>
39144 <row>
39145 <cell>ZINC SULPHATE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
39146 Vitriol).</cell>
39147 <cell></cell>
39148 </row>
39149 <row>
39150 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Zincum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Zinc).</cell>
39151 <cell></cell>
39152 </row>
39153 <row>
39154 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Zoll<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39155 <cell>617; 78</cell>
39156 </row>
39157 <row>
39158 <cell>ZWICKAU</cell>
39159 <cell>VI.</cell>
39160 </row>
39161 <row>
39162 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Zwitter<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39163 <cell>110</cell>
39164 </row>
39165 </table>
39166 <pb></pb>
39167 <p type="head">
39168
39169 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>INDEX TO PERSONS AND <lb></lb>AUTHORITIES.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></s>
39170 </p>
39171 <p type="main">
39172
39173 <s>NOTE.—The numbers in heavy type refer to the Text; <lb></lb>those in plain
39174 type to the Footnotes, Appendices, etc.<lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table18"></arrow.to.target></s>
39175 </p>
39176 <table>
39177 <table.target id="table18"></table.target>
39178 <row>
39179 <cell></cell>
39180 <cell>PAGE</cell>
39181 </row>
39182 <row>
39183 <cell>ACOSTA, JOSEPH DE</cell>
39184 <cell>298</cell>
39185 </row>
39186 <row>
39187 <cell>AESCHYLUS.</cell>
39188 <cell></cell>
39189 </row>
39190 <row>
39191 <cell>Amber</cell>
39192 <cell>35</cell>
39193 </row>
39194 <row>
39195 <cell>AESCULAPIUS.</cell>
39196 <cell></cell>
39197 </row>
39198 <row>
39199 <cell>Love of gold</cell>
39200 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39201 </row>
39202 <row>
39203 <cell>AFRICANUS (alchemist)</cell>
39204 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
39205 </row>
39206 <row>
39207 <cell>AGATHARCHIDES.</cell>
39208 <cell></cell>
39209 </row>
39210 <row>
39211 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
39212 <cell>465</cell>
39213 </row>
39214 <row>
39215 <cell>Egyptian gold mining</cell>
39216 <cell>279; 391; 399</cell>
39217 </row>
39218 <row>
39219 <cell>Fire-setting</cell>
39220 <cell>118</cell>
39221 </row>
39222 <row>
39223 <cell>AGATHOCLES.</cell>
39224 <cell></cell>
39225 </row>
39226 <row>
39227 <cell>Money</cell>
39228 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>21<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39229 </row>
39230 <row>
39231 <cell>AGATHODAEMON (alchemist)</cell>
39232 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
39233 </row>
39234 <row>
39235 <cell>AGRICOLA, DANIEL</cell>
39236 <cell>606</cell>
39237 </row>
39238 <row>
39239 <cell>AGRICOLA, GEORG (a preacher at Freiberg)</cell>
39240 <cell>606</cell>
39241 </row>
39242 <row>
39243 <cell>AGRICOLA, GEORGIUS.</cell>
39244 <cell></cell>
39245 </row>
39246 <row>
39247 <cell>Assaying</cell>
39248 <cell>220</cell>
39249 </row>
39250 <row>
39251 <cell>Biography</cell>
39252 <cell>V—XVI</cell>
39253 </row>
39254 <row>
39255 <cell>Founder of Science</cell>
39256 <cell>XIV</cell>
39257 </row>
39258 <row>
39259 <cell>Geologist</cell>
39260 <cell>XII; 46; 53</cell>
39261 </row>
39262 <row>
39263 <cell>Interest in <emph type="italics"></emph>Gottsgaab<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
39264 mine</cell>
39265 <cell>VII; 74</cell>
39266 </row>
39267 <row>
39268 <cell>Mineralogist</cell>
39269 <cell>XII; 108; 594</cell>
39270 </row>
39271 <row>
39272 <cell>Paracelsus compared with.</cell>
39273 <cell>XIV</cell>
39274 </row>
39275 <row>
39276 <cell>Real name</cell>
39277 <cell>V</cell>
39278 </row>
39279 <row>
39280 <cell>Works</cell>
39281 <cell>Appendix A</cell>
39282 </row>
39283 <row>
39284 <cell>See also:</cell>
39285 <cell></cell>
39286 </row>
39287 <row>
39288 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Bermannus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39289 <cell></cell>
39290 </row>
39291 <row>
39292 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Animantibus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39293 <cell></cell>
39294 </row>
39295 <row>
39296 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura eorum, etc.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39297 <cell></cell>
39298 </row>
39299 <row>
39300 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura Fossilium.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39301 <cell></cell>
39302 </row>
39303 <row>
39304 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu et Causis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39305 <cell></cell>
39306 </row>
39307 <row>
39308 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Peste.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39309 <cell></cell>
39310 </row>
39311 <row>
39312 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Precio Metallorum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39313 <cell></cell>
39314 </row>
39315 <row>
39316 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39317 <cell></cell>
39318 </row>
39319 <row>
39320 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Veteribus Metallis.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39321 <cell></cell>
39322 </row>
39323 <row>
39324 <cell>Etc.</cell>
39325 <cell></cell>
39326 </row>
39327 <row>
39328 <cell>AGRICOLA, RUDOLPH</cell>
39329 <cell>606</cell>
39330 </row>
39331 <row>
39332 <cell>ALBERT THE BRAVE, DUKE OF MEISSEN</cell>
39333 <cell>VIII</cell>
39334 </row>
39335 <row>
39336 <cell>ALBERTUS MAGNUS (Albert von Bollstadt)</cell>
39337 <cell>XXX; 609</cell>
39338 </row>
39339 <row>
39340 <cell>Alluvial gold</cell>
39341 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>76<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39342 </row>
39343 <row>
39344 <cell>Cementation</cell>
39345 <cell>460</cell>
39346 </row>
39347 <row>
39348 <cell>Metallic arsenic</cell>
39349 <cell>111</cell>
39350 </row>
39351 <row>
39352 <cell>Metals</cell>
39353 <cell>44</cell>
39354 </row>
39355 <row>
39356 <cell>Saltpetre</cell>
39357 <cell>562</cell>
39358 </row>
39359 <row>
39360 <cell>Zinc</cell>
39361 <cell>409</cell>
39362 </row>
39363 <row>
39364 <cell>ALBINUS, PETRUS</cell>
39365 <cell>V; 599</cell>
39366 </row>
39367 <row>
39368 <cell>Cuntz von Glück</cell>
39369 <cell>24</cell>
39370 </row>
39371 <row>
39372 <cell>ALPINUS, PROSPER</cell>
39373 <cell>559</cell>
39374 </row>
39375 <row>
39376 <cell>ALYATTES, KING OF LYDIA.</cell>
39377 <cell></cell>
39378 </row>
39379 <row>
39380 <cell>Mines owned by</cell>
39381 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 27</cell>
39382 </row>
39383 <row>
39384 <cell>AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS</cell>
39385 <cell>38; 53</cell>
39386 </row>
39387 <row>
39388 <cell>ANACHARSIS.</cell>
39389 <cell></cell>
39390 </row>
39391 <row>
39392 <cell>Invention of bellows</cell>
39393 <cell>362</cell>
39394 </row>
39395 <row>
39396 <cell>ANACREON OF TEOS.</cell>
39397 <cell></cell>
39398 </row>
39399 <row>
39400 <cell>Money despised by</cell>
39401 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39402 </row>
39403 <row>
39404 <cell>ANAXAGORAS.</cell>
39405 <cell></cell>
39406 </row>
39407 <row>
39408 <cell>Money despised by</cell>
39409 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39410 </row>
39411 <row>
39412 <cell>ANNA, DAUGHTER OF AGRICOLA</cell>
39413 <cell>VII</cell>
39414 </row>
39415 <row>
39416 <cell>ANNA, WIFE OF AGRICOLA</cell>
39417 <cell>VII</cell>
39418 </row>
39419 <row>
39420 <cell>ANTIPHANES.</cell>
39421 <cell></cell>
39422 </row>
39423 <row>
39424 <cell>On wealth</cell>
39425 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>19<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39426 </row>
39427 <row>
39428 <cell>APOLLODORUS</cell>
39429 <cell>26</cell>
39430 </row>
39431 <row>
39432 <cell>APULEJUS (alchemist)</cell>
39433 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXIX</cell>
39434 </row>
39435 <row>
39436 <cell>ARCHIMEDES.</cell>
39437 <cell></cell>
39438 </row>
39439 <row>
39440 <cell>King Hiero&#039;s crown</cell>
39441 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>247<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39442 </row>
39443 <row>
39444 <cell>Machines</cell>
39445 <cell>149</cell>
39446 </row>
39447 <row>
39448 <cell>ARDAILLON, EDOUARD.</cell>
39449 <cell></cell>
39450 </row>
39451 <row>
39452 <cell>Mt. Laurion</cell>
39453 <cell>28; 281; 391</cell>
39454 </row>
39455 <row>
39456 <cell>ARISTIPPUS.</cell>
39457 <cell></cell>
39458 </row>
39459 <row>
39460 <cell>Gold</cell>
39461 <cell>9; <emph type="bold"></emph>14<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39462 </row>
39463 <row>
39464 <cell>ARISTODEMUS.</cell>
39465 <cell></cell>
39466 </row>
39467 <row>
39468 <cell>Money</cell>
39469 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>8<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39470 </row>
39471 <row>
39472 <cell>ARISTOTLE</cell>
39473 <cell>XII; 607</cell>
39474 </row>
39475 <row>
39476 <cell>Amber</cell>
39477 <cell>35</cell>
39478 </row>
39479 <row>
39480 <cell>Athenian mines</cell>
39481 <cell>27; 83</cell>
39482 </row>
39483 <row>
39484 <cell>Burning springs</cell>
39485 <cell>583</cell>
39486 </row>
39487 <row>
39488 <cell>Coal</cell>
39489 <cell>34</cell>
39490 </row>
39491 <row>
39492 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
39493 <cell>465</cell>
39494 </row>
39495 <row>
39496 <cell>Distillation</cell>
39497 <cell>441</cell>
39498 </row>
39499 <row>
39500 <cell>Lodestone</cell>
39501 <cell>115</cell>
39502 </row>
39503 <row>
39504 <cell>Nitrum</cell>
39505 <cell>558</cell>
39506 </row>
39507 <row>
39508 <cell>Ores of brass</cell>
39509 <cell>410</cell>
39510 </row>
39511 <row>
39512 <cell>Quicksilver</cell>
39513 <cell>432</cell>
39514 </row>
39515 <row>
39516 <cell>Silver from forest fires</cell>
39517 <cell>36</cell>
39518 </row>
39519 <row>
39520 <cell>Theory of ore deposits</cell>
39521 <cell>44</cell>
39522 </row>
39523 <row>
39524 <cell>Wealth of</cell>
39525 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39526 </row>
39527 <row>
39528 <cell>ARNOLD DE VILLA NOVA. (<emph type="italics"></emph>See<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Villa Nova, Arnold de).</cell>
39529 <cell></cell>
39530 </row>
39531 <row>
39532 <cell>ATHENAEUS.</cell>
39533 <cell></cell>
39534 </row>
39535 <row>
39536 <cell>Silver from forest fires</cell>
39537 <cell>36</cell>
39538 </row>
39539 <row>
39540 <cell>AUGURELLUS, JOHANNES AURELIUS (alchemist)</cell>
39541 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXX</cell>
39542 </row>
39543 <row>
39544 <cell>AUGUSTINUS PANTHEUS (alchemist).</cell>
39545 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39546 </row>
39547 <row>
39548 <cell>AUGUSTUS, ELECTOR OF SAXONY</cell>
39549 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>IX<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39550 </row>
39551 <row>
39552 <cell>Dedication of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39553 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXV<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39554 </row>
39555 <row>
39556 <cell>Letter to Agricola</cell>
39557 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XV<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39558 </row>
39559 <row>
39560 <cell>AVICENNA</cell>
39561 <cell>XXX; 608</cell>
39562 </row>
39563 <row>
39564 <cell>BACON, ROGER</cell>
39565 <cell>XXX; 609</cell>
39566 </row>
39567 <row>
39568 <cell>Saltpetre</cell>
39569 <cell>460; 562</cell>
39570 </row>
39571 <row>
39572 <cell>BADOARIUS, FRANCISCUS</cell>
39573 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39574 </row>
39575 <row>
39576 <cell>BALBOA, V. N. DE</cell>
39577 <cell>V</cell>
39578 </row>
39579 <row>
39580 <cell>BALLON, PETER</cell>
39581 <cell>559</cell>
39582 </row>
39583 <row>
39584 <cell>BARBA, ALONSO</cell>
39585 <cell>300; 1</cell>
39586 </row>
39587 <row>
39588 <cell>BARBARUS, HERMOLAUS</cell>
39589 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39590 </row>
39591 <row>
39592 <cell>BARRETT, W. F.</cell>
39593 <cell>38</cell>
39594 </row>
39595 <row>
39596 <cell>BECHER, J. J.</cell>
39597 <cell>53</cell>
39598 </row>
39599 <row>
39600 <cell>BECHIUS, PHILIP</cell>
39601 <cell>XV</cell>
39602 </row>
39603 <row>
39604 <cell>BECKMANN, JOHANN.</cell>
39605 <cell></cell>
39606 </row>
39607 <row>
39608 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Alumen<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39609 <cell>565</cell>
39610 </row>
39611 <row>
39612 <cell>Amalgamation</cell>
39613 <cell>297</cell>
39614 </row>
39615 <row>
39616 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39617 <cell>559</cell>
39618 </row>
39619 <row>
39620 <cell>Parting with nitric acid</cell>
39621 <cell>461</cell>
39622 </row>
39623 <row>
39624 <cell>Stamp-mills</cell>
39625 <cell>281</cell>
39626 </row>
39627 <row>
39628 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Stannum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39629 <cell>473</cell>
39630 </row>
39631 <row>
39632 <cell>Tin</cell>
39633 <cell>412</cell>
39634 </row>
39635 <row>
39636 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Bergbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> (see
39637 <emph type="italics"></emph>Nützlich Bergbü hlin<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
39638 <cell></cell>
39639 </row>
39640 <row>
39641 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Berguerhs Le<gap></gap>icon<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39642 <cell>37; 80; 81</cell>
39643 </row>
39644 <row>
39645 <cell>BERMAN, LORENZ</cell>
39646 <cell>VI; 597</cell>
39647 </row>
39648 <row>
39649 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Bermannus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39650 <cell>596; 599; VI</cell>
39651 </row>
39652 <row>
39653 <cell>Arsenical minerals</cell>
39654 <cell>111</cell>
39655 </row>
39656 <row>
39657 <cell>Bismuth</cell>
39658 <cell>3; 433</cell>
39659 </row>
39660 <row>
39661 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Cadmia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39662 <cell>113</cell>
39663 </row>
39664 <row>
39665 <cell>Cobalt</cell>
39666 <cell>112</cell>
39667 </row>
39668 <row>
39669 <cell>Fluorspar</cell>
39670 <cell>381</cell>
39671 </row>
39672 <row>
39673 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Molybdasna<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39674 <cell>477</cell>
39675 </row>
39676 <row>
39677 <cell>Schist</cell>
39678 <cell>234</cell>
39679 </row>
39680 <row>
39681 <cell>Shafts</cell>
39682 <cell>102</cell>
39683 </row>
39684 <row>
39685 <cell>Zinc</cell>
39686 <cell>409</cell>
39687 </row>
39688 <row>
39689 <cell>BERTHRLOT, M. P. E.</cell>
39690 <cell>429; 609</cell>
39691 </row>
39692 <row>
39693 <cell>BERTHIER</cell>
39694 <cell>492</cell>
39695 </row>
39696 <row>
39697 <cell>BIAS OF PRIENE.</cell>
39698 <cell></cell>
39699 </row>
39700 <row>
39701 <cell>Wealth</cell>
39702 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>8; 14<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39703 </row>
39704 <pb pagenum="632"></pb>
39705 <row>
39706 <cell>BIRINGUCCIO, VANNUCCIO</cell>
39707 <cell>614</cell>
39708 </row>
39709 <row>
39710 <cell>Agricola indebted to</cell>
39711 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39712 </row>
39713 <row>
39714 <cell>Amalgamation of silver ores</cell>
39715 <cell>297</cell>
39716 </row>
39717 <row>
39718 <cell>Assaying</cell>
39719 <cell>220</cell>
39720 </row>
39721 <row>
39722 <cell>Assay ton</cell>
39723 <cell>242</cell>
39724 </row>
39725 <row>
39726 <cell>Brass making</cell>
39727 <cell>410</cell>
39728 </row>
39729 <row>
39730 <cell>Clarifving nitric acid</cell>
39731 <cell>443</cell>
39732 </row>
39733 <row>
39734 <cell>Copper refining</cell>
39735 <cell>536</cell>
39736 </row>
39737 <row>
39738 <cell>Copper smelting</cell>
39739 <cell>405</cell>
39740 </row>
39741 <row>
39742 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
39743 <cell>466</cell>
39744 </row>
39745 <row>
39746 <cell>Liquation</cell>
39747 <cell>494</cell>
39748 </row>
39749 <row>
39750 <cell>Managanese</cell>
39751 <cell>586</cell>
39752 </row>
39753 <row>
39754 <cell>Parting precious metals</cell>
39755 <cell>451; 461; 462</cell>
39756 </row>
39757 <row>
39758 <cell>Roasting</cell>
39759 <cell>267</cell>
39760 </row>
39761 <row>
39762 <cell>Steel making</cell>
39763 <cell>420</cell>
39764 </row>
39765 <row>
39766 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Zaffre<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39767 <cell>112</cell>
39768 </row>
39769 <row>
39770 <cell>BOECKH, AUGUST</cell>
39771 <cell>28</cell>
39772 </row>
39773 <row>
39774 <cell>BOERHAAVE, HERMANN</cell>
39775 <cell>XXIX</cell>
39776 </row>
39777 <row>
39778 <cell>BORLASE, W. C.</cell>
39779 <cell></cell>
39780 </row>
39781 <row>
39782 <cell>Bronze celts</cell>
39783 <cell>411</cell>
39784 </row>
39785 <row>
39786 <cell>BORLASE, WILLIAM.</cell>
39787 <cell></cell>
39788 </row>
39789 <row>
39790 <cell>Cornish miners in Germany</cell>
39791 <cell>283</cell>
39792 </row>
39793 <row>
39794 <cell>BORN, IGNAZ EDLER VON</cell>
39795 <cell>300</cell>
39796 </row>
39797 <row>
39798 <cell>BOUSSINGAULT, J. B.</cell>
39799 <cell>454</cell>
39800 </row>
39801 <row>
39802 <cell>BOYLE, ROBERT.</cell>
39803 <cell></cell>
39804 </row>
39805 <row>
39806 <cell>Divining rod</cell>
39807 <cell>38</cell>
39808 </row>
39809 <row>
39810 <cell>BROUGH, BENNETT</cell>
39811 <cell>129</cell>
39812 </row>
39813 <row>
39814 <cell>BRUCE, J. C.</cell>
39815 <cell>392</cell>
39816 </row>
39817 <row>
39818 <cell>BRUNSWICK, DUKE HENRY OF. (<emph type="italics"></emph>See<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Henry, Duke of Brunswick).</cell>
39819 <cell></cell>
39820 </row>
39821 <row>
39822 <cell>BUDAEUS, WILLIAM (Guillaume Bude)</cell>
39823 <cell>461; 606</cell>
39824 </row>
39825 <row>
39826 <cell>CADMUS</cell>
39827 <cell>27</cell>
39828 </row>
39829 <row>
39830 <cell>CALBUS (see also <emph type="italics"></emph>Nützlich
39831 Bergbüchlin<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>),</cell>
39832 <cell>610; <emph type="bold"></emph>XXVI;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVII</cell>
39833 </row>
39834 <row>
39835 <cell>Alluvial gold</cell>
39836 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>75<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39837 </row>
39838 <row>
39839 <cell>CALIGULA.</cell>
39840 <cell></cell>
39841 </row>
39842 <row>
39843 <cell>Gold from <emph type="italics"></emph>auripigmentum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39844 <cell>111</cell>
39845 </row>
39846 <row>
39847 <cell>CALLIDES (alchemist)</cell>
39848 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
39849 </row>
39850 <row>
39851 <cell>CALLIMACHUS.</cell>
39852 <cell></cell>
39853 </row>
39854 <row>
39855 <cell>On wealth</cell>
39856 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>19<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39857 </row>
39858 <row>
39859 <cell>CAMERARIUS</cell>
39860 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>VIII<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39861 </row>
39862 <row>
39863 <cell>CANIDES (alchemist)</cell>
39864 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
39865 </row>
39866 <row>
39867 <cell>CAREW, RICHARD.</cell>
39868 <cell></cell>
39869 </row>
39870 <row>
39871 <cell>Cornish mining law</cell>
39872 <cell>85</cell>
39873 </row>
39874 <row>
39875 <cell>Cornish ore-dressing</cell>
39876 <cell>282</cell>
39877 </row>
39878 <row>
39879 <cell>CARLYLE, W. A.</cell>
39880 <cell></cell>
39881 </row>
39882 <row>
39883 <cell>Ancient Rio Tinto smelting</cell>
39884 <cell>405</cell>
39885 </row>
39886 <row>
39887 <cell>CARNE, JOSEPH.</cell>
39888 <cell></cell>
39889 </row>
39890 <row>
39891 <cell>Cornish cardinal points</cell>
39892 <cell>57</cell>
39893 </row>
39894 <row>
39895 <cell>CASIBROTIUS, LEONARDUS</cell>
39896 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>VI<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39897 </row>
39898 <row>
39899 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Castigationes in Hippocratem et Galenum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39900 <cell>605</cell>
39901 </row>
39902 <row>
39903 <cell>CASTRO, JOHN DE</cell>
39904 <cell>570</cell>
39905 </row>
39906 <row>
39907 <cell>CHABAS, F. J.</cell>
39908 <cell>129</cell>
39909 </row>
39910 <row>
39911 <cell>CHALONER, THOMAS</cell>
39912 <cell>570</cell>
39913 </row>
39914 <row>
39915 <cell>CHANES (alchemist)</cell>
39916 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
39917 </row>
39918 <row>
39919 <cell>CHARLES V. OF SPAIN</cell>
39920 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>IX<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39921 </row>
39922 <row>
39923 <cell>Agricola sent on mission to</cell>
39924 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>X<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39925 </row>
39926 <row>
39927 <cell>CHEVREUL, M. E.</cell>
39928 <cell>38</cell>
39929 </row>
39930 <row>
39931 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Chronik der Stadt Freiberg<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39932 <cell>606</cell>
39933 </row>
39934 <row>
39935 <cell>CICERO.</cell>
39936 <cell></cell>
39937 </row>
39938 <row>
39939 <cell>Divining rod</cell>
39940 <cell>38</cell>
39941 </row>
39942 <row>
39943 <cell>Wealth of</cell>
39944 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39945 </row>
39946 <row>
39947 <cell>CINCINNATUS L. QUINTIUS</cell>
39948 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>23<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39949 </row>
39950 <row>
39951 <cell>CIRCE.</cell>
39952 <cell></cell>
39953 </row>
39954 <row>
39955 <cell>Magic rod</cell>
39956 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>40<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39957 </row>
39958 <row>
39959 <cell>CLEOPATRA.</cell>
39960 <cell></cell>
39961 </row>
39962 <row>
39963 <cell>As an alchemist</cell>
39964 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXIX</cell>
39965 </row>
39966 <row>
39967 <cell>COLLINS, A. L.</cell>
39968 <cell>119</cell>
39969 </row>
39970 <row>
39971 <cell>COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER</cell>
39972 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>V<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39973 </row>
39974 <row>
39975 <cell>COLUMELLA, MODERATUS</cell>
39976 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXV; XXVI<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39977 </row>
39978 <row>
39979 <cell>COMERIUS</cell>
39980 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXIX</cell>
39981 </row>
39982 <row>
39983 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Commentariorum...Libri VI.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
39984 <cell>604</cell>
39985 </row>
39986 <row>
39987 <cell>CONRAD (Graf Cuntz von Glück)</cell>
39988 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>23;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 24</cell>
39989 </row>
39990 <row>
39991 <cell>CORDUBA, DON JUAN DE</cell>
39992 <cell>300</cell>
39993 </row>
39994 <row>
39995 <cell>CORTES, HERNANDO</cell>
39996 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>V<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
39997 </row>
39998 <row>
39999 <cell>CRAMER, JOHN</cell>
40000 <cell>236</cell>
40001 </row>
40002 <row>
40003 <cell>CRASSUS, MARCUS</cell>
40004 <cell></cell>
40005 </row>
40006 <row>
40007 <cell>Love of gold</cell>
40008 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40009 </row>
40010 <row>
40011 <cell>CRATES, THE THEBAN.</cell>
40012 <cell></cell>
40013 </row>
40014 <row>
40015 <cell>Money despised by</cell>
40016 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40017 </row>
40018 <row>
40019 <cell>CROESUS, KING OF LYDIA.</cell>
40020 <cell></cell>
40021 </row>
40022 <row>
40023 <cell>Mines owned by</cell>
40024 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 27</cell>
40025 </row>
40026 <row>
40027 <cell>CTESIAS.</cell>
40028 <cell></cell>
40029 </row>
40030 <row>
40031 <cell>Divining rod</cell>
40032 <cell>38</cell>
40033 </row>
40034 <row>
40035 <cell>CTESIBIUS.</cell>
40036 <cell></cell>
40037 </row>
40038 <row>
40039 <cell>Machines</cell>
40040 <cell>149</cell>
40041 </row>
40042 <row>
40043 <cell>CURIO, CLAUDIUS.</cell>
40044 <cell></cell>
40045 </row>
40046 <row>
40047 <cell>Love of gold</cell>
40048 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40049 </row>
40050 <row>
40051 <cell>CURIUS, MARCUS.</cell>
40052 <cell></cell>
40053 </row>
40054 <row>
40055 <cell>Gold of Samnites</cell>
40056 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40057 </row>
40058 <row>
40059 <cell>DANA, J. D.</cell>
40060 <cell>108</cell>
40061 </row>
40062 <row>
40063 <cell>Alum</cell>
40064 <cell>566</cell>
40065 </row>
40066 <row>
40067 <cell>Copiapite</cell>
40068 <cell>574</cell>
40069 </row>
40070 <row>
40071 <cell>Emery</cell>
40072 <cell>115</cell>
40073 </row>
40074 <row>
40075 <cell>Lemnian earth</cell>
40076 <cell>31</cell>
40077 </row>
40078 <row>
40079 <cell>Minerals of Agricola</cell>
40080 <cell>594</cell>
40081 </row>
40082 <row>
40083 <cell>Zinc vitriol</cell>
40084 <cell>572</cell>
40085 </row>
40086 <row>
40087 <cell>DANAE.</cell>
40088 <cell></cell>
40089 </row>
40090 <row>
40091 <cell>Jove and</cell>
40092 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>10<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40093 </row>
40094 <row>
40095 <cell>D&#039;ARCET, J.</cell>
40096 <cell></cell>
40097 </row>
40098 <row>
40099 <cell>Parting with sulphuric acid</cell>
40100 <cell>462</cell>
40101 </row>
40102 <row>
40103 <cell>DAY, ST. JOHN V.</cell>
40104 <cell></cell>
40105 </row>
40106 <row>
40107 <cell>Ancient steel making</cell>
40108 <cell>423</cell>
40109 </row>
40110 <row>
40111 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Animantibus Subterraneis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40112 <cell>597; <emph type="bold"></emph>VII<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40113 </row>
40114 <row>
40115 <cell>Editions</cell>
40116 <cell>600</cell>
40117 </row>
40118 <row>
40119 <cell>Gnomes</cell>
40120 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>217;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 217</cell>
40121 </row>
40122 <row>
40123 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Bello adversus Turcam<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40124 <cell>605</cell>
40125 </row>
40126 <row>
40127 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Inventione Dialectica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40128 <cell>606</cell>
40129 </row>
40130 <row>
40131 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Jure et Legibus Metallicis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40132 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>100;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 604</cell>
40133 </row>
40134 <row>
40135 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Medicatis Fontibus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40136 <cell>605</cell>
40137 </row>
40138 <row>
40139 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Mensuris et Ponderibus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40140 <cell>597</cell>
40141 </row>
40142 <row>
40143 <cell>Editions</cell>
40144 <cell>599</cell>
40145 </row>
40146 <row>
40147 <cell>Weights and measures</cell>
40148 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>264;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 78</cell>
40149 </row>
40150 <row>
40151 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Metallis et Machinis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40152 <cell>604</cell>
40153 </row>
40154 <row>
40155 <cell>Democritus (alchemist)</cell>
40156 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
40157 </row>
40158 <row>
40159 <cell>DEMOSTHENES.</cell>
40160 <cell></cell>
40161 </row>
40162 <row>
40163 <cell>Mt. Laurion mines</cell>
40164 <cell>27; 83</cell>
40165 </row>
40166 <row>
40167 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40168 <cell>598; <emph type="bold"></emph>32<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40169 </row>
40170 <row>
40171 <cell>Dedication</cell>
40172 <cell>VIII</cell>
40173 </row>
40174 <row>
40175 <cell>Editions</cell>
40176 <cell>600</cell>
40177 </row>
40178 <row>
40179 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Natura Fossilium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40180 <cell>594; 600; III; XII</cell>
40181 </row>
40182 <row>
40183 <cell>Alum</cell>
40184 <cell>565</cell>
40185 </row>
40186 <row>
40187 <cell>Amber</cell>
40188 <cell>35</cell>
40189 </row>
40190 <row>
40191 <cell>Antimony</cell>
40192 <cell>429</cell>
40193 </row>
40194 <row>
40195 <cell>Argol</cell>
40196 <cell>234</cell>
40197 </row>
40198 <row>
40199 <cell>Arsenical minerals</cell>
40200 <cell>111</cell>
40201 </row>
40202 <row>
40203 <cell>Asbestos</cell>
40204 <cell>440</cell>
40205 </row>
40206 <row>
40207 <cell>Bismuth</cell>
40208 <cell>110</cell>
40209 </row>
40210 <row>
40211 <cell>Bitumen</cell>
40212 <cell>581</cell>
40213 </row>
40214 <row>
40215 <cell>Borax</cell>
40216 <cell>560</cell>
40217 </row>
40218 <row>
40219 <cell>Brass making</cell>
40220 <cell>410</cell>
40221 </row>
40222 <row>
40223 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Cadmia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40224 <cell>113</cell>
40225 </row>
40226 <row>
40227 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Caldarium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
40228 copper</cell>
40229 <cell>511</cell>
40230 </row>
40231 <row>
40232 <cell>Camphor</cell>
40233 <cell>238</cell>
40234 </row>
40235 <row>
40236 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40237 <cell>584</cell>
40238 </row>
40239 <row>
40240 <cell>Coal</cell>
40241 <cell>35</cell>
40242 </row>
40243 <row>
40244 <cell>Cobalt</cell>
40245 <cell>112</cell>
40246 </row>
40247 <row>
40248 <cell>Copper flowers</cell>
40249 <cell>539; 233</cell>
40250 </row>
40251 <row>
40252 <cell>Copper scales</cell>
40253 <cell>233</cell>
40254 </row>
40255 <row>
40256 <cell>Crinoid stems</cell>
40257 <cell>115</cell>
40258 </row>
40259 <row>
40260 <cell>Emery</cell>
40261 <cell>115</cell>
40262 </row>
40263 <row>
40264 <cell>Fluorspar</cell>
40265 <cell>380</cell>
40266 </row>
40267 <row>
40268 <cell>Goslar ores</cell>
40269 <cell>273</cell>
40270 </row>
40271 <row>
40272 <cell>Goslar smelting</cell>
40273 <cell>408</cell>
40274 </row>
40275 <row>
40276 <cell>Iron ores</cell>
40277 <cell>111</cell>
40278 </row>
40279 <row>
40280 <cell>Iron smelting</cell>
40281 <cell>420</cell>
40282 </row>
40283 <row>
40284 <cell>Jet</cell>
40285 <cell>34</cell>
40286 </row>
40287 <row>
40288 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Lapis judaicus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40289 <cell>115</cell>
40290 </row>
40291 <row>
40292 <cell>Lead minerals</cell>
40293 <cell>110</cell>
40294 </row>
40295 <row>
40296 <cell>Mannsfeld ores</cell>
40297 <cell>273</cell>
40298 </row>
40299 <row>
40300 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Melanteria<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40301 <cell>573</cell>
40302 </row>
40303 <row>
40304 <cell>Mineral Kingdom</cell>
40305 <cell>1</cell>
40306 </row>
40307 <row>
40308 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Misv<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40309 <cell>573</cell>
40310 </row>
40311 <row>
40312 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40313 <cell>476</cell>
40314 </row>
40315 <row>
40316 <cell>Native metals</cell>
40317 <cell>108</cell>
40318 </row>
40319 <row>
40320 <cell>Petroleum</cell>
40321 <cell>581</cell>
40322 </row>
40323 <row>
40324 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pompholv<gap></gap><emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40325 <cell>114; 278</cell>
40326 </row>
40327 <row>
40328 <cell>Pyrites</cell>
40329 <cell>112</cell>
40330 </row>
40331 <row>
40332 <cell>Quicksilver</cell>
40333 <cell>110</cell>
40334 </row>
40335 <row>
40336 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Rudis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> minerals</cell>
40337 <cell>108</cell>
40338 </row>
40339 <row>
40340 <cell>Sal-ammoniac</cell>
40341 <cell>560</cell>
40342 </row>
40343 <row>
40344 <cell>Silver glance</cell>
40345 <cell>109</cell>
40346 </row>
40347 <row>
40348 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sory<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40349 <cell>573</cell>
40350 </row>
40351 <row>
40352 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Spodos<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40353 <cell>114</cell>
40354 </row>
40355 <row>
40356 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Stannum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40357 <cell>473</cell>
40358 </row>
40359 <row>
40360 <cell>Stones which easily melt</cell>
40361 <cell>380</cell>
40362 </row>
40363 <row>
40364 <cell>Sulphur</cell>
40365 <cell>578</cell>
40366 </row>
40367 <row>
40368 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Tophus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40369 <cell>233</cell>
40370 </row>
40371 <row>
40372 <cell>Touchstone</cell>
40373 <cell>253</cell>
40374 </row>
40375 <row>
40376 <cell>White schist</cell>
40377 <cell>234</cell>
40378 </row>
40379 <row>
40380 <cell>Zinc</cell>
40381 <cell>409</cell>
40382 </row>
40383 <pb pagenum="633"></pb>
40384 <row>
40385 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40386 <cell>594; 600; III; VII; XII; XIII</cell>
40387 </row>
40388 <row>
40389 <cell>Earths</cell>
40390 <cell>48</cell>
40391 </row>
40392 <row>
40393 <cell>Gangue minerals</cell>
40394 <cell>48</cell>
40395 </row>
40396 <row>
40397 <cell>Gold in alluvial</cell>
40398 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>76<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40399 </row>
40400 <row>
40401 <cell>Ground waters</cell>
40402 <cell>48</cell>
40403 </row>
40404 <row>
40405 <cell>Juices</cell>
40406 <cell>52</cell>
40407 </row>
40408 <row>
40409 <cell>Metals</cell>
40410 <cell>51</cell>
40411 </row>
40412 <row>
40413 <cell>Solidified juices</cell>
40414 <cell>49</cell>
40415 </row>
40416 <row>
40417 <cell>Stones</cell>
40418 <cell>49</cell>
40419 </row>
40420 <row>
40421 <cell>Touchstone</cell>
40422 <cell>253</cell>
40423 </row>
40424 <row>
40425 <cell>Veins</cell>
40426 <cell>47</cell>
40427 </row>
40428 <row>
40429 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Ortu Metallorum Defensio ad J.
40430 Scheckium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40431 <cell>604</cell>
40432 </row>
40433 <row>
40434 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Peste<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40435 <cell>605; VIII</cell>
40436 </row>
40437 <row>
40438 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Precio Metallorum et Monetis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40439 <cell>597; 600</cell>
40440 </row>
40441 <row>
40442 <cell>Mention by Agricola</cell>
40443 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>252; 264<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40444 </row>
40445 <row>
40446 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Putredine solidas partes,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> etc.</cell>
40447 <cell>605</cell>
40448 </row>
40449 <row>
40450 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40451 <cell>I; XIII; XIV—XVI</cell>
40452 </row>
40453 <row>
40454 <cell>Editions</cell>
40455 <cell>600; XIV</cell>
40456 </row>
40457 <row>
40458 <cell>Title page</cell>
40459 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XIX<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40460 </row>
40461 <row>
40462 <cell>DE SOTO, FERNANDES</cell>
40463 <cell>V</cell>
40464 </row>
40465 <row>
40466 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Terrae Motu<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40467 <cell>604</cell>
40468 </row>
40469 <row>
40470 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Varia temperie sive Constitutione
40471 Aeris<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40472 <cell>604</cell>
40473 </row>
40474 <row>
40475 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40476 <cell>597; 600; VII; <emph type="bold"></emph>XXVI; 5<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40477 </row>
40478 <row>
40479 <cell>Agricola&#039;s training</cell>
40480 <cell>VI</cell>
40481 </row>
40482 <row>
40483 <cell>Conrad</cell>
40484 <cell>24</cell>
40485 </row>
40486 <row>
40487 <cell>Discovery of mines</cell>
40488 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>36;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 5; 37</cell>
40489 </row>
40490 <row>
40491 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Gottsgaab<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> mine</cell>
40492 <cell>74</cell>
40493 </row>
40494 <row>
40495 <cell>DEVOZ (DE VOZ), CORNELIUS</cell>
40496 <cell>570; 283</cell>
40497 </row>
40498 <row>
40499 <cell>DIODORUS SICULUS</cell>
40500 <cell>607</cell>
40501 </row>
40502 <row>
40503 <cell>Alum</cell>
40504 <cell>566</cell>
40505 </row>
40506 <row>
40507 <cell>Bitumen</cell>
40508 <cell>582</cell>
40509 </row>
40510 <row>
40511 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
40512 <cell>465</cell>
40513 </row>
40514 <row>
40515 <cell>Drainage of Spanish mines</cell>
40516 <cell>149</cell>
40517 </row>
40518 <row>
40519 <cell>Egyptian gold mining</cell>
40520 <cell>279</cell>
40521 </row>
40522 <row>
40523 <cell>Fire-setting</cell>
40524 <cell>118</cell>
40525 </row>
40526 <row>
40527 <cell>Lead</cell>
40528 <cell>391</cell>
40529 </row>
40530 <row>
40531 <cell>Silver from forest fires</cell>
40532 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>36<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40533 </row>
40534 <row>
40535 <cell>Tin</cell>
40536 <cell>412</cell>
40537 </row>
40538 <row>
40539 <cell>DIOGENES LAERTIUS</cell>
40540 <cell>7; 9; 10</cell>
40541 </row>
40542 <row>
40543 <cell>DIOSCORIDES</cell>
40544 <cell>607; 608</cell>
40545 </row>
40546 <row>
40547 <cell>Alum</cell>
40548 <cell>566</cell>
40549 </row>
40550 <row>
40551 <cell>Antimony</cell>
40552 <cell>428</cell>
40553 </row>
40554 <row>
40555 <cell>Argol</cell>
40556 <cell>234</cell>
40557 </row>
40558 <row>
40559 <cell>Arsenic minerals</cell>
40560 <cell>111</cell>
40561 </row>
40562 <row>
40563 <cell>Asbestos</cell>
40564 <cell>440</cell>
40565 </row>
40566 <row>
40567 <cell>Bitumen</cell>
40568 <cell>584</cell>
40569 </row>
40570 <row>
40571 <cell>Brass making</cell>
40572 <cell>410</cell>
40573 </row>
40574 <row>
40575 <cell>Burned lead</cell>
40576 <cell>237</cell>
40577 </row>
40578 <row>
40579 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Cadmia<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40580 <cell>112</cell>
40581 </row>
40582 <row>
40583 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Chalcitis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40584 <cell>573</cell>
40585 </row>
40586 <row>
40587 <cell>Copper flowers</cell>
40588 <cell>233; 538</cell>
40589 </row>
40590 <row>
40591 <cell>Copper smelting</cell>
40592 <cell>403</cell>
40593 </row>
40594 <row>
40595 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
40596 <cell>465</cell>
40597 </row>
40598 <row>
40599 <cell>Distillation apparatus</cell>
40600 <cell>355</cell>
40601 </row>
40602 <row>
40603 <cell>Dust-chambers</cell>
40604 <cell>355; 394</cell>
40605 </row>
40606 <row>
40607 <cell>Emery</cell>
40608 <cell>115</cell>
40609 </row>
40610 <row>
40611 <cell>Lead</cell>
40612 <cell>392</cell>
40613 </row>
40614 <row>
40615 <cell>Lead minerals</cell>
40616 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>477<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40617 </row>
40618 <row>
40619 <cell>Lemnian earth</cell>
40620 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>31<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40621 </row>
40622 <row>
40623 <cell>Litharge</cell>
40624 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>465<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40625 </row>
40626 <row>
40627 <cell>Lodestone</cell>
40628 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>115<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40629 </row>
40630 <row>
40631 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Melanteria<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40632 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>573<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40633 </row>
40634 <row>
40635 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Misy<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40636 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>573<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40637 </row>
40638 <row>
40639 <cell>Naphtha</cell>
40640 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>584<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40641 </row>
40642 <row>
40643 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40644 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>394; 410<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40645 </row>
40646 <row>
40647 <cell>Quicksilver</cell>
40648 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>297; 432<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40649 </row>
40650 <row>
40651 <cell>Red-lead</cell>
40652 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>232<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40653 </row>
40654 <row>
40655 <cell>Sal-ammoniac</cell>
40656 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>560<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40657 </row>
40658 <row>
40659 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sory<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40660 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>573<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40661 </row>
40662 <row>
40663 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Spodos<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40664 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>394<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40665 </row>
40666 <row>
40667 <cell>Verdigris</cell>
40668 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>440<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40669 </row>
40670 <row>
40671 <cell>Vitriol</cell>
40672 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>572<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40673 </row>
40674 <row>
40675 <cell>White-lead</cell>
40676 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>440<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40677 </row>
40678 <row>
40679 <cell>DIPHILUS</cell>
40680 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>27; 83<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40681 </row>
40682 <row>
40683 <cell>DIPHILUS (poet). .</cell>
40684 <cell></cell>
40685 </row>
40686 <row>
40687 <cell>Gold</cell>
40688 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>10<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40689 </row>
40690 <row>
40691 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Dominatores Saxonici<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40692 <cell>606</cell>
40693 </row>
40694 <row>
40695 <cell>DRAUD, G.</cell>
40696 <cell>599</cell>
40697 </row>
40698 <row>
40699 <cell>DUDAE.</cell>
40700 <cell></cell>
40701 </row>
40702 <row>
40703 <cell>Alum trade</cell>
40704 <cell>569</cell>
40705 </row>
40706 <row>
40707 <cell>ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF ENGLAND.</cell>
40708 <cell></cell>
40709 </row>
40710 <row>
40711 <cell>Charters to alum makers</cell>
40712 <cell>283; 570</cell>
40713 </row>
40714 <row>
40715 <cell>Dedication of Italian <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metal-lica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> to</cell>
40716 <cell>XV</cell>
40717 </row>
40718 <row>
40719 <cell>Importation of German miners</cell>
40720 <cell>283; 570</cell>
40721 </row>
40722 <row>
40723 <cell>ELOY, N. F. J.</cell>
40724 <cell>599</cell>
40725 </row>
40726 <row>
40727 <cell>ENTZELT (Enzelius, Encelio)</cell>
40728 <cell>615</cell>
40729 </row>
40730 <row>
40731 <cell>ERASMUS</cell>
40732 <cell>VI; VIII; XIV</cell>
40733 </row>
40734 <row>
40735 <cell>ERCKER, LAZARUS.</cell>
40736 <cell></cell>
40737 </row>
40738 <row>
40739 <cell>Amalgamation</cell>
40740 <cell>300</cell>
40741 </row>
40742 <row>
40743 <cell>Liquation</cell>
40744 <cell>491; 505</cell>
40745 </row>
40746 <row>
40747 <cell>Nitric acid preparation</cell>
40748 <cell>443</cell>
40749 </row>
40750 <row>
40751 <cell>Parting gold and silver</cell>
40752 <cell>444; 451</cell>
40753 </row>
40754 <row>
40755 <cell>ERIPHYLE.</cell>
40756 <cell></cell>
40757 </row>
40758 <row>
40759 <cell>Love of gold</cell>
40760 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40761 </row>
40762 <row>
40763 <cell>ERNEST, ELECTOR OF SAXONY</cell>
40764 <cell>VIII</cell>
40765 </row>
40766 <row>
40767 <cell>EURIPIDES.</cell>
40768 <cell></cell>
40769 </row>
40770 <row>
40771 <cell>Amber mentioned by</cell>
40772 <cell>35</cell>
40773 </row>
40774 <row>
40775 <cell>Plutus</cell>
40776 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>8; 7<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40777 </row>
40778 <row>
40779 <cell>EZEKIEL, PROPHET.</cell>
40780 <cell></cell>
40781 </row>
40782 <row>
40783 <cell>Antimony</cell>
40784 <cell>428</cell>
40785 </row>
40786 <row>
40787 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
40788 <cell>465</cell>
40789 </row>
40790 <row>
40791 <cell>Tin</cell>
40792 <cell>412</cell>
40793 </row>
40794 <row>
40795 <cell>FABRICIUS, GEORGE.</cell>
40796 <cell></cell>
40797 </row>
40798 <row>
40799 <cell>Agricola&#039;s death</cell>
40800 <cell>X</cell>
40801 </row>
40802 <row>
40803 <cell>Friendship with Agricola</cell>
40804 <cell>VIII</cell>
40805 </row>
40806 <row>
40807 <cell>Laudatory poem on Agricola</cell>
40808 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXI<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40809 </row>
40810 <row>
40811 <cell>Letters</cell>
40812 <cell>IX; X; XIV; XV</cell>
40813 </row>
40814 <row>
40815 <cell>Posthumous editor of Agricola</cell>
40816 <cell>603; 606</cell>
40817 </row>
40818 <row>
40819 <cell>FAIRCLOUGH, H. R.</cell>
40820 <cell>III</cell>
40821 </row>
40822 <row>
40823 <cell>FARINATOR, MATHIAS</cell>
40824 <cell>XXVI</cell>
40825 </row>
40826 <row>
40827 <cell>FERDINAND, KING OF AUSTRIA.</cell>
40828 <cell></cell>
40829 </row>
40830 <row>
40831 <cell>Agricola sent on mission to</cell>
40832 <cell>X</cell>
40833 </row>
40834 <row>
40835 <cell>Badoarius sent on mission to</cell>
40836 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40837 </row>
40838 <row>
40839 <cell>FERGUSON, JOHN.</cell>
40840 <cell></cell>
40841 </row>
40842 <row>
40843 <cell>Editions of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40844 <cell>XVI; 599</cell>
40845 </row>
40846 <row>
40847 <cell>FEYRABENDT, SIGMUNDI</cell>
40848 <cell>XV</cell>
40849 </row>
40850 <row>
40851 <cell>FIGUIER, L.</cell>
40852 <cell>38</cell>
40853 </row>
40854 <row>
40855 <cell>FLACH, JACQUES.</cell>
40856 <cell></cell>
40857 </row>
40858 <row>
40859 <cell>Aljustrel tablet</cell>
40860 <cell>83</cell>
40861 </row>
40862 <row>
40863 <cell>FLORIO, MICHELANGELO</cell>
40864 <cell>XV</cell>
40865 </row>
40866 <row>
40867 <cell>FÖRSTER, JOHANNES</cell>
40868 <cell>VI</cell>
40869 </row>
40870 <row>
40871 <cell>FRANCIS, COL. GRANT</cell>
40872 <cell>267; 283</cell>
40873 </row>
40874 <row>
40875 <cell>FRANCIS I., KING OF FRANCE</cell>
40876 <cell>IX</cell>
40877 </row>
40878 <row>
40879 <cell>FREDERICK, ELECTOR OF SAXONY</cell>
40880 <cell>VIII; IX</cell>
40881 </row>
40882 <row>
40883 <cell>FROBEN, publisher of <emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40884 <cell>XIV; XV</cell>
40885 </row>
40886 <row>
40887 <cell>FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS</cell>
40888 <cell>87</cell>
40889 </row>
40890 <row>
40891 <cell>GALEN.</cell>
40892 <cell></cell>
40893 </row>
40894 <row>
40895 <cell>Agricola&#039;s revision of</cell>
40896 <cell>605; VI</cell>
40897 </row>
40898 <row>
40899 <cell>Lemnian earth</cell>
40900 <cell>31</cell>
40901 </row>
40902 <row>
40903 <cell>Mention by Agricola</cell>
40904 <cell>2</cell>
40905 </row>
40906 <row>
40907 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Galerazeya sive Revelator Secretorum,<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> etc.</cell>
40908 <cell>606</cell>
40909 </row>
40910 <row>
40911 <cell>GAMA, VASCO DA</cell>
40912 <cell>V</cell>
40913 </row>
40914 <row>
40915 <cell>GANSE (GAUNSE), JOACHIM</cell>
40916 <cell>267; 283</cell>
40917 </row>
40918 <row>
40919 <cell>GATTERER, C. W.</cell>
40920 <cell>599</cell>
40921 </row>
40922 <row>
40923 <cell>GEBER</cell>
40924 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXX; 609</cell>
40925 </row>
40926 <row>
40927 <cell>Alum</cell>
40928 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>569<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
40929 </row>
40930 <row>
40931 <cell>Assaying</cell>
40932 <cell>219</cell>
40933 </row>
40934 <row>
40935 <cell>Cementation</cell>
40936 <cell>459</cell>
40937 </row>
40938 <row>
40939 <cell>Cupels</cell>
40940 <cell>466</cell>
40941 </row>
40942 <row>
40943 <cell>Nitric acid</cell>
40944 <cell>460</cell>
40945 </row>
40946 <row>
40947 <cell>Origin of metals</cell>
40948 <cell>44</cell>
40949 </row>
40950 <row>
40951 <cell>Precipitation of silver nitrate</cell>
40952 <cell>443</cell>
40953 </row>
40954 <row>
40955 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Genesis, Book of<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
40956 <cell>XII; 43</cell>
40957 </row>
40958 <row>
40959 <cell>GEORGE, DU<gap></gap>E OF SAXONY</cell>
40960 <cell>IX; 310; 310</cell>
40961 </row>
40962 <row>
40963 <cell>GESNER, CONRAD</cell>
40964 <cell>52</cell>
40965 </row>
40966 <row>
40967 <cell>GIBBON, EDWARD</cell>
40968 <cell>119</cell>
40969 </row>
40970 <row>
40971 <cell>GLAUBER, J. R.</cell>
40972 <cell>410</cell>
40973 </row>
40974 <row>
40975 <cell>GLUCK, CUNTZ VON (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
40976 Conrad).</cell>
40977 <cell></cell>
40978 </row>
40979 <row>
40980 <cell>GMELIN, J. F.</cell>
40981 <cell>84</cell>
40982 </row>
40983 <row>
40984 <cell>GÖCHER, C. G.</cell>
40985 <cell>599</cell>
40986 </row>
40987 <row>
40988 <cell>GODOLPHIN, SIR FRANCIS</cell>
40989 <cell>282</cell>
40990 </row>
40991 <row>
40992 <cell>GOWLAND, WILLIAM.</cell>
40993 <cell></cell>
40994 </row>
40995 <row>
40996 <cell>Ancient bronze</cell>
40997 <cell>410; 411; 421</cell>
40998 </row>
40999 <row>
41000 <cell>Early smelting</cell>
41001 <cell>402</cell>
41002 </row>
41003 <row>
41004 <cell>GRAECUS, MARCUS.</cell>
41005 <cell></cell>
41006 </row>
41007 <row>
41008 <cell>Saltpetre</cell>
41009 <cell>562</cell>
41010 </row>
41011 <row>
41012 <cell>GROMMESTETTER, PAUL</cell>
41013 <cell>281</cell>
41014 </row>
41015 <row>
41016 <cell>GRYMALDO, LEODIGARIS</cell>
41017 <cell>XVI</cell>
41018 </row>
41019 <row>
41020 <cell>GYGES, KING OF LYDIA.</cell>
41021 <cell></cell>
41022 </row>
41023 <row>
41024 <cell>Mines owned by</cell>
41025 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 27</cell>
41026 </row>
41027 <pb pagenum="634"></pb>
41028 <row>
41029 <cell>HANNIBAL.</cell>
41030 <cell></cell>
41031 </row>
41032 <row>
41033 <cell>Alps broken by vinegar</cell>
41034 <cell>119</cell>
41035 </row>
41036 <row>
41037 <cell>Spanish mines</cell>
41038 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>42;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 42</cell>
41039 </row>
41040 <row>
41041 <cell>HARDY, WILLIAM</cell>
41042 <cell>85</cell>
41043 </row>
41044 <row>
41045 <cell>HEATH, THOMAS.</cell>
41046 <cell></cell>
41047 </row>
41048 <row>
41049 <cell>On Hero</cell>
41050 <cell>129</cell>
41051 </row>
41052 <row>
41053 <cell>HELIODORUS (alchemist)</cell>
41054 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXIX</cell>
41055 </row>
41056 <row>
41057 <cell>HENCKEL, J. F.</cell>
41058 <cell>53; 112; 410</cell>
41059 </row>
41060 <row>
41061 <cell>HENDRIE, R.</cell>
41062 <cell>609</cell>
41063 </row>
41064 <row>
41065 <cell>HENNEBERT, E.</cell>
41066 <cell>119</cell>
41067 </row>
41068 <row>
41069 <cell>HENRY, DUKE OF BRUNSWICK</cell>
41070 <cell>VII</cell>
41071 </row>
41072 <row>
41073 <cell>HENRY, DUKE OF MEISSEN</cell>
41074 <cell>IX</cell>
41075 </row>
41076 <row>
41077 <cell>HERMES (alchemist)</cell>
41078 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVI;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
41079 </row>
41080 <row>
41081 <cell>HERMES (Mercury).</cell>
41082 <cell></cell>
41083 </row>
41084 <row>
41085 <cell>Magic rod</cell>
41086 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>40<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41087 </row>
41088 <row>
41089 <cell>HERO.</cell>
41090 <cell></cell>
41091 </row>
41092 <row>
41093 <cell>Underground surveying</cell>
41094 <cell>129</cell>
41095 </row>
41096 <row>
41097 <cell>HERODOTUS.</cell>
41098 <cell></cell>
41099 </row>
41100 <row>
41101 <cell>Alum</cell>
41102 <cell>566</cell>
41103 </row>
41104 <row>
41105 <cell>Bitumen</cell>
41106 <cell>582</cell>
41107 </row>
41108 <row>
41109 <cell>Lead</cell>
41110 <cell>391</cell>
41111 </row>
41112 <row>
41113 <cell>Mines of Thrace</cell>
41114 <cell>23</cell>
41115 </row>
41116 <row>
41117 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
41118 <cell>558</cell>
41119 </row>
41120 <row>
41121 <cell>HERTEL, VALENTINE</cell>
41122 <cell>XIV</cell>
41123 </row>
41124 <row>
41125 <cell>HIERO, KING OF SYRACUSE.</cell>
41126 <cell></cell>
41127 </row>
41128 <row>
41129 <cell>Crown</cell>
41130 <cell>247</cell>
41131 </row>
41132 <row>
41133 <cell>HILL, JOHN</cell>
41134 <cell>607</cell>
41135 </row>
41136 <row>
41137 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Auripigmentum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
41138 <cell>111</cell>
41139 </row>
41140 <row>
41141 <cell>HIMILCE, WIFE OF HANNIBAL</cell>
41142 <cell>42</cell>
41143 </row>
41144 <row>
41145 <cell>HIPPOCRATES.</cell>
41146 <cell></cell>
41147 </row>
41148 <row>
41149 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
41150 <cell>391; 465</cell>
41151 </row>
41152 <row>
41153 <cell>Lodestone</cell>
41154 <cell>115</cell>
41155 </row>
41156 <row>
41157 <cell>HIRAM, KING OF TYRE.</cell>
41158 <cell></cell>
41159 </row>
41160 <row>
41161 <cell>Mines</cell>
41162 <cell>214</cell>
41163 </row>
41164 <row>
41165 <cell>HOFMANN, DR. R.</cell>
41166 <cell></cell>
41167 </row>
41168 <row>
41169 <cell>Biography of Agricola</cell>
41170 <cell>V; XI; 599; 603</cell>
41171 </row>
41172 <row>
41173 <cell>HOMER.</cell>
41174 <cell></cell>
41175 </row>
41176 <row>
41177 <cell>Amber</cell>
41178 <cell>35</cell>
41179 </row>
41180 <row>
41181 <cell>Divining rod</cell>
41182 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>40;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 40</cell>
41183 </row>
41184 <row>
41185 <cell>Lead</cell>
41186 <cell>391</cell>
41187 </row>
41188 <row>
41189 <cell>Smelting</cell>
41190 <cell>402</cell>
41191 </row>
41192 <row>
41193 <cell>Steel</cell>
41194 <cell>421</cell>
41195 </row>
41196 <row>
41197 <cell>Sulphur</cell>
41198 <cell>579</cell>
41199 </row>
41200 <row>
41201 <cell>Tin</cell>
41202 <cell>412</cell>
41203 </row>
41204 <row>
41205 <cell>HOMMEL, W.</cell>
41206 <cell></cell>
41207 </row>
41208 <row>
41209 <cell>Early zinc smelting</cell>
41210 <cell>409</cell>
41211 </row>
41212 <row>
41213 <cell>HORACE.</cell>
41214 <cell></cell>
41215 </row>
41216 <row>
41217 <cell>Metals</cell>
41218 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>11<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41219 </row>
41220 <row>
41221 <cell>Wealth</cell>
41222 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>15; 17<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41223 </row>
41224 <row>
41225 <cell>HORDEBORCH, JOHANNES</cell>
41226 <cell>VII</cell>
41227 </row>
41228 <row>
41229 <cell>HOUGHSTETTER, DANIEL</cell>
41230 <cell>283</cell>
41231 </row>
41232 <row>
41233 <cell>HOUGHTON, THOMAS</cell>
41234 <cell>85</cell>
41235 </row>
41236 <row>
41237 <cell>HUMPHREY, WILLIAM.</cell>
41238 <cell></cell>
41239 </row>
41240 <row>
41241 <cell>Jigging sieve</cell>
41242 <cell>283</cell>
41243 </row>
41244 <row>
41245 <cell>HUNT, ROBERT.</cell>
41246 <cell></cell>
41247 </row>
41248 <row>
41249 <cell>Roman lead smelting</cell>
41250 <cell>392</cell>
41251 </row>
41252 <row>
41253 <cell>INAMA-STERNEGG, K. T. VON</cell>
41254 <cell>84</cell>
41255 </row>
41256 <row>
41257 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Interpretatio Rerum Metallicarum.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>(See <emph type="italics"></emph>Rerum Metall.
41258 Interpretatio<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
41259 <cell></cell>
41260 </row>
41261 <row>
41262 <cell>IRENE, DAUGHTER OF AGRICOLA</cell>
41263 <cell>VII</cell>
41264 </row>
41265 <row>
41266 <cell>JACOBI, G. H.</cell>
41267 <cell></cell>
41268 </row>
41269 <row>
41270 <cell>Biography of Agricola</cell>
41271 <cell>V; 599</cell>
41272 </row>
41273 <row>
41274 <cell>Calbus</cell>
41275 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII; 610<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41276 </row>
41277 <row>
41278 <cell>JAGNAUX, RAOUL.</cell>
41279 <cell></cell>
41280 </row>
41281 <row>
41282 <cell>Ancient zinc</cell>
41283 <cell>409</cell>
41284 </row>
41285 <row>
41286 <cell>JASON.</cell>
41287 <cell></cell>
41288 </row>
41289 <row>
41290 <cell>Golden fleece</cell>
41291 <cell>330</cell>
41292 </row>
41293 <row>
41294 <cell>JEREMIAH.</cell>
41295 <cell></cell>
41296 </row>
41297 <row>
41298 <cell>Bellows</cell>
41299 <cell>362</cell>
41300 </row>
41301 <row>
41302 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
41303 <cell>465</cell>
41304 </row>
41305 <row>
41306 <cell>Lead smelting</cell>
41307 <cell>391</cell>
41308 </row>
41309 <row>
41310 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
41311 <cell>558</cell>
41312 </row>
41313 <row>
41314 <cell>JEZEBEL.</cell>
41315 <cell></cell>
41316 </row>
41317 <row>
41318 <cell>Use of antimony</cell>
41319 <cell>428</cell>
41320 </row>
41321 <row>
41322 <cell>JOB.</cell>
41323 <cell></cell>
41324 </row>
41325 <row>
41326 <cell>Refining silver</cell>
41327 <cell>465</cell>
41328 </row>
41329 <row>
41330 <cell>JOHANNES (alchemist)</cell>
41331 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
41332 </row>
41333 <row>
41334 <cell>JOHN, ELECTOR OF SAXONY</cell>
41335 <cell>IX</cell>
41336 </row>
41337 <row>
41338 <cell>JOHN, KING OF ENGLAND.</cell>
41339 <cell></cell>
41340 </row>
41341 <row>
41342 <cell>Mining claims</cell>
41343 <cell>85</cell>
41344 </row>
41345 <row>
41346 <cell>JOHN FREDERICK, ELECTOR OF SAXONY</cell>
41347 <cell>IX</cell>
41348 </row>
41349 <row>
41350 <cell>JOSEPHUS.</cell>
41351 <cell></cell>
41352 </row>
41353 <row>
41354 <cell>Dead Sea bitumen</cell>
41355 <cell>33</cell>
41356 </row>
41357 <row>
41358 <cell>JOVE.</cell>
41359 <cell></cell>
41360 </row>
41361 <row>
41362 <cell>Danae legend</cell>
41363 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>10<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41364 </row>
41365 <row>
41366 <cell>JUSTIN</cell>
41367 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>36<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41368 </row>
41369 <row>
41370 <cell>JUVENAL.</cell>
41371 <cell></cell>
41372 </row>
41373 <row>
41374 <cell>Money</cell>
41375 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>10<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41376 </row>
41377 <row>
41378 <cell>KARSTEN, K. J. B.</cell>
41379 <cell></cell>
41380 </row>
41381 <row>
41382 <cell>Liquation</cell>
41383 <cell>491; 492; 505; 509; 523; 535</cell>
41384 </row>
41385 <row>
41386 <cell>KERL, BRUNO.</cell>
41387 <cell></cell>
41388 </row>
41389 <row>
41390 <cell>Liquation</cell>
41391 <cell>505</cell>
41392 </row>
41393 <row>
41394 <cell>KÖNIG, EMANUEL</cell>
41395 <cell>XV</cell>
41396 </row>
41397 <row>
41398 <cell>KÖNIG, LUDWIG</cell>
41399 <cell>XV</cell>
41400 </row>
41401 <row>
41402 <cell>KOPP, DR. HERMANN</cell>
41403 <cell>609; 441</cell>
41404 </row>
41405 <row>
41406 <cell>LAMPADIUS, G. A.</cell>
41407 <cell>462</cell>
41408 </row>
41409 <row>
41410 <cell>LASTHENES.</cell>
41411 <cell></cell>
41412 </row>
41413 <row>
41414 <cell>Love of gold</cell>
41415 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41416 </row>
41417 <row>
41418 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Latin Grammar<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
41419 (Agricola)</cell>
41420 <cell>605</cell>
41421 </row>
41422 <row>
41423 <cell>LEONARDI, CAMILLI</cell>
41424 <cell>615</cell>
41425 </row>
41426 <row>
41427 <cell>LEUPOLD, JACOB</cell>
41428 <cell>XV; 599</cell>
41429 </row>
41430 <row>
41431 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Leviticus.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
41432 <cell></cell>
41433 </row>
41434 <row>
41435 <cell>Leprosy of walls</cell>
41436 <cell>562</cell>
41437 </row>
41438 <row>
41439 <cell>LEWIS, G. R.</cell>
41440 <cell>84</cell>
41441 </row>
41442 <row>
41443 <cell>LEWIS</cell>
41444 <cell>454</cell>
41445 </row>
41446 <row>
41447 <cell>LIBAVIS, ANDREW</cell>
41448 <cell>410</cell>
41449 </row>
41450 <row>
41451 <cell>LIEBLEIN, J. D. C.</cell>
41452 <cell>129</cell>
41453 </row>
41454 <row>
41455 <cell>LINNAEUS, CHARLES</cell>
41456 <cell>559</cell>
41457 </row>
41458 <row>
41459 <cell>LIVY.</cell>
41460 <cell></cell>
41461 </row>
41462 <row>
41463 <cell>Hannibal&#039;s march over the Alps</cell>
41464 <cell>119</cell>
41465 </row>
41466 <row>
41467 <cell>LOHNEYS, G. E.</cell>
41468 <cell></cell>
41469 </row>
41470 <row>
41471 <cell>Liquation</cell>
41472 <cell>491; 505</cell>
41473 </row>
41474 <row>
41475 <cell>Parting with antimony</cell>
41476 <cell>451</cell>
41477 </row>
41478 <row>
41479 <cell>Zinc</cell>
41480 <cell>409; 410</cell>
41481 </row>
41482 <row>
41483 <cell>LUCRETIA, DAUGHTER OF AGRICOLA.</cell>
41484 <cell>VII</cell>
41485 </row>
41486 <row>
41487 <cell>LUCRETIUS.</cell>
41488 <cell></cell>
41489 </row>
41490 <row>
41491 <cell>Forest fires melting veins</cell>
41492 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>36<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41493 </row>
41494 <row>
41495 <cell>LULLY, RAYMOND</cell>
41496 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXX</cell>
41497 </row>
41498 <row>
41499 <cell>LUSCINUS, FABRICIUS.</cell>
41500 <cell></cell>
41501 </row>
41502 <row>
41503 <cell>Gold</cell>
41504 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41505 </row>
41506 <row>
41507 <cell>LUTHER, MARTIN</cell>
41508 <cell>V; VI; VIII; IX</cell>
41509 </row>
41510 <row>
41511 <cell>LYCURGUS (Athenian orator).</cell>
41512 <cell></cell>
41513 </row>
41514 <row>
41515 <cell>Prosecution of Diphilos</cell>
41516 <cell>27; 83</cell>
41517 </row>
41518 <row>
41519 <cell>LYCURGUS (Spartan legislator).</cell>
41520 <cell></cell>
41521 </row>
41522 <row>
41523 <cell>Wealth prohibited by</cell>
41524 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41525 </row>
41526 <row>
41527 <cell>MAGELLAN, F. DE</cell>
41528 <cell>V</cell>
41529 </row>
41530 <row>
41531 <cell>MALTITZ, SIGISMUND</cell>
41532 <cell>312</cell>
41533 </row>
41534 <row>
41535 <cell>MANLOVE, EDWARD</cell>
41536 <cell>70; 85</cell>
41537 </row>
41538 <row>
41539 <cell>MARBODAEUS</cell>
41540 <cell>615</cell>
41541 </row>
41542 <row>
41543 <cell>MARCELLINUS, AMMIANUS.</cell>
41544 <cell></cell>
41545 </row>
41546 <row>
41547 <cell>On Thucydides</cell>
41548 <cell>23</cell>
41549 </row>
41550 <row>
41551 <cell>MARCELLUS, NONIUS</cell>
41552 <cell>XXXI</cell>
41553 </row>
41554 <row>
41555 <cell>MARIA THE JEWESS</cell>
41556 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
41557 </row>
41558 <row>
41559 <cell>MATHESIUS, JOHANN.</cell>
41560 <cell></cell>
41561 </row>
41562 <row>
41563 <cell>Cobalt</cell>
41564 <cell>214</cell>
41565 </row>
41566 <row>
41567 <cell>Conrad mentioned by</cell>
41568 <cell>24</cell>
41569 </row>
41570 <row>
41571 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
41572 <cell>XIV</cell>
41573 </row>
41574 <row>
41575 <cell>King Hiram&#039;s mines</cell>
41576 <cell>214</cell>
41577 </row>
41578 <row>
41579 <cell>MATTHEW PARIS.</cell>
41580 <cell></cell>
41581 </row>
41582 <row>
41583 <cell>Cornish miners in Germany</cell>
41584 <cell>283</cell>
41585 </row>
41586 <row>
41587 <cell>MAURICE, ELECTOR OF SAXONY.</cell>
41588 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXV;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> VIII; IX; X</cell>
41589 </row>
41590 <row>
41591 <cell>MAWR, J.</cell>
41592 <cell>70</cell>
41593 </row>
41594 <row>
41595 <cell>MAXIMILIAN, EMPEROR</cell>
41596 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>23; 24<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41597 </row>
41598 <row>
41599 <cell>MEISSEN, DUKES OF (<emph type="italics"></emph>see under personal
41600 names:<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Albert, Henry, <emph type="italics"></emph>etc.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
41601 <cell></cell>
41602 </row>
41603 <row>
41604 <cell>MELANCHTHON.</cell>
41605 <cell></cell>
41606 </row>
41607 <row>
41608 <cell>Relations with Agricola</cell>
41609 <cell>VIII; X</cell>
41610 </row>
41611 <row>
41612 <cell>MENANDER.</cell>
41613 <cell></cell>
41614 </row>
41615 <row>
41616 <cell>Riches</cell>
41617 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>8<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41618 </row>
41619 <row>
41620 <cell>MERCKLINUS, G. A.</cell>
41621 <cell>599</cell>
41622 </row>
41623 <row>
41624 <cell>MERCURY (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
41625 HERMES).</cell>
41626 <cell></cell>
41627 </row>
41628 <row>
41629 <cell>MERLIN (magician)</cell>
41630 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXX</cell>
41631 </row>
41632 <row>
41633 <cell>MEURER, WOLFGANG.</cell>
41634 <cell></cell>
41635 </row>
41636 <row>
41637 <cell>Letters</cell>
41638 <cell>IX; X</cell>
41639 </row>
41640 <row>
41641 <cell>MEYER, ERNST VON</cell>
41642 <cell>248; 569</cell>
41643 </row>
41644 <row>
41645 <cell>MEYNER, MATTHIAS</cell>
41646 <cell>VII</cell>
41647 </row>
41648 <row>
41649 <cell>MIDAS, KING OF LYDIA.</cell>
41650 <cell></cell>
41651 </row>
41652 <row>
41653 <cell>Mines owned by</cell>
41654 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26; 27<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41655 </row>
41656 <row>
41657 <cell>MILLER, F. B.</cell>
41658 <cell>462</cell>
41659 </row>
41660 <row>
41661 <cell>MINERVA.</cell>
41662 <cell></cell>
41663 </row>
41664 <row>
41665 <cell>Magic rod</cell>
41666 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>40<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41667 </row>
41668 <row>
41669 <cell>MORRIS, W. O&#039;C</cell>
41670 <cell>119</cell>
41671 </row>
41672 <pb pagenum="635"></pb>
41673 <row>
41674 <cell>MOSELLANUS, PETRUS</cell>
41675 <cell>VI</cell>
41676 </row>
41677 <row>
41678 <cell>MOSES.</cell>
41679 <cell></cell>
41680 </row>
41681 <row>
41682 <cell>Bitumen</cell>
41683 <cell>582</cell>
41684 </row>
41685 <row>
41686 <cell>Lead</cell>
41687 <cell>391</cell>
41688 </row>
41689 <row>
41690 <cell>Refining gold</cell>
41691 <cell>399</cell>
41692 </row>
41693 <row>
41694 <cell>Rod of Horeb</cell>
41695 <cell>38; <emph type="bold"></emph>40<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41696 </row>
41697 <row>
41698 <cell>MÜLLER, MAX.</cell>
41699 <cell></cell>
41700 </row>
41701 <row>
41702 <cell>Ancient iron</cell>
41703 <cell>421</cell>
41704 </row>
41705 <row>
41706 <cell>NAEVIUS.</cell>
41707 <cell></cell>
41708 </row>
41709 <row>
41710 <cell>Money</cell>
41711 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>20<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41712 </row>
41713 <row>
41714 <cell>NASH, W. G.</cell>
41715 <cell></cell>
41716 </row>
41717 <row>
41718 <cell>Rio Tinto mine</cell>
41719 <cell>149</cell>
41720 </row>
41721 <row>
41722 <cell>NAUMACHIUS.</cell>
41723 <cell></cell>
41724 </row>
41725 <row>
41726 <cell>Gold and silver</cell>
41727 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>8<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41728 </row>
41729 <row>
41730 <cell>NECKAM, ALEXANDER</cell>
41731 <cell></cell>
41732 </row>
41733 <row>
41734 <cell>Compass</cell>
41735 <cell>57</cell>
41736 </row>
41737 <row>
41738 <cell>NEWCOMEN, THOMAS</cell>
41739 <cell>149</cell>
41740 </row>
41741 <row>
41742 <cell>NICANDER.</cell>
41743 <cell></cell>
41744 </row>
41745 <row>
41746 <cell>On coal</cell>
41747 <cell>34</cell>
41748 </row>
41749 <row>
41750 <cell>NICIAS.</cell>
41751 <cell></cell>
41752 </row>
41753 <row>
41754 <cell>Sosias and slaves of</cell>
41755 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>25;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 25</cell>
41756 </row>
41757 <row>
41758 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Nützlich Bergbüchlin<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
41759 <cell>610; <emph type="bold"></emph>XXVI;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVII</cell>
41760 </row>
41761 <row>
41762 <cell>Alluvial gold</cell>
41763 <cell>75</cell>
41764 </row>
41765 <row>
41766 <cell>Bismuth</cell>
41767 <cell>110; 433</cell>
41768 </row>
41769 <row>
41770 <cell>Compass</cell>
41771 <cell>57; 129</cell>
41772 </row>
41773 <row>
41774 <cell>Ore-deposits</cell>
41775 <cell>44</cell>
41776 </row>
41777 <row>
41778 <cell>Ore-shoots</cell>
41779 <cell>43</cell>
41780 </row>
41781 <row>
41782 <cell>Veins</cell>
41783 <cell>43; 46; 73</cell>
41784 </row>
41785 <row>
41786 <cell>OLYMPIODORUS (alchemist)</cell>
41787 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXX</cell>
41788 </row>
41789 <row>
41790 <cell>OPPEL, VAN (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> VAN
41791 OPPEL).</cell>
41792 <cell></cell>
41793 </row>
41794 <row>
41795 <cell>ORUS CHRYSORICHITES (alchemist)</cell>
41796 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
41797 </row>
41798 <row>
41799 <cell>OSTHANES (alchemist)</cell>
41800 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXIX</cell>
41801 </row>
41802 <row>
41803 <cell>OTHO THE GREAT</cell>
41804 <cell>6</cell>
41805 </row>
41806 <row>
41807 <cell>OTHO, PRINCE</cell>
41808 <cell>6</cell>
41809 </row>
41810 <row>
41811 <cell>OVID.</cell>
41812 <cell></cell>
41813 </row>
41814 <row>
41815 <cell>Mining censured by</cell>
41816 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>7<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41817 </row>
41818 <row>
41819 <cell>PANDULFUS ANGLUS</cell>
41820 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVI<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41821 </row>
41822 <row>
41823 <cell>PANTAENETUS.</cell>
41824 <cell></cell>
41825 </row>
41826 <row>
41827 <cell>Demosthenes&#039; oration against</cell>
41828 <cell>27; 83</cell>
41829 </row>
41830 <row>
41831 <cell>PANTHEUS, AUGUSTINUS (alchemist).</cell>
41832 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41833 </row>
41834 <row>
41835 <cell>PARACELSUS</cell>
41836 <cell>XIV; XXX</cell>
41837 </row>
41838 <row>
41839 <cell>Divining rod</cell>
41840 <cell>38</cell>
41841 </row>
41842 <row>
41843 <cell>Zinc</cell>
41844 <cell>112; 409</cell>
41845 </row>
41846 <row>
41847 <cell>PARIS, MATTHEW (<emph type="italics"></emph>See<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
41848 MATTHEW PARIS).</cell>
41849 <cell></cell>
41850 </row>
41851 <row>
41852 <cell>PEBICHIUS (alchemist)</cell>
41853 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
41854 </row>
41855 <row>
41856 <cell>PELAGIUS (alchemist)</cell>
41857 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41858 </row>
41859 <row>
41860 <cell>PENNENT, THOMAS</cell>
41861 <cell>570</cell>
41862 </row>
41863 <row>
41864 <cell>PERCY, JOHN.</cell>
41865 <cell></cell>
41866 </row>
41867 <row>
41868 <cell>Cementation</cell>
41869 <cell>454; 459</cell>
41870 </row>
41871 <row>
41872 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
41873 <cell>465</cell>
41874 </row>
41875 <row>
41876 <cell>Liquation</cell>
41877 <cell>491</cell>
41878 </row>
41879 <row>
41880 <cell>Parting with antimony</cell>
41881 <cell>451; 452</cell>
41882 </row>
41883 <row>
41884 <cell>PEREGRINUS, PETRUS.</cell>
41885 <cell></cell>
41886 </row>
41887 <row>
41888 <cell>Compass</cell>
41889 <cell>57</cell>
41890 </row>
41891 <row>
41892 <cell>PETASIUS (alchemist)</cell>
41893 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
41894 </row>
41895 <row>
41896 <cell>PETRIE, W. M. F.</cell>
41897 <cell></cell>
41898 </row>
41899 <row>
41900 <cell>Egyptian iron</cell>
41901 <cell>421</cell>
41902 </row>
41903 <row>
41904 <cell>Mt. Sinai copper</cell>
41905 <cell>402</cell>
41906 </row>
41907 <row>
41908 <cell>PETTUS, SIR JOHN</cell>
41909 <cell>XVI; 283</cell>
41910 </row>
41911 <row>
41912 <cell>PHAENIPPUS.</cell>
41913 <cell></cell>
41914 </row>
41915 <row>
41916 <cell>Demosthenes&#039; oration against</cell>
41917 <cell>27; 83</cell>
41918 </row>
41919 <row>
41920 <cell>PHAETON&#039;S SISTERS</cell>
41921 <cell>35</cell>
41922 </row>
41923 <row>
41924 <cell>PHERECRATES.</cell>
41925 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVI<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41926 </row>
41927 <row>
41928 <cell>PHILEMON.</cell>
41929 <cell></cell>
41930 </row>
41931 <row>
41932 <cell>Riches</cell>
41933 <cell>7</cell>
41934 </row>
41935 <row>
41936 <cell>PHILIP OF MACEDONIA</cell>
41937 <cell>27</cell>
41938 </row>
41939 <row>
41940 <cell>PHILIP. PETER</cell>
41941 <cell>282</cell>
41942 </row>
41943 <row>
41944 <cell>PHILLIPS, J. A.</cell>
41945 <cell>410</cell>
41946 </row>
41947 <row>
41948 <cell>PHILO.</cell>
41949 <cell></cell>
41950 </row>
41951 <row>
41952 <cell>Lost work on mining</cell>
41953 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVI<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41954 </row>
41955 <row>
41956 <cell>PHOCION.</cell>
41957 <cell></cell>
41958 </row>
41959 <row>
41960 <cell>Bribe of Alexander</cell>
41961 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41962 </row>
41963 <row>
41964 <cell>PHOCYLIDES.</cell>
41965 <cell></cell>
41966 </row>
41967 <row>
41968 <cell>Gold</cell>
41969 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>7<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41970 </row>
41971 <row>
41972 <cell>PHOTIUS</cell>
41973 <cell>279</cell>
41974 </row>
41975 <row>
41976 <cell>Fire-setting</cell>
41977 <cell>118</cell>
41978 </row>
41979 <row>
41980 <cell>PINDAR.</cell>
41981 <cell></cell>
41982 </row>
41983 <row>
41984 <cell>Wealth</cell>
41985 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>19;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 252</cell>
41986 </row>
41987 <row>
41988 <cell>PIUS II. POPE.</cell>
41989 <cell></cell>
41990 </row>
41991 <row>
41992 <cell>Alum maker</cell>
41993 <cell>570</cell>
41994 </row>
41995 <row>
41996 <cell>PIZARRO, F</cell>
41997 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>V<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
41998 </row>
41999 <row>
42000 <cell>PLATEANUS, PETRUS</cell>
42001 <cell>XIV</cell>
42002 </row>
42003 <row>
42004 <cell>PLAUTUS.</cell>
42005 <cell></cell>
42006 </row>
42007 <row>
42008 <cell>Gold</cell>
42009 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>10<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42010 </row>
42011 <row>
42012 <cell>PLINY (Caius Plinius Secundus)</cell>
42013 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVI;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 608</cell>
42014 </row>
42015 <row>
42016 <cell>Alluvial mining</cell>
42017 <cell>331; 333</cell>
42018 </row>
42019 <row>
42020 <cell>Alum</cell>
42021 <cell>566</cell>
42022 </row>
42023 <row>
42024 <cell>Amalgamation</cell>
42025 <cell>297</cell>
42026 </row>
42027 <row>
42028 <cell>Amber</cell>
42029 <cell>35</cell>
42030 </row>
42031 <row>
42032 <cell>Antimony</cell>
42033 <cell>428</cell>
42034 </row>
42035 <row>
42036 <cell>Argol</cell>
42037 <cell>234</cell>
42038 </row>
42039 <row>
42040 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Arrhenicum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42041 <cell>111</cell>
42042 </row>
42043 <row>
42044 <cell>Asbestos</cell>
42045 <cell>440</cell>
42046 </row>
42047 <row>
42048 <cell>Bitumen</cell>
42049 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>33;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 583</cell>
42050 </row>
42051 <row>
42052 <cell>Brass</cell>
42053 <cell>410</cell>
42054 </row>
42055 <row>
42056 <cell>British miners</cell>
42057 <cell>83</cell>
42058 </row>
42059 <row>
42060 <cell>Cadmia</cell>
42061 <cell>112</cell>
42062 </row>
42063 <row>
42064 <cell>Cementation</cell>
42065 <cell>459</cell>
42066 </row>
42067 <row>
42068 <cell>Chrysocolla</cell>
42069 <cell>560</cell>
42070 </row>
42071 <row>
42072 <cell>Copper flowers and scales</cell>
42073 <cell>233; 538</cell>
42074 </row>
42075 <row>
42076 <cell>Copper smelting</cell>
42077 <cell>404</cell>
42078 </row>
42079 <row>
42080 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
42081 <cell>466</cell>
42082 </row>
42083 <row>
42084 <cell>Drainage of Spanish mines</cell>
42085 <cell>149</cell>
42086 </row>
42087 <row>
42088 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Electrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42089 <cell>458</cell>
42090 </row>
42091 <row>
42092 <cell>Fire-setting</cell>
42093 <cell>118</cell>
42094 </row>
42095 <row>
42096 <cell>Galena</cell>
42097 <cell>476</cell>
42098 </row>
42099 <row>
42100 <cell>Glass</cell>
42101 <cell>585; 586</cell>
42102 </row>
42103 <row>
42104 <cell>Hannibal&#039;s silver mine</cell>
42105 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>42;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 42</cell>
42106 </row>
42107 <row>
42108 <cell>Hoisting ore</cell>
42109 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>157;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 157</cell>
42110 </row>
42111 <row>
42112 <cell>Iron</cell>
42113 <cell>11</cell>
42114 </row>
42115 <row>
42116 <cell>Jew-stone</cell>
42117 <cell>115</cell>
42118 </row>
42119 <row>
42120 <cell>Lead</cell>
42121 <cell>392</cell>
42122 </row>
42123 <row>
42124 <cell>Lemnian earth</cell>
42125 <cell>31</cell>
42126 </row>
42127 <row>
42128 <cell>Litharge</cell>
42129 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>475;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 466; 501</cell>
42130 </row>
42131 <row>
42132 <cell>Lodestone</cell>
42133 <cell>115</cell>
42134 </row>
42135 <row>
42136 <cell>Manganese (?)</cell>
42137 <cell>586</cell>
42138 </row>
42139 <row>
42140 <cell>Metallurgical appliances</cell>
42141 <cell>355</cell>
42142 </row>
42143 <row>
42144 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Misy<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42145 <cell>573</cell>
42146 </row>
42147 <row>
42148 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42149 <cell>466; 476</cell>
42150 </row>
42151 <row>
42152 <cell>Naphtha</cell>
42153 <cell>583</cell>
42154 </row>
42155 <row>
42156 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42157 <cell>560</cell>
42158 </row>
42159 <row>
42160 <cell>Ore-dressing</cell>
42161 <cell>281</cell>
42162 </row>
42163 <row>
42164 <cell>Outcrops</cell>
42165 <cell>65</cell>
42166 </row>
42167 <row>
42168 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42169 <cell>396</cell>
42170 </row>
42171 <row>
42172 <cell>Protection from poison</cell>
42173 <cell>215</cell>
42174 </row>
42175 <row>
42176 <cell>Quicksilver</cell>
42177 <cell>433</cell>
42178 </row>
42179 <row>
42180 <cell>Red-lead</cell>
42181 <cell>232</cell>
42182 </row>
42183 <row>
42184 <cell>Roasting</cell>
42185 <cell>267</cell>
42186 </row>
42187 <row>
42188 <cell>Sal-ammoniac</cell>
42189 <cell>560</cell>
42190 </row>
42191 <row>
42192 <cell>Salt from wood</cell>
42193 <cell>558</cell>
42194 </row>
42195 <row>
42196 <cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell>
42197 <cell>392</cell>
42198 </row>
42199 <row>
42200 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Sory<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42201 <cell>573</cell>
42202 </row>
42203 <row>
42204 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Spodos<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42205 <cell>396</cell>
42206 </row>
42207 <row>
42208 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Stannum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42209 <cell>473</cell>
42210 </row>
42211 <row>
42212 <cell>Tin, Spanish</cell>
42213 <cell>412</cell>
42214 </row>
42215 <row>
42216 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Tophus<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42217 <cell>233</cell>
42218 </row>
42219 <row>
42220 <cell>Touchstone</cell>
42221 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>256;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 253</cell>
42222 </row>
42223 <row>
42224 <cell>Turfs in sluices</cell>
42225 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>331<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end>; 332</cell>
42226 </row>
42227 <row>
42228 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Vena<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42229 <cell>43</cell>
42230 </row>
42231 <row>
42232 <cell>Ventilation with wet cloths</cell>
42233 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>210;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 210</cell>
42234 </row>
42235 <row>
42236 <cell>Verdigris</cell>
42237 <cell>440</cell>
42238 </row>
42239 <row>
42240 <cell>Vitriol</cell>
42241 <cell>572</cell>
42242 </row>
42243 <row>
42244 <cell>White-lead</cell>
42245 <cell>440</cell>
42246 </row>
42247 <row>
42248 <cell>PLUTARCH</cell>
42249 <cell>25</cell>
42250 </row>
42251 <row>
42252 <cell>PLUTO</cell>
42253 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>216<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42254 </row>
42255 <row>
42256 <cell>POLYBIUS.</cell>
42257 <cell></cell>
42258 </row>
42259 <row>
42260 <cell>Ore washing</cell>
42261 <cell>281</cell>
42262 </row>
42263 <row>
42264 <cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell>
42265 <cell>392; 465</cell>
42266 </row>
42267 <row>
42268 <cell>POLYMNESTOR, KING OF THRACE.</cell>
42269 <cell></cell>
42270 </row>
42271 <row>
42272 <cell>Love of gold</cell>
42273 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9; 16<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42274 </row>
42275 <row>
42276 <cell>PÖRTNER, HANS</cell>
42277 <cell>281</cell>
42278 </row>
42279 <row>
42280 <cell>POSEPNY, FRANZ</cell>
42281 <cell>53</cell>
42282 </row>
42283 <row>
42284 <cell>POSIDONIUS.</cell>
42285 <cell></cell>
42286 </row>
42287 <row>
42288 <cell>Asphalt and naphtha</cell>
42289 <cell>584</cell>
42290 </row>
42291 <row>
42292 <cell>Drainage of Spanish mines</cell>
42293 <cell>149</cell>
42294 </row>
42295 <row>
42296 <cell>Silver from forest fires</cell>
42297 <cell>36</cell>
42298 </row>
42299 <row>
42300 <cell>PRIAM, KING OF TROY.</cell>
42301 <cell></cell>
42302 </row>
42303 <row>
42304 <cell>Gold mines of</cell>
42305 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 27</cell>
42306 </row>
42307 <row>
42308 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42309 <cell>612; <emph type="bold"></emph>XXVI<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42310 </row>
42311 <row>
42312 <cell>Amalgamation</cell>
42313 <cell>297</cell>
42314 </row>
42315 <row>
42316 <cell>Antimony</cell>
42317 <cell>4<gap></gap>0</cell>
42318 </row>
42319 <row>
42320 <cell>Assaying</cell>
42321 <cell>220</cell>
42322 </row>
42323 <row>
42324 <cell>Assay ton</cell>
42325 <cell>242</cell>
42326 </row>
42327 <row>
42328 <cell>Bismuth</cell>
42329 <cell>433</cell>
42330 </row>
42331 <pb pagenum="636"></pb>
42332 <row>
42333 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Probierbüchlein.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42334 <cell></cell>
42335 </row>
42336 <row>
42337 <cell>Cementation</cell>
42338 <cell>454</cell>
42339 </row>
42340 <row>
42341 <cell>Nitric acid</cell>
42342 <cell>439</cell>
42343 </row>
42344 <row>
42345 <cell>Parting</cell>
42346 <cell>461; 462; 463</cell>
42347 </row>
42348 <row>
42349 <cell>Precipitation of silver nitrate</cell>
42350 <cell>443</cell>
42351 </row>
42352 <row>
42353 <cell>Residues from distillation of nitric acid</cell>
42354 <cell>235; 443</cell>
42355 </row>
42356 <row>
42357 <cell>Roasting</cell>
42358 <cell>267</cell>
42359 </row>
42360 <row>
42361 <cell>Stock fluxes</cell>
42362 <cell>235; 236</cell>
42363 </row>
42364 <row>
42365 <cell>Touchstone</cell>
42366 <cell>253</cell>
42367 </row>
42368 <row>
42369 <cell>PROPERTIUS.</cell>
42370 <cell></cell>
42371 </row>
42372 <row>
42373 <cell>Gold</cell>
42374 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>10<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42375 </row>
42376 <row>
42377 <cell>PRYCE, WILLIAM.</cell>
42378 <cell></cell>
42379 </row>
42380 <row>
42381 <cell>Adam&#039;s fall</cell>
42382 <cell>353</cell>
42383 </row>
42384 <row>
42385 <cell>Divining rod</cell>
42386 <cell>38</cell>
42387 </row>
42388 <row>
42389 <cell>Juices</cell>
42390 <cell>1</cell>
42391 </row>
42392 <row>
42393 <cell>Ore-deposits</cell>
42394 <cell>53</cell>
42395 </row>
42396 <row>
42397 <cell>Stamp-mill</cell>
42398 <cell>282</cell>
42399 </row>
42400 <row>
42401 <cell>Stringers</cell>
42402 <cell>70</cell>
42403 </row>
42404 <row>
42405 <cell>PSALMS.</cell>
42406 <cell></cell>
42407 </row>
42408 <row>
42409 <cell>Silver refining</cell>
42410 <cell>465</cell>
42411 </row>
42412 <row>
42413 <cell>PULSIFER, WM. H.</cell>
42414 <cell>391</cell>
42415 </row>
42416 <row>
42417 <cell>PYGMALION.</cell>
42418 <cell></cell>
42419 </row>
42420 <row>
42421 <cell>Love of gold</cell>
42422 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>9; 16<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42423 </row>
42424 <row>
42425 <cell>RACHAIDIBUS (alchemist)</cell>
42426 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42427 </row>
42428 <row>
42429 <cell>RAMESES I.</cell>
42430 <cell></cell>
42431 </row>
42432 <row>
42433 <cell>Map of mines</cell>
42434 <cell>129</cell>
42435 </row>
42436 <row>
42437 <cell>RAMESES III.</cell>
42438 <cell></cell>
42439 </row>
42440 <row>
42441 <cell>Leaden objects dating from</cell>
42442 <cell>391</cell>
42443 </row>
42444 <row>
42445 <cell>RASPE, R. E.</cell>
42446 <cell>300</cell>
42447 </row>
42448 <row>
42449 <cell>RAWLINSON, GEORGE</cell>
42450 <cell>583</cell>
42451 </row>
42452 <row>
42453 <cell>RAY, P. CHANDRA.</cell>
42454 <cell></cell>
42455 </row>
42456 <row>
42457 <cell>Indian zinc</cell>
42458 <cell>409</cell>
42459 </row>
42460 <row>
42461 <cell>RAYMOND, ROSSITER W.</cell>
42462 <cell>38</cell>
42463 </row>
42464 <row>
42465 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Rechter Gebrauch der Alchimey<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42466 <cell>606</cell>
42467 </row>
42468 <row>
42469 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Rerum Metallicarum Interpretatio<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42470 <cell>597; VII; 600</cell>
42471 </row>
42472 <row>
42473 <cell>REUSS, F. A.</cell>
42474 <cell>599</cell>
42475 </row>
42476 <row>
42477 <cell>RICHTER, A. D.</cell>
42478 <cell>V; 599</cell>
42479 </row>
42480 <row>
42481 <cell>RODIANUS (alchemist)</cell>
42482 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
42483 </row>
42484 <row>
42485 <cell>RÖSSLER, B.</cell>
42486 <cell>53</cell>
42487 </row>
42488 <row>
42489 <cell>ROYAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF CORNWALL</cell>
42490 <cell>84</cell>
42491 </row>
42492 <row>
42493 <cell>RÜHLEIN VON KALBE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> CALBUS).</cell>
42494 <cell></cell>
42495 </row>
42496 <row>
42497 <cell>SALMONEUS.</cell>
42498 <cell></cell>
42499 </row>
42500 <row>
42501 <cell>Lightning</cell>
42502 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>11<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42503 </row>
42504 <row>
42505 <cell>SANDWICH, EARL OF, trans. Barba&#039;s book</cell>
42506 <cell>300</cell>
42507 </row>
42508 <row>
42509 <cell>SAPPHO.</cell>
42510 <cell></cell>
42511 </row>
42512 <row>
42513 <cell>Wealth</cell>
42514 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>19<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42515 </row>
42516 <row>
42517 <cell>SAVERY, THOMAS</cell>
42518 <cell>149</cell>
42519 </row>
42520 <row>
42521 <cell>SAXONY, DUKES AND ELECTORS OF. (<emph type="italics"></emph>See under
42522 personal names:<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Albert, Ernest, <emph type="italics"></emph>etc.<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>).</cell>
42523 <cell></cell>
42524 </row>
42525 <row>
42526 <cell>SCHLIEMANN, H.</cell>
42527 <cell>391</cell>
42528 </row>
42529 <row>
42530 <cell>SCHLÜTER, C.A.</cell>
42531 <cell></cell>
42532 </row>
42533 <row>
42534 <cell>Artificial zinc vitriol</cell>
42535 <cell>572</cell>
42536 </row>
42537 <row>
42538 <cell>Copper refining</cell>
42539 <cell>535</cell>
42540 </row>
42541 <row>
42542 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
42543 <cell>464</cell>
42544 </row>
42545 <row>
42546 <cell>Liquation</cell>
42547 <cell>491; 505</cell>
42548 </row>
42549 <row>
42550 <cell>Parting with sulphur</cell>
42551 <cell>462</cell>
42552 </row>
42553 <row>
42554 <cell>SCHMID, F. A.</cell>
42555 <cell>V; XV; 599</cell>
42556 </row>
42557 <row>
42558 <cell>SCHNABEL AND LEWIS</cell>
42559 <cell>465</cell>
42560 </row>
42561 <row>
42562 <cell>SCOTT, SIR WALTER.</cell>
42563 <cell></cell>
42564 </row>
42565 <row>
42566 <cell>“Antiquary”</cell>
42567 <cell>300</cell>
42568 </row>
42569 <row>
42570 <cell>SENECA.</cell>
42571 <cell></cell>
42572 </row>
42573 <row>
42574 <cell>Wealth of</cell>
42575 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>15<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42576 </row>
42577 <row>
42578 <cell>SENEFERU.</cell>
42579 <cell></cell>
42580 </row>
42581 <row>
42582 <cell>Copper mines</cell>
42583 <cell>402</cell>
42584 </row>
42585 <row>
42586 <cell>SETI I.</cell>
42587 <cell></cell>
42588 </row>
42589 <row>
42590 <cell>Map of mine</cell>
42591 <cell>129</cell>
42592 </row>
42593 <row>
42594 <cell>SHAW, PETER</cell>
42595 <cell>XXVIII</cell>
42596 </row>
42597 <row>
42598 <cell>SHOO KING.</cell>
42599 <cell></cell>
42600 </row>
42601 <row>
42602 <cell>Copper and lead</cell>
42603 <cell>391; 402</cell>
42604 </row>
42605 <row>
42606 <cell>Iron</cell>
42607 <cell>421</cell>
42608 </row>
42609 <row>
42610 <cell>SHUTZ, CHRISTOPHER</cell>
42611 <cell>283</cell>
42612 </row>
42613 <row>
42614 <cell>SIGFRIDO, JOANNE.</cell>
42615 <cell></cell>
42616 </row>
42617 <row>
42618 <cell>Ed. Agricola&#039;s works</cell>
42619 <cell>XV</cell>
42620 </row>
42621 <row>
42622 <cell>SOCRATES.</cell>
42623 <cell></cell>
42624 </row>
42625 <row>
42626 <cell>Riches</cell>
42627 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>7; 9; 14; 18<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42628 </row>
42629 <row>
42630 <cell>SOLINUS, C. JULIUS.</cell>
42631 <cell></cell>
42632 </row>
42633 <row>
42634 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Solifuga<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
42635 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>216;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 216</cell>
42636 </row>
42637 <row>
42638 <cell>SOLOMON, KING.</cell>
42639 <cell></cell>
42640 </row>
42641 <row>
42642 <cell>Cobalt in mines</cell>
42643 <cell>214</cell>
42644 </row>
42645 <row>
42646 <cell>SOLON.</cell>
42647 <cell></cell>
42648 </row>
42649 <row>
42650 <cell>Scarcity of silver under</cell>
42651 <cell>27</cell>
42652 </row>
42653 <row>
42654 <cell>SOSIAS, THE THRACIAN.</cell>
42655 <cell></cell>
42656 </row>
42657 <row>
42658 <cell>Slaves employed by</cell>
42659 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>25<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42660 </row>
42661 <row>
42662 <cell>STAHL, G. E.</cell>
42663 <cell>53</cell>
42664 </row>
42665 <row>
42666 <cell>STAUNTON, SIR GEORGE</cell>
42667 <cell>409</cell>
42668 </row>
42669 <row>
42670 <cell>STEPHANUS (alchemist)</cell>
42671 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXX</cell>
42672 </row>
42673 <row>
42674 <cell>STEPHENSON, GEORGE</cell>
42675 <cell>149</cell>
42676 </row>
42677 <row>
42678 <cell>STRABO</cell>
42679 <cell>607</cell>
42680 </row>
42681 <row>
42682 <cell>Arsenical minerals</cell>
42683 <cell>111</cell>
42684 </row>
42685 <row>
42686 <cell>Asbestos</cell>
42687 <cell>440</cell>
42688 </row>
42689 <row>
42690 <cell>Asphalt</cell>
42691 <cell>584; 33</cell>
42692 </row>
42693 <row>
42694 <cell>Bellows</cell>
42695 <cell>362</cell>
42696 </row>
42697 <row>
42698 <cell>Cementation</cell>
42699 <cell>458</cell>
42700 </row>
42701 <row>
42702 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
42703 <cell>465</cell>
42704 </row>
42705 <row>
42706 <cell>Drainage of Spanish mines</cell>
42707 <cell>149</cell>
42708 </row>
42709 <row>
42710 <cell>Forest fires melting veins</cell>
42711 <cell>36</cell>
42712 </row>
42713 <row>
42714 <cell>High stacks</cell>
42715 <cell>355</cell>
42716 </row>
42717 <row>
42718 <cell>Lydian mines</cell>
42719 <cell>26; 27</cell>
42720 </row>
42721 <row>
42722 <cell>Mt. Laurion</cell>
42723 <cell>27</cell>
42724 </row>
42725 <row>
42726 <cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell>
42727 <cell>391</cell>
42728 </row>
42729 <row>
42730 <cell>Spanish ore-washing</cell>
42731 <cell>281</cell>
42732 </row>
42733 <row>
42734 <cell>Zinc (?)</cell>
42735 <cell>409</cell>
42736 </row>
42737 <row>
42738 <cell>STRATO.</cell>
42739 <cell></cell>
42740 </row>
42741 <row>
42742 <cell>Lost work on mines</cell>
42743 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVI; XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XII</cell>
42744 </row>
42745 <row>
42746 <cell>STRUVE, B. G.</cell>
42747 <cell>599</cell>
42748 </row>
42749 <row>
42750 <cell>SYNESIUS (alchemist)</cell>
42751 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXIX</cell>
42752 </row>
42753 <row>
42754 <cell>TANTALUS</cell>
42755 <cell>27</cell>
42756 </row>
42757 <row>
42758 <cell>TAPHNUTIA (alchemist)</cell>
42759 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
42760 </row>
42761 <row>
42762 <cell>TAPPING, THOMAS</cell>
42763 <cell>85</cell>
42764 </row>
42765 <row>
42766 <cell>THALES OF MILETUS.</cell>
42767 <cell></cell>
42768 </row>
42769 <row>
42770 <cell>Amber</cell>
42771 <cell>35</cell>
42772 </row>
42773 <row>
42774 <cell>THEMISTOCLES.</cell>
42775 <cell></cell>
42776 </row>
42777 <row>
42778 <cell>Athenian mine royalties</cell>
42779 <cell>27</cell>
42780 </row>
42781 <row>
42782 <cell>THEODOR, SON OF AGRICOLA</cell>
42783 <cell>VII</cell>
42784 </row>
42785 <row>
42786 <cell>THEOGNIS.</cell>
42787 <cell></cell>
42788 </row>
42789 <row>
42790 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
42791 <cell>465</cell>
42792 </row>
42793 <row>
42794 <cell>On greed</cell>
42795 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>18<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42796 </row>
42797 <row>
42798 <cell>Plutus</cell>
42799 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>8<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42800 </row>
42801 <row>
42802 <cell>Refining gold</cell>
42803 <cell>399</cell>
42804 </row>
42805 <row>
42806 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Theological Tracts<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
42807 (Agricola).</cell>
42808 <cell>605</cell>
42809 </row>
42810 <row>
42811 <cell>THEOPHILUS (alchemist)</cell>
42812 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
42813 </row>
42814 <row>
42815 <cell>THEOPHILUS THE MONK</cell>
42816 <cell>609</cell>
42817 </row>
42818 <row>
42819 <cell>Brass making</cell>
42820 <cell>410</cell>
42821 </row>
42822 <row>
42823 <cell>Calamine</cell>
42824 <cell>112</cell>
42825 </row>
42826 <row>
42827 <cell>Cementation</cell>
42828 <cell>459</cell>
42829 </row>
42830 <row>
42831 <cell>Copper refining</cell>
42832 <cell>536</cell>
42833 </row>
42834 <row>
42835 <cell>Copper smelting</cell>
42836 <cell>405</cell>
42837 </row>
42838 <row>
42839 <cell>Cupels</cell>
42840 <cell>466</cell>
42841 </row>
42842 <row>
42843 <cell>Divining rod</cell>
42844 <cell>38</cell>
42845 </row>
42846 <row>
42847 <cell>Liquation</cell>
42848 <cell>494</cell>
42849 </row>
42850 <row>
42851 <cell>Metallurgical appliances</cell>
42852 <cell>355</cell>
42853 </row>
42854 <row>
42855 <cell>Parting with sulphur</cell>
42856 <cell>461</cell>
42857 </row>
42858 <row>
42859 <cell>Roasting</cell>
42860 <cell>267</cell>
42861 </row>
42862 <row>
42863 <cell>THEOPHRASTUS</cell>
42864 <cell>XII; 607</cell>
42865 </row>
42866 <row>
42867 <cell>Amber</cell>
42868 <cell>35</cell>
42869 </row>
42870 <row>
42871 <cell>Arsenical minerals</cell>
42872 <cell>111</cell>
42873 </row>
42874 <row>
42875 <cell>Asbestos</cell>
42876 <cell>440</cell>
42877 </row>
42878 <row>
42879 <cell>Assaying</cell>
42880 <cell>219</cell>
42881 </row>
42882 <row>
42883 <cell>Coal</cell>
42884 <cell>34</cell>
42885 </row>
42886 <row>
42887 <cell>Copper minerals</cell>
42888 <cell>110</cell>
42889 </row>
42890 <row>
42891 <cell>Copper ore</cell>
42892 <cell>403</cell>
42893 </row>
42894 <row>
42895 <cell>Emery</cell>
42896 <cell>115</cell>
42897 </row>
42898 <row>
42899 <cell>Lodestone</cell>
42900 <cell>115</cell>
42901 </row>
42902 <row>
42903 <cell>Lost works</cell>
42904 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVI;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 403</cell>
42905 </row>
42906 <row>
42907 <cell>Origin of minerals</cell>
42908 <cell>44</cell>
42909 </row>
42910 <row>
42911 <cell>Parting precious metals</cell>
42912 <cell>458</cell>
42913 </row>
42914 <row>
42915 <cell>Quicksilver</cell>
42916 <cell>297; 432</cell>
42917 </row>
42918 <row>
42919 <cell>Touchstone</cell>
42920 <cell>252</cell>
42921 </row>
42922 <row>
42923 <cell>Verdigris</cell>
42924 <cell>440</cell>
42925 </row>
42926 <row>
42927 <cell>Vermihon</cell>
42928 <cell>232</cell>
42929 </row>
42930 <row>
42931 <cell>White-lead</cell>
42932 <cell>391; 440</cell>
42933 </row>
42934 <row>
42935 <cell>THOMPSON, LEWIS</cell>
42936 <cell>462</cell>
42937 </row>
42938 <row>
42939 <cell>THOTH.</cell>
42940 <cell></cell>
42941 </row>
42942 <row>
42943 <cell>Hermes Trismegistos</cell>
42944 <cell>XXIX</cell>
42945 </row>
42946 <row>
42947 <cell>THOTMES III.</cell>
42948 <cell></cell>
42949 </row>
42950 <row>
42951 <cell>Lead</cell>
42952 <cell>391; 582</cell>
42953 </row>
42954 <row>
42955 <cell>THUCYDIDES.</cell>
42956 <cell></cell>
42957 </row>
42958 <row>
42959 <cell>Mining prefect</cell>
42960 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>23;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> 23; 95</cell>
42961 </row>
42962 <row>
42963 <cell>TIBULLUS.</cell>
42964 <cell></cell>
42965 </row>
42966 <row>
42967 <cell>Wealth condemned by</cell>
42968 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>16<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42969 </row>
42970 <pb pagenum="637"></pb>
42971 <row>
42972 <cell>TIMOCLES.</cell>
42973 <cell></cell>
42974 </row>
42975 <row>
42976 <cell>Riches</cell>
42977 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>8<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42978 </row>
42979 <row>
42980 <cell>TIMOCREON OF RHODES.</cell>
42981 <cell></cell>
42982 </row>
42983 <row>
42984 <cell>Plutus</cell>
42985 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>7<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
42986 </row>
42987 <row>
42988 <cell>TOURNEFORT, JOSEPH P. DE</cell>
42989 <cell>566</cell>
42990 </row>
42991 <row>
42992 <cell>TUBAL CAIN.</cell>
42993 <cell></cell>
42994 </row>
42995 <row>
42996 <cell>Instructor in metallurgy</cell>
42997 <cell>353</cell>
42998 </row>
42999 <row>
43000 <cell>TURSIUS</cell>
43001 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>24<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43002 </row>
43003 <row>
43004 <cell>TWAIN, MARK.</cell>
43005 <cell></cell>
43006 </row>
43007 <row>
43008 <cell>Merlin</cell>
43009 <cell>XXX</cell>
43010 </row>
43011 <row>
43012 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Typographia Mysnae et Toringiae<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
43013 <cell>605</cell>
43014 </row>
43015 <row>
43016 <cell>ULLOA, DON ANTONIO DE</cell>
43017 <cell>298</cell>
43018 </row>
43019 <row>
43020 <cell>ULYSSES.</cell>
43021 <cell></cell>
43022 </row>
43023 <row>
43024 <cell>Magic rod</cell>
43025 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>40<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43026 </row>
43027 <row>
43028 <cell>VALENTINE, BASIL</cell>
43029 <cell>XXX; 609</cell>
43030 </row>
43031 <row>
43032 <cell>Antimony</cell>
43033 <cell>429</cell>
43034 </row>
43035 <row>
43036 <cell>Divining rod</cell>
43037 <cell>38</cell>
43038 </row>
43039 <row>
43040 <cell>Parting with antimony</cell>
43041 <cell>461</cell>
43042 </row>
43043 <row>
43044 <cell>Zinc</cell>
43045 <cell>409</cell>
43046 </row>
43047 <row>
43048 <cell>VALERIUS, SON OF AGRICOLA</cell>
43049 <cell>VII</cell>
43050 </row>
43051 <row>
43052 <cell>VAN DER LINDEN, J. A.</cell>
43053 <cell>599</cell>
43054 </row>
43055 <row>
43056 <cell>VAN OPPEL</cell>
43057 <cell>XIII; 52</cell>
43058 </row>
43059 <row>
43060 <cell>VARRO, MARCUS</cell>
43061 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVI<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43062 </row>
43063 <row>
43064 <cell>VASCO DA GAMA (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
43065 GAMA, VASCO DA).</cell>
43066 <cell></cell>
43067 </row>
43068 <row>
43069 <cell>VEIGA, ESTACIA DE</cell>
43070 <cell>83</cell>
43071 </row>
43072 <row>
43073 <cell>VELASCO, DOM PEDRO DE</cell>
43074 <cell>298</cell>
43075 </row>
43076 <row>
43077 <cell>VERADIANUS (alchemist)</cell>
43078 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXVIII</cell>
43079 </row>
43080 <row>
43081 <cell>VILLA NOVA, ARNOLD DE (alchemist)</cell>
43082 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXX</cell>
43083 </row>
43084 <row>
43085 <cell>VIRGIL.</cell>
43086 <cell></cell>
43087 </row>
43088 <row>
43089 <cell>Avarice condemned by</cell>
43090 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>16<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43091 </row>
43092 <row>
43093 <cell>VITRUVIUS</cell>
43094 <cell>608</cell>
43095 </row>
43096 <row>
43097 <cell>Amalgamation</cell>
43098 <cell>297</cell>
43099 </row>
43100 <row>
43101 <cell>Hiero&#039;s Crown</cell>
43102 <cell>248</cell>
43103 </row>
43104 <row>
43105 <cell>VITRUVIUS.</cell>
43106 <cell></cell>
43107 </row>
43108 <row>
43109 <cell>Pumps</cell>
43110 <cell>174; 149</cell>
43111 </row>
43112 <row>
43113 <cell>Red-lead</cell>
43114 <cell>232</cell>
43115 </row>
43116 <row>
43117 <cell>Surveying</cell>
43118 <cell>129</cell>
43119 </row>
43120 <row>
43121 <cell>Verdigris</cell>
43122 <cell>440</cell>
43123 </row>
43124 <row>
43125 <cell>White-lead</cell>
43126 <cell>440</cell>
43127 </row>
43128 <row>
43129 <cell>VLADISLAUS III., KING OF POLAND.</cell>
43130 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>24<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43131 </row>
43132 <row>
43133 <cell>VON OPPEL (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> VAN
43134 OPPEL).</cell>
43135 <cell></cell>
43136 </row>
43137 <row>
43138 <cell>VOZ, CORNELIUS DE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
43139 DEVOZ, CORNELIUS).</cell>
43140 <cell></cell>
43141 </row>
43142 <row>
43143 <cell>WALLERIUS, J. G.</cell>
43144 <cell>234; 273</cell>
43145 </row>
43146 <row>
43147 <cell>WATT, JAMES</cell>
43148 <cell>149</cell>
43149 </row>
43150 <row>
43151 <cell>WATT, ROBERT</cell>
43152 <cell>XXVII</cell>
43153 </row>
43154 <row>
43155 <cell>WEFRING, BASILIUS</cell>
43156 <cell>XIV.</cell>
43157 </row>
43158 <row>
43159 <cell>WEINDLE, CASPAR</cell>
43160 <cell>119</cell>
43161 </row>
43162 <row>
43163 <cell>WEINART, B. G.</cell>
43164 <cell>599</cell>
43165 </row>
43166 <row>
43167 <cell>WELLER, J. G.</cell>
43168 <cell>V</cell>
43169 </row>
43170 <row>
43171 <cell>WERNER, A. G.</cell>
43172 <cell>XIII; 53</cell>
43173 </row>
43174 <row>
43175 <cell>WILKINSON, J. GARDNER.</cell>
43176 <cell></cell>
43177 </row>
43178 <row>
43179 <cell>Bitumen</cell>
43180 <cell>582</cell>
43181 </row>
43182 <row>
43183 <cell>Egyptian bellows</cell>
43184 <cell>362</cell>
43185 </row>
43186 <row>
43187 <cell>Egyptian gold-washing</cell>
43188 <cell>279</cell>
43189 </row>
43190 <row>
43191 <cell>WILLIAMS, JOHN</cell>
43192 <cell>53</cell>
43193 </row>
43194 <row>
43195 <cell>WINKLER, K. A.</cell>
43196 <cell>464</cell>
43197 </row>
43198 <row>
43199 <cell>WROTHAM, WILLIAM DE</cell>
43200 <cell>85; 413; 473</cell>
43201 </row>
43202 <row>
43203 <cell>XENOPHON.</cell>
43204 <cell></cell>
43205 </row>
43206 <row>
43207 <cell>Athenian mines</cell>
43208 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>28; 83; 27; 29<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43209 </row>
43210 <row>
43211 <cell>Fruitfulness of mines</cell>
43212 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>6<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43213 </row>
43214 <row>
43215 <cell>Mining companies</cell>
43216 <cell>90</cell>
43217 </row>
43218 <row>
43219 <cell>Mine slaves</cell>
43220 <cell>25; <emph type="bold"></emph>28<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43221 </row>
43222 <row>
43223 <cell>Quoted by Agricola</cell>
43224 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>26; 28<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43225 </row>
43226 <row>
43227 <cell>ZIMMERMAN, C. F.</cell>
43228 <cell>53</cell>
43229 </row>
43230 <row>
43231 <cell>ZOSIMUS (alchemist)</cell>
43232 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end> XXIX</cell>
43233 </row>
43234 </table>
43235 <pb></pb>
43236 <pb></pb>
43237 <p type="head">
43238
43239 <s><emph type="bold"></emph>INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end><lb></lb><arrow.to.target n="table19"></arrow.to.target></s>
43240 </p>
43241 <table>
43242 <table.target id="table19"></table.target>
43243 <row>
43244 <cell></cell>
43245 <cell>PAGE</cell>
43246 </row>
43247 <row>
43248 <cell>ALUM MAKING</cell>
43249 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>571<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43250 </row>
43251 <row>
43252 <cell>AMALGAMATION MILL</cell>
43253 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>299<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43254 </row>
43255 <row>
43256 <cell>AMPULLA</cell>
43257 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>442; 446<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43258 </row>
43259 <row>
43260 <cell>ARGONAUTS</cell>
43261 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>330<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43262 </row>
43263 <row>
43264 <cell>ASSAY BALANCES (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
43265 Balances).</cell>
43266 <cell></cell>
43267 </row>
43268 <row>
43269 <cell>ASSAY CRUCIBLE</cell>
43270 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>229<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43271 </row>
43272 <row>
43273 <cell>ASSAY FURNACES.</cell>
43274 <cell></cell>
43275 </row>
43276 <row>
43277 <cell>Crucible</cell>
43278 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>227<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43279 </row>
43280 <row>
43281 <cell>Muffle</cell>
43282 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>223; 224<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43283 </row>
43284 <row>
43285 <cell>BALANCES</cell>
43286 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>265<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43287 </row>
43288 <row>
43289 <cell>BALING WATER</cell>
43290 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>199<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43291 </row>
43292 <row>
43293 <cell>BARS, FOR FURNACE WORK</cell>
43294 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>377; 389<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43295 </row>
43296 <row>
43297 <cell>BATEA</cell>
43298 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>157<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43299 </row>
43300 <row>
43301 <cell>BELLOWS.</cell>
43302 <cell></cell>
43303 </row>
43304 <row>
43305 <cell>For blast furnaces</cell>
43306 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>359; 365; 368; 370; 372<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43307 </row>
43308 <row>
43309 <cell>For mine ventilation</cell>
43310 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>208; 209; 211<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43311 </row>
43312 <row>
43313 <cell>For tin furnace</cell>
43314 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>419<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43315 </row>
43316 <row>
43317 <cell>BISMUTH SMELTING</cell>
43318 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>434; 435; 436; 437<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43319 </row>
43320 <row>
43321 <cell>BITUMEN MAKING</cell>
43322 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>582<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43323 </row>
43324 <row>
43325 <cell>BITUMEN SPRING</cell>
43326 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>583<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43327 </row>
43328 <row>
43329 <cell>BOWLS FOR ALLUVIAL WASHING (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Batea)</cell>
43330 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>336<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43331 </row>
43332 <row>
43333 <cell>BUCKETS.</cell>
43334 <cell></cell>
43335 </row>
43336 <row>
43337 <cell>For hoisting ore</cell>
43338 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>154<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43339 </row>
43340 <row>
43341 <cell>For hoisting water</cell>
43342 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>158<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43343 </row>
43344 <row>
43345 <cell>BUDDLE</cell>
43346 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>301; 302; 314; 315<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43347 </row>
43348 <row>
43349 <cell>BUILDING PLAN FOR REFINERY</cell>
43350 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>493<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43351 </row>
43352 <row>
43353 <cell>BUILDING PLAN FOR SMELTER</cell>
43354 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>361<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43355 </row>
43356 <row>
43357 <cell>CHAIN PUMPS</cell>
43358 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>173; 174; 175<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43359 </row>
43360 <row>
43361 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
43362 MAKING</cell>
43363 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>585<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43364 </row>
43365 <row>
43366 <cell>CIRCULAR FIRE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
43367 Ring-Fire).</cell>
43368 <cell></cell>
43369 </row>
43370 <row>
43371 <cell>CLAY WASHING</cell>
43372 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>374; 375<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43373 </row>
43374 <row>
43375 <cell>COMPASS</cell>
43376 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>57; 59; 142; 147<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43377 </row>
43378 <row>
43379 <cell>COPPER MOULD FOR ASSAYING</cell>
43380 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>250<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43381 </row>
43382 <row>
43383 <cell>COPPER REFINING</cell>
43384 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>534; 537<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43385 </row>
43386 <row>
43387 <cell>COPPER REFINING FURNACE</cell>
43388 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>532<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43389 </row>
43390 <row>
43391 <cell>CRANE.</cell>
43392 <cell></cell>
43393 </row>
43394 <row>
43395 <cell>For cupellation furnace</cell>
43396 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>479<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43397 </row>
43398 <row>
43399 <cell>For liquation cakes</cell>
43400 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>514<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43401 </row>
43402 <row>
43403 <cell>CROWBARS</cell>
43404 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>152<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43405 </row>
43406 <row>
43407 <cell>CUPEL</cell>
43408 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>229<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43409 </row>
43410 <row>
43411 <cell>Mould</cell>
43412 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>231<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43413 </row>
43414 <row>
43415 <cell>CUPELLATION FURNACE</cell>
43416 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>468; 470; 474<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43417 </row>
43418 <row>
43419 <cell>At Freiberg</cell>
43420 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>481<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43421 </row>
43422 <row>
43423 <cell>In Poland</cell>
43424 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>482<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43425 </row>
43426 <row>
43427 <cell>CUTTING METAL</cell>
43428 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>269<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43429 </row>
43430 <row>
43431 <cell>DESCENT INTO MINES</cell>
43432 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>213<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43433 </row>
43434 <row>
43435 <cell>DIPPING-POTS</cell>
43436 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>385; 387; 389; 393; 415; 417<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43437 </row>
43438 <row>
43439 <cell>DISTILLATION (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
43440 Nitric Acid <emph type="italics"></emph>and<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>Quicksilver).</cell>
43441 <cell></cell>
43442 </row>
43443 <row>
43444 <cell>DIVINING ROD</cell>
43445 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>40<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43446 </row>
43447 <row>
43448 <cell>DOGS PACKING ORE</cell>
43449 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>168<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43450 </row>
43451 <row>
43452 <cell>DRIFTS</cell>
43453 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>105<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43454 </row>
43455 <row>
43456 <cell>DRYING FURNACE FOR LIQUATION </cell>
43457 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>525; 527; 528<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43458 </row>
43459 <row>
43460 <cell>DUST CHAMBERS</cell>
43461 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>395; 417<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43462 </row>
43463 <row>
43464 <cell>FANS, VENTILATION</cell>
43465 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>204; 205; 206; 207<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43466 </row>
43467 <row>
43468 <cell>FIRE-BUCKETS</cell>
43469 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>377<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43470 </row>
43471 <row>
43472 <cell>FIRE PUMP</cell>
43473 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>377<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43474 </row>
43475 <row>
43476 <cell>FIRE-SETTING</cell>
43477 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>120<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43478 </row>
43479 <row>
43480 <cell>FOREHEARTH</cell>
43481 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>357; 358; 383; 385; 387; 390; 417<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43482 </row>
43483 <row>
43484 <cell>FRAMES (OR SLUICES) FOR WASHING ORE OR ALLUVIAL</cell>
43485 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>322—324; 326—329;
43486 331—333<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43487 </row>
43488 <row>
43489 <cell>FURNACES.</cell>
43490 <cell></cell>
43491 </row>
43492 <row>
43493 <cell>ASSAYING (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Assay
43494 Furnaces).</cell>
43495 <cell></cell>
43496 </row>
43497 <row>
43498 <cell>Blast</cell>
43499 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>357; 358; 373; 377; 383; 385; 387; 390; 395; 419;
43500 424; 508<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43501 </row>
43502 <row>
43503 <cell>Copper refining</cell>
43504 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>537<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43505 </row>
43506 <row>
43507 <cell>Cupellation</cell>
43508 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>468; 470; 474; 481; 482<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43509 </row>
43510 <row>
43511 <cell>Distilling sulphur</cell>
43512 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>277<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43513 </row>
43514 <row>
43515 <cell>Enriching copper bottoms</cell>
43516 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>510<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43517 </row>
43518 <row>
43519 <cell>Glass-making</cell>
43520 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>587; 588; 589; 591<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43521 </row>
43522 <row>
43523 <cell>Iron smelting</cell>
43524 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>422; 424<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43525 </row>
43526 <row>
43527 <cell>FURNACES.</cell>
43528 <cell></cell>
43529 </row>
43530 <row>
43531 <cell>Lead smelting (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Furnaces, blast)</cell>
43532 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>393<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43533 </row>
43534 <row>
43535 <cell>Liquation</cell>
43536 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>517; 519; 525; 527; 528<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43537 </row>
43538 <row>
43539 <cell>Nitric acid making</cell>
43540 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>442<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43541 </row>
43542 <row>
43543 <cell>Nitric acid parting</cell>
43544 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>446<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43545 </row>
43546 <row>
43547 <cell>Parting precious metals with anti-mony</cell>
43548 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>453<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43549 </row>
43550 <row>
43551 <cell>Ditto cementation</cell>
43552 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>455<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43553 </row>
43554 <row>
43555 <cell>Quicksilver distillation</cell>
43556 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>427—432<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43557 </row>
43558 <row>
43559 <cell>Refining silver</cell>
43560 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>485; 486; 489<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43561 </row>
43562 <row>
43563 <cell>Roasting</cell>
43564 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>276<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43565 </row>
43566 <row>
43567 <cell>Steel making</cell>
43568 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>425<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43569 </row>
43570 <row>
43571 <cell>Tin burning</cell>
43572 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>349<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43573 </row>
43574 <row>
43575 <cell>Tin smelting</cell>
43576 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>415<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43577 </row>
43578 <row>
43579 <cell>GAD</cell>
43580 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>150<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43581 </row>
43582 <row>
43583 <cell>GLASS MAKING</cell>
43584 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>591<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43585 </row>
43586 <row>
43587 <cell>Furnaces</cell>
43588 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>587; 588; 589<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43589 </row>
43590 <row>
43591 <cell>GROUND SLUICING</cell>
43592 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>337; 340; 343; 346; 347<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43593 </row>
43594 <row>
43595 <cell>HAMMERS</cell>
43596 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>151<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43597 </row>
43598 <row>
43599 <cell>With water-power</cell>
43600 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>422; 425<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43601 </row>
43602 <row>
43603 <cell>HEAP ROASTING</cell>
43604 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>275; 278<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43605 </row>
43606 <row>
43607 <cell>HEARTHS.</cell>
43608 <cell></cell>
43609 </row>
43610 <row>
43611 <cell>For bismuth smelting</cell>
43612 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>436; 437<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43613 </row>
43614 <row>
43615 <cell>For heating copper cakes</cell>
43616 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>504<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43617 </row>
43618 <row>
43619 <cell>For melting lead</cell>
43620 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>393<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43621 </row>
43622 <row>
43623 <cell>For melting lead cakes</cell>
43624 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>499<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43625 </row>
43626 <row>
43627 <cell>For refining tin</cell>
43628 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>418<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43629 </row>
43630 <row>
43631 <cell>For roasting</cell>
43632 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>277<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43633 </row>
43634 <row>
43635 <cell>HEMICYCLE</cell>
43636 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>138<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43637 </row>
43638 <row>
43639 <cell>HOE</cell>
43640 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>152<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43641 </row>
43642 <row>
43643 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Intervenium<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
43644 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>50<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43645 </row>
43646 <row>
43647 <cell>IRON FORK FOR METAL</cell>
43648 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>387<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43649 </row>
43650 <row>
43651 <cell>IRON HOOK FOR ASSAYING</cell>
43652 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>240<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43653 </row>
43654 <row>
43655 <cell>IRON SMELTING</cell>
43656 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>422; 424<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43657 </row>
43658 <row>
43659 <cell>IRON TOOLS</cell>
43660 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>150<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43661 </row>
43662 <row>
43663 <cell>JIGGING SIEVE</cell>
43664 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>311<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43665 </row>
43666 <row>
43667 <cell>LADDERS</cell>
43668 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>213<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43669 </row>
43670 <row>
43671 <cell>LADLE FOR METAL</cell>
43672 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>383<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43673 </row>
43674 <row>
43675 <cell>LEAD MOULD FOR ASSAYING</cell>
43676 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>240<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43677 </row>
43678 <row>
43679 <cell>LIQUATION CAKES.</cell>
43680 <cell></cell>
43681 </row>
43682 <row>
43683 <cell>Dried</cell>
43684 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>530<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43685 </row>
43686 <row>
43687 <cell>LIQUATION CAKES, EXHAUSTED</cell>
43688 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>522<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43689 </row>
43690 <row>
43691 <cell>LIQUATION FURNACES</cell>
43692 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>517; 519; 525; 527; 528<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43693 </row>
43694 <row>
43695 <cell>LYE MAKING</cell>
43696 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>557<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43697 </row>
43698 <row>
43699 <cell>MATTE ROASTING</cell>
43700 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>350; 351<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43701 </row>
43702 <row>
43703 <cell>MEERS, SHAPE OF</cell>
43704 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>79; 80; 86; 87; 89<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43705 </row>
43706 <row>
43707 <cell>MILLS FOR GRINDING ORE</cell>
43708 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>294; 296<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43709 </row>
43710 <row>
43711 <cell>MUFFLE FURNACES</cell>
43712 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>223; 489<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43713 </row>
43714 <row>
43715 <cell>MUFFLES</cell>
43716 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>228<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43717 </row>
43718 <row>
43719 <cell>NITRIC ACID MAKING</cell>
43720 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>442<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43721 </row>
43722 <row>
43723 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> PITS</cell>
43724 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>559<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43725 </row>
43726 <row>
43727 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Operculum<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
43728 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>445<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43729 </row>
43730 <row>
43731 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Orbis<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
43732 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>142A<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43733 </row>
43734 <row>
43735 <cell>FARTING PRECIOUS METALS.</cell>
43736 <cell></cell>
43737 </row>
43738 <row>
43739 <cell>With antimony</cell>
43740 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>453<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43741 </row>
43742 <row>
43743 <cell>By cementation</cell>
43744 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>455<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43745 </row>
43746 <row>
43747 <cell>With nitric acid</cell>
43748 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>446<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43749 </row>
43750 <row>
43751 <cell>With sulphur</cell>
43752 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>449<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43753 </row>
43754 <row>
43755 <cell>PICKS</cell>
43756 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>152<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43757 </row>
43758 <row>
43759 <cell>PLUMMET LEVEL.</cell>
43760 <cell></cell>
43761 </row>
43762 <row>
43763 <cell>Standing</cell>
43764 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>143<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43765 </row>
43766 <row>
43767 <cell>Suspended</cell>
43768 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>146<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43769 </row>
43770 <row>
43771 <cell>PUMPS.</cell>
43772 <cell></cell>
43773 </row>
43774 <row>
43775 <cell>Chain</cell>
43776 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>173; 174; 175<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43777 </row>
43778 <row>
43779 <cell>Duplex suction</cell>
43780 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>180; 185; 189<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43781 </row>
43782 <row>
43783 <cell>Rag and chain</cell>
43784 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>191; 193; 194; 195<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43785 </row>
43786 <row>
43787 <cell>Suction</cell>
43788 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>177; 178; 179; 182; 188; 137<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43789 </row>
43790 <pb pagenum="640"></pb>
43791 <row>
43792 <cell>QUICKSILVER DISTILLATION.</cell>
43793 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>427; 429; 430; 431; 432<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43794 </row>
43795 <row>
43796 <cell>RAG AND CHAIN PUMPS</cell>
43797 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>191; 193; 194; 195; 197<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43798 </row>
43799 <row>
43800 <cell>RAMMERS FOR FIRE-CLAY</cell>
43801 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>377; 383<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43802 </row>
43803 <row>
43804 <cell>RING-FIRE, FOR PARTING WITH SULPHUR</cell>
43805 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>449<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43806 </row>
43807 <row>
43808 <cell>ROASTING (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
43809 Heap <emph type="italics"></emph>and<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Stall
43810 Roasting)</cell>
43811 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>278; 350; 351; 274; 275; 276<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43812 </row>
43813 <row>
43814 <cell>ROSETTE COPPER MAKING</cell>
43815 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>537<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43816 </row>
43817 <row>
43818 <cell>SALT.</cell>
43819 <cell></cell>
43820 </row>
43821 <row>
43822 <cell>Boiling</cell>
43823 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>549; 554; 555<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43824 </row>
43825 <row>
43826 <cell>Caldron</cell>
43827 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>551; 553<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43828 </row>
43829 <row>
43830 <cell>Evaporated on faggots</cell>
43831 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>556<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43832 </row>
43833 <row>
43834 <cell>Pans</cell>
43835 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>547<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43836 </row>
43837 <row>
43838 <cell>Wells</cell>
43839 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>549<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43840 </row>
43841 <row>
43842 <cell>SALTPETRE MAKING</cell>
43843 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>563<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43844 </row>
43845 <row>
43846 <cell>SAXON LEAD FURNACE</cell>
43847 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>393<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43848 </row>
43849 <row>
43850 <cell>SCORIFIER</cell>
43851 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>229<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43852 </row>
43853 <row>
43854 <cell>SEAMS IN THE ROCKS</cell>
43855 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>54; 55; 56; 60; 72<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43856 </row>
43857 <row>
43858 <cell>SHAFTS.</cell>
43859 <cell></cell>
43860 </row>
43861 <row>
43862 <cell>Inclined</cell>
43863 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>104<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43864 </row>
43865 <row>
43866 <cell>Timbering</cell>
43867 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>123<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43868 </row>
43869 <row>
43870 <cell>Vertical</cell>
43871 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>103; 105<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43872 </row>
43873 <row>
43874 <cell>SHEARS FOR CUTTING METAL</cell>
43875 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>269<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43876 </row>
43877 <row>
43878 <cell>SHIELD FOR MUFFLE FURNACE</cell>
43879 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>241<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43880 </row>
43881 <row>
43882 <cell>SIFTING ORE</cell>
43883 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>287; 288; 289; 291; 292; 293; 311; 342<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43884 </row>
43885 <row>
43886 <cell>SILVER.</cell>
43887 <cell></cell>
43888 </row>
43889 <row>
43890 <cell>Cakes, Cleansing of</cell>
43891 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>476; 488<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43892 </row>
43893 <row>
43894 <cell>Refining</cell>
43895 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>484; 485; 486; 489<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43896 </row>
43897 <row>
43898 <cell>SLEIGH FOR ORE</cell>
43899 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>168<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43900 </row>
43901 <row>
43902 <cell>SLUICING TIN</cell>
43903 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>337; 338; 340; 343<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43904 </row>
43905 <row>
43906 <cell>SMELTER, PLAN OF BUILDING</cell>
43907 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>361<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43908 </row>
43909 <row>
43910 <cell>SODA MAKING</cell>
43911 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>561<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43912 </row>
43913 <row>
43914 <cell>SORTING ORE</cell>
43915 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>268; 270<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43916 </row>
43917 <row>
43918 <cell>SPALLING ORE</cell>
43919 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>270; 271; 272<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43920 </row>
43921 <row>
43922 <cell>STALL ROASTING.</cell>
43923 <cell></cell>
43924 </row>
43925 <row>
43926 <cell>Matte</cell>
43927 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>350; 351<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43928 </row>
43929 <row>
43930 <cell>Ore</cell>
43931 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>274; 276<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43932 </row>
43933 <row>
43934 <cell>STAMP-MILL</cell>
43935 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>284; 286; 287; 299; 313; 320; 321; 373<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43936 </row>
43937 <row>
43938 <cell>For breaking copper cakes</cell>
43939 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>501<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43940 </row>
43941 <row>
43942 <cell>STAMPS</cell>
43943 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>285<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43944 </row>
43945 <row>
43946 <cell>STEEL FURNACE</cell>
43947 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>425<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43948 </row>
43949 <row>
43950 <cell>STRAKE</cell>
43951 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>302; 303; 305; 304; 307; 341; 342; 345<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43952 </row>
43953 <row>
43954 <cell>Canvas</cell>
43955 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>303; 309; 317; 321; 329<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43956 </row>
43957 <row>
43958 <cell>STREAMING FOR TIN</cell>
43959 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>318<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43960 </row>
43961 <row>
43962 <cell>STRINGERS.</cell>
43963 <cell></cell>
43964 </row>
43965 <row>
43966 <cell>Associated</cell>
43967 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>71<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43968 </row>
43969 <row>
43970 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Fibra dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
43971 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>71<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43972 </row>
43973 <row>
43974 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Fibra incumbens<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
43975 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>71<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43976 </row>
43977 <row>
43978 <cell>Oblique</cell>
43979 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>71<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43980 </row>
43981 <row>
43982 <cell>Transverse</cell>
43983 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>71<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43984 </row>
43985 <row>
43986 <cell>SURVEYING.</cell>
43987 <cell></cell>
43988 </row>
43989 <row>
43990 <cell>Rods</cell>
43991 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>138A<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43992 </row>
43993 <row>
43994 <cell>Shafts and Tunnels</cell>
43995 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>131<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
43996 </row>
43997 <row>
43998 <cell>Triangles</cell>
43999 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>133; 134; 135; 136; 137; 139; 140<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44000 </row>
44001 <row>
44002 <cell>SUCTION PUMPS (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
44003 Pumps).</cell>
44004 <cell></cell>
44005 </row>
44006 <row>
44007 <cell>SULPHUR MAKING</cell>
44008 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>579; 581<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44009 </row>
44010 <row>
44011 <cell>TAP-HOLES IN FURNACES</cell>
44012 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>389<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44013 </row>
44014 <row>
44015 <cell>TAPPING-BAR</cell>
44016 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>383; 385<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44017 </row>
44018 <row>
44019 <cell>“TESTS” FOR REFINING SILVER</cell>
44020 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>384; 485<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44021 </row>
44022 <row>
44023 <cell>TIMBERING.</cell>
44024 <cell></cell>
44025 </row>
44026 <row>
44027 <cell>Shafts</cell>
44028 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>123<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44029 </row>
44030 <row>
44031 <cell>Tunnels</cell>
44032 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>125<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44033 </row>
44034 <row>
44035 <cell>TIN.</cell>
44036 <cell></cell>
44037 </row>
44038 <row>
44039 <cell>Bars</cell>
44040 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>415<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44041 </row>
44042 <row>
44043 <cell>Burning</cell>
44044 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>349<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44045 </row>
44046 <row>
44047 <cell>Refining</cell>
44048 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>418<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44049 </row>
44050 <row>
44051 <cell>Smelting</cell>
44052 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>415; 419<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44053 </row>
44054 <row>
44055 <cell>TOUCH-NEEDLES</cell>
44056 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>255<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44057 </row>
44058 <row>
44059 <cell>TRAYS FOR WASHING ALLUVIAL</cell>
44060 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>334<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44061 </row>
44062 <row>
44063 <cell>TREAD WHIM</cell>
44064 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>163<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44065 </row>
44066 <row>
44067 <cell>TROUGH</cell>
44068 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>159<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44069 </row>
44070 <row>
44071 <cell>For washing alluvial</cell>
44072 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>335; 348<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44073 </row>
44074 <row>
44075 <cell>TRUCKS</cell>
44076 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>156<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44077 </row>
44078 <row>
44079 <cell>TUNNELS</cell>
44080 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>103; 104; 105; 120<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44081 </row>
44082 <row>
44083 <cell>Timbering</cell>
44084 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>125<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44085 </row>
44086 <row>
44087 <cell>VEINS.</cell>
44088 <cell></cell>
44089 </row>
44090 <row>
44091 <cell>Barren</cell>
44092 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>73<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44093 </row>
44094 <row>
44095 <cell>Beginning of</cell>
44096 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>69<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44097 </row>
44098 <row>
44099 <cell>Cavernous</cell>
44100 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>73<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44101 </row>
44102 <row>
44103 <cell>Curved</cell>
44104 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>61<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44105 </row>
44106 <row>
44107 <cell>End of</cell>
44108 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>69<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44109 </row>
44110 <row>
44111 <cell>Head of</cell>
44112 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>69<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44113 </row>
44114 <row>
44115 <cell>Horizontal</cell>
44116 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>61<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44117 </row>
44118 <row>
44119 <cell>Intersections of</cell>
44120 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>64; 65; 66; 67; 68<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44121 </row>
44122 <row>
44123 <cell>Solid</cell>
44124 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>73<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44125 </row>
44126 <row>
44127 <cell>Strike of</cell>
44128 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>62; 63<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44129 </row>
44130 <row>
44131 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
44132 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>49; 70<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44133 </row>
44134 <row>
44135 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
44136 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>45; 50; 54; 60; 61; 68; 69<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44137 </row>
44138 <row>
44139 <cell><emph type="italics"></emph>Vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end></cell>
44140 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>45; 50; 53; 61; 62; 63; 64; 68<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44141 </row>
44142 <row>
44143 <cell>VENTILATING WITH DAMP CLOTH (<emph type="italics"></emph>see also<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end> Bellows, Fans, and Wind-sails)</cell>
44144 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>212<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44145 </row>
44146 <row>
44147 <cell>VITRIOL MAKING</cell>
44148 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>567; 574; 575; 576; 577<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44149 </row>
44150 <row>
44151 <cell>WAGONS, FOR HAULING ORE</cell>
44152 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>170<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44153 </row>
44154 <row>
44155 <cell>WASHING ORE (<emph type="italics"></emph>see<emph.end type="italics"></emph.end>
44156 Sifting Ore).</cell>
44157 <cell></cell>
44158 </row>
44159 <row>
44160 <cell>WATER TANKS, UNDER FURNACES</cell>
44161 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>358<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44162 </row>
44163 <row>
44164 <cell>WEDGES</cell>
44165 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>150<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44166 </row>
44167 <row>
44168 <cell>WEIGHTS, FOR ASSAY BALANCES</cell>
44169 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>262<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44170 </row>
44171 <row>
44172 <cell>WESTPHALIAN LEAD SMELTING</cell>
44173 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>393<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44174 </row>
44175 <row>
44176 <cell>WHEELBARROWS</cell>
44177 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>155<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44178 </row>
44179 <row>
44180 <cell>WHIMS.</cell>
44181 <cell></cell>
44182 </row>
44183 <row>
44184 <cell>Horse</cell>
44185 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>165; 167<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44186 </row>
44187 <row>
44188 <cell>Tread</cell>
44189 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>163<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44190 </row>
44191 <row>
44192 <cell>WINDLASSES</cell>
44193 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>161; 162; 171<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44194 </row>
44195 <row>
44196 <cell>WINDS, DIRECTION OF</cell>
44197 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>59<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44198 </row>
44199 <row>
44200 <cell>WINDSAILS FOR VENTILATION</cell>
44201 <cell><emph type="bold"></emph>201; 202; 203<emph.end type="bold"></emph.end></cell>
44202 </row>
44203 </table>
44204 <pb></pb>
44205 <s>Printed by<lb></lb>Albert Frost &amp; Sons,<lb></lb>Rugby.</s>
44206 </chap>
44207 </body>
44208 <back></back>
44209 </text>
44210 </archimedes>