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New Special Instructions
| author | Klaus Thoden <kthoden@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de> |
|---|---|
| date | Wed, 30 Jul 2014 15:58:21 +0200 |
| parents | 22d6a63640c6 |
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<?xml version="1.0"?> <!DOCTYPE archimedes SYSTEM "../dtd/archimedes.dtd" ><archimedes> <info> <author>Agricola, Georgius</author> <title>De re metallica</title> <date>1912</date> <place>London</place> <translator></translator> <lang>en</lang> <cvs_file>agric_remet_002_en.xml</cvs_file><cvs_version/><locator>002.xml</locator> </info> <text> <front> </front> <body> <chap> <pb/><p type="head"> <s>GEORGIUS AGRICOLA</s></p><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>DE RE METALLICA<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>TRANSLATED FROM THE FIRST LATIN EDITION OF 1556</s></p><p type="head"> <s>with <lb/>Biographical Introduction, Annotations and Appendices upon <lb/>the Development of Mining Methods, Metallurgical <lb/>Processes, Geology, Mineralogy & Mining Law <lb/>from the earliest times to the 16th Century</s></p><p type="head"> <s>BY <lb/><emph type="bold"/>HERBERT CLARK HOOVER<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>A. B. Stanford University, Member American Institute of Mining Engineers, <lb/>Mining and Metallurgical Society of America, Société des Ingéniéurs <lb/>Civils de France, American Institute of Civil Engineers, <lb/>Fellow Royal Geographical Society, etc., etc.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>AND</s></p><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>LOU HENRY HOOVER<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>A. B. </s> <s>Stanford University, Member American Association for the <lb/>Advancement of Science, The National Geographical Society, <lb/>Royal Scottish Geographical Society, etc., etc.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>1950</s></p><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/><emph type="italics"/>Dover Publications, Inc.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>NEW YORK</s></p><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>TO <lb/>JOHN CASPAR BRANNER Ph.D.,<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/><emph type="italics"/>The inspiration of whose teaching is no less great than his contribution to science.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>This New 1950 Edition <lb/>of DE RE METALLICA is a complete <lb/>and unchanged reprint of the transla­<lb/>tion published by The Mining Magazine, <lb/>London, in 1912. It has been made avail­<lb/>able through the kind permission of Honor­<lb/>able Herbert C. </s> <s>Hoover and Mr. </s> <s>Edgar <lb/>Rickard, Author and Publisher, respec­<lb/>tively, of the original volume.</s></p><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>MAX-PLANCK-INSTITUT <lb/>FÜR WISSENSCHAFTSGESCHICHTE<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>Bibliothek</s></p><p type="head"> <s>PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</s></p><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>TRANSLATORS' PREFACE.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are three objectives in translation of works <lb/>of this character: to give a faithful, literal trans­<lb/>lation of the author's statements; to give these <lb/>in a manner which will interest the reader; and to <lb/>preserve, so far as is possible, the style of the <lb/>original text. </s> <s>The task has been doubly difficult <lb/>in this work because, in using Latin, the author <lb/>availed himself of a medium which had ceased to <lb/>expand a thousand years before his subject had in <lb/>many particulars come into being; in consequence he was in difficulties <lb/>with a large number of ideas for which there were no corresponding <lb/>words in the vocabulary at his command, and instead of adopting into the <lb/>text his native German terms, he coined several hundred Latin expressions <lb/>to answer his needs. </s> <s>It is upon this rock that most former attempts at <lb/>translation have been wrecked. </s> <s>Except for a very small number, we <lb/>believe we have been able to discover the intended meaning of such <lb/>expressions from a study of the context, assisted by a very incomplete <lb/>glossary prepared by the author himself, and by an exhaustive investigation <lb/>into the literature of these subjects during the sixteenth and seventeenth <lb/>centuries. </s> <s>That discovery in this particular has been only gradual and <lb/>obtained after much labour, may be indicated by the fact that the entire <lb/>text has been re-typewritten three times since the original, and some <lb/>parts more often; and further, that the printer's proof has been thrice revised. <lb/></s> <s>We have found some English equivalent, more or less satisfactory, for <lb/>practically all such terms, except those of weights, the varieties of veins, <lb/>and a few minerals. </s> <s>In the matter of weights we have introduced the <lb/>original Latin, because it is impossible to give true equivalents and avoid the <lb/>fractions of reduction; and further, as explained in the Appendix on Weights it <lb/>is impossible to say in many cases what scale the Author had in mind. </s> <s>The <lb/>English nomenclature to be adopted has given great difficulty, for various <lb/>reasons; among them, that many methods and processes described have <lb/>never been practised in English-speaking mining communities, and so had no <lb/>representatives in our vocabulary, and we considered the introduction of <lb/>German terms undesirable; other methods and processes have become <lb/>obsolete and their descriptive terms with them, yet we wished to avoid <lb/>the introduction of obsolete or unusual English; but of the greatest <lb/>importance of all has been the necessity to avoid rigorously such modern <lb/>technical terms as would imply a greater scientific understanding than the <lb/>period possessed.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Agricola's Latin, while mostly free from mediæval corruption, is some­<lb/>what tainted with German construction. </s> <s>Moreover some portions have not <pb pagenum="ii"/>the continuous flow of sustained thought which others display, but the fact <lb/>that the writing of the work extended over a period of twenty years, suffic­<lb/>iently explains the considerable variation in style. </s> <s>The technical descriptions <lb/>in the later books often take the form of House-that-Jack-built sentences <lb/>which have had to be at least partially broken up and the subject <lb/>occasionally re-introduced. </s> <s>Ambiguities were also sometimes found which it <lb/>was necessary to carry on into the translation. </s> <s>Despite these criticisms we <lb/>must, however, emphasize that Agricola was infinitely clearer in his style <lb/>than his contemporaries upon such subjects, or for that matter than his <lb/>successors in almost any language for a couple of centuries. </s> <s>All of the <lb/>illustrations and display letters of the original have been reproduced and <lb/>the type as closely approximates to the original as the printers have been <lb/>able to find in a modern font.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are no footnotes in the original text, and Mr. </s> <s>Hoover is responsible <lb/>for them all. </s> <s>He has attempted in them to give not only such comment <lb/>as would tend to clarify the text, but also such information as we have <lb/>been able to discover with regard to the previous history of the subjects <lb/>mentioned. </s> <s>We have confined the historical notes to the time prior to <lb/>Agricola, because to have carried them down to date in the briefest manner <lb/>would have demanded very much more space than could be allowed. </s> <s>In the <lb/>examination of such technical and historical material one is appalled at the <lb/>flood of mis-information with regard to ancient arts and sciences which has <lb/>been let loose upon the world by the hands of non-technical translators and <lb/>commentators. </s> <s>At an early stage we considered that we must justify any <lb/>divergence of view from such authorities, but to limit the already alarming <lb/>volume of this work, we later felt compelled to eliminate most of such dis­<lb/>cussion. </s> <s>When the half-dozen most important of the ancient works bearing <lb/>upon science have been translated by those of some scientific experience, <lb/>such questions will, no doubt, be properly settled.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We need make no apologies for <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> During 180 years <lb/>it was not superseded as the text-book and guide to miners and metallurgists, <lb/>for until Schlüter's great work on metallurgy in 1738 it had no equal. </s> <s>That <lb/>it passed through some ten editions in three languages at a period when the <lb/>printing of such a volume was no ordinary undertaking, is in itself sufficient <lb/>evidence of the importance in which it was held, and is a record that no other <lb/>volume upon the same subjects has equalled since. </s> <s>A large proportion of the <lb/>technical data given by Agricola was either entirely new, or had not been <lb/>given previously with sufficient detail and explanation to have enabled a <lb/>worker in these arts himself to perform the operations without further guid­<lb/>ance. </s> <s>Practically the whole of it must have been given from personal ex­<lb/>perience and observation, for the scant library at his service can be appreci­<lb/>ated from his own Preface. </s> <s>Considering the part which the metallic arts <lb/>have played in human history, the paucity of their literature down to <lb/>Agricola's time is amazing. </s> <s>No doubt the arts were jealously guarded by <lb/>their practitioners as a sort of stock-in-trade, and it is also probable that <lb/>those who had knowledge were not usually of a literary turn of mind; and, <pb pagenum="iii"/>on the other hand, the small army of writers prior to his time were not much <lb/>interested in the description of industrial pursuits. </s> <s>Moreover, in those <lb/>thousands of years prior to printing, the tedious and expensive transcription of <lb/>manuscripts by hand was mostly applied to matters of more general interest, <lb/>and therefore many writings may have been lost in consequence. </s> <s>In fact, <lb/>such was the fate of the works of Theophrastus and Strato on these subjects.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We have prepared a short sketch of Agricola's life and times, not only <lb/>to give some indication of his learning and character, but also of his <lb/>considerable position in the community in which he lived. </s> <s>As no appreciation <lb/>of Agricola's stature among the founders of science can be gained without <lb/>consideration of the advance which his works display over those of his <lb/>predecessors, we therefore devote some attention to the state of knowledge <lb/>of these subjects at the time by giving in the Appendix a short review of the <lb/>literature then extant and a summary of Agricola's other writings. </s> <s>To serve the <lb/>bibliophile we present such data as we have been able to collect it with regard <lb/>to the various editions of his works. </s> <s>The full titles of the works quoted in <lb/>the footnotes under simply authors' names will be found in this Appendix.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We feel that it is scarcely doing Agricola justice to publish <emph type="italics"/>De Re <lb/>Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> only. </s> <s>While it is of the most general interest of all of his works, <lb/>yet, from the point of view of pure science, <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossílíum<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>De <lb/>Ortu et Causís<emph.end type="italics"/> are works which deserve an equally important place. </s> <s>It is <lb/>unfortunate that Agricola's own countrymen have not given to the world <lb/>competent translations into German, as his work has too often been judged <lb/>by the German translations, the infidelity of which appears in nearly every <lb/>paragraph.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We do not present <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> as a work of “practical” value. <lb/></s> <s>The methods and processes have long since been superseded; yet surely such <lb/>a milestone on the road of development of one of the two most basic of human <lb/>industrial activities is more worthy of preservation than the thousands of <lb/>volumes devoted to records of human destruction. </s> <s>To those interested in <lb/>the history of their own profession we need make no apologies, except <lb/>for the long delay in publication. </s> <s>For this we put forward the necessity of <lb/>active endeavour in many directions; as this book could be but a labour of <lb/>love, it has had to find the moments for its execution in night hours, week­<lb/>ends, and holidays, in all extending over a period of about five years. </s> <s>If the <lb/>work serves to strengthen the traditions of one of the most important and <lb/>least recognized of the world's professions we shall be amply repaid.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It is our pleasure to acknowledge our obligations to Professor H. R. <lb/>Fairclough, of Stanford University, for perusal of and suggestions upon the first <lb/>chapter; and to those whom we have engaged from time to time for one service <lb/>or another, chiefly bibliographical work and collateral translation. </s> <s>We are <lb/>also sensibly obligated to the printers, Messrs. </s> <s>Frost & Sons, for their patience <lb/>and interest, and for their willingness to bend some of the canons of modern <lb/>printing, to meet the demands of the 16th Century.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>THE RED HOUSE,</s></p><p type="main"> <s>HORNTON STREET, LONDON.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>July<emph.end type="italics"/> 1, 1912.</s></p><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>INTRODUCTION.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>BIOGRAPHY.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Georgius Agricola was born at Glauchau, in <lb/>Saxony, on March 24th, 1494, and therefore entered <lb/>the world when it was still upon the threshold of the <lb/>Renaissance; Gutenberg's first book had been print­<lb/>ed but forty years before; the Humanists had but <lb/>begun that stimulating criticism which awoke the <lb/>Reformation; Erasmus, of Rotterdam, who was sub­<lb/>sequently to become Agricola's friend and patron, <lb/>was just completing his student days. </s> <s>The Refor­<lb/>mation itself was yet to come, but it was not long delayed, for Luther <lb/>was born the year before Agricola, and through him Agricola's home­<lb/>land became the cradle of the great movement; nor did Agricola escape being <lb/>drawn into the conflict. </s> <s>Italy, already awake with the new classical revival, was <lb/>still a busy workshop of antiquarian research, translation, study, and <lb/>publication, and through her the Greek and Latin Classics were only <lb/>now available for wide distribution. </s> <s>Students from the rest of Europe, <lb/>among them at a later time Agricola himself, flocked to the Italian <lb/>Universities, and on their return infected their native cities with the newly­<lb/>awakened learning. </s> <s>At Agricola's birth Columbus had just returned from his <lb/>great discovery, and it was only three years later that Vasco Da Gama rounded <lb/>Cape Good Hope. </s> <s>Thus these two foremost explorers had only initiated <lb/>that greatest period of geographical expansion in the world's history. </s> <s>A few <lb/>dates will recall how far this exploration extended during Agricola's lifetime. <lb/></s> <s>Balboa first saw the Pacific in 1513; Cortes entered the City of Mexico in <lb/>1520; Magellan entered the Pacific in the same year; Pizarro penetrated <lb/>into Peru in 1528; De Soto landed in Florida in 1539, and Potosi was dis­<lb/>covered in 1546. Omitting the sporadic settlement on the St. </s> <s>Lawrence by <lb/>Cartier in 1541, the settlement of North America did not begin for a quarter <lb/>of a century after Agricola's death. </s> <s>Thus the revival of learning, with its <lb/>train of Humanism, the Reformation, its stimulation of exploration and the <lb/>re-awakening of the arts and sciences, was still in its infancy with Agricola.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We know practically nothing of Agricola's antecedents or his youth. </s> <s>His <lb/>real name was Georg Bauer (“peasant”), and it was probably Latinized by <lb/>his teachers, as was the custom of the time. </s> <s>His own brother, in receipts <pb pagenum="vi"/>preserved in the archives of the Zwickau Town Council, calls himself “Bauer,” <lb/>and in them refers to his brother “Agricola.” He entered the University of <lb/>Leipsic at the age of twenty, and after about three and one-half years' attendance <lb/>there gained the degree of <emph type="italics"/>Baccalaureus Artíum.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> In 1518 he became Vice­<lb/>Principal of the Municipal School at Zwickau, where he taught Greek and Latin. <lb/></s> <s>In 1520 he became Principal, and among his assistants was Johannes Förster, <lb/>better known as Luther's collaborator in the translation of the Bible. </s> <s>During <lb/>this time our author prepared and published a small Latin Grammar<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>In <lb/>1522 he removed to Leipsic to become a lecturer in the University under his <lb/>friend, Petrus Mosellanus, at whose death in 1524 he went to Italy for the <lb/>further study of Philosophy, Medicine, and the Natural Sciences. </s> <s>Here he <lb/>remained for nearly three years, from 1524 to 1526. He visited the Universities <lb/>of Bologna, Venice, and probably Padua, and at these institutions received <lb/>his first inspiration to work in the sciences, for in a letter<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/> from Leonardus <lb/>Casibrotius to Erasmus we learn that he was engaged upon a revision of Galen. <lb/></s> <s>It was about this time that he made the acquaintance of Erasmus, who had <lb/>settled at Basel as Editor for Froben's press.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In 1526 Agricola returned to Zwickau, and in 1527 he was chosen town <lb/>physician at Joachimsthal. </s> <s>This little city in Bohemia is located on the <lb/>eastern slope of the Erzgebirge, in the midst of the then most prolific metal­<lb/>mining district of Central Europe. </s> <s>Thence to Freiberg is but fifty miles, <lb/>and the same radius from that city would include most of the mining towns <lb/>so frequently mentioned in <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/>—Schneeberg, Geyer, Annaberg <lb/>and Altenberg—and not far away were Marienberg, Gottesgab, and Platten. <lb/></s> <s>Joachimsthal was a booming mining camp, founded but eleven years before <lb/>Agricola's arrival, and already having several thousand inhabitants. </s> <s>Accord­<lb/>ing to Agricola's own statement<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>, he spent all the time not required for his <lb/>medical duties in visiting the mines and smelters, in reading up in the Greek and <lb/>Latin authors all references to mining, and in association with the most learned <lb/>among the mining folk. </s> <s>Among these was one Lorenz Berman, whom Agricola <lb/>afterward set up as the “learned miner” in his dialogue <emph type="italics"/>Bermannus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This <lb/>book was first published by Froben at Basel in 1530, and was a sort of <lb/>catechism on mineralogy, mining terms, and mining lore. </s> <s>The book was <lb/>apparently first submitted to the great Erasmus, and the publication arranged <lb/>by him, a warm letter of approval by him appearing at the beginning of the <lb/>book<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>In 1533 he published <emph type="italics"/>De Mensuris et Ponderibus,<emph.end type="italics"/> through Froben, <lb/>this being a discussion of Roman and Greek weights and measures. </s> <s>At <lb/>about this time he began <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/>—not to be published for <lb/>twenty-five years.<lb/><lb/><lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="vii"/><p type="main"> <s>Agricola did not confine his interest entirely to medicine and mining, <lb/>for during this period he composed a pamphlet upon the Turks, urging their <lb/>extermination by the European powers. </s> <s>This work was no doubt inspired by <lb/>the Turkish siege of Vienna in 1529. It appeared first in German in 1531, <lb/>and in Latin—in which it was originally written—in 1538, and passed through <lb/>many subsequent editions.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>At this time, too, he became interested in the God's Gift mine at <lb/>Albertham, which was discovered in 1530. Writing in 1545, he says<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>: <lb/>“We, as a shareholder, through the goodness of God, have enjoyed the <lb/>proceeds of this God's Gift since the very time when the mine began first <lb/>to bestow such riches.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Agricola seems to have resigned his position at Joachimsthal in about <lb/>1530, and to have devoted the next two or three years to travel and study <lb/>among the mines. </s> <s>About 1533 he became city physician of Chemnitz, in <lb/>Saxony, and here he resided until his death in 1555. There is but little <lb/>record of his activities during the first eight or nine years of his residence in <lb/>this city. </s> <s>He must have been engaged upon the study of his subjects and <lb/>the preparation of his books, for they came on with great rapidity soon after. <lb/></s> <s>He was frequently consulted on matters of mining engineering, as, for instance, <lb/>we learn, from a letter written by a certain Johannes Hordeborch<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>, that <lb/>Duke Henry of Brunswick applied to him with regard to the method for <lb/>working mines in the Upper Harz.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In 1543 he married Anna, widow of Matthias Meyner, a petty tithe <lb/>official; there is some reason to believe from a letter published by Schmid,<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>that Anna was his second wife, and that he was married the first time at <lb/>Joachimsthal. </s> <s>He seems to have had several children, for he commends his <lb/>young children to the care of the Town Council during his absence at the <lb/>war in 1547. In addition to these, we know that a son, Theodor, was born <lb/>in 1550; a daughter, Anna, in 1552; another daughter, Irene, was buried at <lb/>Chemnitz in 1555; and in 1580 his widow and three children—Anna, <lb/>Valerius, and Lucretia—were still living.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In 1544 began the publication of the series of books to which Agricola <lb/>owes his position. </s> <s>The first volume comprised five works and was finally <lb/>issued in 1546; it was subsequently considerably revised, and re-issued in 1558. <lb/>These works were: <emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causís Subterraneorum,<emph.end type="italics"/> in five “books,” the <lb/>first work on physical geology; <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra,<emph.end type="italics"/> in <lb/>four “books,” on subterranean waters and gases; <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossílíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> in <lb/>ten “books,” the first systematic mineralogy; <emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novís Metallís,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>in two “books,” devoted largely to the history of metals and topographical <lb/>mineralogy; a new edition of <emph type="italics"/>Bermannus<emph.end type="italics"/> was included; and finally <emph type="italics"/>Rerum <lb/>Metallícarum Interpretatio,<emph.end type="italics"/> a glossary of Latin and German mineralogical <lb/>and metallurgical terms. </s> <s>Another work, <emph type="italics"/>De Animantíbus Subterraneis,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>usually published with <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> is dated 1548 in the preface. </s> <s>It <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="viii"/>is devoted to animals which live underground, at least part of the time, but <lb/>is not a very effective basis of either geologic or zoologic classi­<lb/>fication. </s> <s>Despite many public activities, Agricola apparently completed <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> in 1550, but did not send it to the press until 1553; nor <lb/>did it appear until a year after his death in 1555. But we give further details <lb/>on the preparation of this work on p. </s> <s>xv. </s> <s>During this period he found time <lb/>to prepare a small medical work, <emph type="italics"/>De Peste,<emph.end type="italics"/> and certain historical studies, <lb/>details of which appear in the Appendix. </s> <s>There are other works by Agricola re­<lb/>ferred to by sixteenth century writers, but so far we have not been able to find <lb/>them although they may exist. </s> <s>Such data as we have, is given in the appendix.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>As a young man, Agricola seems to have had some tendencies toward <lb/>liberalism in religious matters, for while at Zwickau he composed some anti­<lb/>Popish Epigrams; but after his return to Leipsic he apparently never wavered, <lb/>and steadily refused to accept the Lutheran Reformation. </s> <s>To many even <lb/>liberal scholars of the day, Luther's doctrines appeared wild and demagogic. <lb/></s> <s>Luther was not a scholarly man; his addresses were to the masses; his Latin <lb/>was execrable. </s> <s>Nor did the bitter dissensions over hair-splitting theology in <lb/>the Lutheran Church after Luther's death tend to increase respect for the <lb/>movement among the learned. </s> <s>Agricola was a scholar of wide attainments, <lb/>a deep-thinking, religious man, and he remained to the end a staunch Catholic, <lb/>despite the general change of sentiment among his countrymen. </s> <s>His leanings <lb/>were toward such men as his friend the humanist, Erasmus. </s> <s>That he had <lb/>the courage of his convictions is shown in the dedication of <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Eorum,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>where he addresses to his friend, Duke Maurice, the pious advice that the <lb/>dissensions of the Germans should be composed, and that the Duke should return <lb/>to the bosom of the Church those who had been torn from her, and adds: “Yet <lb/>I do not wish to become confused by these turbulent waters, and be led to <lb/>offend anyone. </s> <s>It is more advisable to check my utterances.” As he <lb/>became older he may have become less tolerant in religious matters, for he <lb/>did not seem to show as much patience in the discussion of ecclesiastical topics <lb/>as he must have possessed earlier, yet he maintained to the end the respect <lb/>and friendship of such great Protestants as Melanchthon, Camerarius, Fabricius, <lb/>and many others.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In 1546, when he was at the age of 52, began Agricola's activity in <lb/>public life, for in that year he was elected a Burgher of Chemnitz; and in the <lb/>same year Duke Maurice appointed him Burgomaster—an office which <lb/>he held for four terms. </s> <s>Before one can gain an insight into his political <lb/>services, and incidentally into the character of the man, it is necessary to <lb/>understand the politics of the time and his part therein, and to bear in mind <lb/>always that he was a staunch Catholic under a Protestant Sovereign in a <lb/>State seething with militant Protestantism.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Saxony had been divided in 1485 between the Princes Ernest and Albert, <lb/>the former taking the Electoral dignity and the major portion of the Princi­<lb/>pality. </s> <s>Albert the Brave, the younger brother and Duke of Saxony, obtained <lb/>the subordinate portion, embracing Meissen, but subject to the Elector. <lb/></s> <s>The Elector Ernest was succeeded in 1486 by Frederick the Wise, and under <pb pagenum="ix"/>his support Luther made Saxony the cradle of the Reformation. </s> <s>This <lb/>Elector was succeeded in 1525 by his brother John, who was in turn succeeded <lb/>by his son John Frederick in 1532. Of more immediate interest to this subject <lb/>is the Albertian line of Saxon Dukes who ruled Meissen, for in that Princi­<lb/>pality Agricola was born and lived, and his political fortunes were associated <lb/>with this branch of the Saxon House. </s> <s>Albert was succeeded in 1505 by his <lb/>son George, “The Bearded,” and he in turn by his brother Henry, the last <lb/>of the Catholics, in 1539, who ruled until 1541. Henry was succeeded in 1541 <lb/>by his Protestant son Maurice, who was the Patron of Agricola.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>At about this time Saxony was drawn into the storms which rose from <lb/>the long-standing rivalry between Francis I., King of France, and Charles V. <lb/>of Spain. </s> <s>These two potentates came to the throne in the same year (1515), <lb/>and both were candidates for Emperor of that loose Confederation known <lb/>as the Holy Roman Empire. </s> <s>Charles was elected, and intermittent wars <lb/>between these two Princes arose—first in one part of Europe, and then in <lb/>another. </s> <s>Francis finally formed an alliance with the Schmalkalden League <lb/>of German Protestant Princes, and with the Sultan of Turkey, against Charles. <lb/></s> <s>In 1546 Maurice of Meissen, although a Protestant, saw his best interest in <lb/>a secret league with Charles against the other Protestant Princes, and pro­<lb/>ceeded (the Schmalkalden War) to invade the domains of his superior and <lb/>cousin, the Elector Frederick. </s> <s>The Emperor Charles proved successful in <lb/>this war, and Maurice was rewarded, at the Capitulation of Wittenberg in 1547, <lb/>by being made Elector of Saxony in the place of his cousin. </s> <s>Later on, the <lb/>Elector Maurice found the association with Catholic Charles unpalatable, and <lb/>joined in leading the other Protestant princes in war upon him, and on the <lb/>defeat of the Catholic party and the peace of Passau, Maurice became <lb/>acknowledged as the champion of German national and religious freedom. <lb/></s> <s>He was succeeded by his brother Augustus in 1553.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Agricola was much favoured by the Saxon Electors, Maurice and <lb/>Augustus. </s> <s>He dedicates most of his works to them, and shows much gratitude <lb/>for many favours conferred upon him. </s> <s>Duke Maurice presented to him a <lb/>house and plot in Chemnitz, and in a letter dated June 14th, 1543,<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> in con­<lb/>nection therewith, says: “ . . . . that he may enjoy his life-long a <lb/>freehold house unburdened by all burgher rights and other municipal ser­<lb/>vice, to be used by him and inhabited as a free dwelling, and that he may <lb/>also, for the necessities of his household and of his wife and servants, brew <lb/>his own beer free, and that he may likewise purvey for himself and his <lb/>household foreign beer and also wine for use, and yet he shall not sell any <lb/>such beer. . . . We have taken the said Doctor under our especial <lb/>protection and care for our life-long, and he shall not be summoned before <lb/>any Court of Justice, but only before us and our Councillor. . . .”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Agricola was made Burgomaster of Chemnitz in 1546. A letter<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> from <lb/>Fabricius to Meurer, dated May 19th, 1546, says that Agricola had been <lb/><pb pagenum="x"/>made Burgomaster by the command of the Prince. </s> <s>This would be Maurice, <lb/>and it is all the more a tribute to the high respect with which Agricola was <lb/>held, for, as said before, he was a consistent Catholic, and Maurice a Protestant <lb/>Prince. </s> <s>In this same year the Schmalkalden War broke out, and Agricola <lb/>was called to personal attendance upon the Duke Maurice in a diplomatic <lb/>and advisory capacity. </s> <s>In 1546 also he was a member of the Diet of Freiberg, <lb/>and was summoned to Council in Dresden. </s> <s>The next year he continued, by <lb/>the Duke's command, Burgomaster at Chemnitz, although he seems to have <lb/>been away upon Ducal matters most of the time. </s> <s>The Duke addresses<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>the Chemnitz Council in March, 1547: “We hereby make known to you <lb/>that we are in urgent need of your Burgomaster, Dr. </s> <s>Georgius Agricola, <lb/>with us. </s> <s>It is, therefore, our will that you should yield him up and forward <lb/>him that he should with the utmost haste set forth to us here near Freiberg.” <lb/>He was sent on various missions from the Duke to the Emperor Charles, to <lb/>King Ferdinand of Austria, and to other Princes in matters connected with the <lb/>war—the fact that he was a Catholic probably entering into his appointment <lb/>to such missions. </s> <s>Chemnitz was occupied by the troops of first one side, then <lb/>the other, despite the great efforts of Agricola to have his own town specially <lb/>defended. </s> <s>In April, 1547, the war came to an end in the Battle of Mühlberg, <lb/>but Agricola was apparently not relieved of his Burgomastership until the <lb/>succeeding year, for he wrote his friend Wolfgang Meurer, in April, 1548,<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>that he “was now relieved.” His public duties did not end, however, for he <lb/>attended the Diet of Leipzig in 1547 and in 1549, and was at the Diet <lb/>at Torgau in 1550. In 1551 he was again installed as Burgomaster; and in <lb/>1553, for the fourth time, he became head of the Municipality, and during <lb/>this year had again to attend the Diets at Leipzig and Dresden, representing <lb/>his city. </s> <s>He apparently now had a short relief from public duties, for it is <lb/>not until 1555, shortly before his death, that we find him again attending a <lb/>Diet at Torgau.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Agricola died on November 21st, 1555. A letter<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/> from his life-long friend, <lb/>Fabricius, to Melanchthon, announcing this event, states: “We lost, on <lb/>November 21st, that distinguished ornament of our Fatherland, Georgius <lb/>Agricola, a man of eminent intellect, of culture and of judgment. </s> <s>He <lb/>attained the age of 62. He who since the days of childhood had enjoyed <lb/>robust health was carried off by a four-days' fever. </s> <s>He had previously <lb/>suffered from no disease except inflammation of the eyes, which he brought <lb/>upon himself by untiring study and insatiable reading. . . I know that <lb/>you loved the soul of this man, although in many of his opinions, more <lb/>especially in religious and spiritual welfare, he differed in many points from <lb/>our own. </s> <s>For he despised our Churches, and would not be with us in the <lb/>Communion of the Blood of Christ. </s> <s>Therefore, after his death, at the <lb/>command of the Prince, which was given to the Church inspectors and <lb/>carried out by Tettelbach as a loyal servant, burial was refused him, and not <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="xi"/>until the fourth day was he borne away to Zeitz and interred in the Cathedral. <lb/>. . . . I have always admired the genius of this man, so distinguished <lb/>in our sciences and in the whole realm of Philosophy—yet I wonder at his <lb/>religious views, which were compatible with reason, it is true, and were <lb/>dazzling, but were by no means compatible with truth. . . . He <lb/>would not tolerate with patience that anyone should discuss ecclesiastical <lb/>matters with him.” This action of the authorities in denying burial to one <lb/>of their most honored citizens, who had been ever assiduous in furthering <lb/>the welfare of the community, seems strangely out of joint. </s> <s>Further, the <lb/>Elector Augustus, although a Protestant Prince, was Agricola's warm friend, <lb/>as evidenced by his letter of but a few months before (see p. </s> <s>xv). However, <lb/>Catholics were then few in number at Chemnitz, and the feeling ran high at the <lb/>time, so possibly the Prince was afraid of public disturbances. </s> <s>Hofmann<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>explains this occurrence in the following words:—“The feelings of Chemnitz <lb/>citizens, who were almost exclusively Protestant, must certainly be taken <lb/>into account. </s> <s>They may have raised objections to the solemn interment of <lb/>a Catholic in the Protestant Cathedral Church of St. </s> <s>Jacob, which had, <lb/>perhaps, been demanded by his relatives, and to which, according to the <lb/>custom of the time, he would have been entitled as Burgomaster. </s> <s>The <lb/>refusal to sanction the interment aroused, more especially in the Catholic <lb/>world, a painful sensation.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>A brass memorial plate hung in the Cathedral at Zeitz had already <lb/>disappeared in 1686, nor have the cities of his birth or residence ever shown <lb/>any appreciation of this man, whose work more deserves their gratitude <lb/>than does that of the multitude of soldiers whose monuments decorate every <lb/>village and city square. </s> <s>It is true that in 1822 a marble tablet was <lb/>placed behind the altar in the Church of St. </s> <s>Jacob in Chemnitz, but even <lb/>this was removed to the Historical Museum later on.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>He left a modest estate, which was the subject of considerable litigation by <lb/>his descendants, due to the mismanagement of the guardian. </s> <s>Hofmann has <lb/>succeeded in tracing the descendants for two generations, down to 1609, but <lb/>the line is finally lost among the multitude of other Agricolas.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>To deduce Georgius Agricola's character we need not search beyond the <lb/>discovery of his steadfast adherence to the religion of his fathers amid the <lb/>bitter storm of Protestantism around him, and need but to remember at the <lb/>same time that for twenty-five years he was entrusted with elective positions <lb/>of an increasingly important character in this same community. </s> <s>No man <lb/>could have thus held the respect of his countrymen unless he were devoid of <lb/>bigotry and possessed of the highest sense of integrity, justice, humanity, <lb/>and patriotism.</s></p><pb pagenum="xii"/><p type="head"> <s>AGRICOLA'S INTELLECTUAL ATTAINMENTS AND <lb/>POSITION IN SCIENCE.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Agricola's education was the most thorough that his times afforded in <lb/>the classics, philosophy, medicine, and sciences generally. </s> <s>Further, his writings <lb/>disclose a most exhaustive knowledge not only of an extraordinary range of <lb/>classical literature, but also of obscure manuscripts buried in the public libraries <lb/>of Europe. </s> <s>That his general learning was held to be of a high order is amply <lb/>evidenced from the correspondence of the other scholars of his time—Erasmus, <lb/>Melanchthon, Meurer, Fabricius, and others.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Our more immediate concern, however, is with the advances which were due <lb/>to him in the sciences of Geology, Mineralogy, and Mining Engineering. </s> <s>No <lb/>appreciation of these attainments can be conveyed to the reader unless he <lb/>has some understanding of the dearth of knowledge in these sciences prior <lb/>to Agricola's time. </s> <s>We have in Appendix B given a brief review of the <lb/>literature extant at this period on these subjects. </s> <s>Furthermore, no appreciation <lb/>of Agricola's contribution to science can be gained without a study of <emph type="italics"/>De <lb/>Ortu et Causís<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossílíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> for while <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> is of much <lb/>more general interest, it contains but incidental reference to Geology and <lb/>Mineralogy. </s> <s>Apart from the book of Genesis, the only attempts at funda­<lb/>mental explanation of natural phenomena were those of the Greek Philosophers <lb/>and the Alchemists. </s> <s>Orthodox beliefs Agricola scarcely mentions; with the <lb/>Alchemists he had no patience. </s> <s>There can be no doubt, however, that his <lb/>views are greatly coloured by his deep classical learning. </s> <s>He was in fine to a <lb/>certain distance a follower of Aristotle, Theophrastus, Strato, and other leaders <lb/>of the Peripatetic school. </s> <s>For that matter, except for the muddy current <lb/>which the alchemists had introduced into this already troubled stream, <lb/>the whole thought of the learned world still flowed from the Greeks. </s> <s>Had he <lb/>not, however, radically departed from the teachings of the Peripatetic school, <lb/>his work would have been no contribution to the development of science. <lb/></s> <s>Certain of their teachings he repudiated with great vigour, and his <lb/>laboured and detailed arguments in their refutation form the first battle in <lb/>science over the results of observation <emph type="italics"/>versus<emph.end type="italics"/> inductive speculation. </s> <s>To use <lb/>his own words: “Those things which we see with our eyes and understand <lb/>by means of our senses are more clearly to be demonstrated than if learned <lb/>by means of reasoning.”<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/> The bigoted scholasticism of his times necessi­<lb/>tated as much care and detail in refutation of such deep-rooted beliefs, as would <lb/>be demanded to-day by an attempt at a refutation of the theory of evolution, <lb/>and in consequence his works are often but dry reading to any but those <lb/>interested in the development of fundamental scientific theory.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In giving an appreciation of Agricola's views here and throughout the <lb/>footnotes, we do not wish to convey to the reader that he was in all things <lb/>free from error and from the spirit of his times, or that his theories, constructed <lb/>long before the atomic theory, are of the clear-cut order which that <lb/>basic hypothesis has rendered possible to later scientific speculation in these <lb/>branches. </s> <s>His statements are sometimes much confused, but we reiterate that <pb pagenum="xiii"/>their clarity is as crystal to mud in comparison with those of his predecessors— <lb/>and of most of his successors for over two hundred years. </s> <s>As an indication of <lb/>his grasp of some of the wider aspects of geological phenomena we reproduce, <lb/>in Appendix A, a passage from <emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causís,<emph.end type="italics"/> which we believe to be the <lb/>first adequate declaration of the part played by erosion in mountain sculpture. <lb/></s> <s>But of all of Agricola's theoretical views those are of the greatest interest which <lb/>relate to the origin of ore deposits, for in these matters he had the greatest <lb/>opportunities of observation and the most experience. </s> <s>We have on page 108 <lb/>reproduced and discussed his theory at considerable length, but we may repeat <lb/>here, that in his propositions as to the circulation of ground waters, that ore <lb/>channels are a subsequent creation to the contained rocks, and that they <lb/>were filled by deposition from circulating solutions, he enunciated the founda­<lb/>tions of our modern theory, and in so doing took a step in advance greater than <lb/>that of any single subsequent authority. </s> <s>In his contention that ore channels <lb/>were created by erosion of subterranean waters he was wrong, except for <lb/>special cases, and it was not until two centuries later that a further step in <lb/>advance was taken by the recognition by Van Oppel of the part played by <lb/>fissuring in these phenomena. </s> <s>Nor was it until about the same time that the <lb/>filling of ore channels in the main by deposition from solutions was generally <lb/>accepted. </s> <s>While Werner, two hundred and fifty years after Agricola, is <lb/>generally revered as the inspirer of the modern theory by those whose reading <lb/>has taken them no farther back, we have no hesitation in asserting that of the <lb/>propositions of each author, Agricola's were very much more nearly in <lb/>accord with modern views. </s> <s>Moreover, the main result of the new ideas <lb/>brought forward by Werner was to stop the march of progress for half a <lb/>century, instead of speeding it forward as did those of Agricola.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In mineralogy Agricola made the first attempt at systematic treatment <lb/>of the subject. </s> <s>His system could not be otherwise than wrongly based, <lb/>as he could scarcely see forward two or three centuries to the atomic theory <lb/>and our vast fund of chemical knowledge. </s> <s>However, based as it is upon <lb/>such properties as solubility and homogeneity, and upon external character­<lb/>istics such as colour, hardness, &c., it makes a most creditable advance <lb/>upon Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Albertus Magnus—his only predecessors. <lb/></s> <s>He is the first to assert that bismuth and antimony are true primary metals; <lb/>and to some sixty actual mineral species described previous to his time he <lb/>added some twenty more, and laments that there are scores unnamed.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>As to Agricola's contribution to the sciences of mining and metal­<lb/>lurgy, <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> speaks for itself. </s> <s>While he describes, for the first <lb/>time, scores of methods and processes, no one would contend that they <lb/>were discoveries or inventions of his own. </s> <s>They represent the accumulation <lb/>of generations of experience and knowledge; but by him they were, for the <lb/>first time, to receive detailed and intelligent exposition. </s> <s>Until Schlüter's <lb/>work nearly two centuries later, it was not excelled. </s> <s>There is no measure by <lb/>which we may gauge the value of such a work to the men who followed in <lb/>this profession during centuries, nor the benefits enjoyed by humanity <lb/>through them.</s></p><pb pagenum="xiv"/><p type="main"> <s>That Agricola occupied a very considerable place in the great awakening of <lb/>learning will be disputed by none except by those who place the development <lb/>of science in rank far below religion, politics, literature, and art. </s> <s>Of wider <lb/>importance than the details of his achievements in the mere confines of the <lb/>particular science to which he applied himself, is the fact that he was the first <lb/>to found any of the natural sciences upon research and observation, as opposed <lb/>to previous fruitless speculation. </s> <s>The wider interest of the members of the <lb/>medical profession in the development of their science than that of geologists <lb/>in theirs, has led to the aggrandizement of Paracelsus, a contem­<lb/>porary of Agricola, as the first in deductive science. </s> <s>Yet no comparative <lb/>study of the unparalleled egotistical ravings of this half-genius, half-alchemist, <lb/>with the modest sober logic and real research and observation of Agricola, <lb/>can leave a moment's doubt as to the incomparably greater position which <lb/>should be attributed to the latter as the pioneer in building the foundation <lb/>of science by deduction from observed phenomena. </s> <s>Science is the base upon <lb/>which is reared the civilization of to-day, and while we give daily credit to all <lb/>those who toil in the superstructure, let none forget those men who laid its <lb/>first foundation stones. </s> <s>One of the greatest of these was Georgius Agricola.</s></p><figure></figure><pb/><p type="main"> <s>Agricola seems to have been engaged in the preparation of <emph type="italics"/>De Re <lb/>Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> for a period of over twenty years, for we first hear of the book in a <lb/>letter from Petrus Plateanus, a schoolmaster at Joachimsthal, to the great <lb/>humanist, Erasmus,<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/> in September, 1529. He says: “The scientific world <lb/>will be still more indebted to Agricola when he brings to light the books <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> and other matters which he has on hand.” In the dedication <lb/>of <emph type="italics"/>De Mensuris et Ponderibus<emph.end type="italics"/> (in 1533) Agricola states that he means to <lb/>publish twelve books <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> if he lives. </s> <s>That the appearance of this <lb/>work was eagerly anticipated is evidenced by a letter from George Fabricius <lb/>to Valentine Hertel:<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/> “With great excitement the books <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>are being awaited. </s> <s>If he treats the material at hand with his usual zeal, <lb/>he will win for himself glory such as no one in any of the fields of literature <lb/>has attained for the last thousand years.” According to the dedication of <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Veteríbus et Novis Metallís,<emph.end type="italics"/> Agricola in 1546 already looked forward to <lb/>its early publication. </s> <s>The work was apparently finished in 1550, for the <lb/>dedication to the Dukes Maurice and August of Saxony is dated in December of <lb/>that year. </s> <s>The eulogistic poem by his friend, George Fabricius, is dated in <lb/>1551.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The publication was apparently long delayed by the preparation of the <lb/>woodcuts; and, according to Mathesius,<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/> many sketches for them were <lb/>prepared by Basilius Wefring. </s> <s>In the preface of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Agricola <lb/>does not mention who prepared the sketches, but does say: “I have hired <lb/>illustrators to delineate their forms, lest descriptions which are conveyed <lb/>by words should either not be understood by men of our own times, or <lb/>should cause difficulty to posterity.” In 1553 the completed book was <lb/>sent to Froben for publication, for a letter<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/> from Fabricius to Meurer in <lb/>March, 1553, announces its dispatch to the printer. </s> <s>An interesting letter<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>from the Elector Augustus to Agricola, dated January 18, 1555, reads: <lb/>“Most learned, dear and faithful subject, whereas you have sent to the Press <lb/>a Latin book of which the title is said to be <emph type="italics"/>De Rebus Metallícis,<emph.end type="italics"/> which has <lb/>been praised to us and we should like to know the contents, it is our gracious <lb/>command that you should get the book translated when you have the <lb/>opportunity into German, and not let it be copied more than once or be <lb/>printed, but keep it by you and send us a copy. </s> <s>If you should need a <lb/>writer for this purpose, we will provide one. </s> <s>Thus you will fulfil our <lb/>gracious behest.” The German translation was prepared by Philip Bechius, <lb/>a Basel University Professor of Medicine and Philosophy. </s> <s>It is a wretched <lb/>work, by one who knew nothing of the science, and who more especially had no <lb/>appreciation of the peculiar Latin terms coined by Agricola, most of which<lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/></s></p><pb/><p type="head"> <s>GEORGII AGRICOLAE</s></p><p type="head"> <s>DE RE METALLICA LIBRI XII<28> QVI-</s></p><p type="main"> <s>bus Officia, In&longs;trumenta, Machinæ, acomnia denique ad Metalli­<lb/>tam &longs;pectantia, non modo luculenti&longs;&longs;imè de&longs;cribuntur, &longs;ed & per <lb/>effigies, &longs;uis locis in&longs;ertas, adiunctis Latinis, Germanicis&queacute; appel­<lb/>lationibus ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non po&longs;&longs;int.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>BIVSDEM</s></p><p type="main"> <s>DE ANIMANTIBVS SVBTERRANEIS Liber, ab Autore re­<lb/>cognitus:cum Indicibus diuer&longs;is, quicquid in opere tractatum e&longs;t, <lb/>pulchrè demon&longs;trantibus.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="head"> <s>BASILEAE M<28> D<28> LVI<28></s></p><p type="head"> <s>Cum Priuilegio Imperatoris in annos v. <lb/></s> <s>& Galliarum Regis ad Sexennium.</s></p><pb pagenum="xvi"/><p type="main"> <s>he rendered literally. </s> <s>It is a sad commentary on his countrymen that no <lb/>correct German translation exists. </s> <s>The Italian translation is by Michelangelo <lb/>Florio, and is by him dedicated to Elizabeth, Queen of England. </s> <s>The title <lb/>page of the first edition is reproduced later on, and the full titles of other <lb/>editions are given in the Appendix, together with the author's other works. <lb/></s> <s>The following are the short titles of the various editions of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>together with the name and place of the publisher:—</s></p><p type="head"> <s>LATIN EDITIONS.<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table1"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table1"></table.target><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Froben .. ..</cell><cell>Basel Folio 1556.</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Froben .. ..</cell><cell>Basel Folio 1561.</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Ludwig König</cell><cell>Basel Folio 1621.</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> Emanuel König</cell><cell>Basel Folio 1657.</cell></row></table><p type="main"> <s>In addition to these, Leupold,<emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/> Schmid,<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/> and others mention an octavo <lb/>edition, without illustrations, Schweinfurt, 1607. We have not been able to <lb/>find a copy of this edition, and are not certain of its existence. </s> <s>The same <lb/>catalogues also mention an octavo edition of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> Wittenberg, <lb/>1612 or 1614, with notes by Joanne Sigfrido; but we believe this to be a <lb/>confusion with Agricola's subsidiary works, which were published at this <lb/>time and place, with such notes.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>GERMAN EDITIONS.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Vom Bergkwerck,<emph.end type="italics"/> Froben, Folio, 1557.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Bergwerck Buch,<emph.end type="italics"/> Sigmundi Feyrabendt, Frankfort-on-Main, folio, 1580.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Bergwerck Buch,<emph.end type="italics"/> Ludwig König, Basel, folio, 1621.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are other editions than these, mentioned by bibliographers, but we <lb/>have been unable to confirm them in any library. </s> <s>The most reliable <lb/>of such bibliographies, that of John Ferguson,<emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/> gives in addition to the <lb/>above; <emph type="italics"/>Bergwerkbuch,<emph.end type="italics"/> Basel, 1657, folio, and Schweinfurt, 1687, octavo.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>ITALIAN EDITION.</s></p><p type="head"> <s><emph type="italics"/>L'Arte de Metalli,<emph.end type="italics"/> Froben, Basel, folio, 1563.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>OTHER LANGUAGES.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>So far as we know, <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> was never actually published in other <lb/>than Latin, German, and Italian. </s> <s>However, a portion of the accounts of <lb/>the firm of Froben were published in 1881<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/>, and therein is an entry under <lb/>March, 1560, of a sum to one Leodigaris Grymaldo for some other work, and <lb/>also for “correction of Agricola's <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca<emph.end type="italics"/> in French.” This may <lb/>of course, be an error for the Italian edition, which appeared a little later. <lb/></s> <s>There is also mention<emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/> that a manuscript of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> in Spanish was <lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="xvii"/>seen in the library of the town of Bejar. </s> <s>An interesting note appears in <lb/>the glossary given by Sir John Pettus in his translation of Lazarus Erckern's <lb/>work on assaying. </s> <s>He says<emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/> “but I cannot enlarge my observations upon <lb/>any more words, because the printer calls for what I did write of a metallick <lb/>dictionary, after I first proposed the printing of Erckern, but intending <lb/>within the compass of a year to publish Georgius Agricola, <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>(being fully translated) in English, and also to add a dictionary to it, I <lb/>shall reserve my remaining essays (if what I have done hitherto be approved) <lb/>till then, and so I proceed in the dictionary.” The translation was never <lb/>published and extensive inquiry in various libraries and among the family <lb/>of Pettus has failed to yield any trace of the manuscript.<lb/></s></p><figure></figure><pb pagenum="xxi"/><p type="head"> <s>GEORGIVS FABRICIVS IN LI-</s></p><p type="head"> <s>bros Metallicos GEORGII AGRICOL AE phi<gap/><lb/>lo&longs;ophi præ&longs;tanti&longs;&longs;imi.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>AD LECTOREM.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Siiuuat ignita cogno&longs;cere fronte Chimæram, <lb/>Semicanem nympham, &longs;emibouem&queacute; uirum:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Sicentum capitum Titanem, tot&queacute; ferentem <lb/>Sublimem manibus tela cruenta Gygen:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Siiuuat Ætneum penetrare Cyclopis in antrum, <lb/>Atque alios, Vates quos peperere, metus:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Nunc placeat mecum doctos euoluere libros, <lb/>Ingenium AGRICOLAE quos dedit acre tibi.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Non hic uana tenet &longs;u&longs;pen&longs;am fabula mentem: <lb/>Sed precium, utilitas multa, legentis erit.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Quidquid terra &longs;inu, gremio&queacute; recondiditimo, <lb/>Omne tibi multis eruit ante libris:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Siue fluens &longs;uperas ultro nitatur in oras, <lb/>Inueniat facilem &longs;eu magis arte uiam.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Perpetui proprns manant de fontibus amnes, <lb/>E&longs;t grauis Albuneæ &longs;ponte Mephitis odor.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Lethales &longs;unt &longs;ponte &longs;crobes Dicæarchidis oræ, <lb/>Et micat è media conditus ignis humo.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Plana Nari&longs;corum cùm tellus ar&longs;itin agro, <lb/>Ter curua nondum falce re&longs;ecta Ceres.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Nec dedit hoc damnum pa&longs;tor, riec Iuppiterigne: <lb/>Vulcani per &longs;eruperat ira &longs;olum.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Terrifico aura foras erumpens, incita motu, <lb/>Sæpefacit montes, antè ubi plana uia e&longs;t.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Hæcab&longs;tru&longs;a cauis, imo&queacute; incognita fundo, <lb/>Cognita natura &longs;æpe fuere duce.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Arte hominum, in lucem ueniunt quoque multa, manu&queacute; <lb/>Terræ multiplices effodiuntur opes.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Lydia &longs;icnitrum profert, Islandia &longs;ulfur, <lb/>Acmodò Tyrrhenus mittit alumen ager.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Succina, quâ trifi do &longs;ubit æquor Vi&longs;tula cornu, <lb/>Pi&longs;cantur Codano corpora &longs;erua &longs;inu.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Quid memorem regum precio&longs;a in&longs;ignia gemmas, <lb/>Marmora&queacute; excel&longs;is &longs;tructa &longs;ub a&longs;tra iugis?</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Nil lapides, nil &longs;axa moror: &longs;unt pulchra metalia, <lb/>Crœfetuis opibus clara, Myda&queacute; tuis,</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Quæ&queacute; acer Macedo terra Creneide fodit, <lb/>Nomine permutans nomina pri&longs;ca &longs;uo.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Atnuncnon ullis cedit GERMANIA terris, <pb pagenum="xxii"/>Terra ferax hominum, terra&queacute; diues opum.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Hic auri in uenis locupletibus aura refulget, <lb/>Non alio me&longs;&longs;is carior ulla loco.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Auricomum extulerit felix Campania ramum, <lb/>Nec fructu nobis de&longs;iciente cadit.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Eruit argenti &longs;olidas hoc tempore ma&longs;&longs;as <lb/>Fo&longs;&longs;or, dc proprijs arma&queacute; miles agris.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Ignotum Graijs e&longs;t He&longs;perijs&queacute; metallum, <lb/>Quod Bi&longs;emutum lingua paterna uocat.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Candidius nigro, &longs;ed plumbo nigrius albo, <lb/>No&longs;tra quoque hoc uena diuite fundit humus.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Funditur in tormenta, corus cum imitantia fulmen, <lb/>Æs, in&queacute; ho&longs;tiles ferrea ma&longs;&longs;a domos.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Scribuntur plumbo libri: quis credidit antè <lb/>Quàm mirandam artem Teutonis ora dedit?</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Nec tamen hoc alijs, aut illa petuntur ab oris, <lb/>Eruta Germano cuncta metalla &longs;olo.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Sed quid ego hæc repeto, monumentis tradita claris <lb/>AGRICOLAE, quæ nunc docta per ora uolant?</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Hic cau&longs;&longs;is ortus, & formas uiribus addit, <lb/>Et quærenda quibus &longs;int meliora locis.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Quæ &longs;i mente prius legi&longs;ti candidus æqua: <lb/>Da reliquis quoque nunc tempora pauca libris.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Vtilitas &longs;equitur cultorem: crede, uoluptas <lb/>Non iucunda minor, rara legentis, erit.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Iudicio&queacute; prius ne quis malè damnet iniquo, <lb/>Quæ &longs;unt auctoris munera mira Dei:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Eripit ip&longs;e &longs;uis primùm tela ho&longs;tibus, in&queacute; <lb/>Mittentis torquet &longs;picula rapta caput.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Fertur equo latro, uehitur pirata triremi: <lb/>Ergo necandus equus, nec fabricanda ratis?</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Vi&longs;ceribus terræ lateant ab&longs;tru&longs;a metalla, <lb/>Vti opibus ne&longs;cit quòd mala turba &longs;uis?</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Qui&longs;quis es, aut doctis pareto monentïbus, aut te <lb/>Inter habere bonos ne fateare locum.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Se non in prærupta metallicus abijcit audax, <lb/>Vt quondam immi&longs;&longs;o Curtius acer equo:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Sed prius edi&longs;cit, quæ &longs;unt no&longs;cenda perito, <lb/>Quod&queacute; facit, multa doctus ab arte facit.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Vt&queacute; gubernator &longs;eruat cum &longs;idere uentos: <lb/>Sic minimè dubijs utitur ille notis.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Ia&longs;ides nauim, currus regit arte Meti&longs;cus: <lb/>Fo&longs;&longs;or opus peragit nec minus arte &longs;uum.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Indagat uenæ &longs;pacium, numerum&queacute;, modum&queacute;, <lb/>Siue obliqua &longs;uum, rectaúe tendatiter.</s></p><pb pagenum="xxiii"/><p type="main"> <s>Pa&longs;tor ut explorat quæ terra &longs;it apta colenti, <lb/>Quæ bene lanigeras, quæ malè pa&longs;cat oucs.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>En terræ intentus, quid uincula linea tendit? <lb/></s> <s>Fungitur officio iam Ptolemæe tuo.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Vt&queacute; &longs;uæ inuenit men&longs;uram iura&queacute; uenæ, <lb/>In uarios operas diuidit ind e uiros.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Iam&queacute; aggre&longs;&longs;us opus, uiden' ut mouet omne quod ob&longs;tat, <lb/>A&longs;&longs;idua ut uer&longs;at &longs;trenuus arma manu?</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Ne tibi &longs;urde&longs;cant ferri tinnitibus aures, <lb/>Ad grauiora ideo con&longs;picienda ueni.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In&longs;truit ecce &longs;uis nunc artibus ille minores: <lb/>Sedulitas nulli non opero&longs;a loco.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Metiri docet hic uenæ &longs;pacium&queacute; modum&queacute;, <lb/>Vt&queacute; regat po&longs;itis &longs;inibus arua lapis,</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Ne quis transmi&longs;&longs;o uiolentus limite pergens, <lb/>Non &longs;ibi conce&longs;&longs;as, in &longs;ua uertat, opes.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Hic docet in&longs;trumenta, quibus Piutonia regna <lb/>Tutus adit, &longs;axi permeat atque uias.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Quanta (uides) &longs;olidas expugnet machina terras: <lb/>Machina non ullo tempore ui&longs;a prius.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Cede nouis, nulla non inclyta laude uetu&longs;tas, <lb/>Po&longs;teritas meritis e&longs;t quoque grata tuis.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Tum quia Germano &longs;unt hæc inuenta &longs;ub axe, <lb/>Si quis es, inuidiæ contrahe uela tuæ.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Au&longs;onis ora tumct bellis, terra Attica cultu, <lb/>Germanum in&longs;ractus tollit ad a&longs;tra labor.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Nec tamen ingenio &longs;olet infeliciter uti, <lb/>Mite gerát Phœbi, &longs;eu graue Martis opus.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Tempus ade&longs;t, &longs;tructis uenarum montibus, igne <lb/>Explorare, u&longs;um quem &longs;ibi uena ferat.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Non labor ingenio caret hic, non copia fructu, <lb/>E&longs;t adaperta bonæ prima fene&longs;tra &longs;pei.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Ergo in&longs;tat porrò grauiores ferre labores, <lb/>Intentas operi nec remouere manus.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Vrere &longs;iue locus po&longs;cat, &longs;eu tundere uenas, <lb/>Siue lauare lacu præter euntis aquæ.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Seu flammis iterum modicis torrere nece&longs;&longs;e e&longs;t, <lb/>Excoquere aut fa&longs;tis ignibus omne malum,</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Cùm fluit æs riuis, auri argenti&queacute; metallum, <lb/>Spes animo fo&longs;&longs;or uix capit ip&longs;e &longs;uas.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Argentum cupidus fuluo &longs;ecernit ab auro, <lb/>Et plumbi lentam demit utrique moram.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Separat argentum, lucri &longs;tudio&longs;us, ab ære, <lb/>Seruatis, linquens deteriora, bonis.</s></p><pb pagenum="xxiv"/><p type="main"> <s>Quæ &longs;i cuncta uelim tenui percurrere uer&longs;u, <lb/>Ante alium reuehat Memnonis o<gap/>ra diem.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Po&longs;tremus labor e&longs;t, concretos di&longs;cere&longs;uccos, <lb/>Quos fert innumeris Teutona terra locis.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Quo &longs;al, quo nitrum, quo pacto fiat alumen, <lb/>V&longs;ibus arti&longs;icis cùm parat illa manus:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Necnon chalcantum, &longs;ulfur, fluidumque bitumen, <lb/>Ma&longs;&longs;a&queacute; quo uitri lenta dolanda modo.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Su&longs;cipit hæc hominum mirandos cura labores, <lb/>Pauperiem u&longs;queadeo ferre famem&queacute; graue e&longs;t,</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Tantus amor uictum paruis extundere natis, <lb/>Et patriæ ciuem non dare uelle malum.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Nec manet in terræ fo&longs;&longs;oris mer&longs;a latebris <lb/>Mens, &longs;ed fert domino uota preces&queacute; Deo.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Munificæ expectat, &longs;pe plenus, munera dextræ, <lb/>Extollens animum lætus ad a&longs;tra &longs;uum.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Diuitias CHRISTVS dat noticiam&queacute; fruendi, <lb/>Cui memori grates pectore &longs;emper agit.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Hoc quoque laudati quondam fecere Philippi, <lb/>Qui uirtutis habent cum pietate decus.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Huc oculos, huc flecte animum, &longs;uaui&longs;&longs;ime Lector, <lb/>Auctorem&queacute; pia no&longs;cito mente Deum.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>AGRICOLAE hinc optans opero&longs;o fau&longs;ta labori, <lb/>Laudibus eximij candidus e&longs;to uiri.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Ille &longs;uum extollit patriæ cum nomine nomen, <lb/>Et uir in ore frequens po&longs;teritatis erit.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Cuncta cadunt letho, &longs;tudij monumenta uigebunt, <lb/>Purpurei doneclumina &longs;olis erunt.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Mi&longs;enæ M. D. LI.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>èludo illu&longs;tri.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>For completeness' sake we reproduce in the original Latin the laudation of Agricola <lb/>by his friend, Georgius Fabricius, a leading scholar of his time. </s> <s>It has but little intrinsic <lb/>value for it is not poetry of a very high order, and to make it acceptable English would require <lb/>certain improvements, for which only poets have license. </s> <s>A “free” translation of the last <lb/>few lines indicates its complimentary character:—</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“He doth raise his country's fame with his own <lb/>And in the mouths of nations yet unborn <lb/>His praises shall be sung; Death comes to all <lb/>But great achievements raise a monument <lb/>Which shall endure until the sun grows cold.”</s></p><pb/><p type="head"> <s>TO THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS <lb/>AND MOST MIGHTY DUKES OF <lb/>Saxony, Landgraves of Thuringia, Margraves of Meissen, <lb/>Imperial Overlords of Saxony, Burgraves of Altenberg <lb/>and Magdeburg, Counts of Brena, Lords of <lb/>Pleissnerland, To MAURICE Grand Marshall <lb/>and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire <lb/>and to his brother AUGUSTUS,<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>GEORGE AGRICOLA S. D.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Most illustrious Princes, often have I considered <lb/>the metallic arts as a whole, as Moderatus Columella<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>considered the agricultural arts, just as if I <lb/>had been considering the whole of the human <lb/>body; and when I had perceived the various parts <lb/>of the subject, like so many members of the body, <lb/>I became afraid that I might die before I should <lb/>understand its full extent, much less before I <lb/>could immortalise it in writing. </s> <s>This book <lb/>itself indicates the length and breadth of the subject, and the number <lb/>and importance of the sciences of which at least some little knowledge <lb/>is necessary to miners. </s> <s>Indeed, the subject of mining is a very exten­<lb/>sive one, and one very difficult to explain; no part of it is fully dealt <lb/>with by the Greek and Latin authors whose works survive; and since <lb/>the art is one of the most ancient, the most necessary and the most profitable <lb/>to mankind, I considered that I ought not to neglect it. </s> <s>Without doubt, <lb/>none of the arts is older than agriculture, but that of the metals is not <lb/>less ancient; in fact they are at least equal and coeval, for no mortal man ever <lb/>tilled a field without implements. </s> <s>In truth, in all the works of agricul­<lb/>ture, as in the other arts, implements are used which are made from metals, <lb/>or which could not be made without the use of metals; for this reason <lb/>the metals are of the greatest necessity to man. </s> <s>When an art is so poor that <lb/>it lacks metals, it is not of much importance, for nothing is made without <lb/>tools. </s> <s>Besides, of all ways whereby great wealth is acquired by good and <lb/>honest means, none is more advantageous than mining; for although from <lb/>fields which are well tilled (not to mention other things) we derive rich yields, <lb/>yet we obtain richer products from mines; in fact, one mine is often much <lb/>more beneficial to us than many fields. </s> <s>For this reason we learn from the <lb/>history of nearly all ages that very many men have been made rich by the <lb/><pb pagenum="xxvi"/>mines, and the fortunes of many kings have been much amplified there­<lb/>by. </s> <s>But I will not now speak more of these matters, because I have <lb/>dealt with these subjects partly in the first book of this work, and partly in <lb/>the other work entitled <emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis,<emph.end type="italics"/> where I have refuted <lb/>the charges which have been made against metals and against miners. <lb/></s> <s>Now, though the art of husbandry, which I willingly rank with the art of <lb/>mining, appears to be divided into many branches, yet it is not separated <lb/>into so many as this art of ours, nor can I teach the principles of this as <lb/>easily as Columella did of that. </s> <s>He had at hand many writers upon hus­<lb/>bandry whom he could follow,—in fact, there are more than fifty Greek <lb/>authors whom Marcus Varro enumerates, and more than ten Latin ones, <lb/>whom Columella himself mentions. </s> <s>I have only one whom I can follow; <lb/>that is C. </s> <s>Plinius Secundus,<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/> and he expounds only a very few methods of <lb/>digging ores and of making metals. </s> <s>Far from the whole of the art having <lb/>been treated by any one writer, those who have written occasionally on any <lb/>one or another of its branches have not even dealt completely with a single <lb/>one of them. </s> <s>Moreover, there is a great scarcity even of these, since alone of <lb/>all the Greeks, Strato of Lampsacus,<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/> the successor of Theophrastus,<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> wrote <lb/>a book on the subject, <emph type="italics"/>De Machinis Metallicis;<emph.end type="italics"/> except, perhaps a work by the <lb/>poet Philo, a small part of which embraced to some degree the occupation <lb/>of mining.<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> Pherecrates seems to have introduced into his comedy, which <lb/>was similar in title, miners as slaves or as persons condemned to serve in the <lb/>mines. </s> <s>Of the Latin writers, Pliny, as I have already said, has described <lb/>a few methods of working. </s> <s>Also among the authors I must include the modern <lb/>writers, whosoever they are, for no one should escape just condemnation <lb/>who fails to award due recognition to persons whose writings he uses, even <lb/>very slightly. </s> <s>Two books have been written in our tongue; the one on the <lb/>assaying of mineral substances and metals, somewhat confused, whose author <lb/>is unknown<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>; the other “On Veins,” of which Pandulfus Anglus<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> is also <lb/>said to have written, although the German book was written by Calbus of <lb/>Freiberg, a well-known doctor; but neither of them accomplished the task <lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="xxvii"/>he had begun.<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> Recently Vannucci Biringuccio, of Sienna, a wise man <lb/>experienced in many matters, wrote in vernacular Italian on the <lb/>subject of the melting, separating, and alloying of metals.<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> He <lb/>touched briefly on the methods of smelting certain ores, and explained <lb/>more fully the methods of making certain juices; by reading his <lb/>directions, I have refreshed my memory of those things which I myself <lb/>saw in Italy; as for many matters on which I write, he did not touch upon <lb/>them at all, or touched but lightly. </s> <s>This book was given me by Franciscus <lb/>Badoarius, a Patrician of Venice, and a man of wisdom and of repute; this <lb/>he had promised that he would do, when in the previous year he was at <lb/>Marienberg, having been sent by the Venetians as an Ambassador to King <lb/>Ferdinand. </s> <s>Beyond these books I do not find any writings on the metallic <lb/>arts. </s> <s>For that reason, even if the book of Strato existed, from all these <lb/>sources not one-half of the whole body of the science of mining could be <lb/>pieced together.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Seeing that there have been so few who have written on the subject of the <lb/>metals, it appears to me all the more wonderful that so many alchemists have <lb/>arisen who would compound metals artificially, and who would change one <lb/>into another. </s> <s>Hermolaus Barbarus,<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> a man of high rank and station, and <lb/>distinguished in all kinds of learning, has mentioned the names of many in <lb/>his writings; and I will proffer more, but only famous ones, for I will limit myself <lb/>to a few. </s> <s>Thus Osthanes has written on <foreign lang="greek">xumeutika/;</foreign> and there are Hermes; <lb/>Chanes; Zosimus, the Alexandrian, to his sister Theosebia; Olympiodorus, <lb/>also an Alexandrian; Agathodæmon; Democritus, not the one of Abdera, <lb/>but some other whom I know not; Orus Chrysorichites, Pebichius, Comerius, <lb/>Joannes, Apulejus, Petasius, Pelagius, Africanus, Theophilus, Synesius, <lb/>Stephanus to Heracleus Cæsar, Heliodorus to Theodosius, Geber, Callides <lb/>Rachaidibus, Veradianus, Rodianus, Canides, Merlin, Raymond Lully, <lb/>Arnold de Villa Nova, and Augustinus Pantheus of Venice; and three women, <lb/>Cleopatra, the maiden Taphnutia, and Maria the Jewess.<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/> All these alchemists <lb/>employ obscure language, and Johanes Aurelius Augurellus of Rimini, <lb/>alone has used the language of poetry. </s> <s>There are many other books on <lb/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="xxviii"/>this subject, but all are difficult to follow, because the writers upon these <lb/>things use strange names, which do not properly belong to the metals, and <lb/>because some of them employ now one name and now another, invented by <lb/>themselves, though the thing itself changes not. </s> <s>These masters teach their <lb/>disciples that the base metals, when smelted, are broken up; also they teach <lb/>the methods by which they reduce them to the primary parts and <lb/>remove whatever is superfluous in them, and by supplying what is <lb/>wanted make out of them the precious metals—that is, gold and silver,— <lb/>all of which they carry out in a crucible. </s> <s>Whether they can do these things <lb/>or not I cannot decide; but, seeing that so many writers assure us with all <lb/>earnestness that they have reached that goal for which they aimed, it would <lb/>seem that faith might be placed in them; yet also seeing that we do not <lb/>read of any of them ever having become rich by this art, nor do we now see <lb/>them growing rich, although so many nations everywhere have produced, and <lb/>are producing, alchemists, and all of them are straining every nerve night and <lb/>day to the end that they may heap a great quantity of gold and silver, I should <lb/>say the matter is dubious. </s> <s>But although it may be due to the carelessness <lb/>of the writers that they have not transmitted to us the names of the masters <lb/>who acquired great wealth through this occupation, certainly it is clear that <lb/>their disciples either do not understand their precepts or, if they do under­<lb/>stand them, do not follow them; for if they do comprehend them, seeing that <lb/>these disciples have been and are so numerous, they would have by to-day filled <pb pagenum="xxix"/>whole towns with gold and silver. </s> <s>Even their books proclaim their vanity, for <lb/>they inscribe in them the names of Plato and Aristotle and other philosophers, <lb/>in order that such high-sounding inscriptions may impose upon simple people <lb/>and pass for learning. </s> <s>There is another class of alchemists who do not <lb/>change the substance of base metals, but colour them to represent gold or silver, <lb/>so that they appear to be that which they are not, and when this appearance <lb/>is taken from them by the fire, as if it were a garment foreign to them, they <lb/>return to their own character. </s> <s>These alchemists, since they deceive people, <lb/>are not only held in the greatest odium, but their frauds are a capital offence. <lb/></s> <s>No less a fraud, warranting capital punishment, is committed by a third sort <lb/>of alchemists; these throw into a crucible a small piece of gold or silver <lb/>hidden in a coal, and after mixing therewith fluxes which have the power of <lb/>extracting it, pretend to be making gold from orpiment, or silver from tin and <lb/>like substances. </s> <s>But concerning the art of alchemy, if it be an art, I will <lb/>speak further elsewhere. </s> <s>I will now return to the art of mining.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Since no authors have written of this art in its entirety, and since <lb/>foreign nations and races do not understand our tongue, and, if they did <lb/>understand it, would be able to learn only a small part of the art through the <lb/>works of those authors whom we do possess, I have written these twelve books <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Of these, the first book contains the arguments which may <lb/>be used against this art, and against metals and the mines, and what can be <lb/>said in their favour. </s> <s>The second book describes the miner, and branches into <pb pagenum="xxx"/>a discourse on the finding of veins. </s> <s>The third book deals with veins and <lb/>stringers, and seams in the rocks. </s> <s>The fourth book explains the method of <lb/>delimiting veins, and also describes the functions of the mining officials. <lb/></s> <s>The fifth book describes the digging of ore and the surveyor's art. </s> <s>The <lb/>sixth book describes the miners' tools and machines. </s> <s>The seventh book is <lb/>on the assaying of ore. </s> <s>The eighth book lays down the rules for the work of <lb/>roasting, crushing, and washing the ore. </s> <s>The ninth book explains the <lb/>methods of smelting ores. </s> <s>The tenth book instructs those who are studious <lb/>of the metallic arts in the work of separating silver from gold, and lead from <lb/>gold and silver. </s> <s>The eleventh book shows the way of separating silver from <lb/>copper. </s> <s>The twelfth book gives us rules for manufacturing salt, soda, alum, <lb/>vitriol, sulphur, bitumen, and glass.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Although I have not fulfilled the task which I have undertaken, on account <lb/>of the great magnitude of the subject, I have, at all events, endeavoured to fulfil <lb/>it, for I have devoted much labour and care, and have even gone to some <lb/>expense upon it; for with regard to the veins, tools, vessels, sluices, machines, <lb/>and furnaces, I have not only described them, but have also hired illustrators <lb/>to delineate their forms, lest descriptions which are conveyed by words <lb/>should either not be understood by men of our own times, or should cause <lb/>difficulty to posterity, in the same way as to us difficulty is often caused by <lb/>many names which the Ancients (because such words were familiar to all of <lb/>them) have handed down to us without any explanation.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I have omitted all those things which I have not myself seen, or have <pb pagenum="xxxi"/>not read or heard of from persons upon whom I can rely. </s> <s>That which I have <lb/>neither seen, nor carefully considered after reading or hearing of, I have not <lb/>written about. </s> <s>The same rule must be understood with regard to all my in­<lb/>struction, whether I enjoin things which ought to be done, or describe things <lb/>which are usual, or condemn things which are done. </s> <s>Since the art of mining <lb/>does not lend itself to elegant language, these books of mine are correspond­<lb/>ingly lacking in refinement of style. </s> <s>The things dealt with in this art of <lb/>metals sometimes lack names, either because they are new, or because, even <lb/>if they are old, the record of the names by which they were formerly known <lb/>has been lost. </s> <s>For this reason I have been forced by a necessity, for which I <lb/>must be pardoned, to describe some of them by a number of words combined, <lb/>and to distinguish others by new names,—to which latter class belong <emph type="italics"/>Ingestor, <lb/>Discretor, Lotor,<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>Excoctor.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/> Other things, again, I have alluded to by old <lb/>names, such as the <emph type="italics"/>Cisium;<emph.end type="italics"/> for when Nonius Marcellus wrote,<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/> this was <lb/>the name of a two-wheeled vehicle, but I have adopted it for a small vehicle <lb/>which has only one wheel; and if anyone does not approve of these names, <lb/>let him either find more appropriate ones for these things, or discover the <lb/>words used in the writings of the Ancients.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>These books, most illustrious Princes, are dedicated to you for many <lb/>reasons, and, above all others, because metals have proved of the greatest <lb/>value to you; for though your ancestors drew rich profits from the revenues <lb/>of their vast and wealthy territories, and likewise from the taxes which were <lb/>paid by the foreigners by way of toll and by the natives by way of tithes, yet <lb/>they drew far richer profits from the mines. </s> <s>Because of the mines not a few <lb/>towns have risen into eminence, such as Freiberg, Annaberg, Marienberg, <lb/>Schneeberg, Geyer, and Altenberg, not to mention others. </s> <s>Nay, if I under­<lb/>stand anything, greater wealth now lies hidden beneath the ground in the <lb/>mountainous parts of your territory than is visible and apparent above <lb/>ground. </s> <s>Farewell.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Chemnitz, Saxony,<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>December First,<emph.end type="italics"/> 1550.<lb/></s></p><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>BOOK I.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Many persons hold the opinion that the metal indus­<lb/>tries are fortuitous and that the occupation is one <lb/>of sordid toil, and altogether a kind of business <lb/>requiring not so much skill as labour. </s> <s>But as for <lb/>myself, when I reflect carefully upon its special <lb/>points one by one, it appears to be far otherwise. <lb/></s> <s>For a miner must have the greatest skill in his <lb/>work, that he may know first of all what mountain <lb/>or hill, what valley or plain, can be prospected most <lb/>profitably, or what he should leave alone; moreover, he must understand the <lb/>veins, stringers<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/> and seams in the rocks<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>Then he must be thoroughly <lb/>familiar with the many and varied species of earths, juices<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>, gems, <lb/>stones, marbles, rocks, metals, and compounds<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>He must also have a <lb/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="2"/>complete knowledge of the method of making all underground works<gap/><lb/>Lastly, there are the various systems of assaying<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> substances and o<gap/><lb/>preparing them for smelting; and here again there are many altogether<gap/><lb/>diverse methods. </s> <s>For there is one method for gold and silver, another<gap/><lb/>for copper, another for quicksilver, another for iron, another for lead, and<gap/><pb pagenum="3"/>even tin and bismuth<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> are treated differently from lead. </s> <s>Although the <lb/>evaporation of juices is an art apparently quite distinct from metallurgy, <lb/>yet they ought not to be considered separately, inasmuch as these juices <lb/>are also often dug out of the ground solidified, or they are produced from <lb/>certain kinds of earth and stones which the miners dig up, and some of the <lb/>juices are not themselves devoid of metals. </s> <s>Again, their treatment is not <lb/>simple, since there is one method for common salt, another for soda<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>, <lb/>another for alum, another for vitriol<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/>, another for sulphur, and another <lb/>for bitumen.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Furthermore, there are many arts and sciences of which a miner should <lb/>not be ignorant. </s> <s>First there is Philosophy, that he may discern the origin, <lb/>cause, and nature of subterranean things; for then he will be able to dig <lb/>out the veins easily and advantageously, and to obtain more abundant results <lb/>from his mining. </s> <s>Secondly, there is Medicine, that he may be able to look <lb/>after his diggers and other workmen, that they do not meet with those <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="4"/>diseases to which they are more liable than workmen in other occupations, <lb/>or if they do meet with them, that he himself may be able to heal them or <lb/>may see that the doctors do so. </s> <s>Thirdly follows Astronomy, that he may <lb/>know the divisions of the heavens and from them judge the direction of <lb/>the veins. </s> <s>Fourthly, there is the science of Surveying that he may be able <lb/>to estimate how deep a shaft should be sunk to reach the tunnel which is <lb/>being driven to it, and to determine the limits and boundaries in these <lb/>workings, especially in depth. </s> <s>Fifthly, his knowledge of Arithmetical Science <lb/>should be such that he may calculate the cost to be incurred in the <lb/>machinery and the working of the mine. </s> <s>Sixthly, his learning must comprise <lb/>Architecture, that he himself may construct the various machines and timber <lb/>work required underground, or that he may be able to explain the method <lb/>of the construction to others. </s> <s>Next, he must have knowledge of Drawing, <lb/>that he can draw plans of his machinery. </s> <s>Lastly, there is the Law, especially <lb/>that dealing with metals, that he may claim his own rights, that he may <lb/>undertake the duty of giving others his opinion on legal matters, that he <lb/>may not take another man's property and so make trouble for himself, and <lb/>that he may fulfil his obligations to others according to the law.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It is therefore necessary that those who take an interest in the methods <lb/>and precepts of mining and metallurgy should read these and others of our <lb/>books studiously and diligently; or on every point they should consult <lb/>expert mining people, though they will discover few who are skilled in the <lb/>whole art. </s> <s>As a rule one man understands only the methods of mining, <lb/>another possesses the knowledge of washing<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/>, another is experienced in the <lb/>art of smelting, another has a knowledge of measuring the hidden parts of <lb/>the earth, another is skilful in the art of making machines, and finally, <lb/>another is learned in mining law. </s> <s>But as for us, though we may not have <lb/>perfected the whole art of the discovery and preparation of metals, at least <lb/>we can be of great assistance to persons studious in its acquisition.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But let us now approach the subject we have undertaken. </s> <s>Since there <lb/>has always been the greatest disagreement amongst men concerning metals <lb/>and mining, some praising, others utterly condemning them, therefore I have <lb/>decided that before imparting my instruction, I should carefully weigh <lb/>the facts with a view to discovering the truth in this matter.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>So I may begin with the question of utility, which is a two-fold one, <lb/>for either it may be asked whether the art of mining is really profitable or <lb/>not to those who are engaged in it, or whether it is useful or not to the rest <lb/>of mankind. </s> <s>Those who think mining of no advantage to the men who follow <lb/>the occupation assert, first, that scarcely one in a hundred who dig metals or <lb/>other such things derive profit therefrom; and again, that miners, because they <lb/>entrust their certain and well-established wealth to dubious and slippery <lb/>fortune, generally deceive themselves, and as a result, impoverished by <pb pagenum="5"/>expenses and losses, in the end spend the most bitter and most miserable of <lb/>lives. </s> <s>But persons who hold these views do not perceive how much a learned <lb/>and experienced miner differs from one ignorant and unskilled in the art. <lb/></s> <s>The latter digs out the ore without any careful discrimination, while the <lb/>former first assays and proves it, and when he finds the veins either too <lb/>narrow and hard, or too wide and soft, he infers therefrom that these cannot <lb/>be mined profitably, and so works only the approved ones. </s> <s>What wonder <lb/>then if we find the incompetent miner suffers loss, while the competent one <lb/>is rewarded by an abundant return from his mining? </s> <s>The same thing <lb/>applies to husbandmen. </s> <s>For those who cultivate land which is alike arid, <lb/>heavy, and barren, and in which they sow seeds, do not make so great a <lb/>harvest as those who cultivate a fertile and mellow soil and sow their grain <lb/>in that. </s> <s>And since by far the greater number of miners are unskilled rather <lb/>than skilled in the art, it follows that mining is a profitable occupation to <lb/>very few men, and a source of loss to many more. </s> <s>Therefore the mass of <lb/>miners who are quite unskilled and ignorant in the knowledge of veins not <lb/>infrequently lose both time and trouble<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>Such men are accustomed for the <lb/>most part to take to mining, either when through being weighted with the <lb/>fetters of large and heavy debts, they have abandoned a business, or desiring to <lb/>change their occupation, have left the reaping-hook and plough; and so <lb/>if at any time such a man discovers rich veins or other abounding mining <lb/>produce, this occurs more by good luck than through any knowledge on his <lb/>part. </s> <s>We learn from history that mining has brought wealth to many, for <lb/>from old writings it is well known that prosperous Republics, not a few kings, <lb/>and many private persons, have made fortunes through mines and their <lb/>produce. </s> <s>This subject, by the use of many clear and illustrious examples, I <lb/>have dilated upon and explained in the first Book of my work entitled “<emph type="italics"/>De <lb/>Veteribus et Novis Metallis,<emph.end type="italics"/>” from which it is evident that mining is very <lb/>profitable to those who give it care and attention.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Again, those who condemn the mining industry say that it is not in the <lb/>least stable, and they glorify agriculture beyond measure. </s> <s>But I do not see <lb/>how they can say this with truth, for the silver-mines at Freiberg in Meissen <lb/>remain still unexhausted after 400 years, and the lead mines of Goslar after 600 <lb/>years. </s> <s>The proof of this can be found in the monuments of history. </s> <s>The <lb/>gold and silver mines belonging to the communities of Schemnitz and <lb/>Cremnitz have been worked for 800 years, and these latter are said to be <lb/>the most ancient privileges of the inhabitants. </s> <s>Some then say the profit <lb/>from an individual mine is unstable, as if forsooth, the miner is, or ought to <lb/>be dependent on only one mine, and as if many men do not bear in common <lb/>their expenses in mining, or as if one experienced in his art does not dig <lb/>another vein, if fortune does not amply respond to his prayers in the first <lb/>case. </s> <s>The New Schönberg at Freiberg has remained stable beyond the <lb/>memory of man<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/>.<lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="6"/><p type="main"> <s>It is not my intention to detract anything from the dignity of agri­<lb/>culture, and that the profits of mining are less stable I will always and readly <lb/>admit, for the veins do in time cease to yield metals, whereas the fields bring <lb/>lorth fruits every year. </s> <s>But though the business of mining may be loss <lb/>reliable it is more productive, so that in reckoning up, what is wanting in <lb/>stability is found to be made up by productiveness. </s> <s>Indeed, the yearly <lb/>profit of a lead mine in comparison with the fruitfulness of the best fields, <lb/>is three times or at least twice as great. </s> <s>How much does the profit from <lb/>gold or silver mines exceed that earned from agriculture? </s> <s>Wherefore truly <lb/>and shrewdly does Xenophon<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/> write about the Athenian silver mines: <lb/>“There is land of such a nature that if you sow, it does not yield crops, <lb/>but if you dig, it nourishes many more than if it had borne fruit.” So let <lb/>the farmers have for themselves the fruitful fields and cultivate the fertile <lb/>hills for the sake of their produce; but let them leave to miners the gloomy <lb/>valleys and sterile mountains, that they may draw forth from these, gens <lb/>and metals which can buy, not only the crops, but all things that are sold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The critics say further that mining is a perilous occupation to pursue, <lb/>because the miners are sometimes killed by the pestilential air which they <lb/>breathe; sometimes their lungs rot away; sometimes the men perish by being <lb/>crushed in masses of rock; sometimes, falling from the ladders into the <lb/>shafts, they break their arms, legs, or necks; and it is added there is no com­<lb/>pensation which should be thought great enough to equalize the extreme <lb/>dangers to safety and life. </s> <s>These occurrences, I confess, are of exceeding <lb/>gravity, and moreover, fraught with terror and peril, so that I should con­<lb/>sider that the metals should not be dug up at all, if such things were to happen <lb/>very frequently to the miners, or if they could not safely guard against such <lb/>risks by any means. </s> <s>Who would not prefer to live rather than to possess <lb/>all things, even the metals? </s> <s>For he who thus perishes possesses nothing, <lb/>but relinquishes all to his heirs. </s> <s>But since things like this rarely happen, <lb/>and only in so far as workmen are careless, they do not deter miners from <lb/>carrying on their trade any more than it would deter a carpenter from his, <lb/>because one of his mates has acted incautiously and lost his life by falling <lb/>from a high building. </s> <s>I have thus answered each argument which critics are <lb/>wont to put before me when they assert that mining is an undesirable occuppa­<lb/>tion, because it involves expense with uncertainty of return, because it is <lb/>changeable, and because it is dangerous to those engaged in it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now I come to those critics who say that mining is not useful to the <lb/>rest of mankind because forsooth, gems, metals, and other mineral products <lb/>are worthless in themselves. </s> <s>This admission they try to extort from us, <lb/>partly by arguments and examples, partly by misrepresentations and abuse of <lb/>us. </s> <s>First, they make use of this argument: “The earth does not conceal <lb/>and remove from our eyes those things which are useful and necessary to <pb pagenum="7"/>mankind, but on the contrary, like a beneficent and kindly mother she yields <lb/>in large abundance from her bounty and brings into the light of day the <lb/>herbs, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and the trees. </s> <s>The minerals on the <lb/>other hand she buries far beneath in the depth of the ground; therefore, <lb/>they should not be sought. </s> <s>But they are dug out by wicked men who, as <lb/>the poets say, are the products of the Iron Age.” Ovid censures their <lb/>audacity in the following lines:—</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“And not only was the rich soil required to furnish corn and due <lb/>sustenance, but men even descended into the entrails of the earth, and <lb/>they dug up riches, those incentives to vice, which the earth had hidden <lb/>and had removed to the Stygian shades. </s> <s>Then destructive iron came <lb/>forth, and gold, more destructive than iron; then war came forth.”<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Another of their arguments is this: Metals offer to men no advantages, <lb/>therefore we ought not to search them out. </s> <s>For whereas man is composed <lb/>of soul and body, neither is in want of minerals. </s> <s>The sweetest food of the <lb/>soul is the contemplation of nature, a knowledge of the finest arts and sciences, <lb/>an understanding of virtue; and if he interests his mind in excellent things, <lb/>if he exercise his body, he will be satisfied with this feast of noble thoughts and <lb/>knowledge, and have no desire for other things. </s> <s>Now although the human <lb/>body may be content with necessary food and clothing, yet the fruits of the <lb/>earth and the animals of different kinds supply him in wonderful abundance <lb/>with food and drink, from which the body may be suitably nourished and <lb/>strengthened and life prolonged to old age. </s> <s>Flax, wool, and the skins of <lb/>many animals provide plentiful clothing low in price; while a luxurious kind, <lb/>not hard to procure—that is the so called <emph type="italics"/>seric<emph.end type="italics"/> material, is furnished by the <lb/>down of trees and the webs of the silk worm. </s> <s>So that the body has absolutely <lb/>no need of the metals, so hidden in the depths of the earth and for the greater <lb/>part very expensive. </s> <s>Wherefore it is said that this maxim of Euripides is <lb/>approved in assemblies of learned men, and with good reason was always on <lb/>the lips of Socrates:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Works of silver and purple are of use, not for human life, but <lb/>rather for Tragedians.”<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>These critics praise also this saying from Timocreon of Rhodes:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“O Unseeing Plutus, would that thou hadst never appeared in the <lb/>earth or in the sea or on the land, but that thou didst have thy habita­<lb/>tion in Tartarus and Acheron, for out of thee arise all evil things which <lb/>overtake mankind”<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>They greatly extol these lines from Phocylides:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Gold and silver are injurious to mortals; gold is the source of <lb/>crime, the plague of life, and the ruin of all things. </s> <s>Would that thou <lb/>were not such an attractive scourge! because of thee arise robberies, <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="8"/>homicides, warfare, brothers are maddened against brothers, a<gap/><lb/>children against parents.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>This from Naumachius also pleases them:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Gold and silver are but dust, like the stones that lie scattered<gap/><lb/>the pebbly beach, or on the margins of the rivers.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>On the other hand, they censure these verses of Euripides:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Plutus is the god for wise men: all else is mere folly and at t<gap/><lb/>same time a deception in words.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>So in like manner these lines from Theognis:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“O Plutus, thou most beautiful and placid god! whilst I have th<gap/><lb/>however bad I am, I can be regarded as good.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>They also blame Aristodemus, the Spartan, for these words:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Money makes the man; no one who is poor is either good<gap/><lb/>honoured.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>And they rebuke these songs of Timocles:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Money is the life and soul of mortal men. </s> <s>He who has n<gap/><lb/>heaped up riches for himself wanders like a dead man amongst t<gap/><lb/>living.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Finally, they blame Menander when he wrote:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Epicharmus asserts that the gods are water, wind, fire, earth, su<gap/><lb/>and stars. </s> <s>But I am of opinion that the gods of any use to us are silv<gap/><lb/>and gold; for if thou wilt set these up in thy house thou mayest se<gap/><lb/>whatever thou wilt. </s> <s>All things will fall to thy lot; land, houses, slav<gap/><lb/>silver-work; moreover friends, judges, and witnesses. </s> <s>Only give free<gap/><lb/>for thus thou hast the gods to serve thee.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But besides this, the strongest argument of the detractors is that t<gap/><lb/>fields are devastated by mining operations, for which reason forme<gap/><lb/>Italians were warned by law that no one should dig the earth for metals a<gap/><lb/>so injure their very fertile fields, their vineyards, and their olive grov<gap/><lb/>Also they argue that the woods and groves are cut down, for there is need<gap/><lb/>an endless amount of wood for timbers, machines, and the smelting of meta<gap/><lb/>And when the woods and groves are felled, then are exterminated the bea<gap/><lb/>and birds, very many of which furnish a pleasant and agreeable food for ma<gap/><lb/>Further, when the ores are washed, the water which has been used pois<gap/><lb/>the brooks and streams, and either destroys the fish or drives them awa<gap/><lb/>Therefore the inhabitants of these regions, on account of the devastation<gap/><lb/>their fields, woods, groves, brooks and rivers, find great difficulty in procur<gap/><lb/>the necessaries of life, and by reason of the destruction of the timber th<gap/><lb/>are forced to greater expense in erecting buildings. </s> <s>Thus it is said, it<gap/><lb/>clear to all that there is greater detriment from mining than the value<gap/><lb/>the metals which the mining produces.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>So in fierce contention they clamour, showing by such examples<gap/><lb/>follow that every great man has been content with virtue, and despis<gap/><lb/>metals. </s> <s>They praise Bias because he esteemed the metals mer<gap/><lb/>as fortune's playthings, not as his real wealth. </s> <s>When his enemies h<gap/><lb/>captured his native Priene, and his fellow-citizens laden with precious thin<gap/><pb pagenum="9"/>had betaken themselves to flight, he was asked by one, why he carried <lb/>away none of his goods with him, and he replied, “I carry all my possessions <lb/>with me.” And it is said that Socrates, having received twenty minae sent <lb/>to him by Aristippus, a grateful disciple, refused them and sent them back to <lb/>him by the command of his conscience. </s> <s>Aristippus, following his example <lb/>in this matter, despised gold and regarded it as of no value. </s> <s>And once <lb/>when he was making a journey with his slaves, and they, laden with the <lb/>gold, went too slowly, he ordered them to keep only as much of it as they <lb/>could carry without distress and to throw away the remainder<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>Moreover, <lb/>Anacreon of Teos, an ancient and noble poet, because he had been troubled <lb/>about them for two nights, returned five talents which had been given him <lb/>by Polycrates, saying that they were not worth the anxiety which he had <lb/>gone through on their account. </s> <s>In like manner celebrated and exceedingly <lb/>powerful princes have imitated the philosophers in their scorn and contempt <lb/>for gold and silver. </s> <s>There was for example, Phocion, the Athenian, who was <lb/>appointed general of the army so many times, and who, when a large sum of gold <lb/>was sent to him as a gift by Alexander, King of Macedon, deemed it trifling and <lb/>scorned it. </s> <s>And Marcus Curius ordered the gold to be carried back to the <lb/>Samnites, as did also Fabricius Luscinus with regard to the silver and <lb/>copper. </s> <s>And certain Republics have forbidden their citizens the use and <lb/>employment of gold and silver by law and ordinance; the Lacedaemonians, <lb/>by the decrees and ordinances of Lycurgus, used diligently to enquire among <lb/>their citizens whether they possessed any of these things or not, and the <lb/>possessor, when he was caught, was punished according to law and justice. <lb/></s> <s>The inhabitants of a town on the Tigris, called Babytace, buried their gold <lb/>in the ground so that no one should use it. </s> <s>The Scythians condemned the <lb/>use of gold and silver so that they might not become avaricious.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Further are the metals reviled; in the first place people wantonly <lb/>abuse gold and silver and call them deadly and nefarious pests of the human <lb/>race, because those who possess them are in the greatest peril, for those who <lb/>have none lay snares for the possessors of wealth, and thus again and again <lb/>the metals have been the cause of destruction and ruin. </s> <s>For example, <lb/>Polymnestor, King of Thrace, to obtain possession of his gold, killed Polydorus, <lb/>his noble guest and the son of Priam, his father-in-law, and old friend. <lb/></s> <s>Pygmalion, the King of Tyre, in order that he might seize treasures of gold <lb/>and silver, killed his sister's husband, a priest, taking no account of either <lb/>kinship or religion. </s> <s>For love of gold Eriphyle betrayed her husband <lb/>Amphiaraus to his enemy. </s> <s>Likewise Lasthenes betrayed the city of <lb/>Olynthus to Philip of Macedon. </s> <s>The daughter of Spurius Tarpeius, having <lb/>been bribed with gold, admitted the Sabines into the citadel of Rome. <lb/></s> <s>Claudius Curio sold his country for gold to Cæsar, the Dictator. </s> <s>Gold, too, <lb/>was the cause of the downfall of Aesculapius, the great physician, who it was <lb/>believed was the son of Apollo. </s> <s>Similarly Marcus Crassus, through his <lb/>eager desire for the gold of the Parthians, was completely overcome together <lb/>with his son and eleven legions, and became the jest of his enemies; for they <pb pagenum="10"/>poured liquid gold into the gaping mouth of the slain Crassus, saying: <lb/>“Thou hast thirsted for gold, therefore drink gold.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But why need I cite here these many examples from history?<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/> It is <lb/>almost our daily experience to learn that, for the sake of obtaining gold and <lb/>silver, doors are burst open, walls are pierced, wretched travellers are struck <lb/>down by rapacious and cruel men born to theft, sacrilege, invasion, and <lb/>robbery. </s> <s>We see thieves seized and strung up before us, sacrilegious persons <lb/>burnt alive, the limbs of robbers broken on the wheel, wars waged for the <lb/>same reason, which are not only destructive to those against whom they are <lb/>waged, but to those also who carry them on. </s> <s>Nay, but they say that the <lb/>precious metals foster all manner of vice, such as the seduction of women, <lb/>adultery, and unchastity, in short, crimes of violence against the person. <lb/></s> <s>Therefore the Poets, when they represent Jove transformed into a golden <lb/>shower and falling into the lap of Danae, merely mean that he had found <lb/>for himself a safe road by the use of gold, by which he might enter the tower <lb/>for the purpose of violating the maiden. </s> <s>Moreover, the fidelity of many <lb/>men is overthrown by the love of gold and silver, judicial sentences are <lb/>bought, and innumerable crimes are perpetrated. </s> <s>For truly, as Propertius <lb/>says:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“This is indeed the Golden Age. </s> <s>The greatest rewards come from <lb/>gold; by gold love is won; by gold is faith destroyed; by gold is justice <lb/>bought; the law follows the track of gold, while modesty will soon <lb/>follow it when law is gone.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Diphilus says:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“I consider that nothing is more powerful than gold. </s> <s>By it all <lb/>things are torn asunder; all things are accomplished.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Therefore, all the noblest and best despise these riches, deservedly and <lb/>with justice, and esteem them as nothing. </s> <s>And this is said by the old man <lb/>in Plautus:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“I hate gold. </s> <s>It has often impelled many people to many wrong <lb/>acts.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In this country too, the poets inveigh with stinging reproaches against money <lb/>coined from gold and silver. </s> <s>And especially did Juvenal:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Since the majesty of wealth is the most sacred thing among us; <lb/>although, O pernicious money, thou dost not yet inhabit a temple, nor <lb/>have we erected altars to money.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>And in another place:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Demoralising money first introduced foreign customs, and <lb/>voluptuous wealth weakened our race with disgraceful luxury.”<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>And very many vehemently praise the barter system which men used before <lb/>money was devised, and which even now obtains among certain simple <lb/>peoples.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>And next they raise a great outcry against other metals, as iron, than <lb/><pb pagenum="11"/>which they say nothing more pernicious could have been brought into the <lb/>life of man. </s> <s>For it is employed in making swords, javelins, spears, pikes, <lb/>arrows—weapons by which men are wounded, and which cause slaughter, <lb/>robbery, and wars. </s> <s>These things so moved the wrath of Pliny that he wrote: <lb/>“Iron is used not only in hand to hand fighting, but also to form the winged <lb/>missiles of war, sometimes for hurling engines, sometimes for lances, some­<lb/>times even for arrows. </s> <s>I look upon it as the most deadly fruit of human <lb/>ingenuity. </s> <s>For to bring Death to men more quickly we have given wings to <lb/>iron and taught it to fly.”<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/> The spear, the arrow from the bow, or the bolt <lb/>from the catapult and other engines can be driven into the body of only one <lb/>man, while the iron cannon-ball fired through the air, can go through the <lb/>bodies of many men, and there is no marble or stone object so hard that it <lb/>cannot be shattered by the force and shock. </s> <s>Therefore it levels the highest <lb/>towers to the ground, shatters and destroys the strongest walls. </s> <s>Certainly <lb/>the ballistas which throw stones, the battering rams and other ancient war <lb/>engines for making breaches in walls of fortresses and hurling down strong­<lb/>holds, seem to have little power in comparison with our present cannon. <lb/></s> <s>These emit horrible sounds and noises, not less than thunder, flashes <lb/>of fire burst from them like the lightning, striking, crushing, and shatter­<lb/>ing buildings, belching forth flames and kindling fires even as lightning <lb/>flashes. </s> <s>So that with more justice could it be said of the impious men of <lb/>our age than of Salmoneus of ancient days, that they had snatched lightning <lb/>from Jupiter and wrested it from his hands. </s> <s>Nay, rather there has been <lb/>sent from the infernal regions to the earth this force for the destruction of <lb/>men, so that Death may snatch to himself as many as possible by one stroke.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But because muskets are nowadays rarely made of iron, and the large <lb/>ones never, but of a certain mixture of copper and tin, they confer more <lb/>maledictions on copper and tin than on iron. </s> <s>In this connection too, they <lb/>mention the brazen bull of Phalaris, the brazen ox of the people of Per­<lb/>gamus, racks in the shape of an iron dog or a horse, manacles, shackles, <lb/>wedges, hooks, and red-hot plates. </s> <s>Cruelly racked by such instruments, <lb/>people are driven to confess crimes and misdeeds which they have never <lb/>committed, and innocent men are miserably tortured to death by every <lb/>conceivable kind of torment.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It is claimed too, that lead is a pestilential and noxious metal, for men <lb/>are punished by means of molten lead, as Horace describes in the ode <lb/>addressed to the Goddess Fortune: “Cruel Necessity ever goes before thee <lb/>bearing in her brazen hand the spikes and wedges, while the awful hook and <lb/>molten lead are also not lacking.”<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/> In their desire to excite greater odium <lb/>for this metal, they are not silent about the leaden balls of muskets, and they <lb/>find in it the cause of wounds and death.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>They contend that, inasmuch as Nature has concealed metals far within <lb/>the depths of the earth, and because they are not necessary to human life, <lb/>they are therefore despised and repudiated by the noblest, and should not be <lb/><pb pagenum="12"/>mined, and seeing that when brought to light they have always proved the <lb/>cause of very great evils, it follows that mining is not useful to mankind <lb/>but on the contrary harmful and destructive. </s> <s>Several good men have <lb/>been so perturbed by these tragedies that they conceive an intensely bitter <lb/>hatred toward metals, and they wish absolutely that metals had never been <lb/>created, or being created, that no one had ever dug them out. </s> <s>The more I <lb/>commend the singular honesty, innocence, and goodness of such men, the <lb/>more anxious shall I be to remove utterly and eradicate all error from their <lb/>minds and to reveal the sound view, which is that the metals are most useful <lb/>to mankind.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the first place then, those who speak ill of the metals and refuse to <lb/>make use of them, do not see that they accuse and condemn as wicked the <lb/>Creator Himself, when they assert that He fashioned some things vainly <lb/>and without good cause, and thus they regard Him as the Author of evils <lb/>which opinion is certainly not worthy of pious and sensible men.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the next place, the earth does not conceal metals in her depths <lb/>because she does not wish that men should dig them out, but because <lb/>provident and sagacious Nature has appointed for each thing its place. </s> <s>She <lb/>generates them in the veins, stringers, and seams in the rocks, as though <lb/>in special vessels and receptacles for such material. </s> <s>The metals cannot be <lb/>produced in the other elements because the materials for their formation <lb/>are wanting. </s> <s>For if they were generated in the air, a thing that rarely <lb/>happens, they could not find a firm resting-place, but by their own force and <lb/>weight would settle down on to the ground. </s> <s>Seeing then that metals have <lb/>their proper abiding place in the bowels of the earth, who does not see that <lb/>these men do not reach their conclusions by good logic?</s></p><p type="main"> <s>They say, “Although metals are in the earth, each located in its own <lb/>proper place where it originated, yet because they lie thus enclosed and <lb/>hidden from sight, they should not be taken out.” But, in refutation of these <lb/>attacks, which are so annoying, I will on behalf of the metals instance the <lb/>fish, which we catch, hidden and concealed though they be in the water, even <lb/>in the sea. </s> <s>Indeed, it is far stranger that man, a terrestrial animal, should <lb/>search the interior of the sea than the bowels of the earth. </s> <s>For as birds are <lb/>born to fly freely through the air, so are fishes born to swim through the <lb/>waters, while to other creatures Nature has given the earth that they might <lb/>live in it, and particularly to man that he might cultivate it and draw out <lb/>of its caverns metals and other mineral products. </s> <s>On the other hand, they <lb/>say that we eat fish, but neither hunger nor thirst is dispelled by minerals, <lb/>nor are they useful in clothing the body, which is another argument by <lb/>which these people strive to prove that metals should not be taken out. </s> <s>But <lb/>man without metals cannot provide those things which he needs for food and <lb/>clothing. </s> <s>For, though the produce of the land furnishes the greatest <lb/>abundance of food for the nourishment of our bodies, no labour can be <lb/>carried on and completed without tools. </s> <s>The ground itself is turned up <lb/>with ploughshares and harrows, tough stalks and the tops of the roots are <lb/>broken off and dug up with a mattock, the sown seed is harrowed, the corn <pb pagenum="13"/>field is hoed and weeded; the ripe grain with part of the stalk is cut down <lb/>by scythes and threshed on the floor, or its ears are cut off and stored in the <lb/>barn and later beaten with flails and winnowed with fans, until finally the <lb/>pure grain is stored in the granary, whence it is brought forth again when <lb/>occasion demands or necessity arises. </s> <s>Again, if we wish to procure better <lb/>and more productive fruits from trees and bushes, we must resort to <lb/>cultivating, pruning, and grafting, which cannot be done without tools. <lb/></s> <s>Even as without vessels we cannot keep or hold liquids, such as milk, honey, <lb/>wine, or oil, neither could so many living things be cared for without <lb/>buildings to protect them from long-continued rain and intolerable cold. <lb/></s> <s>Most of the rustic instruments are made of iron, as ploughshares, share­<lb/>beams, mattocks, the prongs of harrows, hoes, planes, hay-forks, straw <lb/>cutters, pruning shears, pruning hooks, spades, lances, forks, and weed <lb/>cutters. </s> <s>Vessels are also made of copper or lead. </s> <s>Neither are wooden <lb/>instruments or vessels made without iron. </s> <s>Wine cellars, oil-mills, stables, <lb/>or any other part of a farm building could not be built without iron tools. <lb/></s> <s>Then if the bull, the wether, the goat, or any other domestic animal is led <lb/>away from the pasture to the butcher, or if the poulterer brings from the farm <lb/>a chicken, a hen, or a capon for the cook, could any of these animals be cut <lb/>up and divided without axes and knives? </s> <s>I need say nothing here about <lb/>bronze and copper pots for cooking, because for these purposes one could <lb/>make use of earthen vessels, but even these in turn could not be made and <lb/>fashioned by the potter without tools, for no instruments can be made out <lb/>of wood alone, without the use of iron. </s> <s>Furthermore, hunting, fowling, and <lb/>fishing supply man with food, but when the stag has been ensnared does not <lb/>the hunter transfix him with his spear? </s> <s>As he stands or runs, does he not <lb/>pierce him with an arrow? </s> <s>Or pierce him with a bullet? </s> <s>Does not the <lb/>fowler in the same way kill the moor-fowl or pheasant with an arrow? </s> <s>Or <lb/>does he not discharge into its body the ball from the musket? </s> <s>I will not <lb/>speak of the snares and other instruments with which the woodcock, wood­<lb/>pecker, and other wild birds are caught, lest I pursue unseasonably and too <lb/>minutely single instances. </s> <s>Lastly, with his fish-hook and net does not the <lb/>fisherman catch the fish in the sea, in the lakes, in fish-ponds, or in rivers? <lb/></s> <s>But the hook is of iron, and sometimes we see lead or iron weights attached <lb/>to the net. </s> <s>And most fish that are caught are afterward cut up and dis­<lb/>embowelled with knives and axes. </s> <s>But, more than enough has been said on <lb/>the matter of food.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now I will speak of clothing, which is made out of wool, flax, feathers, <lb/>hair, fur, or leather. </s> <s>First the sheep are sheared, then the wool is combed. <lb/></s> <s>Next the threads are drawn out, while later the warp is suspended in the <lb/>shuttle under which passes the wool. </s> <s>This being struck by the comb, at length <lb/>cloth is formed either from threads alone or from threads and hair. </s> <s>Flax, <lb/>when gathered, is first pulled by hooks. </s> <s>Then it is dipped in water and <lb/>afterward dried, beaten into tow with a heavy mallet, and carded, then <lb/>drawn out into threads, and finally woven into cloth. </s> <s>But has the artisan <lb/>or weaver of the cloth any instrument not made of iron? </s> <s>Can one be made <pb pagenum="14"/>of wood without the aid of iron? </s> <s>The cloth or web must be cut into lengths <lb/>for the tailor. </s> <s>Can this be done without knife or scissors? </s> <s>Can the tailor <lb/>sew together any garments without a needle? </s> <s>Even peoples dwelling beyond <lb/>the seas cannot make a covering for their bodies, fashioned of feathers, <lb/>without these same implements. </s> <s>Neither can the furriers do without them <lb/>in sewing together the pelts of any kind of animals. </s> <s>The shoemaker needs <lb/>a knife to cut the leather, another to scrape it, and an awl to perforate it <lb/>before he can make shoes. </s> <s>These coverings for the body are either woven <lb/>or stitched. </s> <s>Buildings too, which protect the same body from rain, wind, <lb/>cold, and heat, are not constructed without axes, saws, and augers.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But what need of more words? </s> <s>If we remove metals from the service <lb/>of man, all methods of protecting and sustaining health and more care­<lb/>fully preserving the course of life are done away with. </s> <s>If there were no <lb/>metals, men would pass a horrible and wretched existence in the midst of <lb/>wild beasts; they would return to the acorns and fruits and berries of the <lb/>forest. </s> <s>They would feed upon the herbs and roots which they plucked up <lb/>with their nails. </s> <s>They would dig out caves in which to lie down at night, <lb/>and by day they would rove in the woods and plains at random like beasts, <lb/>and inasmuch as this condition is utterly unworthy of humanity, with its <lb/>splendid and glorious natural endowment, will anyone be so foolish or <lb/>obstinate as not to allow that metals are necessary for food and clothing and <lb/>that they tend to preserve life?</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Moreover, as the miners dig almost exclusively in mountains otherwise <lb/>unproductive, and in valleys invested in gloom, they do either slight damage <lb/>to the fields or none at all. </s> <s>Lastly, where woods and glades are cut down, <lb/>they may be sown with grain after they have been cleared from the roots of <lb/>shrubs and trees. </s> <s>These new fields soon produce rich crops, so that they repair <lb/>the losses which the inhabitants suffer from increased cost of timber. </s> <s>More­<lb/>over, with the metals which are melted from the ore, birds without number, <lb/>edible beasts and fish can be purchased elsewhere and brought to these <lb/>mountainous regions.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I will pass to the illustrations I have mentioned. </s> <s>Bias of Priene, when his <lb/>country was taken, carried away out of the city none of his valuables. </s> <s>So <lb/>strong a man with such a reputation for wisdom had no need to fear personal <lb/>danger from the enemy, but this in truth cannot be said of him because he <lb/>hastily took to flight; the throwing away of his goods does not seem to me <lb/>so great a matter, for he had lost his house, his estates, and even his country, <lb/>than which nothing is more precious. </s> <s>Nay, I should be convinced of Bias's <lb/>contempt and scorn for possessions of this kind, if before his country was <lb/>captured he had bestowed them freely on relations and friends, or had <lb/>distributed them to the very poor, for this he could have done freely and <lb/>without question. </s> <s>Whereas his conduct, which the Greeks admire so <lb/>greatly, was due, it would seem, to his being driven out by the enemy and <lb/>stricken with fear. </s> <s>Socrates in truth did not despise gold, but would not <lb/>accept money for his teaching. </s> <s>As for Aristippus of Cyrene, if he had gath­<lb/>ered and saved the gold which he ordered his slaves to throw away, he might <pb pagenum="15"/>have bought the things which he needed for the necessaries of life, and he <lb/>would not. </s> <s>by reason of his poverty, have then been obliged to flatter the <lb/>tyrant Dionysius, nor would he ever have been called by him a King's dog. <lb/></s> <s>For this reason Horace, speaking of Damasippus when reviling Staberus for <lb/>valuing riches very highly, says:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“What resemblance has the Grecian Aristippus to this fellow? <lb/></s> <s>He who commanded his slaves to throw away the gold in the midst of <lb/>Libya because they went too slowly, impeded by the weight of their <lb/>burden—which of these two men is the more insane?”<emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Insane indeed is he who makes more of riches than of virtue. </s> <s>Insane <lb/>also is he who rejects them and considers them as worth nothing, instead of <lb/>using them with reason. </s> <s>Yet as to the gold which Aristippus on another <lb/>occasion flung into the sea from a boat, this he did with a wise and prudent <lb/>mind. </s> <s>For learning that it was a pirate boat in which he was sailing, and <lb/>fearing for his life, he counted his gold and then throwing it of his own will <lb/>into the sea, he groaned as if he had done it unwillingly. </s> <s>But afterward, <lb/>when he escaped the peril, he said: “It is better that this gold itself should <lb/>be lost than that I should have perished because of it.” Let it be granted <lb/>that some philosophers, as well as Anacreon of Teos, despised gold and <lb/>silver. </s> <s>Anaxagoras of Clazomenae also gave up his sheep-farms and <lb/>became a shepherd. </s> <s>Crates the Theban too, being annoyed that his <lb/>estate and other kinds of wealth caused him worry, and that in his con­<lb/>templations his mind was thereby distracted, resigned a property valued at <lb/>ten talents, and taking a cloak and wallet, in poverty devoted all his <lb/>thought and efforts to philosophy. </s> <s>Is it true that because these philo­<lb/>sophers despised money, all others declined wealth in cattle? </s> <s>Did they <lb/>refuse to cultivate lands or to dwell in houses? </s> <s>There were certainly many, <lb/>on the other hand, who, though affluent, became famous in the pursuit of <lb/>learning and in the knowledge of divine and human laws, such as Aristotle, <lb/>Cicero, and Seneca. </s> <s>As for Phocion, he did not deem it honest to accept the <lb/>gold sent to him by Alexander. </s> <s>For if he had consented to use it, the <lb/>king as much as himself would have incurred the hatred and aversion of <lb/>the Athenians, and these very people were afterward so ungrateful toward <lb/>this excellent man that they compelled him to drink hemlock. </s> <s>For what <lb/>would have been less becoming to Marcus Curius and Fabricius Luscinus <lb/>than to accept gold from their enemies, who hoped that by these means <lb/>those leaders could be corrupted or would become odious to their fellow <lb/>citizens, their purpose being to cause dissentions among the Romans and <lb/>destroy the Republic utterly. </s> <s>Lycurgus, however, ought to have given <lb/>instructions to the Spartans as to the use of gold and silver, instead of <lb/>abolishing things good in themselves. </s> <s>As to the Babytacenses, who does <lb/>not see that they were senseless and envious? </s> <s>For with their gold they might <lb/>have bought things of which they were in need, or even given it to neigh­<lb/>bouring peoples to bind them more closely to themselves with gifts and <lb/>favours. </s> <s>Finally, the Scythians, by condemning the use of gold and silver <pb pagenum="16"/>alone, did not free themselves utterly from avarice, because although he is not <lb/>enjoying them, one who can possess other forms of property may also <lb/>become avaricious.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now let us reply to the attacks hurled against the products of mines. <lb/></s> <s>In the first place, they call gold and silver the scourge of mankind because <lb/>they are the cause of destruction and ruin to their possessors. </s> <s>But in this <lb/>manner, might not anything that we possess be called a scourge to <lb/>human kind,—whether it be a horse, or a garment, or anything else? <lb/></s> <s>For, whether one rides a splendid horse, or journeys well clad, he would <lb/>give occasion to a robber to kill him. </s> <s>Are we then not to ride on horses, <lb/>but to journey on foot, because a robber has once committed a murder in <lb/>order that he may steal a horse? </s> <s>Or are we not to possess clothing, because <lb/>a vagabond with a sword has taken a traveller's life that he may rob him <lb/>of his garment? </s> <s>The possession of gold and silver is similar. </s> <s>Seeing <lb/>then that men cannot conveniently do all these things, we should be on our <lb/>guard against robbers, and because we cannot always protect ourselves <lb/>from their hands, it is the special duty of the magistrate to seize wicked and <lb/>villainous men for torture, and, if need be, for execution.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Again, the products of the mines are not themselves the cause of war. <lb/></s> <s>Thus, for example, when a tyrant, inflamed with passion for a woman of <lb/>great beauty, makes war on the inhabitants of her city, the fault lies in the <lb/>unbridled lust of the tyrant and not in the beauty of the woman. </s> <s>Likewise, <lb/>when another man, blinded by a passion for gold and silver, makes war <lb/>upon a wealthy people, we ought not to blame the metals but transfer all <lb/>blame to avarice. </s> <s>For frenzied deeds and disgraceful actions, which are <lb/>wont to weaken and dishonour natural and civil laws, originate from our <lb/>own vices. </s> <s>Wherefore Tibullus is wrong in laying the blame for war on <lb/>gold, when he says: “This is the fault of a rich man's gold; there were <lb/>no wars when beech goblets were used at banquets.” But Virgil, speaking of <lb/>Polymnestor, says that the crime of the murderer rests on avarice:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“He breaks all law; he murders Polydorus, and obtains gold by <lb/>violence. </s> <s>To what wilt thou not drive mortal hearts, thou accursed <lb/>hunger for gold?”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>And again, justly, he says, speaking of Pygmalion, who killed Sichaeus:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“And blinded with the love of gold, he slew him unawares with <lb/>stealthy sword.”<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>For lust and eagerness after gold and other things make men blind, and <lb/>this wicked greed for money, all men in all times and places have considered <lb/>dishonourable and criminal. </s> <s>Moreover, those who have been so addicted to <lb/>avarice as to be its slaves have always been regarded as mean and sordid. <lb/></s> <s>Similarly, too, if by means of gold and silver and gems men can overcome <lb/>the chastity of women, corrupt the honour of many people, bribe the course <lb/>of justice and commit innumerable wickednesses, it is not the metals which <lb/>are to be blamed, but the evil passions of men which become inflamed and <lb/>ignited; or it is due to the blind and impious desires of their minds. </s> <s>But <pb pagenum="17"/>although these attacks against gold and silver may be directed especially <lb/>against money, yet inasmuch as the Poets one after another condemn it, <lb/>their criticism must be met, and this can be done by one argument alone. <lb/></s> <s>Money is good for those who use it well; it brings loss and evil to those who <lb/>use it ill. </s> <s>Hence, very rightly, Horace says:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Dost thou not know the value of money; and what uses it serves?</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It buys bread, vegetables, and a pint of wine.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>And again in another place:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Wealth hoarded up is the master or slave of each possessor; it <lb/>should follow rather than lead, the ‘twisted rope.’ ”<emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>When ingenious and clever men considered carefully the system of barter, <lb/>which ignorant men of old employed and which even to-day is used by <lb/>certain uncivilised and barbarous races, it appeared to them so troublesome <lb/>and laborious that they invented money. </s> <s>Indeed, nothing more useful <lb/>could have been devised, because a small amount of gold and silver is of as <lb/>great value as things cumbrous and heavy; and so peoples far distant from one <lb/>another can, by the use of money, trade very easily in those things which <lb/>civilised life can scarcely do without.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The curses which are uttered against iron, copper, and lead have no <lb/>weight with prudent and sensible men, because if these metals were done <lb/>away with, men, as their anger swelled and their fury became unbridled, <lb/>would assuredly fight like wild beasts with fists, heels, nails, and teeth. <lb/></s> <s>They would strike each other with sticks, hit one another with stones, or <lb/>dash their foes to the ground. </s> <s>Moreover, a man does not kill another with <lb/>iron alone, but slays by means of poison, starvation, or thirst. </s> <s>He may <lb/>seize him by the throat and strangle him; he may bury him alive in the <lb/>ground; he may immerse him in water and suffocate him; he may burn <lb/>or hang him; so that he can make every element a participant in the death <lb/>of men. </s> <s>Or, finally, a man may be thrown to the wild beasts. </s> <s>Another <lb/>may be sewn up wholly except his head in a sack, and thus be left to be <lb/>devoured by worms; or he may be immersed in water until he is torn to <lb/>pieces by sea-serpents. </s> <s>A man may be boiled in oil; he may be greased, <lb/>tied with ropes, and left exposed to be stung by flies and hornets; he may <lb/>be put to death by scourging with rods or beating with cudgels, or struck <lb/>down by stoning, or flung from a high place. </s> <s>Furthermore, a man <lb/>may be tortured in more ways than one without the use of metals; as when <lb/>the executioner burns the groins and armpits of his victim with hot wax; <lb/>or places a cloth in his mouth gradually, so that when in breathing he <lb/>draws it slowly into his gullet, the executioner draws it back suddenly and <lb/>violently; or the victim's hands are fastened behind his back, and he is <lb/>drawn up little by little with a rope and then let down suddenly. </s> <s>Or <lb/>similarly, he may be tied to a beam and a heavy stone fastened by a <lb/>cord to his feet, or finally his limbs may be torn asunder. </s> <s>From these <lb/>examples we see that it is not metals that are to be condemned, but our <lb/>vices, such as anger, cruelty, discord, passion for power, avarice, and lust.</s></p><pb pagenum="18"/><p type="main"> <s>The question next arises, whether we ought to count metals amongst <lb/>the number of good things or class them amongst the bad. </s> <s>The Peripatetics <lb/>regarded all wealth as a good thing, and merely spoke of externals as having <lb/>to do with neither the mind nor the body. </s> <s>Well, let riches be an external <lb/>thing. </s> <s>And, as they said, many other things may be classed as good if it is <lb/>in one's power to use them either well or ill. </s> <s>For good men employ them for <lb/>good, and to them they are useful. </s> <s>The wicked use them badly, and to <lb/>them they are harmful. </s> <s>There is a saying of Socrates, that just as wine <lb/>is influenced by the cask, so the character of riches is like their possessors. <lb/></s> <s>The Stoics, whose custom it is to argue subtly and acutely, though they did <lb/>not put wealth in the category of good things, they did not count it amongst <lb/>the evil ones, but placed it in that class which they term neutral. </s> <s>For to <lb/>them virtue alone is good, and vice alone evil. </s> <s>The whole of what remains <lb/>is indifferent. </s> <s>Thus, in their conviction, it matters not whether one be in <lb/>good health or seriously ill; whether one be handsome or deformed. </s> <s>In <lb/>short:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Whether, sprung from Inachus of old, and thus hast lived <lb/>beneath the sun in wealth, or hast been poor and despised among men, <lb/>it matters not.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>For my part, I see no reason why anything that is in itself of use should <lb/>not be placed in the class of good things. </s> <s>At all events, metals are a <lb/>creation of Nature, and they supply many varied and necessary needs of the <lb/>human race, to say nothing about their uses in adornment, which are so <lb/>wonderfully blended with utility. </s> <s>Therefore, it is not right to degrade them <lb/>from the place they hold among the good things. </s> <s>In truth, if there is a <lb/>bad use made of them, should they on that account be rightly called evils? <lb/></s> <s>For of what good things can we not make an equally bad or good use? </s> <s>Let <lb/>me give examples from both classes of what we term good. </s> <s>Wine, by far <lb/>the best drink, if drunk in moderation, aids the digestion of food, helps to <lb/>produce blood, and promotes the juices in all parts of the body. </s> <s>It is of use <lb/>in nourishing not only the body but the mind as well, for it disperses our <lb/>dark and gloomy thoughts, frees us from cares and anxiety, and restores <lb/>our confidence. </s> <s>If drunk in excess, however, it injures and prostrates the <lb/>body with serious disease. </s> <s>An intoxicated man keeps nothing to himself; <lb/>he raves and rants, and commits many wicked and infamous acts. </s> <s>On <lb/>this subject Theognis wrote some very clever lines, which we may render <lb/>thus:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Wine is harmful if taken with greedy lips, but if drunk in <lb/>moderation it is wholesome.”<emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>But I linger too long over extraneous matters. </s> <s>I must pass on to the <lb/>gifts of body and mind, amongst which strength, beauty, and genius <lb/>occur to me. </s> <s>If then a man, relying on his strength, toils hard to maintain <lb/>himself and his family in an honest and respectable manner, he uses the <lb/>gift aright, but if he makes a living out of murder and robbery, he uses it <lb/>wrongly. </s> <s>Likewise, too, if a lovely woman is anxious to please her husband <pb pagenum="19"/>alone she uses her beauty aright, but if she lives wantonly and is a victim <lb/>of passion, she misuses her beauty. </s> <s>In like manner, a youth who devotes <lb/>himself to learning and cultivates the liberal arts, uses his genius rightly. <lb/></s> <s>But he who dissembles, lies, cheats, and deceives by fraud and dishonesty, <lb/>misuses his abilities. </s> <s>Now, the man who, because they are abused, denies that <lb/>wine, strength, beauty, or genius are good things, is unjust and blasphemous <lb/>towards the Most High God, Creator of the World; so he who would remove <lb/>metals from the class of blessings also acts unjustly and blasphemously <lb/>against Him. </s> <s>Very true, therefore, are the words which certain Greek <lb/>poets have written, as Pindar:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Money glistens, adorned with virtue; it supplies the means by <lb/>which thou mayest act well in whatever circumstances fate may <lb/>have in store for thee.”<emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>And Sappho:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Without the love of virtue gold is a dangerous and harmful guest, <lb/>but when it is associated with virtue, it becomes the source and height <lb/>of good.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>And Callimachus:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Riches do not make men great without virtue; neither do virtues <lb/>themselves make men great without some wealth.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>And Antiphanes:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Now, by the gods, why is it necessary for a man to grow rich? <lb/></s> <s>Why does he desire to possess much money unless that he may, as <lb/>much as possible, help his friends, and sow the seeds of a harvest of <lb/>gratitude, sweetest of the goddesses.”<emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Having thus refuted the arguments and contentions of adversaries, <lb/>let us sum up the advantages of the metals. </s> <s>In the first place, they are <lb/>useful to the physician, for they furnish liberally the ingredients for medi­<lb/>cines, by which wounds and ulcers are cured, and even plagues; so that <lb/>certainly if there were no other reasons why we should explore the depths of <lb/>the earth, we should for the sake of medicine alone dig in the mines. </s> <s>Again, <lb/>the metals are of use to painters, because they yield certain pigments which, <lb/>when united with the painter's slip, are injured less than others by the moisture <lb/>from without. </s> <s>Further, mining is useful to the architects, for thus is found <lb/>marble, which is suitable not only for strengthening large buildings, but <lb/>also for decoration. </s> <s>It is, moreover, helpful to those whose ambition urges <lb/>them toward immortal glory, because it yields metals from which are made <lb/>coins, statues, and other monuments, which, next to literary records, give men <lb/>in a sense immortality. </s> <s>The metals are useful to merchants with very great cause, <lb/>for, as I have stated elsewhere, the use of money which is made from metals is <lb/>much more convenient to mankind than the old system of exchange of commodi­<lb/>ties. </s> <s>In short, to whom are the metals not of use? </s> <s>In very truth, even the works <lb/>of art, elegant, embellished, elaborate, useful, are fashioned in various shapes by <lb/>the artist from the metals gold, silver, brass, lead, and iron. </s> <s>How few artists <lb/><pb pagenum="20"/>could make anything that is beautiful and perfect without using metals? </s> <s>Ev<gap/><lb/>if tools of iron or brass were not used, we could not make tools of wood a<gap/><lb/>stone without the help of metal. </s> <s>From all these examples are evident t<gap/><lb/>benefits and advantages derived from metals. </s> <s>We should not have ha<gap/><lb/>these at all unless the science of mining and metallurgy had been discovere<gap/><lb/>and handed down to us. </s> <s>Who then does not understand how highly usef<gap/><lb/>they are, nay rather, how necessary to the human race? </s> <s>In a word, ma<gap/><lb/>could not do without the mining industry, nor did Divine Providence wi<gap/><lb/>that he should.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Further, it has been asked whether to work in metals is honourab<gap/><lb/>employment for respectable people or whether it is not degrading an<gap/><lb/>dishonourable. </s> <s>We ourselves count it amongst the honourable arts. </s> <s>Fo<gap/><lb/>that art, the pursuit of which is unquestionably not impious, nor offensive<gap/><lb/>nor mean, we may esteem honourable. </s> <s>That this is the nature of th<gap/><lb/>mining profession, inasmuch as it promotes wealth by good and hones<gap/><lb/>methods, we shall show presently. </s> <s>With justice, therefore, we may clas<gap/><lb/>it amongst honourable employments. </s> <s>In the first place, the occupatio<gap/><lb/>of the miner, which I must be allowed to compare with other methods o<gap/><lb/>acquiring great wealth, is just as noble as that of agriculture; for, as th<gap/><lb/>farmer, sowing his seed in his fields injures no one, however profitable they<gap/><lb/>may prove to him, so the miner digging for his metals, albeit he draws forth<gap/><lb/>great heaps of gold or silver, hurts thereby no mortal man. </s> <s>Certainly these<gap/><lb/>two modes of increasing wealth are in the highest degree both noble and<gap/><lb/>honourable. </s> <s>The booty of the soldier, however, is frequently impious,<gap/><lb/>because in the fury of the fighting he seizes all goods, sacred as well as<gap/><lb/>profane. </s> <s>The most just king may have to declare war on cruel tyrants, <lb/>but in the course of it wicked men cannot lose their wealth and possessions <lb/>without dragging into the same calamity innocent and poor people, old <lb/>men, matrons, maidens, and orphans. </s> <s>But the miner is able to accumu­<lb/>late great riches in a short time, without using any violence, fraud, o<gap/><lb/>malice. </s> <s>That old saying is, therefore, not always true that “Every rich <lb/>man is either wicked himself, or is the heir to wickedness.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some, however, who contend against us, censure and attack miners by <lb/>saying that they and their children must needs fall into penury after a short <lb/>time, because they have heaped up riches by improper means. </s> <s>According <lb/>to them nothing is truer than the saying of the poet Naevius:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Ill gotten gains in ill fashion slip away.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The following are some of the wicked and sinful methods by which <lb/>they say men obtain riches from mining. </s> <s>When a prospect of obtaining <lb/>metals shows itself in a mine, either the ruler or magistrate drives out the <lb/>rightful owners of the mines from possession, or a shrewd and cunning <lb/>neighbour perhaps brings a law-suit against the old possessors in order to <lb/>rob them of some part of their property. </s> <s>Or the mine superintendent imposes<gap/><lb/>on the owners such a heavy contribution on shares, that if they cannot pay, <lb/>or will not, they lose their rights of possession; while the superintendent, <lb/>contrary to all that is right, seizes upon all that they have lost. </s> <s>Or, <pb pagenum="21"/>finally, the mine foreman may conceal the vein by plastering over with <lb/>clay that part where the metal abounds, or by covering it with earth, <lb/>stones, stakes, or poles, in the hope that after several years the pro­<lb/>prietors, thinking the mine exhausted, will abandon it, and the foreman <lb/>can then excavate that remainder of the ore and keep it for himself. <lb/></s> <s>They even state that the scum of the miners exist wholly by fraud, <lb/>deceit, and lying. </s> <s>For to speak of nothing else, but only of those <lb/>deceits which are practised in buying and selling, it is said they either <lb/>advertise the veins with false and imaginary praises, so that they can <lb/>sell the shares in the mines at one-half more than they are worth, or <lb/>on the contrary, they sometimes detract from the estimate of them so <lb/>that they can buy shares for a small price. </s> <s>By exposing such frauds our <lb/>critics suppose all good opinion of miners is lost. </s> <s>Now, all wealth, <lb/>whether it has been gained by good or evil means, is liable by some adverse <lb/>chance to vanish away. </s> <s>It decays and is dissipated by the fault and care­<lb/>lessness of the owner, since he loses it through laziness and neglect, or <lb/>wastes and squanders it in luxuries, or he consumes and exhausts it in gifts, <lb/>or he dissipates and throws it away in gambling:</s></p><p type="main"> <s>“Just as though money sprouted up again, renewed from an exhausted <lb/>coffer, and was always to be obtained from a full heap.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It is therefore not to be wondered at if miners do not keep in mind the <lb/>counsel given by King Agathocles: “Unexpected fortune should be held <lb/>in reverence,” for by not doing so they fall into penury; and particularly <lb/>when the miners are not content with moderate riches, they not rarely spend <lb/>on new mines what they have accumulated from others. </s> <s>But no just ruler <lb/>or magistrate deprives owners of their possessions; that, however, may be <lb/>done by a tyrant, who may cruelly rob his subjects not only of their goods <lb/>honestly obtained, but even of life itself. </s> <s>And yet whenever I have inquired <lb/>into the complaints which are in common vogue, I always find that the <lb/>owners who are abused have the best of reasons for driving the men from <lb/>the mines; while those who abuse the owners have no reason to complain <lb/>about them. </s> <s>Take the case of those who, not having paid their contributions, <lb/>have lost the right of possession, or those who have been expelled by the magis­<lb/>trate out of another man's mine: for some wicked men, mining the small <lb/>veins branching from the veins rich in metal, are wont to invade the property <lb/>of another person. </s> <s>So the magistrate expels these men accused of wrong, <lb/>and drives them from the mine. </s> <s>They then very frequently spread <lb/>unpleasant rumours concerning this amongst the populace. </s> <s>Or, to take <lb/>another case: when, as often happens, a dispute arises between neighbours, <lb/>arbitrators appointed by the magistrate settle it, or the regular judges <lb/>investigate and give judgment. </s> <s>Consequently, when the judgment is given, <lb/>inasmuch as each party has consented to submit to it, neither side should <lb/>complain of injustice; and when the controversy is adjudged, inasmuch as <lb/>the decision is in accordance with the laws concerning mining, one of the <lb/>parties cannot be injured by the law. </s> <s>I do not vigorously contest the point, <lb/>that at times a mine superintendent may exact a larger contribution <pb pagenum="22"/>from the owners than necessity demands. </s> <s>Nay, I will admit that a for<gap/><lb/>man may plaster over, or hide with a structure, a vein where it is rich i<gap/><lb/>metals. </s> <s>Is the wickedness of one or two to brand the many honest wit<gap/><lb/>fraud and trickery? </s> <s>What body is supposed to be more pious and virtuou<gap/><lb/>in the Republic than the Senate? </s> <s>Yet some Senators have been detecte<gap/><lb/>in peculations, and have been punished. </s> <s>Is this any reason that so honour<gap/><lb/>able a house should lose its good name and fame? </s> <s>The superintenden<gap/><lb/>cannot exact contributions from the owners without the knowledge an<gap/><lb/>permission of the Bergmeister or the deputies; for this reason decep<gap/><lb/>tion of this kind is impossible. </s> <s>Should the foremen be convicted o<gap/><lb/>fraud, they are beaten with rods; or of theft, they are hanged. </s> <s>I<gap/><lb/>is complained that some sellers and buyers of the shares in mines ar<gap/><lb/>fraudulent. </s> <s>I concede it. </s> <s>But can they deceive anyone except a stupid<gap/><lb/>careless man, unskilled in mining matters? </s> <s>Indeed, a wise and pruden<gap/><lb/>man, skilled in this art, if he doubts the trustworthiness of a seller o<gap/><lb/>buyer, goes at once to the mine that he may for himself examine the vei<gap/><lb/>which has been so greatly praised or disparaged, and may consider whethe<gap/><lb/>he will buy or sell the shares or not. </s> <s>But people say, though such an on<gap/><lb/>can be on his guard against fraud, yet a simple man and one who is easil<gap/><lb/>credulous, is deceived. </s> <s>But we frequently see a man who is trying to mislea<gap/><lb/>another in this way deceive himself, and deservedly become a laughing<gap/><lb/>stock for everyone; or very often the defrauder as well as the dupe i<gap/><lb/>entirely ignorant of mining. </s> <s>If, for instance, a vein has been found to b<gap/><lb/>abundant in ore, contrary to the idea of the would-be deceiver, then he wh<gap/><lb/>was to have been cheated gets a profit, and he who has been the deceive<gap/><lb/>loses. </s> <s>Nevertheless, the miners themselves rarely buy or sell shares, bu<gap/><lb/>generally they have <emph type="italics"/>jurati venditores<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>28<emph.end type="sup"/> who buy and sell at such prices as the<gap/><lb/>have been instructed to give or accept. </s> <s>Seeing therefore, that magistrate<gap/><lb/>decide disputes on fair and just principles, that honest men deceive nobody<gap/><lb/>while a dishonest one cannot deceive easily, or if he does he cannot do s<gap/><lb/>with impunity, the criticism of those who wish to disparage the honesty <gap/><lb/>miners has therefore no force or weight.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the next place, the occupation of the miner is objectionable t<gap/><lb/>nobody. </s> <s>For who, unless he be naturally malevolent and envious, wi<gap/><lb/>hate the man who gains wealth as it were from heaven? </s> <s>Or who will hat<gap/><lb/>a man who to amplify his fortune, adopts a method which is free fro<gap/><lb/>reproach? </s> <s>A moneylender, if he demands an excessive interest, incurs th<gap/><lb/>hatred of men. </s> <s>If he demands a moderate and lawful rate, so that he is n<gap/><lb/>injurious to the public generally and does not impoverish them, he fails t<gap/><lb/>become very rich from his business. </s> <s>Further, the gain derived from minin<gap/><lb/>is not sordid, for how can it be such, seeing that it is so great, so plentifu<gap/><lb/>and of so innocent a nature. </s> <s>A merchant's profits are mean and base whe<gap/><lb/>he sells counterfeit and spurious merchandise, or puts far too high a pri<gap/><lb/>on goods that he has purchased for little; for this reason the mercha<gap/><pb pagenum="23"/>would be held in no less odium amongst good men than is the usurer, did <lb/>they not take account of the risk he runs to secure his merchandise. </s> <s>In <lb/>truth, those who on this point speak abusively of mining for the sake of <lb/>detracting from its merits, say that in former days men convicted of crimes <lb/>and misdeeds were sentenced to the mines and were worked as slaves. </s> <s>But <lb/>to-day the miners receive pay, and are engaged like other workmen in the <lb/>common trades.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Certainly, if mining is a shameful and discreditable employment for a <lb/>gentleman because slaves once worked mines, then agriculture also will not be <lb/>a very creditable employment, because slaves once cultivated the fields, and <lb/>even to-day do so among the Turks; nor will architecture be considered <lb/>honest, because some slaves have been found skilful in that profession; <lb/>nor medicine, because not a few doctors have been slaves; nor will any other <lb/>worthy craft, because men captured by force of arms have practised it. <lb/></s> <s>Yet agriculture, architecture, and medicine are none the less counted <lb/>amongst the number of honourable professions; therefore, mining <lb/>ought not for this reason to be excluded from them. </s> <s>But suppose we <lb/>grant that the hired miners have a sordid employment. </s> <s>We do not mean <lb/>by miners only the diggers and other workmen, but also those skilled in the <lb/>mining arts, and those who invest money in mines. </s> <s>Amongst them can be <lb/>counted kings, princes, republics, and from these last the most esteemed <lb/>citizens. </s> <s>And finally, we include amongst the overseers of mines the noble <lb/>Thucydides, the historian, whom the Athenians placed in charge of the <lb/>mines of Thasos.<emph type="sup"/>29<emph.end type="sup"/> And it would not be unseemly for the owners themselves <lb/>to work with their own hands on the works or ore, especially if they them­<lb/>selves have contributed to the cost of the mines. </s> <s>Just as it is not undignified <lb/>for great men to cultivate their own land. </s> <s>Otherwise the Roman Senate <lb/>would not have created Dictator L. </s> <s>Quintius Cincinnatus, as he was at <lb/>work in the fields, nor would it have summoned to the Senate House the <lb/>chief men of the State from their country villas. </s> <s>Similarly, in our day, <lb/>Maximilian Cæsar would not have enrolled Conrad in the ranks of the nobles <lb/>known as Counts; Conrad was really very poor when he served in the mines <lb/>of Schneeberg, and for that reason he was nicknamed the “poor man”; but <pb pagenum="24"/>not many years after, he attained wealth from the mines of Fürst, which <lb/>is a city in Lorraine, and took his name from “Luck.”<emph type="sup"/>30<emph.end type="sup"/> Nor would <lb/>King Vladislaus have restored to the Assembly of Barons, Tursius, a <lb/>citizen of Cracow, who became rich through the mines in that part of the <lb/>kingdom of Hungary which was formerly called Dacia.<emph type="sup"/>31<emph.end type="sup"/> Nay, not even the <lb/>common worker in the mines is vile and abject. </s> <s>For, trained to vigilance <lb/>and work by night and day, he has great powers of endurance when occasion <lb/>demands, and easily sustains the fatigues and duties of a soldier, for he is <lb/>accustomed to keep long vigils at night, to wield iron tools, to dig trenches, <lb/>to drive tunnels, to make machines, and to carry burdens. </s> <s>Therefore, experts <lb/>in military affairs prefer the miner, not only to a commoner from the town, <lb/>but even to the rustic.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But to bring this discussion to an end, inasmuch as the chief callings <lb/>are those of the moneylender, the soldier, the merchant, the farmer, and the <lb/>miner, I say, inasmuch as usury is odious, while the spoil cruelly captured <lb/>from the possessions of the people innocent of wrong is wicked in the sight <lb/>of God and man, and inasmuch as the calling of the miner excels in honour <lb/>and dignity that of the merchant trading for lucre, while it is not less noble <lb/>though far more profitable than agriculture, who can fail to realize that <lb/>mining is a calling of peculiar dignity? </s> <s>Certainly, though it is but one of <lb/>ten important and excellent methods of acquiring wealth in an honourable <lb/>way, a careful and diligent man can attain this result in no easier way <lb/>than by mining.<lb/><lb/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>END OF BOOK I.</s></p><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>BOOK II.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Qualities which the perfect miner should possess <lb/>and the arguments which are urged for and against <lb/>the arts of mining and metallurgy, as well <lb/>as the people occupied in the industry, I <lb/>have sufficiently discussed in the first Book. </s> <s>Now <lb/>I have determined to give more ample information <lb/>concerning the miners.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the first place, it is indispensable that they <lb/>should worship God with reverence, and that they <lb/>understand the matters of which I am going to speak, and that they <lb/>take good care that each individual performs his duties efficiently and <lb/>diligently. </s> <s>It is decreed by Divine Providence that those who know <lb/>what they ought to do and then take care to do it properly, for the <lb/>most part meet with good fortune in all they undertake; on the other <lb/>hand, misfortune overtakes the indolent and those who are careless in <lb/>their work. </s> <s>No person indeed can, without great and sustained effort and <lb/>labour, store in his mind the knowledge of every portion of the metallic <lb/>arts which are involved in operating mines. </s> <s>If a man has the means <lb/>of paying the necessary expense, he hires as many men as he needs, and <lb/>sends them to the various works. </s> <s>Thus formerly Sosias, the Thracian, sent <lb/>into the silver mines a thousand slaves whom he had hired from the Athenian <lb/>Nicias, the son of Niceratus<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>But if a man cannot afford the expenditure <lb/>he chooses of the various kinds of mining that work which he himself can <lb/>most easily and efficiently do. </s> <s>Of these kinds, the two most important <lb/>are the making prospect trenches and the washing of the sands of rivers, for <lb/>out of these sands are often collected gold dust, or certain black stones <lb/>from which tin is smelted, or even gems are sometimes found in them; the <lb/>trenching occasionally lays bare at the grass-roots veins which are found rich <lb/>in metals. </s> <s>If therefore by skill or by luck, such sands or veins shall fall <lb/>into his hands, he will be able to establish his fortune without expenditure, <lb/>and from poverty rise to wealth. </s> <s>If on the contrary, his hopes are not realised, <lb/>then he can desist from washing or digging.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When anyone, in an endeavour to increase his fortune, meets the <lb/>expenditure of a mine alone, it is of great importance that he should attend <lb/>to his works and personally superintend everything that he has ordered to <lb/>be done. </s> <s>For this reason, he should either have his dwelling at the mine, <pb pagenum="26"/>where he may always be in sight of the workmen and always take care that <lb/>none neglect their duties, or else he should live in the neighbourhood, so <lb/>that he may frequently inspect his mining works. </s> <s>Then he may send word <lb/>by a messenger to the workmen that he is coming more frequently than <lb/>he really intends to come, and so either by his arrival or by the intimation <lb/>of it, he so frightens the workmen that none of them perform their duties <lb/>otherwise than diligently. </s> <s>When he inspects the mines he should praise the <lb/>diligent workmen and occasionally give them rewards, that they and the <lb/>others may become more zealous in their duties; on the other hand, he <lb/>should rebuke the idle and discharge some of them from the mines and <lb/>substitute industrious men in their places. </s> <s>Indeed, the owner should <lb/>frequently remain for days and nights in the mine, which, in truth, is no <lb/>habitation for the idle and luxurious; it is important that the owner who <lb/>is diligent in increasing his wealth, should frequently himself descend into <lb/>the mine, and devote some time to the study of the nature of the veins and <lb/>stringers, and should observe and consider all the methods of working, both <lb/>inside and outside the mine. </s> <s>Nor is this all he ought to do, for sometimes <lb/>he should undertake actual labour, not thereby demeaning himself, but in <lb/>order to encourage his workmen by his own diligence, and to teach <lb/>them their art; for that mine is well conducted in which not only the <lb/>foreman, but also the owner himself, gives instruction as to what ought to <lb/>be done. </s> <s>A certain barbarian, according to Xenophon, rightly remarked <lb/>to the King of Persia that “the eye of the master feeds the horse,”<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/> for the <lb/>master's watchfulness in all things is of the utmost importance.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When several share together the expenditure on a mine, it is convenient <lb/>and useful to elect from amongst their own number a mine captain, and <lb/>also a foreman. </s> <s>For, since men often look after their own interests but <lb/>neglect those of others, they cannot in this case take care of their own without <lb/>at the same time looking after the interests of the others, neither can they <lb/>neglect the interests of the others without neglecting their own. </s> <s>But if <lb/>no man amongst them be willing or able to undertake and sustain the bur­<lb/>dens of these offices, it will be to the common interest to place them in the <lb/>hands of most diligent men. </s> <s>Formerly indeed, these things were looked <lb/>after by the mining prefect<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>, because the owners were kings, as Priam, who <lb/>owned the gold mines round Abydos, or as Midas, who was the owner of <lb/>those situated in Mount Bermius, or as Gyges, or as Alyattes, or as Croesus, <lb/>who was the owner of those mines near a deserted town between Atarnea <lb/>and Pergamum<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>; sometimes the mines belonged to a Republic, as, for <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="27"/>instance, the prosperous silver mines in Spain which belonged to Carthage<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>; <lb/>sometimes they were the property of great and illustrious families, as were <lb/>the Athenian mines in Mount Laurion<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When a man owns mines but is ignorant of the art of mining, then <lb/>it is advisable that he should share in common with others the expenses, <lb/>not of one only, but of several mines. </s> <s>When one man alone meets the <lb/>expense for a long time of a whole mine, if good fortune bestows on him a <lb/>vein abundant in metals, or in other products, he becomes very wealthy; if, <lb/>on the contrary, the mine is poor and barren, in time he will lose everything <lb/>which he has expended on it. </s> <s>But the man who, in common with others, <lb/>has laid out his money on several mines in a region renowned for its wealth <lb/>of metals, rarely spends it in vain, for fortune usually responds to his <lb/>hopes in part. </s> <s>For when out of twelve veins in which he has a joint interest <lb/><pb pagenum="28"/>one yields an abundance of metals, it not only gives back to the owner the <lb/>money he has spent, but also gives a profit besides; certainly there will <lb/>be for him rich and profitable mining, if of the whole number, three, or four, <lb/>or more veins should yield metal. </s> <s>Very similar to this is the advice which <lb/>Xenophon gave to the Athenians when they wished to prospect for new <lb/>veins of silver without suffering loss. </s> <s>“There are,” he said, “ten tribes <lb/>of Athenians; if, therefore, the State assigned an equal number of <lb/>slaves to each tribe, and the tribes participated equally in all the new veins, <lb/>undoubtedly by this method, if a rich vein of silver were found by one tribe, <lb/>whatever profit were made from it would assuredly be shared by the whole <lb/>number. </s> <s>And if two, three, or four tribes, or even half the whole number <lb/>find veins, their works would then become more profitable; and it is not <lb/>“probable that the work of all the tribes will be disappointing”<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/> Although <lb/>this advice of Xenophon is full of prudence, there is no opportunity for it <lb/>except in free and wealthy States; for those people who are under the <lb/>authority of kings and princes, or are kept in subjection by tyranny, do not <lb/>dare, without permission, to incur such expenditure; those who are endowed <lb/>with little wealth and resources cannot do so on account of insufficient funds. <lb/></s> <s>Moreover, amongst our race it is not customary for Republics to have slaves <lb/>whom they can hire out for the benefit of the people<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/>; but, instead, now­<lb/>adays those who are in authority administer the funds for mining in the name <lb/>of the State, not unlike private individuals.</s></p><pb pagenum="29"/><p type="main"> <s>Some owners prefer to buy shares<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> in mines abounding in metals, <lb/>rather than to be troubled themselves to search for the veins; these men <lb/>employ an easier and less uncertain method of increasing their property. <lb/></s> <s>Although their hopes in the shares of one or another mine may be frustrated, <lb/>the buyers of shares should not abandon the rest of the mines, for all the <lb/>money expended will be recovered with interest from some other mine. <lb/></s> <s>They should not buy only high priced shares in those mines producing metals, <lb/>nor should they buy too many in neighbouring mines where metal has not <lb/>yet been found, lest, should fortune not respond, they may be exhausted by <lb/>their losses and have nothing with which they may meet their expenses <lb/>or buy other shares which may replace their losses. </s> <s>This calamity over­<lb/>takes those who wish to grow suddenly rich from mines, and instead, they <lb/>become very much poorer than before. </s> <s>So then, in the buying of shares, <lb/>as in other matters, there should be a certain limit of expenditure which <lb/>miners should set themselves, lest blinded by the desire for excessive wealth, <lb/>they throw all their money away. </s> <s>Moreover, a prudent owner, before he <lb/>buys shares, ought to go to the mine and carefully examine the nature of the <lb/>vein, for it is very important that he should be on his guard lest fraudulent <lb/>sellers of shares should deceive him. </s> <s>Investors in shares may perhaps <lb/>become less wealthy, but they are more certain of some gain than those who <lb/>mine for metals at their own expense, as they are more cautious in trusting <lb/>to fortune. </s> <s>Neither ought miners to be altogether distrustful of fortune, as <lb/>we see some are, who as soon as the shares of any mine begin to go up in <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="30"/>value, sell them, on which account they seldom obtain even moderate wealth. <lb/></s> <s>There are some people who wash over the dumps from exhausted and <lb/>abandoned mines, and those dumps which are derived from the drains of <lb/>tunnels; and others who smelt the old slags; from all of which they make an <lb/>ample return.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now a miner, before he begins to mine the veins, must consider seven <lb/>things, namely:—the situation, the conditions, the water, the roads, the <lb/>climate, the right of ownership, and the neighbours. </s> <s>There are four kinds <lb/>of situations—mountain, hill, valley, and plain. </s> <s>Of these four, the <lb/>first two are the most easily mined, because in them tunnels can be <lb/>driven to drain off the water, which often makes mining operations very <lb/>laborious, if it does not stop them altogether. </s> <s>The last two kinds of <lb/>ground are more troublesome, especially because tunnels cannot be driven <lb/>in such places. </s> <s>Nevertheless, a prudent miner considers all these four <lb/>sorts of localities in the region in which he happens to be, and he searches for <lb/>veins in those places where some torrent or other agency has removed and <lb/>swept the soil away; yet he need not prospect everywhere, but since there <lb/>is a great variety, both in mountains and in the three other kinds of <lb/>localities, he always selects from them those which will give him the best <lb/>chance of obtaining wealth.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the first place, mountains differ greatly in position, some being <lb/>situated in even and level plains, while others are found in broken and <lb/>elevated regions, and others again seem to be piled up, one mountain upon <lb/>another. </s> <s>The wise miner does not mine in mountains which are situated on <lb/>open plains, neither does he dig in those which are placed on the summits of <lb/>mountainous regions, unless by some chance the veins in those mountains <lb/>have been denuded of their surface covering, and abounding in metals and <lb/>other products, are exposed plainly to his notice,—for with regard to what <lb/>I have already said more than once, and though I never repeat it again, <lb/>I wish to emphasize this exception as to the localities which should <lb/>not be selected. </s> <s>All districts do not possess a great number of mountains <lb/>crowded together; some have but one, others two, others three, or perhaps <lb/>a few more. </s> <s>In some places there are plains lying between them; in others <lb/>the mountains are joined together or separated only by narrow valleys. <lb/></s> <s>The miner should not dig in those solitary mountains, dispersed through <lb/>the plains and open regions, but only in those which are connected and <lb/>joined with others. </s> <s>Then again, since mountains differ in size, some being <lb/>very large, others of medium height, and others more like hills than <lb/>mountains, the miner rarely digs in the largest or the smallest of them, <lb/>but generally only in those of medium size. </s> <s>Moreover, mountains have a <lb/>great variety of shapes; for with some the slopes rise gradually, while <lb/>others, on the contrary, are all precipitous; in some others the slopes are <lb/>gradual on one side, and on the other sides precipitous; some are drawn <lb/>out in length; some are gently curved; others assume different <lb/>shapes. </s> <s>But the miner may dig in all parts of them, except where there <lb/>are precipices, and he should not neglect even these latter if metallic veins <pb pagenum="31"/>are exposed before his eyes. </s> <s>There are just as great differences in hills as <lb/>there are in mountains, yet the miner does not dig except in those situated <lb/>in mountainous districts, and even very rarely in those. </s> <s>It is however very <lb/>little to be wondered at that the hill in the Island of Lemnos was excavated, <lb/>for the whole is of a reddish-yellow colour, which furnishes for the inhabit­<lb/>ants that valuable clay so especially beneficial to mankind<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>In like <lb/>manner, other hills are excavated if chalk or other varieties of earth are <lb/>exposed, but these are not prospected for.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are likewise many varieties of valleys and plains. </s> <s>One kind is <lb/>enclosed on the sides with its outlet and entrance open; another has either <lb/>its entrance or its outlet open and the rest of it is closed in; both of these are <lb/>properly called valleys. </s> <s>There is a third variety which is surrounded on all <lb/>sides by mountains, and these are called <emph type="italics"/>convalles.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Some valleys again, <lb/>have recesses, and others have none; one is wide, another narrow; one <lb/>is long, another short; yet another kind is not higher than the neighbouring <lb/>plain, and others are lower than the surrounding flat country. </s> <s>But the <lb/>miner does not dig in those surrounded on all sides by mountains, nor in those <lb/>that are open, unless there be a low plain close at hand, or unless a vein <lb/>of metal descending from the mountains should extend into the valley. <lb/></s> <s>Plains differ from one another, one being situated at low elevation, <lb/>and others higher, one being level and another with a slight incline. </s> <s>The <lb/>miner should never excavate the low-lying plain, nor one which is perfectly <lb/>level, unless it be in some mountain, and rarely should he mine in the other <lb/>kinds of plains.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>With regard to the conditions of the locality the miner should <lb/>not contemplate mining without considering whether the place be <lb/>covered with trees or is bare. </s> <s>If it be a wooded place, he who digs there <lb/>has this advantage, besides others, that there will be an abundant supply of <lb/>wood for his underground timbering, his machinery, buildings, smelting, <lb/>and other necessities. </s> <s>If there is no forest he should not mine there unless <lb/>there is a river near, by which he can carry down the timber. </s> <s>Yet wherever <lb/>there is a hope that pure gold or gems may be found, the ground can <lb/>be turned up, even though there is no forest, because the gems need only <lb/>to be polished and the gold to be purified. </s> <s>Therefore the inhabitants of <lb/>hot regions obtain these substances from rough and sandy places, where <lb/>sometimes there are not even shrubs, much less woods.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The miner should next consider the locality, as to whether it has a <lb/>perpetual supply of running water, or whether it is always devoid of water <lb/>except when a torrent supplied by rains flows down from the summits of the <lb/>mountains. </s> <s>The place that Nature has provided with a river or stream can <pb pagenum="32"/>be made serviceable for many things; for water will never be wanting and <lb/>can be carried through wooden pipes to baths in dwelling-houses; it may <lb/>be carried to the works, where the metals are smelted; and finally, if the <lb/>conditions of the place will allow it, the water can be diverted into the <lb/>tunnels, so that it may turn the underground machinery. </s> <s>Yet on the other <lb/>hand, to convey a constant supply of water by artificial means to mines <lb/>where Nature has denied it access, or to convey the ore to the stream, <lb/>increases the expense greatly, in proportion to the distance the mines are <lb/>away from the river.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The miner also should consider whether the roads from the neighbouring <lb/>regions to the mines are good or bad, short or long. </s> <s>For since a region <lb/>which is abundant in mining products very often yields no agricultural <lb/>produce, and the necessaries of life for the workmen and others must all be <lb/>imported, a bad and long road occasions much loss and trouble with <lb/>porters and carriers, and this increases the cost of goods brought in, which, <lb/>therefore, must be sold at high prices. </s> <s>This injures not so much the work­<lb/>men as the masters; since on account of the high price of goods, the work­<lb/>men are not content with the wages customary for their labour, nor can <lb/>they be, and they ask higher pay from the owners. </s> <s>And if the owners <lb/>refuse, the men will not work any longer in the mines but will go elsewhere. <lb/></s> <s>Although districts which yield metals and other mineral products are <lb/>generally healthy, because, being often situated on high and lofty ground, <lb/>they are fanned by every wind, yet sometimes they are unhealthy, as has <lb/>been related in my other book, which is called “<emph type="italics"/>De Natura Eorum Quae <lb/>Effluunt ex Terra.<emph.end type="italics"/>” Therefore, a wise miner does not mine in such places, <lb/>even if they are very productive, when he perceives unmistakable signs <lb/>of pestilence. </s> <s>For if a man mines in an unhealthy region he may be alive <lb/>one hour and dead the next.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Then, the miner should make careful and thorough investigation con­<lb/>cerning the lord of the locality, whether he be a just and good man or a <lb/>tyrant, for the latter oppresses men by force of his authority, and seizes <lb/>their possessions for himself; but the former governs justly and lawfully <lb/>and serves the common good. </s> <s>The miner should not start mining opera­<lb/>tions in a district which is oppressed by a tyrant, but should carefully <lb/>consider if in the vicinity there is any other locality suitable for mining and <lb/>make up his mind if the overlord there be friendly or inimical. </s> <s>If he be <lb/>inimical the mine will be rendered unsafe through hostile attacks, in one of <lb/>which all of the gold or silver, or other mineral products, laboriously col­<lb/>lected with much cost, will be taken away from the owner and his workmen <lb/>will be struck with terror; overcome by fear, they will hastily fly, to free <lb/>themselves from the danger to which they are exposed. </s> <s>In this case, not <lb/>only are the fortunes of the miner in the greatest peril but his very life is <lb/>in jeopardy, for which reason he should not mine in such places.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Since several miners usually come to mine the veins in one locality, a <lb/>settlement generally springs up, for the miner who began first cannot keep <lb/>it exclusively for himself. </s> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> gives permits to some to mine <pb pagenum="33"/>the superior and some the inferior parts of the veins; to some he gives <lb/>the cross veins, to others the inclined veins. </s> <s>If the man who first starts <lb/>work finds the vein to be metal-bearing or yielding other mining products, <lb/>it will not be to his advantage to cease work because the neighbourhood may <lb/>be evil, but he will guard and defend his rights both by arms and by the law. <lb/></s> <s>When the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> delimits the boundaries of each owner, it is the duty <lb/>of a good miner to keep within his bounds, and of a prudent one to repel <lb/>encroachments of his neighbours by the help of the law. </s> <s>But this is enough <lb/>about the neighbourhood.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The miner should try to obtain a mine, to which access is not difficult, <lb/>in a mountainous region, gently sloping, wooded, healthy, safe, and not far <lb/>distant from a river or stream by means of which he may convey his <lb/>mining products to be washed and smelted. </s> <s>This indeed, is the best <lb/>position. </s> <s>As for the others, the nearer they approximate to this position the <lb/>better they are; the further removed, the worse.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now I will discuss that kind of minerals for which it is not necessary <lb/>to dig, because the force of water carries them out of the veins. </s> <s>Of these <lb/>there are two kinds, minerals—and their fragments<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/>—and juices. </s> <s>When <lb/>there are springs at the outcrop of the veins from which, as I have already said, <lb/>the above-mentioned products are emitted, the miner should consider these <lb/>first, to see whether there are metals or gems mixed with the sand, or whether <lb/>the waters discharged are filled with juices. </s> <s>In case metals or gems have <lb/>settled in the pool of the spring, not only should the sand from it be <lb/>washed, but also that from the streams which flow from these springs, and <lb/>even from the river itself into which they again discharge. </s> <s>If the springs dis­<lb/>charge water containing some juice, this also should be collected; the further <lb/>such a stream has flowed from the source, the more it receives plain water and <lb/>the more diluted does it become, and so much the more deficient in strength. <lb/></s> <s>If the stream receives no water of another kind, or scarcely any, not only <lb/>the rivers, but likewise the lakes which receive these waters, are of the same <lb/>nature as the springs, and serve the same uses; of this kind is the lake <lb/>which the Hebrews call the Dead Sea, and which is quite full of bituminous <lb/>fluids<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>But I must return to the subject of the sands.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Springs may discharge their waters into a sea, a lake, a marsh, a river, <lb/>or a stream; but the sand of the sea-shore is rarely washed, for although the <lb/>water flowing down from the springs into the sea carries some metals or <lb/>gems with it, yet these substances can scarcely ever be reclaimed, because <lb/>they are dispersed through the immense body of waters and mixed up with <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="34"/>other sand, and scattered far and wide in different directions, or they <lb/>sink down into the depths of the sea. </s> <s>For the same reasons, the sands of <lb/>lakes can very rarely be washed successfully, even though the streams rising <lb/>from the mountains pour their whole volume of water into them. </s> <s>The <lb/>particles of metals and gems from the springs are very rarely carried into the <lb/>marshes, which are generally in level and open places. </s> <s>Therefore, the <lb/>miner, in the first place, washes the sand of the spring, then of the stream <lb/>which flows from it, then finally, that of the river into which the stream <lb/>discharges. </s> <s>It is not worth the trouble to wash the sands of a large <lb/>river which is on a level plain at a distance from the mountains. </s> <s>Where <lb/>several springs carrying metals discharge their waters into one river, there <lb/>is more hope of productive results from washing. </s> <s>The miner does not <lb/>neglect even the sands of the streams in which excavated ores have been <lb/>washed.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The waters of springs taste according to the juice they contain, and <lb/>they differ greatly in this respect. </s> <s>There are six kinds of these tastes which <lb/>the worker<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/> especially observes and examines; there is the salty kind, <lb/>which shows that salt may be obtained by evaporation; the nitrous, which <lb/>indicates soda; the aluminous kind, which indicates alum; the vitrioline, <lb/>which indicates vitriol; the sulphurous kind, which indicates sulphur; <lb/>and as for the bituminous juice, out of which bitumen is melted down, the <lb/>colour itself proclaims it to the worker who is evaporating it. </s> <s>The sea­<lb/>water however, is similar to that of salt springs, and may be drawn into <lb/>low-lying pits, and, evaporated by the heat of the sun, changes of <lb/>itself into salt; similarly the water of some salt-lakes turns to salt when dried <lb/>by the heat of summer. </s> <s>Therefore an industrious and diligent man observes <lb/>and makes use of these things and thus contributes something to the <lb/>common welfare.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The strength of the sea condenses the liquid bitumen which flows into <lb/>it from hidden springs, into amber and jet, as I have described already in <lb/>my books “<emph type="italics"/>De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causis<emph.end type="italics"/>”<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>The sea, with certain <lb/><pb pagenum="35"/>directions of the wind, throws both these substances on shore, and for this <lb/>reason the search for amber demands as much care as does that for coral.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Moreover, it is necessary that those who wash the sand or evaporate <lb/>the water from the springs, should be careful to learn the nature of the <lb/>locality, its roads, its salubrity, its overlord, and the neighbours, lest on <lb/>account of difficulties in the conduct of their business they become either <lb/>impoverished by exhaustive expenditure, or their goods and lives are <lb/>imperilled. </s> <s>But enough about this.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The miner, after he has selected out of many places one particular spot <lb/>adapted by Nature for mining, bestows much labour and attention on the <lb/>veins. </s> <s>These have either been stripped bare of their covering by chance <lb/>and thus lie exposed to our view, or lying deeply hidden and concealed they <lb/>are found after close search; the latter is more usual, the former more <lb/>rarely happens, and both of these occurrences must be explained. </s> <s>There <lb/>is more than one force which can lay bare the veins unaided by the industry <lb/>or toil of man; since either a torrent might strip off the surface, which hap­<lb/>pened in the case of the silver mines of Freiberg (concerning which I have <pb pagenum="36"/>written in Book I. of my work “<emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novís Metallís<emph.end type="italics"/>”)<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/>; or they <lb/>may be exposed through the force of the wind, when it uproots and destroys <lb/>the trees which have grown over the veins; or by the breaking away of the <lb/>rocks; or by long-continued heavy rains tearing away the mountain; or by <lb/>an earthquake; or by a lightning flash; or by a snowslide; or by the <lb/>violence of the winds: “Of such a nature are the rocks hurled down from <lb/>the mountains by the force of the winds aided by the ravages of time.” Or <lb/>the plough may uncover the veins, for Justin relates in his history that <lb/>nuggets of gold had been turned up in Galicia by the plough; or this may <lb/>occur through a fire in the forest, as Diodorus Siculus tells us happened in the <lb/>silver mines in Spain; and that saying of Posidonius is appropriate enough: <lb/>“The earth violently moved by the fires consuming the forest sends forth new <lb/>products, namely, gold and silver.”<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>And indeed, Lucretius has ex­<lb/>plained the same thing more fully in the following lines: “Copper and gold <lb/>and iron were discovered, and at the same time weighty silver and the sub­<lb/>stance of lead, when fire had burned up vast forests on the great hills, either <lb/>by a discharge of heaven's lightning, or else because, when men were waging <lb/>war with one another, forest fires had carried fire among the enemy in order to <lb/>strike terror to them, or because, attracted by the goodness of the soil, they <lb/>wished to clear rich fields and bring the country into pasture, or else to destroy <lb/>wild beasts and enrich themselves with the game; for hunting with pitfalls <lb/>and with fire came into use before the practice of enclosing the wood with <lb/>toils and rousing the game with dogs. </s> <s>Whatever the fact is, from <lb/><pb pagenum="37"/>whatever cause the heat of flame had swallowed up the forests with a frightful <lb/>crackling from their very roots, and had thoroughly baked the earth with <lb/>fire, there would run from the boiling veins and collect into the hollows of the <lb/>grounds a stream of silver and gold, as well as of copper and lead.”<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/> But <lb/>yet the poet considers that the veins are not laid bare in the first instance <lb/>so much by this kind of fire, but rather that all mining had its <lb/>origin in this. </s> <s>And lastly, some other force may by chance disclose the <lb/>veins, for a horse, if this tale can be believed, disclosed the lead veins at <lb/>Goslar by a blow from his hoof<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>By such methods as these does fortune <lb/>disclose the veins to us.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But by skill we can also investigate hidden and concealed veins, by <lb/>observing in the first place the bubbling waters of springs, which cannot be <lb/>very far distant from the veins because the source of the water is from <lb/>them; secondly, by examining the fragments of the veins which the torrents <lb/>break off from the earth, for after a long time some of these fragments are <lb/>again buried in the ground. </s> <s>Fragments of this kind lying about on the <lb/>ground, if they are rubbed smooth, are a long distance from the veins, <lb/>because the torrent, which broke them from the vein, polished them while <lb/>it rolled them a long distance; but if they are fixed in the ground, or if <lb/>they are rough, they are nearer to the veins. </s> <s>The soil also should be con­<lb/>sidered, for this is often the cause of veins being buried more or less deeply <lb/>under the earth; in this case the fragments protrude more or less widely <lb/>apart, and miners are wont to call the veins discovered in this manner <lb/>“<emph type="italics"/>fragmenta.<emph.end type="italics"/>”<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Further, we search for the veins by observing the hoar-frosts, <lb/>which whiten all herbage except that growing over the veins, because the <lb/>veins emit a warm and dry exhalation which hinders the freezing of the <lb/>moisture, for which reason such plants appear rather wet than whitened by <lb/>the frost. </s> <s>This may be observed in all cold places before the grass has grown <lb/>to its full size, as in the months of April and May; or when the late crop of <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="38"/>hay, which is called the <emph type="italics"/>cordum,<emph.end type="italics"/> is cut with scythes in the month of <lb/>September. </s> <s>Therefore in places where the grass has a dampness that is not con­<lb/>gealed into frost, there is a vein beneath: also if the exhalation be excessively <lb/>hot, the soil will produce only small and pale-coloured plants. </s> <s>Lastly, there <lb/>are trees whose foliage in spring time has a bluish or leaden tint, the upper <lb/>branches more especially being tinged with black or with any other unnatural <lb/>colour, the trunks cleft in two, and the branches black or discoloured. <lb/></s> <s>These phenomena are caused by the intensely hot and dry exhalations <lb/>which do not spare even the roots, but scorching them, render the trees <lb/>sickly; wherefore the wind will more frequently uproot trees of this kind <lb/>than any others. </s> <s>Verily the veins do emit this exhalation. </s> <s>Therefore, in a <lb/>place where there is a multitude of trees, if a long row of them at an unusual <lb/>time lose their verdure and become black or discoloured, and frequently fall <lb/>by the violence of the wind, beneath this spot there is a vein. </s> <s>Likewise <lb/>along a course where a vein extends, there grows a certain herb or fungus <lb/>which is absent from the adjacent space, or sometimes even from the neigh­<lb/>bourhood of the veins. </s> <s>By these signs of Nature a vein can be discovered.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are many great contentions between miners concerning the forked <lb/>twig<emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/>, for some say that it is of the greatest use in discovering veins, and <lb/>others deny it. </s> <s>Some of those who manipulate and use the twig, first cut <lb/>a fork from a hazel bush with a knife, for this bush they consider more <lb/>efficacious than any other for revealing the veins, especially if the hazel <pb pagenum="39"/>bush grows above a vein. </s> <s>Others use a different kind of twig for each metal, <lb/>when they are seeking to discover the veins, for they employ hazel twigs <lb/>for veins of silver; ash twigs for copper; pitch pine for lead and especially <lb/>tin, and rods made of iron and steel for gold. </s> <s>All alike grasp the forks of <lb/>the twig with their hands, clenching their fists, it being necessary that the <lb/>clenched fingers should be held toward the sky in order that the twig should <lb/>be raised at that end where the two branches meet. </s> <s>Then they wander <lb/>hither and thither at random through mountainous regions. </s> <s>It is said <lb/>that the moment they place their feet on a vein the twig immediately turns <lb/>and twists, and so by its action discloses the vein; when they move <lb/>their feet again and go away from that spot the twig becomes once more <lb/>immobile.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The truth is, they assert, the movement of the twig is caused by the <lb/>power of the veins, and sometimes this is so great that the branches of trees <lb/>growing near a vein are deflected toward it. </s> <s>On the other hand, those <lb/>who say that the twig is of no use to good and serious men, also deny that <lb/>the motion is due to the power of the veins, because the twigs will not move <lb/>for everybody, but only for those who employ incantations and craft. </s> <s>More­<lb/>over, they deny the power of a vein to draw to itself the branches of trees, <lb/>but they say that the warm and dry exhalations cause these contortions. <lb/></s> <s>Those who advocate the use of the twig make this reply to these objections: <lb/>when one of the miners or some other person holds the twig in his hands, <lb/>and it is not turned by the force of a vein, this is due to some peculiarity <lb/>of the individual, which hinders and impedes the power of the vein, for since <lb/>the power of the vein in turning and twisting the twig may be not unlike <lb/>that of a magnet attracting and drawing iron toward itself, this hidden <lb/>quality of a man weakens and breaks the force, just the same as garlic <lb/>weakens and overcomes the strength of a magnet. </s> <s>For a magnet smeared <lb/>with garlic juice cannot attract iron; nor does it attract the latter when <lb/>rusty. </s> <s>Further, concerning the handling of the twig, they warn us that <lb/>we should not press the fingers together too lightly, nor clench them too <lb/>firmly, for if the twig is held lightly they say that it will fall before the force <lb/>of the vein can turn it; if however, it is grasped too firmly the force of the <lb/>hands resists the force of the veins and counteracts it. </s> <s>Therefore, they <lb/>consider that five things are necessary to insure that the twig shall serve <lb/>its purpose: of these the first is the size of the twig, for the force of the <lb/>veins cannot turn too large a stick; secondly, there is the shape of the twig, <lb/>which must be forked or the vein cannot turn it; thirdly, the power of the <lb/>vein which has the nature to turn it; fourthly, the manipulation of the twig; <lb/>fifthly, the absence of impeding peculiarities. </s> <s>These advocates of the twig <lb/>sum up their conclusions as follows: if the rod does not move for every­<lb/>body, it is due to unskilled manipulation or to the impeding peculiarities <lb/>of the man which oppose and resist the force of the veins, as we said above, <lb/>and those who search for veins by means of the twig need not necessarily make <lb/>incantations, but it is sufficient that they handle it suitably and are devoid <lb/>of impeding power; therefore, the twig may be of use to good and serious </s></p><pb pagenum="40"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TWIG. B—TRENCH.<lb/>men in discovering veins. </s> <s>With regard to deflection of branches of trees <lb/>they say nothing and adhere to their opinion.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Since this matter remains in dispute and causes much dissention <lb/>amongst miners, I consider it ought to be examined on its own merits. </s> <s>The <lb/>wizards, who also make use of rings, mirrors and crystals, seek for veins <lb/>with a divining rod shaped like a fork; but its shape makes no difference <lb/>in the matter,—it might be straight or of some other form—for it is not <lb/>the form of the twig that matters, but the wizard's incantations <lb/>which it would not become me to repeat, neither do I wish to do so. </s> <s>The <lb/>Ancients, by means of the divining rod, not only procured those things neces­<lb/>sary for a livelihood or for luxury, but they were also able to alter the forms <lb/>of things by it; as when the magicians changed the rods of the Egyptians <lb/>into serpents, as the writings of the Hebrews relate<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/>; and as in Homer, <lb/>Minerva with a divining rod turned the aged Ulysses suddenly into a youth, <lb/>and then restored him back again to old age; Circe also changed Ulysses' <lb/>companions into beasts, but afterward gave them back again their human <lb/>form<emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/>; moreover by his rod, which was called “Caduceus,” Mercury gave <lb/><pb pagenum="41"/>sleep to watchmen and awoke slumberers<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>Therefore it seems that the <lb/>divining rod passed to the mines from its impure origin with the magicians. <lb/></s> <s>Then when good men shrank with horror from the incantations and rejected <lb/>them, the twig was retained by the unsophisticated common miners, and <lb/>in searching for new veins some traces of these ancient usages remain.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But since truly the twigs of the miners do move, albeit they do not <lb/>generally use incantations, some say this movement is caused by the <lb/>power of the veins, others say that it depends on the manipulation, and <lb/>still others think that the movement is due to both these causes. </s> <s>But, in <lb/>truth, all those objects which are endowed with the power of attraction <lb/>do not twist things in circles, but attract them directly to themselves; for <lb/>instance, the magnet does not turn the iron, but draws it directly to itself, <lb/>and amber rubbed until it is warm does not bend straws about, but simply <lb/>draws them to itself. </s> <s>If the power of the veins were of a similar nature to <lb/>that of the magnet and the amber, the twig would not so much twist as <lb/>move once only, in a semi-circle, and be drawn directly to the vein, and unless <lb/>the strength of the man who holds the twig were to resist and oppose the <lb/>force of the vein, the twig would be brought to the ground; wherefore, <lb/>since this is not the case, it must necessarily follow that the manipulation <lb/>is the cause of the twig's twisting motion. </s> <s>It is a conspicuous fact that <lb/>these cunning manipulators do not use a straight twig, but a forked one <lb/>cut from a hazel bush, or from some other wood equally flexible, so that if it <lb/>be held in the hands, as they are accustomed to hold it, it turns in a circle <lb/>for any man wherever he stands. </s> <s>Nor is it strange that the twig does not <lb/>turn when held by the inexperienced, because they either grasp the forks of <lb/>the twig too tightly or hold them too loosely. </s> <s>Nevertheless, these things <lb/>give rise to the faith among common miners that veins are discovered by <lb/>the use of twigs, because whilst using these they do accidentally discover <lb/>some; but it more often happens that they lose their labour, and although <lb/>they might discover a vein, they become none the less exhausted in <lb/>digging useless trenches than do the miners who prospect in an unfortunate <lb/>locality. </s> <s>Therefore a miner, since we think he ought to be a good and <lb/>serious man, should not make use of an enchanted twig, because if he is <lb/>prudent and skilled in the natural signs, he understands that a forked stick <lb/>is of no use to him, for as I have said before, there are the natural indica­<lb/>tions of the veins which he can see for himself without the help of twigs. <lb/></s> <s>So if Nature or chance should indicate a locality suitable for mining, the <lb/>miner should dig his trenches there; if no vein appears he must dig <lb/>numerous trenches until he discovers an outcrop of a vein.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>A vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> is rarely discovered by men's labour, but usually some <lb/>force or other reveals it, or sometimes it is discovered by a shaft or a tunnel <lb/>on a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/>.<lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="42"/><p type="main"> <s>The veins after they have been discovered, and likewise the shafts and <lb/>tunnels, have names given them, either from their discoverers, as in the <lb/>case at Annaberg of the vein called “Kölergang,” because a charcoal <lb/>burner discovered it; or from their owners, as the Geyer, in Joachimstal, <lb/>because part of the same belonged to Geyer; or from their products, <lb/>as the “Pleygang” from lead, or the “Bissmutisch” at Schneeberg from <lb/>bismuth<emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/>; or from some other circumstances, such as the rich alluvials from <lb/>the torrent by which they were laid bare in the valley of Joachim. </s> <s>More <lb/>often the first discoverers give the names either of persons, as those of <lb/>German Kaiser, Apollo, Janus; or the name of an animal, as that of lion, <lb/>bear, ram, or cow; or of things inanimate, as “silver chest” or “ox stalls”; <lb/>or of something ridiculous, as “glutton's nightshade”; or finally, for the sake <lb/>of a good omen, they call it after the Deity. </s> <s>In ancient times they <lb/>followed the same custom and gave names to the veins, shafts and tunnels, <lb/>as we read in Pliny: “It is wonderful that the shafts begun by Hannibal in <lb/>Spain are still worked, their names being derived from their discoverers. <lb/></s> <s>One of these at the present day, called Baebelo, furnished Hannibal with <lb/>three hundred pounds weight (of silver) per day.”<emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/><lb/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>END OF BOOK II.</s></p><figure></figure><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>BOOK III.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Previously I have given much information <lb/>concerning the miners, also I have discussed the <lb/>choice of localities for mining. </s> <s>for washing sands, <lb/>and for evaporating waters; further, I described <lb/>the method of searching for veins. </s> <s>With such <lb/>matters I was occupied in the second book; now I <lb/>come to the third book, which is about veins and <lb/>stringers, and the seams in the rocks<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>The <lb/>term “vein” is sometimes used to indicate <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>in the earth, but very often elsewhere by this name I have described that <lb/>which may be put in vessels<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>; I now attach a second significance to <lb/>these words, for by them I mean to designate any mineral substances which <lb/>the earth keeps hidden within her own deep receptacles.<lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="44"/><p type="main"> <s>First I will speak of the veins, which, in depth, width, and length, differ <lb/>very much one from another. </s> <s>Those of one variety descend from the surface <lb/>of the earth to its lowest depths, which on account of this characteristic, <lb/>I am accustomed to call “<emph type="italics"/>venae profundae.<emph.end type="italics"/>”</s></p><pb pagenum="45"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A. C.—THE MOUNTAIN. B—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Another kind, unlike the <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"/> neither ascend to the surface <lb/>of the earth nor descend, but lying under the ground, expand over a large <lb/>area; and on that account I call them “<emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/>”</s></p><figure></figure><pb pagenum="46"/><p type="main"> <s>Another occupies a large extent of space in length and width; there­<lb/>fore I usually call it “<emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata,<emph.end type="italics"/>” for it is nothing else than an accumu­<lb/>lation of some certain kind of mineral, as I have described in the book <pb pagenum="47"/>entitled <emph type="italics"/>De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causís.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> It occasionally happens, <lb/>though it is unusual and rare, that several accumulations of this kind are <lb/>found in one place, each one or more fathoms in depth and four or five in <pb pagenum="48"/>width, and one is distant from another two, three, or more fathoms. </s> <s>When <lb/>the excavation of these accumulations begins, they at first appear in the <lb/>shape of a disc; then they open out wider; finally from each of such </s></p><pb pagenum="49"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B, C, D—THE MOUNTAIN. E, F, G, H, I, K—<emph type="italics"/>Vena cumulata.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>accumulations is usually formed a “<emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata.<emph.end type="italics"/>”</s></p><pb pagenum="50"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> B—<emph type="italics"/>Intervenium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> C—ANOTHER <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A & B—<emph type="italics"/>Venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> C—<emph type="italics"/>Intervenium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> D & E—OTHER <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><pb pagenum="51"/><p type="main"> <s>The space between two veins is called an <emph type="italics"/>interveníum;<emph.end type="italics"/> this interval <lb/>between the veins, if it is between <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> is entirely hidden under­<lb/>ground. </s> <s>If, however, it lies between <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> then the top is plainly <lb/>in sight, and the remainder is hidden.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> differ greatly one from another in width, for some of <lb/>them are one fathom wide, some are two cubits, others one cubit; others again <lb/>are a foot wide, and some only half a foot; all of which our miners call wide <lb/>veins. </s> <s>Others on the contrary, are only a palm wide, others three digits, <pb pagenum="52"/>or even two; these they call narrow. </s> <s>But in other places where there are <lb/>very wide veins, the widths of a cubit, or a foot, or half a foot, are said to be <lb/>narrow; at Cremnitz, for instance, there is a certain vein which measures <lb/>in one place fifteen fathoms in width, in another eighteen, and in another <lb/>twenty; the truth of this statement is vouched for by the inhabitants.</s></p><pb pagenum="53"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WIDE <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> B—NARROW <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Venae dilatatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> in truth, differ also in thickness, for some are one fathom <lb/>thick, others two, or even more; some are a cubit thick, some a foot, some <lb/>only half a foot; and all these are usually called thick veins. </s> <s>Some on the <lb/>other hand, are but a palm thick, some three digits, some two, some one; <lb/>these are called thin veins.</s></p><pb pagenum="54"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—THIN <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> B—THICK <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="caption"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> vary in direction; for some run from east to west.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—SEAMS IN THE ROCK (<emph type="italics"/>Commissurae Saxorum<emph.end type="italics"/>).</s></p><pb pagenum="55"/><p type="main"> <s>Others, on the other hand, run from west to east.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—<emph type="italics"/>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Others run from south to north.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—<emph type="italics"/>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><pb pagenum="56"/><p type="main"> <s>Others, on the contrary, run from north to south.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B, C—VEIN. D, E, F—<emph type="italics"/>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The seams in the rocks indicate to us whether a vein runs from the <lb/>east or from the west. </s> <s>For instance, if the rock seams incline toward the <lb/>westward as they descend into the earth, the vein is said to run from east <lb/>to west; if they incline toward the east, the vein is said to run from west <lb/>to east; in a similar manner, we determine from the rock seams whether <lb/>the veins run north or south.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now miners divide each quarter of the earth into six divisions; and by <lb/>this method they apportion the earth into twenty-four directions, which they <lb/>divide into two parts of twelve each. </s> <s>The instrument which indicates these <lb/>directions is thus constructed. </s> <s>First a circle is made; then at equal <lb/>intervals on one half portion of it right through to the other, twelve <lb/>straight lines called by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">dia/metroi,</foreign> and in the Latin <emph type="italics"/>dímetíentes,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>are drawn through a central point which the Greeks call <foreign lang="greek">ke/ntron,</foreign> so that <lb/>the circle is thus divided into twenty-four divisions, all being of an equal <lb/>size. </s> <s>Then, within the circle are inscribed three other circles, the outer­<lb/>most of which has cross-lines dividing it into twenty-four equal parts; the <lb/>space between it and the next circle contains two sets of twelve numbers, <lb/>inscribed on the lines called “diameters”; while within the innermost circle <lb/>it is hollowed out to contain a magnetic needle<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>The needle lies directly <pb pagenum="57"/>over that one of the twelve lines called “diameters” on which the number <lb/>XII is inscribed at both ends.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="main"> <s>When the needle which is governed by the magnet points directly <lb/>from the north to the south, the number XII at its tail, which is <lb/>forked, signifies the north, that number XII which is at its point indicates <lb/>the south. </s> <s>The sign VI superior indicates the east, and VI inferior the <lb/>west. </s> <s>Further, between each two cardinal points there are always <lb/>five others which are not so important. </s> <s>The first two of these directions <lb/>are called the prior directions; the last two are called the posterior, and <lb/>the fifth direction lies immediately between the former and the latter; it <lb/>is halved, and one half is attributed to one cardinal point and one half to the <lb/>other. </s> <s>For example, between the northern number XII and the eastern <lb/>number VI, are points numbered I, II, III, IV, V, of which I and <pb pagenum="58"/>II are northern directions lying toward the east, IV and V are eastern <lb/>directions lying toward the north, and III is assigned, half to the north and <lb/>half to the east.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>One who wishes to know the direction of the veins underground, places <lb/>over the vein the instrument just described; and the needle, as soon as it <lb/>becomes quiet, will indicate the course of the vein. </s> <s>That is, if the vein <lb/>proceeds from VI to VI, it either runs from east to west, or from west to <lb/>east; but whether it be the former or the latter, is clearly shown by the <lb/>seams in the rocks. </s> <s>If the vein proceeds along the line which is between V <lb/>and VI toward the opposite direction, it runs from between the fifth and <lb/>sixth divisions of east to the west, or from between the fifth and sixth <lb/>divisions of west to the east; and again, whether it is the one or the other <lb/>is clearly shown by the seams in the rocks. </s> <s>In a similar manner we <lb/>determine the other directions.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now miners reckon as many points as the sailors do in reckoning up <lb/>the number of the winds. </s> <s>Not only is this done to-day in this country, but <lb/>it was also done by the Romans who in olden times gave the winds partly <lb/>Latin names and partly names borrowed from the Greeks. </s> <s>Any miner who <lb/>pleases may therefore call the directions of the veins by the names of the <lb/>winds. </s> <s>There are four principal winds, as there are four cardinal points: <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which blows from the east; and its opposite the <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which blows from the west; the latter is called by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">*ze/furos,</foreign> and <lb/>the former <foreign lang="greek">*)aphliw/ths.</foreign> There is the <emph type="italics"/>Auster,<emph.end type="italics"/> which blows from the south; <lb/>and opposed to it is the <emph type="italics"/>Septentrío,<emph.end type="italics"/> from the north; the former the Greeks <lb/>called <foreign lang="greek">*no/tos,</foreign> and the latter <foreign lang="greek">*)aparkti/as.</foreign> There are also subordinate winds, <lb/>to the number of twenty, as there are directions, for between each two <lb/>principal winds there are always five subordinate ones. </s> <s>Between the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind) and the <emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south wind) there is the <emph type="italics"/>Orníthíae<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>or the Bird wind, which has the first place next to the <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <lb/>comes <emph type="italics"/>Caecías;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Eurus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which lies in the midway of these five; next <lb/>comes <emph type="italics"/>Vulturnus;<emph.end type="italics"/> and lastly, <emph type="italics"/>Euronotus,<emph.end type="italics"/> nearest the <emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south wind). <lb/>The Greeks have given these names to all of these, with the exception of <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Vulturnus,<emph.end type="italics"/> but those who do not distinguish the winds in so precise a manner <lb/>say this is the same as the Greeks called <foreign lang="greek">*eu)_ros.</foreign> Between the <emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south <lb/>wind) and the <emph type="italics"/>Favonius<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind) is first <emph type="italics"/>Altanus,<emph.end type="italics"/> to the right of the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Auster<emph.end type="italics"/> (south wind); then <emph type="italics"/>Líbonotus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Afrícus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is the middle <lb/>one of these five; after that comes <emph type="italics"/>Subvesperus;<emph.end type="italics"/> next <emph type="italics"/>Argestes,<emph.end type="italics"/> to the left <lb/>of <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind). All these, with the exception of <emph type="italics"/>Líbonotus<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Argestes,<emph.end type="italics"/> have Latin names; but <emph type="italics"/>Afrícus<emph.end type="italics"/> also is called by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">*ai/y.</foreign><lb/>In a similar manner, between <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind) and <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north <lb/>wind), first to the right of <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind), is the <emph type="italics"/>Etesíae;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Círcíus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Caurus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is in the middle of these five; then <emph type="italics"/>Corus;<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and lastly <emph type="italics"/>Thrascias<emph.end type="italics"/> to the left of <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north wind). To all of <lb/>these, except that of <emph type="italics"/>Caurus,<emph.end type="italics"/> the Greeks gave the names, and those <lb/>who do not distinguish the winds by so exact a plan, assert that the wind <lb/>which the Greeks called <foreign lang="greek">*ko/ros</foreign> and the Latins <emph type="italics"/>Caurus<emph.end type="italics"/> is one and the same. <pb pagenum="59"/>Again, between <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north wind) and the <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind), the <lb/>first to the right of <emph type="italics"/>Septentrio<emph.end type="italics"/> (north wind) is <emph type="italics"/>Gallicus;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <emph type="italics"/>Supernas;<emph.end type="italics"/> then <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Aquilo,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is the middle one of these five; next comes <emph type="italics"/>Boreas;<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>lastly <emph type="italics"/>Carbas,<emph.end type="italics"/> to the left of <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind). Here again, those who <lb/>do not consider the winds to be in so great a multitude, but say there are <lb/>but twelve winds in all, or at the most fourteen, assert that the wind called <lb/><figure id="fig1"></figure><lb/>by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">*bore/as</foreign> and the Latins <emph type="italics"/>Aquílo<emph.end type="italics"/> is one and the same. </s> <s>For our <lb/>purpose it is not only useful to adopt this large number of winds, but even <lb/>to double it, as the German sailors do. </s> <s>They always reckon that between <lb/>each two there is one in the centre taken from both. </s> <s>By this method we <pb pagenum="60"/>also are able to signify the intermediate directions by means of the names of <lb/>the winds. </s> <s>For instance, if a vein runs from VI east to VI west, it is said <lb/>to proceed from <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (east wind) to <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus<emph.end type="italics"/> (west wind); but one <lb/>which proceeds from between V and VI of the east to between V and VI <lb/>west is said to proceed out of the middle of <emph type="italics"/>Carbas<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>Subsolanus<emph.end type="italics"/> to between <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Argestes<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>Favoníus;<emph.end type="italics"/> the remaining directions, and their intermediates <lb/>are similarly designated. </s> <s>The miner, on account of the natural properties <lb/>of a magnet, by which the needle points to the south, must fix the instru­<lb/>ment already described so that east is to the left and west to the right.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In a similar way to <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"/> the <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> vary in their <lb/>lateral directions, and we are able to understand from the seams in the <lb/>rocks in which direction they extend into the ground. </s> <s>For if these incline <lb/>toward the west in depth, the vein is said to extend from east to west; <lb/>if on the contrary, they incline toward the east, the vein is said to go from <lb/>west to east. </s> <s>In the same way, from the rock seams we can determine <lb/>veins running south and north, or the reverse, and likewise to the <lb/>subordinate directions and their intermediates.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B—<emph type="italics"/>Venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> C—<emph type="italics"/>Seams in the Rocks.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Further, as regards the question of direction of a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> one <lb/>runs straight from one quarter of the earth to that quarter which is opposite, <lb/>while another one runs in a curve, in which case it may happen that a vein <lb/>proceeding from the east does not turn to the quarter opposite, which is the <lb/>west, but twists itself and turns to the south or the north.</s></p><pb pagenum="61"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—STRAIGHT <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> B—CURVED <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> [should be <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/>(?)].</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Similarly some <emph type="italics"/>venae dílatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> are horizontal, some are inclined, and <lb/>some are curved.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HORIZONTAL <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> B—INCLINED <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> C—CURVED <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><pb pagenum="62"/><p type="main"> <s>Also the veins which we call <emph type="italics"/>profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> differ in the manner in which <lb/>they descend into the depths of the earth; for some are vertical (A), some are <lb/>inclined and sloping (B), others crooked<gap/> (C).</s></p><figure></figure><p type="main"> <s>Moreover, <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> (B) differ much among themselves regarding <lb/>the kind of locality through which they pass, for some extend along the <lb/>slopes of mountains or hills (A-C) and do not descend down the sides.</s></p><figure></figure><pb pagenum="63"/><p type="main"> <s>Other <emph type="italics"/>Venae Profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> (D, E, F) from the very summit of the mountain <lb/>or hill descend the slope (A) to the hollow or valley (B), and they again ascend <lb/>the slope or the side of the mountain or hill opposite (C)</s></p><figure></figure><p type="main"> <s>Other <emph type="italics"/>Venae Profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> (C, D) descend the mountain or hill (A) and <lb/>extend out into the plain (B).</s></p><figure></figure><pb pagenum="64"/><p type="main"> <s>Some veins run straight along on the plateaux, the hills, or plains.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—MOUNTAINOUS PLAIN. B—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—PRINCIPAL VEIN. B—TRANSVERSE VEIN. C—VEIN CUTTING PRINCIPAL ONE <lb/>OBLIQUELY.</s></p><pb pagenum="65"/><p type="main"> <s>In the next place, <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> differ not a little in the manner in <lb/>which they intersect, since one may cross through a second transversely, or <lb/>one may cross another one obliquely as if cutting it in two.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If a vein which cuts through another principal one obliquely be the <lb/>harder of the two, it penetrates right through it, just as a wedge of beech or <lb/>iron can be driven through soft wood by means of a tool. </s> <s>If it be softer, the <lb/>principal vein either drags the soft one with it for a distance of three feet, or <lb/>perhaps one, two, three, or several fathoms, or else throws it forward along <lb/>the principal vein; but this latter happens very rarely. </s> <s>But that the vein <lb/>which cuts the principal one is the same vein on both sides, is shown by its <lb/>having the same character in its foot walls and hanging walls.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—PRINCIPAL VEIN. B—VEIN WHICH CUTS A OBLIQUELY. C—PART CARRIED AWAY. <lb/>D—THAT PART WHICH HAS BEEN CARRIED FORWARD.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Sometimes <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/> join one with another, and from two or <lb/>more outcropping veins<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>, one is formed; or from two which do not outcrop <lb/>one is made, if they are not far distant from each other, and the one dips <lb/>into the other, or if each dips toward the other, and they thus join when they <lb/>have descended in depth. </s> <s>In exactly the same way, out of three or more <lb/>veins, one may be formed in depth.</s></p><pb pagenum="66"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B—TWO VEINS DESCEND INCLINED AND DIP TOWARD EACH OTHER. <lb/>C—JUNCTION. LIKEWISE TWO VEINS. D—INDICATES ONE DESCENDING VERTICALLY. <lb/>E—MARKS THE OTHER DESCENDING INCLINED, WHICH DIPS TOWARD D. F—THEIR JUNCTIO<gap/></s></p><figure></figure><pb pagenum="67"/><p type="main"> <s>However, such a junction of veins sometimes disunites and in this <lb/>way it happens that the vein which was the right-hand vein becomes <lb/>the left; and again, the one which was on the left becomes the right.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Furthermore, one vein may be split and divided into parts by some hard <lb/>rock resembling a beak, or stringers in soft rock may sunder the vein and <lb/>make two or more. </s> <s>These sometimes join together again and sometimes <lb/>remain divided.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B—VEINS DIVIDING. C—THE SAME JOINING.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Whether a vein is separating from or uniting with another can be deter­<lb/>mined only from the seams in the rocks. </s> <s>For example, if a principal <lb/>vein runs from the east to the west, the rock seams descend in depth <lb/>likewise from the east toward the west, and the associated vein which <lb/>joins with the principal vein, whether it runs from the south or the north, <lb/>has its rock seams extending in the same way as its own, and they do not <lb/>conform with the seams in the rock of the principal vein—which remain <lb/>the same after the junction—unless the associated vein proceeds in the same <lb/>direction as the principal vein. </s> <s>In that case we name the broader vein the <lb/>principal one, and the narrower the associated vein. </s> <s>But if the principal <lb/>vein splits, the rock seams which belong respectively to the parts, keep <lb/>the same course when descending in depth as those of the principal vein.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But enough of <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"/> their junctions and divisions. </s> <s>Now <lb/>we come to <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> A <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> may either cross a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>or join with it, or it may be cut by a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> and be divided into parts.</s></p><pb pagenum="68"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, C—<emph type="italics"/>Vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> CROSSING A <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> B—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> D, E—<emph type="italics"/>Vena <lb/>dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> WHICH JUNCTIONS WITH A <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> F—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> G—<emph type="italics"/>Vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>H, I—ITS DIVIDED PARTS. K—<emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> WHICH DIVIDES THE <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Finally, a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> has a “beginning” (<emph type="italics"/>origo<emph.end type="italics"/>), an “end” (<emph type="italics"/>finis<emph.end type="italics"/>), a <lb/>“head” (<emph type="italics"/>caput<emph.end type="italics"/>), and a “tail” (<emph type="italics"/>cauda<emph.end type="italics"/>). That part whence it takes its rise <lb/>is said to be its “beginning,” that in which it terminates the “end.” Its <lb/>“head”<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> is that part which emerges into daylight; its “tail” that part <lb/>which is hidden in the earth. </s> <s>But miners have no need to seek the <lb/>“beginning” of veins, as formerly the kings of Egypt sought for the source <lb/>of the Nile, but it is enough for them to discover some other part of the vein <lb/>and to recognise its direction, for seldom can either the “beginning” or the <lb/>“end” be found. </s> <s>The direction in which the head of the vein comes into <lb/>the light, or the direction toward which the tail extends, is indicated by its <lb/>footwall and hangingwall. </s> <s>The latter is said to hang, and the former to lie. <lb/></s> <s>The vein rests on the footwall, and the hangingwall overhangs it; thus, <lb/>when we descend a shaft, the part to which we turn the face is the foot­<lb/>wall and seat of the vein, that to which we turn the back is the hanging­<lb/>wall. </s> <s>Also in another way, the head accords with the footwall and the tail <lb/>with the hangingwall, for if the footwall is toward the south, the vein <lb/>extends its head into the light toward the south; and the hangingwall, <lb/>because it is always opposite to the footwall, is then toward the north. <lb/></s> <s>Consequently the vein extends its tail toward the north if it is an inclined <lb/><emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Similarly, we can determine with regard to east and west <lb/>and the subordinate and their intermediate directions. </s> <s>A <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which descends into the earth may be either vertical, inclined, or crooked, <lb/>the footwall of an inclined vein is easily distinguished from the hangingwall, <lb/>but it is not so with a vertical vein; and again, the footwall of a crooked <lb/>vein is inverted and changed into the hangingwall, and contrariwise the <lb/>hangingwall is twisted into the footwall, but very many of these crooked <lb/>veins may be turned back to vertical or inclined ones.</s></p><pb pagenum="69"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—THE “BEGINNING” (<emph type="italics"/>origo<emph.end type="italics"/>). B—THE “END” (<emph type="italics"/>finis<emph.end type="italics"/>). C—THE “HEAD” (<emph type="italics"/>caput<emph.end type="italics"/>). <lb/>D—THE “TAIL” (<emph type="italics"/>cauda<emph.end type="italics"/>).</s></p><p type="main"> <s>A <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> has only a “beginning” and an “end,” and in the place <lb/>of the “head” and “tail” it has two sides.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—THE “BEGINNING.” B—THE “END.” C, D—THE “SIDES.”</s></p><pb pagenum="70"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—THE “BEGINNING.” B—THE “END.” C—THE “HEAD.” D—THE “TAIL.” <lb/>E—TRANSVERSE VEIN.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>A <emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"/> has a “beginning,” an “end,” a “head,” and a <lb/>“tail,” just as a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Moreover, a <emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata,<emph.end type="italics"/> and likewise <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"/> are often cut through by a transverse <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Stringers (<emph type="italics"/>fibrae<emph.end type="italics"/>)<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>, which are little veins, are classified into <emph type="italics"/>fibrae trans­<lb/>versae, fibrae obliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> which cut the vein obliquely, <emph type="italics"/>fibrae sociae, <lb/>fibrae dilatatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>fibrae incumbentes.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The <emph type="italics"/>fibra transversa<emph.end type="italics"/> crosses <lb/>the vein; the <emph type="italics"/>fibra obliqua<emph.end type="italics"/> crosses the vein obliquely; the <emph type="italics"/>fibra socia<emph.end type="italics"/> joins <lb/>with the vein itself; the <emph type="italics"/>fibra dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"/> like the <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"/> penetrates <lb/>through it; but the <emph type="italics"/>fibra dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"/> as well as the <emph type="italics"/>fibra profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> is usually <lb/>found associated with a vein.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>fibra incumbens<emph.end type="italics"/> does not descend as deeply into the earth as the <lb/>other stringers, but lies on the vein, as it were, from the surface to the <lb/>hangingwall or footwall, from which it is named <emph type="italics"/>Subdialis.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>In truth, as to direction, junctions, and divisions, the stringers are not <lb/>different from the veins.<lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="71"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B—VEINS. C—TRANSVERSE STRINGER. D—OBLIQUE STRINGER. <lb/>E—ASSOCIATED STRINGER. F—<emph type="italics"/>Fibra dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—VEIN. B—<emph type="italics"/>Fibra incumbens<emph.end type="italics"/> FROM THE SURFACE OF THE HANGINGWALL. C—SAME <lb/>FROM THE FOOTWALL.</s></p><pb pagenum="72"/><p type="main"> <s>Lastly, the seams, which are the very finest stringers (<emph type="italics"/>fibrae<emph.end type="italics"/>), divide <lb/>the rock, and occur sometimes frequently, sometimes rarely. </s> <s>From <lb/>whatever direction the vein comes, its seams always turn their heads <lb/>toward the light in the same direction. </s> <s>But, while the seams usually run <lb/>from one point of the compass to another immediately opposite it, as <lb/>for instance, from east to west, if hard stringers divert them, it may <lb/>happen that these very seams, which before were running from east to <lb/>west, then contrariwise proceed from west to east, and the direction of <lb/>the rocks is thus inverted. </s> <s>In such a case, the direction of the veins is <lb/>judged, not by the direction of the seams which occur rarely, but by those <lb/>which constantly recur.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SEAMS WHICH PROCEED FROM THE EAST. B—THE INVERSE.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Both veins or stringers may be solid or drusy, or barren of minerals, <lb/>or pervious to water. </s> <s>Solid veins contain no water and very little air. </s> <s>The <lb/>drusy veins rarely contain water; they often contain air. </s> <s>Those which <lb/>are barren of minerals often carry water. </s> <s>Solid veins and stringers con­<lb/>sist sometimes of hard materials, sometimes of soft, and sometimes of a <lb/>kind of medium between the two.</s></p><pb pagenum="73"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SOLID VEIN. B—SOLID STRINGER. C—CAVERNOUS VEIN. D—CAVERNOUS <lb/>STRINGER. E—BARREN VEIN. F—BARREN STRINGER.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But to return to veins. </s> <s>A great number of miners consider<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> that the <lb/>best veins in depth are those which run from the VI or VII direction of the <lb/>east to the VI or VII direction of the west, through a mountain slope which <lb/>inclines to the north; and whose hangingwalls are in the south, and whose <lb/>footwalls are in the north, and which have their heads rising to the north, <lb/>as explained before, always like the footwall, and finally, whose rock <lb/>seams turn their heads to the east. </s> <s>And the veins which are the next <pb pagenum="74"/>best are those which, on the contrary, extend from the VI or VII direction <lb/>of the west to the VI or VII direction of the east, through the slope of a <lb/>mountain which similarly inclines to the north. </s> <s>whose hangingwalls <lb/>are also in the south, whose footwalls are in the north, and whose <lb/>heads rise toward the north; and lastly, whose rock seams raise <lb/>their heads toward the west. </s> <s>In the third place, they recommend those <lb/>veins which extend from XII north to XII south, through the slope <lb/>of a mountain which faces east; whose hangingwalls are in the <lb/>west, whose footwalls are in the east; whose heads rise toward <lb/>the east; and whose rock seams raise their heads toward the north. <lb/></s> <s>Therefore they devote all their energies to those veins, and give very little <lb/>or nothing to those whose heads, or the heads of whose rock seams rise <lb/>toward the south or west. </s> <s>For although they say these veins some­<lb/>times show bright specks of pure metal adhering to the stones, or they come <lb/>upon lumps of metal, yet these are so few and far between that despite them <lb/>it is not worth the trouble to excavate such veins; and miners who persevere <lb/>in digging in the hope of coming upon a quantity of metal, always lose their <lb/>time and trouble. </s> <s>And they say that from veins of this kind, since the sun's <lb/>rays draw out the metallic material, very little metal is gained. </s> <s>But in <lb/>this matter the actual experience of the miners who thus judge of the veins <lb/>does not always agree with their opinions, nor is their reasoning sound; <lb/>since indeed the veins which run from east to west through the slope of a <lb/>mountain which inclines to the south, whose heads rise likewise to the <lb/>south, are not less charged with metals, than those to which miners are <lb/>wont to accord the first place in productiveness; as in recent years has been <lb/>proved by the St. </s> <s>Lorentz vein at Abertham, which our countrymen call <lb/>Gottsgaab, for they have dug out of it a large quantity of pure silver; and <lb/>lately a vein in Annaberg, called by the name of Himmelsch hoz<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/>, has made it <pb pagenum="75"/>plain by the production of much silver that veins which extend from the <lb/>north to the south, with their heads rising toward the west, are no less rich <lb/>in metals than those whose heads rise toward the east.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It may be denied that the heat of the sun draws the metallic material <lb/>out of these veins; for though it draws up vapours from the surface of the <lb/>ground, the rays of the sun do not penetrate right down to the depths; because <lb/>the air of a tunnel which is covered and enveloped by solid earth to the depth of <lb/>only two fathoms is cold in summer, for the intermediate earth holds in check <lb/>the force of the sun. </s> <s>Having observed this fact, the inhabitants and dwellers <lb/>of very hot regions lie down by day in caves which protect them from the <lb/>excessive ardour of the sun. </s> <s>Therefore it is unlikely that the sun draws <lb/>out from within the earth the metallic bodies. </s> <s>Indeed, it cannot even dry <lb/>the moisture of many places abounding in veins, because they are pro­<lb/>tected and shaded by the trees. </s> <s>Furthermore, certain miners, out of all <lb/>the different kinds of metallic veins, choose those which I have described, <lb/>and others, on the contrary, reject copper mines which are of this sort, so <lb/>that there seems to be no reason in this. </s> <s>For what can be the reason if the <lb/>sun draws no copper from copper veins, that it draws silver from silver veins, <lb/>and gold from gold veins?</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Moreover, some miners, of whose number was Calbus<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/>, distinguish <lb/>between the gold-bearing rivers and streams. </s> <s>A river, they say, or a stream, <lb/>is most productive of fine and coarse grains of gold when it comes from the <lb/>east and flows to the west, and when it washes against the foot of mountains <lb/>which are situated in the north, and when it has a level plain toward the <lb/>south or west. </s> <s>In the second place, they esteem a river or a stream which <lb/>flows in the opposite course from the west toward the east, and which has <lb/>the mountains to the north and the level plain to the south. </s> <s>In the third <lb/>place, they esteem the river or the stream which flows from the north to the <lb/>south and washes the base of the mountains which are situated in the east. <lb/></s> <s>But they say that the river or stream is least productive of gold which flows <lb/>in a contrary direction from the south to the north, and washes the base of <pb pagenum="76"/>mountains which are situated in the west. </s> <s>Lastly, of the streams or rivers <lb/>which flow from the rising sun toward the setting sun, or which flow from <lb/>the northern parts to the southern parts, they favour those which approach <lb/>the nearest to the lauded ones, and say they are more productive of gold, <lb/>and the further they depart from them the less productive they are. </s> <s>Such <lb/>are the opinions held about rivers and streams. </s> <s>Now, since gold is not <lb/>generated in the rivers and streams, as we have maintained against <lb/>Albertus<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> in the book entitled “<emph type="italics"/>De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causís,<emph.end type="italics"/>” Book <lb/>V, but is torn away from the veins and stringers and settled in the sands of <lb/>torrents and water-courses, in whatever direction the rivers or streams flow, <lb/>therefore it is reasonable to expect to find gold therein; which is not <lb/>opposed by experience. </s> <s>Nevertheless, we do not deny that gold is generated <lb/>in veins and stringers which lie under the beds of rivers or streams, as in <lb/>other places.<lb/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>END OF BOOK III.</s></p><figure></figure><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>BOOK IV.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The third book has explained the various and <lb/>manifold varieties of veins and stringers. </s> <s>This <lb/>fourth book will deal with mining areas and the <lb/>method of delimiting them, and will then pass on to <lb/>the officials who are connected with mining affairs<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now the miner, if the vein he has uncovered <lb/>is to his liking, first of all goes to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>to request to be granted a right to mine, this <lb/>official's special function and office being to adjudi­<lb/>cate in respect of the mines. </s> <s>And so to the first man who has discovered <lb/>the vein the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> awards the head meer, and to others the remaining <lb/>meers, in the order in which each makes his application. </s> <s>The size of <lb/>a meer is measured by fathoms, which for miners are reckoned at six feet <lb/>each. </s> <s>The length, in fact, is that of a man's extended arms and hands <lb/>measured across his chest; but different peoples assign to it different lengths, <pb pagenum="78"/>for among the Greeks, who called it an <foreign lang="greek">o/rguia/,</foreign> it was six feet, among the <lb/>Romans five feet. </s> <s>So this measure which is used by miners seems to <lb/>have come down to the Germans in accordance with the Greek mode of <lb/>reckoning. </s> <s>A miner's foot approaches very nearly to the length of a Greek <lb/>foot, for it exceeds it by only three-quarters of a Greek digit, but like that <lb/>of the Romans it is divided into twelve <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now square fathoms are reckoned in units of one, two, three, or more <lb/>“measures”, and a “measure” is seven fathoms each way. </s> <s>Mining <lb/>meers are for the most part either square or elongated; in square meers all the <lb/>sides are of equal length, therefore the numbers of fathoms on the two sides <lb/>multiplied together produce the total in square fathoms. </s> <s>Thus, if the <lb/>shape of a “measure” is seven fathoms on every side, this number multi­<lb/>plied by itself makes forty-nine square fathoms.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The sides of a long meer are of equal length, and similarly its ends are <lb/>equal; therefore, if the number of fathoms in one of the long sides be multi­<lb/>plied by the number of fathoms in one of the ends, the total produced by the </s></p><pb pagenum="79"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>SHAPE OF A SQUARE MEER.<lb/>multiplication is the total number of square fathoms in the long meer. </s> <s>For <lb/>example, the double measure is fourteen fathoms long and seven broad, <lb/>which two numbers multiplied together make ninety-eight square fathoms.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>SHAPE OF A LONG MEER OR DOUBLE MEASURE.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Since meers vary in shape according to the different varieties of veins <lb/>it is necessary for me to go more into detail concerning them and <lb/>their measurements. </s> <s>If the vein is a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> the head meer is <lb/>composed of three double measures, therefore it is forty-two fathoms in <lb/>length and seven in width, which numbers multiplied together give two <lb/>hundred and ninety-four square fathoms, and by these limits the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>bounds the owner's rights in a head-meer.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>SHAPE OF A HEAD MEER.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The area of every other meer consists of two double measures, on which­<lb/>ever side of the head meer it lies, or whatever its number in order may be, <lb/>that is to say, whether next to the head meer, or second, third, or any later <lb/>number. </s> <s>Therefore, it is twenty-eight fathoms long and seven wide, so <lb/>multiplying the length by the width we get one hundred and ninety-six <lb/>square fathoms, which is the extent of the meer, and by these boundaries <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> defines the right of the owner or company over each mine.</s></p><pb pagenum="80"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>SHAPE OF A MEER.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now we call that part of the vein which is first discovered and mined, <lb/>the head-meer, because all the other meers run from it, just as the nerves <lb/>from the head. </s> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> begins his measurements from it, and the <lb/>reason why he apportions a larger area to the head-meer than to the others, is <lb/>that he may give a suitable reward to the one who first found the vein <lb/>and may encourage others to search for veins. </s> <s>Since meers often reach <lb/>to a torrent, or river, or stream, if the last meer cannot be completed <lb/>it is called a fraction<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>If it is the size of a double measure, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>grants the right of mining it to him who makes the first application, but if <lb/>it is the size of a single measure or a little over, he divides it between the <lb/>nearest meers on either side of it. </s> <s>It is the custom among miners that <lb/>the first meer beyond a stream on that part of the vein on the opposite <lb/>side is a new head-meer, and they call it the “opposite,”<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/> while the <lb/>other meers beyond are only ordinary meers. </s> <s>Formerly every head-meer <lb/>was composed of three double measures and one single one, that is, it was <lb/>forty-nine fathoms long and seven wide, and so if we multiply these two <lb/>together we have three hundred and forty-three square fathoms, which <lb/>total gives us the area of an ancient head-meer.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>SHAPE OF AN ANCIENT HEAD-MEER.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Every ancient meer was formed of a single measure, that is to say, it <lb/>was seven fathoms in length and width, and was therefore square. </s> <s>In <lb/>memory of which miners even now call the width of every meer which is <lb/>located on a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> a “square”<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>The following was formerly the <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="81"/>usual method of delimiting a vein: as soon as the miner found metal, he <lb/>gave information to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and the tithe-gatherer, who either <lb/>proceeded personally from the town to the mountains, or sent thither men <lb/>of good repute, at least two in number, to inspect the metal-bearing vein. <lb/></s> <s>Thereupon, if they thought it of sufficient importance to survey, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>again having gone forth on an appointed day, thus questioned him who first <lb/>found the vein, concerning the vein and the diggings: “Which is your <lb/>vein?” “Which digging carried metal?” Then the discoverer, pointing <lb/>his finger to his vein and diggings, indicated them, and next the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>ordered him to approach the windlass and place two fingers of his right hand <lb/>upon his head, and swear this oath in a clear voice: “I swear by God and <lb/>all the Saints, and I call them all to witness, that this is my vein; and more­<lb/>over if it is not mine, may neither this my head nor these my hands henceforth <lb/>perform their functions.” Then the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> having started from the <lb/>centre of the windlass, proceeded to measure the vein with a cord, and to <lb/>give the measured portion to the discoverer,—in the first instance a half and <lb/>then three full measures; afterward one to the King or Prince, another to <lb/>his Consort, a third to the Master of the Horse, a fourth to the Cup-bearer, <lb/>a fifth to the Groom of the Chamber, a sixth to himself. </s> <s>Then, starting <lb/>from the other side of the windlass, he proceeded to measure the vein in a <lb/>similar manner. </s> <s>Thus the discoverer of the vein obtained the head-meer, <lb/>that is, seven single measures; but the King or Ruler, his Consort, the leading <lb/>dignitaries, and lastly, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> obtained two measures each, or two <lb/>ancient meers. </s> <s>This is the reason there are to be found at Freiberg in Meissen <lb/>so many shafts with so many intercommunications on a single vein—which are <lb/>to a great extent destroyed by age. </s> <s>If, however, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> had already <lb/>fixed the boundaries of the meers on one side of the shaft for the benefit of <lb/>some other discoverer, then for those dignitaries I have just mentioned, <lb/>as many meers as he was unable to award on that side he duplicated <lb/>on the other. </s> <s>But if on both sides of the shaft he had already defined the <lb/>boundaries of meers, he proceeded to measure out only that part of the <lb/>vein which remained free, and thus it sometimes happened that some of <lb/>those persons I have mentioned obtained no meer at all. </s> <s>To-day, though <lb/>that old-established custom is observed, the method of allotting the vein <lb/>and granting title has been changed. </s> <s>As I have explained above, the head­<lb/>meer consists of three double measures, and each other meer of two <lb/>measures, and the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> grants one each of the meers to him who <lb/>makes the first application. </s> <s>The King or Prince, since all metal is taxed, is <lb/>himself content with that, which is usually one-tenth.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Of the width of every meer, whether old or new, one-half lies on the <lb/>footwall side of a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> and one half on the hangingwall side. </s> <s>If <lb/>the vein descends vertically into the earth, the boundaries similarly descend <pb pagenum="82"/>vertically; but if the vein inclines, the boundaries likewise will be inclined. <lb/></s> <s>The owner always holds the mining right for the width of the meer, however <lb/>far the vein descends into the depth of the earth.<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> Further, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>on application being made to him, grants to one owner or company a right <pb pagenum="83"/>over not only the head meer, or another meer, but also the head meer and <lb/>the next meer or two adjoining meers. </s> <s>So much for the shape of meers <lb/>and their dimensions in the case of a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>I now come to the case of <emph type="italics"/>venae dílatatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The boundaries of the areas <pb pagenum="84"/>on such veins are not all measured by one method. </s> <s>For in some places the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> gives them shapes similar to the shapes of the meers on <emph type="italics"/>venae <lb/>profundae,<emph.end type="italics"/> in which case the head-meer is composed of three double <lb/>measures, and the area of every other mine of two measures, as I have <pb pagenum="85"/>explained more fully above. </s> <s>In this case, however, he measures the meers <lb/>with a cord, not only forward and backward from the ends of the head­<lb/>meer, as he is wont to do in the case where the owner of a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> has <lb/>a meer granted him, but also from the sides. </s> <s>In this way meers are marked <pb pagenum="86"/>out when a torrent or some other force of Nature has laid open a <emph type="italics"/>vena <lb/>dílatata<emph.end type="italics"/> in a valley, so that it appears either on the slope of a mountain <lb/>or hill or on a plain. </s> <s>Elsewhere the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> doubles the width of the <lb/>head-meer and it is made fourteen fathoms wide, while the width of each of <lb/>the other meers remains single, that is seven fathoms, but the length is not <lb/>defined by boundaries. </s> <s>In some places the head-meer consists of three <lb/>double measures, but has a width of fourteen fathoms and a length of <lb/>twenty-one.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>SHAPE OF A HEAD-MEER.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the same way, every other meer is composed of two measures, <lb/>doubled in the same fashion, so that it is fourteen fathoms in width and <lb/>of the same length.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>SHAPE OF EVERY OTHER MEER.</s></p><pb pagenum="87"/><p type="main"> <s>Elsewhere every meer, whether a head-meer or other meer, comprises <lb/>forty-two fathoms in width and as many in length.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In other places the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> gives the owner or company all of some <lb/>locality defined by rivers or little valleys as boundaries. </s> <s>But the boundaries <lb/>of every such area of whatsoever shape it be, descend vertically into the <lb/>earth; so the owner of that area has a right over that part of any <emph type="italics"/>vena <lb/>dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> which lies beneath the first one, just as the owner of the meer on <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> has a right over so great a part of all other <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>as lies within the boundaries of his meer; for just as wherever one <emph type="italics"/>vena <lb/>profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> is found, another is found not far away, so wherever one <emph type="italics"/>vena <lb/>dílatata<emph.end type="italics"/> is found, others are found beneath it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Finally, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> divides <emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"/> areas in different ways, <lb/>for in some localities the head-meer is composed of three measures, doubled <lb/>in such a way that it is fourteen fathoms wide and twenty-one long; and <lb/>every other meer consists of two measures doubled, and is square, that is, <lb/>fourteen fathoms wide and as many long. </s> <s>In some places the head-meer <lb/>is composed of three single measures, and its width is seven fathoms and <lb/>its length twenty-one, which two numbers multiplied together make one <lb/>hundred and forty-seven square fathoms.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>SHAPE OF A HEAD-MEER.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Each other meer consists of one double measure. </s> <s>In some places the <lb/>head-meer is given the shape of a double measure, and every other meer that <lb/>of a single measure. </s> <s>Lastly, in other places the owner or a company is given <lb/>a right over some complete specified locality bounded by little streams, <lb/>valleys, or other limits. </s> <s>Furthermore, all meers on <emph type="italics"/>venae cumulatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> as in <lb/>the case of <emph type="italics"/>dílatatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> descend vertically into the depths of the earth, and <lb/>each meer has the boundaries so determined as to prevent disputes arising <lb/>between the owners of neighbouring mines.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The boundary marks in use among miners formerly consisted only of <lb/>stones, and from this their name was derived, for now the marks of a <lb/>boundary are called “boundary stones.” To-day a row of posts, made either <lb/>of oak or pine, and strengthened at the top with iron rings to prevent them <lb/>from being damaged, is fixed beside the boundary stones to make them <lb/>more conspicuous. </s> <s>By this method in former times the boundaries of the <lb/>fields were marked by stones or posts, not only as written of in the book “<emph type="italics"/>De <lb/>Limítíbus Agrorum,<emph.end type="italics"/>”<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/> but also as testified to by the songs of the poets. </s> <s>Such <pb pagenum="88"/>then is the shape of the meers, varying in accordance with the different <lb/>kinds of veins.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now tunnels are of two sorts, one kind having no right of property, the <lb/>other kind having some limited right. </s> <s>For when a miner in some particular <lb/>locality is unable to open a vein on account of a great quantity of water, he <lb/>runs a wide ditch, open at the top and three feet deep, starting on the slope <lb/>and running up to the place where the vein is found. </s> <s>Through it the water <lb/>flows off, so that the place is made dry and fit for digging. </s> <s>But if it is not <lb/>sufficiently dried by this open ditch, or if a shaft which he has now for <lb/>the first time begun to sink is suffering from overmuch water, he goes to <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and asks that official to give him the right for a tunnel. <lb/></s> <s>Having obtained leave, he drives the tunnel, and into its drains all the <lb/>water is diverted, so that the place or shaft is made fit for digging. </s> <s>If <lb/>it is not seven fathoms from the surface of the earth to the bottom of this <lb/>kind of tunnel, the owner possesses no rights except this one: namely, that <lb/>the owners of the mines, from whose leases the owner of the tunnel extracts <lb/>gold or silver, themselves pay him the sum he expends within their meer in <lb/>driving the tunnel through it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>To a depth or height of three and a half fathoms above and below the <lb/>mouth of the tunnel, no one is allowed to begin another tunnel. </s> <s>The reason <lb/>for this is that this kind of a tunnel is liable to be changed into the other <lb/>kind which has a complete right of property, when it drains the meers to a <lb/>depth of seven fathoms, or to ten, according as the old custom in each place <lb/>acquires the force of law. </s> <s>In such case this second kind of tunnel has the <lb/>following right; in the first place, whatever metal the owner, or company <lb/>owning it, finds in any meer through which it is driven, all belongs to the <lb/>tunnel owner within a height or depth of one and a quarter fathoms. </s> <s>In <lb/>the years which are not long passed, the owner of a tunnel possessed all the <lb/>metal which a miner standing at the bottom of the tunnel touched with <lb/>a bar, whose handle did not exceed the customary length; but nowadays <lb/>a certain prescribed height and width is allowed to the owner of the tunnel, <lb/>lest the owners of the mines be damaged, if the length of the bar be <lb/>longer than usual. </s> <s>Further, every metal-yielding mine which is drained <lb/>and supplied with ventilation by a tunnel, is taxed in the proportion of one­<lb/>ninth for the benefit of the owner of the tunnel. </s> <s>But if several tunnels of <lb/>this kind are driven through one mining area which is yielding metals, and <lb/>all drain it and supply it with ventilation, then of the metal which is dug <lb/>out from above the bottom of each tunnel, one-ninth is given to the owner of <lb/>that tunnel; of that which is dug out below the bottom of each tunnel, <lb/>one-ninth is in each case given to the owner of the tunnel which follows <lb/>next in order below. </s> <s>But if the lower tunnel does not yet drain the shaft of <lb/>that meer nor supply it with ventilation, then of the metal which is dug out <lb/>below the bottom of the higher tunnel, one-ninth part is given to the owner <lb/>of such upper tunnel. </s> <s>Moreover, no one tunnel deprives another of its <lb/>right to one-ninth part, unless it be a lower one, from the bottom of which <lb/>to the bottom of the one above must not be less than seven or ten fathoms, <pb pagenum="89"/>according as the king or prince has decreed. </s> <s>Further, of all the money <lb/>which the owner of the tunnel has spent on his tunnel while driving it <lb/>through a meer, the owner of that meer pays one-fourth part. </s> <s>If he does <lb/>not do so he is not allowed to make use of the drains.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Finally, with regard to whatever veins are discovered by the owner <lb/>at whose expense the tunnel is driven, the right of which has not been <lb/>already awarded to anyone, on the application of such owner the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>grants him a right of a head-meer, or of a head-meer together with the next <lb/>meer. </s> <s>Ancient custom gives the right for a tunnel to be driven in any <lb/>direction for an unlimited length. </s> <s>Further, to-day he who commences a <lb/>tunnel is given, on his application, not only the right over the tunnel, but <lb/>even the head and sometimes the next meer also. </s> <s>In former days the owner <lb/>of the tunnel obtained only so much ground as an arrow shot from the bow <lb/>might cover, and he was allowed to pasture cattle therein. </s> <s>In a case where <lb/>the shafts of several meers on some vein could not be worked on account of <lb/>the great quantity of water, ancient custom also allowed the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> to <lb/>grant the right of a large meer to anyone who would drive a tunnel. </s> <s>When, <lb/>however, he had driven a tunnel as far as the old shafts and had found <lb/>metal, he used to return to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and request him to bound and <lb/>mark off the extent of his right to a meer. </s> <s>Thereupon, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>together with a certain number of citizens of the town—in whose place <lb/>Jurors have now succeeded—used to proceed to the mountain and mark off <lb/>with boundary stones a large meer, which consisted of seven double <lb/>measures, that is to say, it was ninety-eight fathoms long and seven wide, <lb/>which two numbers multiplied together make six hundred and eighty-six <lb/>square fathoms.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>LARGE AREA.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But each of these early customs has been changed, and we now employ <lb/>the new method.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I have spoken of tunnels; I will now speak about the division of owner­<lb/>ship in mines and tunnels. </s> <s>One owner is allowed to possess and to work <lb/>one, two, three, or more whole meers, or similarly one or more separate <lb/>tunnels, provided he conforms to the decrees of the laws relating to <lb/>metals, and to the orders of the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> And because he alone pro­<lb/>vides the expenditure of money on the mines, if they yield metal he alone <lb/>obtains the product from them. </s> <s>But when large and frequent expenditures <lb/>are necessary in mining, he to whom the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> first gave the right <pb pagenum="90"/>often admits others to share with him, and they join with him in forming a <lb/>company, and they each lay out a part of the expense and share with him <lb/>the profit or loss of the mine. </s> <s>But the title of the mines or tunnels remains <lb/>undivided, although for the purpose of dividing the expense and profit it <lb/>may be said each mine or tunnel is divided into parts<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>This division is made in various ways. </s> <s>A mine, and the same thing <lb/>must be understood with regard to a tunnel, may be divided into two halves, <lb/>that is into two similar portions, by which method two owners spend <lb/>an equal amount on it and draw an equal profit from it, for each possesses <lb/>one half. </s> <s>Sometimes it is divided into four shares, by which compact <lb/>four persons can be owners, so that each possesses one-fourth, or also two <lb/>persons, so that one possesses three-fourths, and the other only one-fourth<gap/><lb/>or three owners, so that the first has two-fourths, and the second and third <lb/>one-fourth each. </s> <s>Sometimes it is divided into eight shares, by which plan <lb/>there may be eight owners, so that each is possessor of one-eighth; some­<lb/>times there are two owners, so that one has five-sixths<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> together with one <lb/>twenty-fourth, and the other one-eighth; or there may be three owners, in <lb/>which one has three-quarters and the second and third each one-eighth; <lb/>or it may be divided so that one owner has seven-twelfths, together with <lb/>one twenty-fourth, a second owner has one-quarter, and a third owner has <lb/>one-eighth; or so that the first has one-half, the second one-third and one <lb/>twenty-fourth, and the third one-eighth; or so that the first has one-half, <lb/>as before, and the second and third each one-quarter; or so that the first <lb/>and second each have one-third and one twenty-fourth, and the third one­<lb/>quarter; and in the same way the divisions may be adjusted in all the other <lb/>proportions. </s> <s>The different ways of dividing the shares originate from the <lb/>different proportions of ownership. </s> <s>Sometimes a mine is divided into <lb/>sixteen parts, each of which is a twenty-fourth and a forty-eighth; or it may <lb/>be divided into thirty-two parts, each of which is a forty-eighth and half a <lb/>seventy-second and a two hundred and eighty-eighth; or into sixty-four <lb/>parts of which each share is one seventy-second and one five hundred and <lb/>seventy-sixth; or finally, into one hundred and twenty-eight parts, any one <lb/>of which is half a seventy-second and half of one five hundred and seventy­<lb/>sixth.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now an iron mine either remains undivided or is divided into two, <lb/>four, or occasionally more shares, which depends on the excellence of the <lb/>veins. </s> <s>But a lead, bismuth, or tin mine, and likewise one of copper or even <lb/>quicksilver, is also divided into eight shares, or into sixteen or thirty-two, <lb/>and less commonly into sixty-four. </s> <s>The number of the divisions of the silver <lb/>mines at Freiberg in Meissen did not formerly progress beyond this; but <lb/><pb pagenum="91"/>within the memory of our fathers, miners have divided a silver mine, and <lb/>similarly the tunnel at Schneeberg, first of all into one hundred and twenty­<lb/>eight shares, of which one hundred and twenty-six are the property of <lb/>private owners in the mines or tunnels, one belongs to the State and one <lb/>to the Church; while in Joachimsthal only one hundred and twenty-two <lb/>shares of the mines or tunnels are the property of private owners, four <lb/>are proprietary shares, and the State and Church each have one in the <lb/>same way. </s> <s>To these there has lately been added in some places one share <lb/>for the most needy of the population, which makes one hundred and twenty­<lb/>nine shares. </s> <s>It is only the private owners of mines who pay contributions. <lb/></s> <s>A proprietary holder, though he holds as many as four shares such as I have <lb/>described, does not pay contributions, but gratuitiously supplies the owners <lb/>of the mines with sufficient wood from his forests for timbering, machinery, <lb/>buildings, and smelting; nor do those belonging to the State, Church, and <lb/>the poor pay contributions, but the proceeds are used to build or repair <lb/>public works and sacred buildings, and to support the most needy with the <lb/>profits which they draw from the mines. </s> <s>Furthermore, in our State, the <lb/>one hundred and twenty-eighth share has begun to be divided into two, <lb/>four, or eight parts, or even into three, six, twelve, or smaller parts. </s> <s>This <lb/>is done when one mine is created out of two, for then the owner who formerly <lb/>possessed one-half becomes owner of one-fourth; he who possessed one­<lb/>fourth, of one-eighth; he who possessed one-third, of one-sixth; he who <lb/>possessed one-sixth, of one-twelfth. </s> <s>Since our countrymen call a mine a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>symposíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> that is, a drinking bout, we are accustomed to call the money which <lb/>the owners subscribe a <emph type="italics"/>symbolum,<emph.end type="italics"/> or a contribution<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>For, just as those who <lb/>go to a banquet (<emph type="italics"/>symposíum<emph.end type="italics"/>) give contributions (<emph type="italics"/>symbola<emph.end type="italics"/>), so those who purpose <lb/>making large profits from mining are accustomed to contribute toward the <lb/>expenditure. </s> <s>However, the manager of the mine assesses the contributions <lb/>of the owners annually, or for the most part quarterly, and as often he <lb/>renders an account of receipts and expenses. </s> <s>At Freiberg in Meissen the <lb/>old practice was for the manager to exact a contribution from the owners <lb/>every week, and every week to distribute among them the profits of the <lb/>mines, but this practice during almost the last fifteen years has been so far <lb/>changed that contribution and distribution are made four<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> times each <lb/>year. </s> <s>Large or small contributions are imposed according to the number <lb/>of workmen which the mine or tunnel requires; as a result, those who <lb/>possess many shares provide many contributions. </s> <s>Four times a year the <lb/>owners contribute to the cost, and four times during the year the profits of <lb/>the mines are distributed among them; these are sometimes large, some­<lb/>times small, according as there is more or less gold or silver or other metal <lb/>dug out. </s> <s>Indeed, from the St. </s> <s>George mine in Schneeberg the miners extracted <lb/>so much silver in a quarter of a year that silver cakes, which were worth <lb/><pb pagenum="92"/>1,100 Rhenish guldens, were distributed to each one hundred and twenty-eighth <lb/>share. </s> <s>From the Annaberg mine which is known as the Himmelich Höz, <lb/>they had a dole of eight hundred thaler; from a mine in Joachimsthal <lb/>which is named the Sternen, three hundred thaler; from the head mine at <lb/>Abertham, which is called St. </s> <s>Lorentz, two hundred and twenty-five thaler<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/>. <lb/></s> <s>The more shares of which any individual is owner the more profits he takes.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I will now explain how the owners may lose or obtain the right over a <lb/>mine, or a tunnel, or a share. </s> <s>Formerly, if anyone was able to prove by <lb/>witnesses that the owners had failed to send miners for three continuous <lb/>shifts<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/>, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> deprived them of their right over the mine, and <lb/>gave the right over it to the informer, if he desired it. </s> <s>But although miners <lb/>preserve this custom to-day, still mining share owners who have paid <lb/>their contributions do not lose their right over their mines against their will. <lb/></s> <s>Formerly, if water which had not been drawn off from the higher shaft of <lb/>some mine percolated through a vein or stringer into the shaft of another <lb/>mine and impeded their work, then the owners of the mine which suffered <lb/>the damage went to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> and complained of the loss, and he sent <lb/>to the shafts two Jurors. </s> <s>If they found that matters were as claimed, <lb/>the right over the mine which caused the injury was given to the owners <lb/>who suffered the injury. </s> <s>But this custom in certain places has been changed, <lb/>for the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> if he finds this condition of things proved in the case <lb/>of two shafts, orders the owners of the shaft which causes the injury to <lb/>contribute part of the expense to the owners of the shaft which receives the <lb/>injury; if they fail to do so, he then deprives them of their right over their <lb/>mine; on the other hand, if the owners send men to the workings to dig <lb/>and draw off the water from the shafts, they keep their right over their <lb/>mine. </s> <s>Formerly owners used to obtain a right over any tunnel, firstly, if <lb/>in its bottom they made drains and cleansed them of mud and sand so that <lb/>the water might flow out without any hindrance, and restored those drains <lb/>which had been damaged; secondly, if they provided shafts or openings to <lb/>supply the miners with air, and restored those which had fallen in; and <lb/>finally, if three miners were employed continuously in driving the tunnel. <lb/></s> <s>But the principal reason for losing the title to a tunnel was that for a period <lb/>of eight days no miner was employed upon it; therefore, when anyone <lb/>was able to prove by witnesses that the owners of a tunnel had not done <lb/>these things, he brought his accusation before the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> who, after <lb/>going out from the town to the tunnel and inspecting the drains and the <lb/>ventilating machines and everything else, and finding the charge to be true, <lb/>placed the witness under oath, and asked him: “Whose tunnel is this at the <lb/>present time?” The witness would reply: “The King's” or “The <lb/><pb pagenum="93"/>Prince's.” Thereupon the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> gave the right over the tunnel to <lb/>the first applicant. </s> <s>This was the severe rule under which the owners at one <lb/>time lost their rights over a tunnel; but its severity is now considerably <lb/>mitigated, for the owners do not now forthwith lose their right over a tunnel <lb/>through not having cleaned out the drains and restored the shafts or <lb/>ventilation holes which have suffered damage; but the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> orders <lb/>the tunnel manager to do it, and if he does not obey, the authorities fine <lb/>the tunnel. </s> <s>Also it is sufficient for one miner to be engaged in driving the <lb/>tunnel. </s> <s>Moreover, if the owner of a tunnel sets boundaries at a fixed spot <lb/>in the rocks and stops driving the tunnel, he may obtain a right over it so <lb/>far as he has gone, provided the drains are cleaned out and ventilation <lb/>holes are kept in repair. </s> <s>But any other owner is allowed to start from the <lb/>established mark and drive the tunnel further, if he pays the former owners <lb/>of the tunnel as much money every three months as the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> decides <lb/>ought to be paid.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There remain for discussion, the shares in the mines and tunnels. <lb/></s> <s>Formerly if anybody conveyed these shares to anyone else, and the latter <lb/>had once paid his contribution, the seller<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/> was bound to stand by his bargain, <lb/>and this custom to-day has the force of law. </s> <s>But if the seller denied that the <lb/>contribution had been paid, while the buyer of the shares declared that he could <lb/>prove by witnesses that he had paid his contribution to the other proprietors, <lb/>and a case arose for trial, then the evidence of the other proprietors carried <lb/>more weight than the oath of the seller. </s> <s>To-day the buyer of the shares proves <lb/>that he has paid his contribution by a document which the mine or tunnel <lb/>manager always gives each one; if the buyer has contributed no money <lb/>there is no obligation on the seller to keep his bargain. </s> <s>Formerly, as I have <lb/>said above, the proprietors used to contribute money weekly, but now con­<lb/>tributions are paid four times each year. </s> <s>To-day, if for the space of a month <lb/>anyone does not take proceedings against the seller of the shares for the con­<lb/>tribution, the right of taking proceedings is lost. </s> <s>But when the Clerk has <lb/>already entered on the register the shares which had been conveyed or <lb/>bought, none of the owners loses his right over the share unless the money <lb/>is not contributed which the manager of the mine or tunnel has demanded <lb/>from the owner or his agent. </s> <s>Formerly, if on the application of the manager <lb/>the owner or his agent did not pay, the matter was referred to the <emph type="italics"/>Berg­<lb/>meister,<emph.end type="italics"/> who ordered the owner or his agent to make his contribution; then <lb/>if he failed to contribute for three successive weeks, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> gave <lb/>the right to his shares to the first applicant. </s> <s>To-day this custom is un­<lb/>changed, for if owners fail for the space of a month to pay the contribu­<lb/>tions which the manager of the mine has imposed on them, on a stated day <lb/>their names are proclaimed aloud and struck off the list of owners, in <lb/>the presence of the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> the Jurors, the Mining Clerk, and the Share <lb/>Clerk, and each of such shares is entered on the proscribed list. </s> <s>If, how­<pb pagenum="94"/>ever, on the third, or at latest the fourth day, they pay their contributions <lb/>to the manager of the mine or tunnel, and pay the money which is due from <lb/>them to the Share Clerk, he removes their shares from the proscribed <lb/>list. </s> <s>They are not thereupon restored to their former position unless the <lb/>other owners consent; in which respect the custom now in use differs from <lb/>the old practice, for to-day if the owners of shares constituting anything <lb/>over half the mine consent to the restoration of those who have been <lb/>proscribed, the others are obliged to consent whether they wish to or not. <lb/></s> <s>Formerly, unless such restoration had been sanctioned by the approval of <lb/>the owners of one hundred shares, those who had been proscribed were not <lb/>restored to their former position.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The procedure in suits relating to shares was formerly as follows: he <lb/>who instituted a suit and took legal proceedings against another in respect <lb/>of the shares, used to make a formal charge against the accused possessor <lb/>before the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This was done either at his house or in some public <lb/>place or at the mines, once each day for three days if the shares belonged to <lb/>an old mine, and three times in eight days if they belonged to a head­<lb/>meer. </s> <s>But if he could not find the possessor of the shares in these places, it <lb/>was valid and effectual to make the accusation against him at the house of <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> When, however, he made the charge for the third time, he <lb/>used to bring with him a notary, whom the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> would interrogate: <lb/>“Have I earned the fee?” and who would respond: “You have earned <lb/>it”; thereupon the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> would give the right over the shares to him <lb/>who made the accusation, and the accuser in turn would pay down the <lb/>customary fee to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> After these proceedings, if the man whom <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> had deprived of his shares dwelt in the city, one of the <lb/>proprietors of the mine or of the head-mine was sent to him to acquaint him <lb/>with the facts, but if he dwelt elsewhere proclamation was made in some <lb/>public place, or at the mine, openly and in a loud voice in the hearing of <lb/>numbers of miners. </s> <s>Nowadays a date is defined for the one who is answer­<lb/>able for the debt of shares or money, and information is given the accused <lb/>by an official if he is near at hand, or if he is absent, a letter is sent him; <lb/>nor is the right over his shares taken from anyone for the space of one and <lb/>a half months. </s> <s>So much for these matters.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now, before I deal with the methods which must be employed in <lb/>working, I will speak of the duties of the Mining Prefect, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>the Jurors, the Mining Clerk, the Share Clerk, the manager of the mine <lb/>or tunnel, the foreman of the mine or tunnel, and the workmen.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>To the Mining Prefect, whom the King or Prince appoints as his deputy, <lb/>all men of all races, ages, and rank, give obedience and submission. </s> <s>He <lb/>governs and regulates everything at his discretion, ordering those things <lb/>which are useful and advantageous in mining operations, and prohibiting <lb/>those which are to the contrary. </s> <s>He levies penalties and punishes offenders; <lb/>he arranges disputes which the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> has been unable to settle, and if <lb/>even he cannot arrange them, he allows the owners who are at variance over <lb/>some point to proceed to litigation; he even lays down the law, gives orders <pb pagenum="95"/>as a magistrate, or bids them leave their rights in abeyance, and he deter­<lb/>mines the pay of persons who hold any post or office. </s> <s>He is present in <lb/>person when the mine managers present their quarterly accounts of profits <lb/>and expenses, and generally represents the King or Prince and upholds his <lb/>dignity. </s> <s>The Athenians in this way set Thucydides, the famous historian, <lb/>over the mines of Thasos<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Next in power to the Mining Prefect comes the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> since he <lb/>has jurisdiction over all who are connected with mines, with a few exceptions, <lb/>which are the Tithe Gatherer, the Cashier, the Silver Refiner, the Master <lb/>of the Mint, and the Coiners themselves. </s> <s>Fraudulent, negligent, or dissolute <lb/>men he either throws into prison, or deprives of promotion, or fines; <lb/>of these fines, part is given as a tribute to those in power. </s> <s>When the mine <lb/>owners have a dispute over boundaries he arbitrates it; or if he cannot <lb/>settle the dispute, he pronounces judgment jointly with the Jurors; <lb/>from them, however, an appeal lies to the Mining Prefect. </s> <s>He transcribes <lb/>his decrees in a book and sets up the records in public. </s> <s>It is also his duty <lb/>to grant the right over the mines to those who apply, and to confirm their <lb/>rights; he also must measure the mines, and fix their boundaries, and see <lb/>that the mine workings are not allowed to become dangerous. </s> <s>Some of <lb/>these duties he observes on fixed days; for on Wednesday in the presence <lb/>of the Jurors he confirms the rights over the mines which he has granted, <lb/>settles disputes about boundaries, and pronounces judgments. </s> <s>On Mondays, <lb/>Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, he rides up to the mines, and dismounting <lb/>at some of them explains what is required to be done, or considers the <lb/>boundaries which are under controversy. </s> <s>On Saturday all the mine managers <lb/>and mine foremen render an account of the money which they have spent <lb/>on the mines during the preceding week, and the Mining Clerk transcribes <lb/>this account into the register of expenses. </s> <s>Formerly, for one Principality <lb/>there was one <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> who used to create all the judges and exercise <lb/>jurisdiction and control over them; for every mine had its own judge, <lb/>just as to-day each locality has a <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> in his place, the name alone <lb/>being changed. </s> <s>To this ancient <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> who used to dwell at Freiberg in <lb/>Meissen, disputes were referred; hence right up to the present time the one <lb/>at Freiberg still has the power of pronouncing judgment when mine owners <lb/>who are engaged in disputes among themselves appeal to him. </s> <s>The old <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> could try everything which was presented to him in any mine <lb/>whatsoever; whereas the judge could only try the things which were done <lb/>in his own district, in the same way that every modern <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> can.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>To each <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> is attached a clerk, who writes out a schedule <lb/>signifying to the applicant for a right over a mine, the day and hour on which <lb/>the right is granted, the name of the applicant, and the location of the mine. <lb/></s> <s>He also affixes at the entrance to the mine, quarterly, at the appointed time, <lb/>a sheet of paper on which is shown how much contribution must be paid to <lb/>the manager of the mine. </s> <s>These notices are prepared jointly with the <pb pagenum="96"/>Mining Clerk, and in common they receive the fee rendered by the foremen <lb/>of the separate mines.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I now come to the Jurors, who are men experienced in mining <lb/>matters and of good repute. </s> <s>Their number is greater or less as there <lb/>are few or more mines; thus if there are ten mines there will be five <lb/>pairs of Jurors, like a <emph type="italics"/>decemviral college<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>Into however many <lb/>divisions the total number of mines has been divided, so many divisions <lb/>has the body of Jurors; each pair of Jurors usually visits some of <lb/>the mines whose administration is under their supervision on every <lb/>day that workmen are employed; it is usually so arranged that they <lb/>visit all the mines in the space of fourteen days. </s> <s>They inspect and con­<lb/>sider all details, and deliberate and consult with the mine foreman on <lb/>matters relating to the underground workings, machinery, timbering, and <lb/>everything else. </s> <s>They also jointly with the mine foreman from time to <lb/>time make the price per fathom to the workmen for mining the ore, fixing <lb/>it at a high or low price, according to whether the rock is hard or soft; if, <lb/>however, the contractors find that an unforeseen and unexpected hardness <lb/>occurs, and for that reason have difficulty and delay in carrying out their <lb/>work, the Jurors allow them something in excess of the price fixed; <lb/>while if there is a softness by reason of water, and the work is done more <lb/>easily and quickly, they deduct something from the price. </s> <s>Further, if the <lb/>Jurors discover manifest negligence or fraud on the part of any foreman <lb/>or workman, they first admonish or reprimand him as to his duties and <lb/>obligations, and if he does not become more diligent and improve, the matter <lb/>is reported to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> who by right of his authority deprives such <lb/>persons of their functions and office, or, if they have committed a crime, <lb/>throws them into prison. </s> <s>Lastly, because the Jurors have been given <lb/>to the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> as councillors and advisors, in their absence he does not <lb/>confirm the right over any mine, nor measure the mines, nor fix their <lb/>boundaries, nor settle disputes about boundaries, nor pronounce judgment, <lb/>nor, finally, does he without them listen to any account of profits and <lb/>expenditure.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now the Mining Clerk enters each mine in his books, the new mines <lb/>in one book, the old mines which have been re-opened in another. </s> <s>This <lb/>is done in the following way: first is written the name of the man who has <lb/>applied for the right over the mine, then the day and hour on which he <lb/>made his application, then the vein and the locality in which it is situated, <lb/>next the conditions on which the right has been given, and lastly, the day on <lb/>which the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> confirmed it. </s> <s>A document containing all these <lb/>particulars is also given to the person whose right over a mine has been <lb/>confirmed. </s> <s>The Mining Clerk also sets down in another book the names <lb/>of the owners of each mine over which the right has been confirmed; <lb/>in another any intermission of work permitted to any person for cer­<pb pagenum="97"/>tain reasons by the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister;<emph.end type="italics"/> in another the money which one mine <lb/>supplies to another for drawing off water or making machinery; and in <lb/>another the decisions of the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and the Jurors, and the disputes <lb/>settled by them as honorary arbitrators. </s> <s>All these matters he enters in the <lb/>books on Wednesday of every week; if holidays fall on that day he does it <lb/>on the following Thursday. </s> <s>Every Saturday he enters in another book the <lb/>total expenses of the preceding week, the account of which the mine manager <lb/>has rendered; but the total quarterly expenses of each mine manager, he <lb/>enters in a special book at his own convenience. </s> <s>He enters similarly in <lb/>another book a list of owners who have been proscribed. </s> <s>Lastly, that no one <lb/>may be able to bring a charge of falsification against him, all these books <lb/>are enclosed in a chest with two locks, the key of one of which is kept by the <lb/>Mining Clerk, and of the other by the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The Share Clerk enters in a book the owners of each mine whom <lb/>the first finder of the vein names to him, and from time to time replaces the <lb/>names of the sellers with those of the buyers of the shares. </s> <s>It sometimes <lb/>happens that twenty or more owners come into the possession of some <lb/>particular share. </s> <s>Unless, however, the seller is present, or has sent a letter <lb/>to the Mining Clerk with his seal, or better still with the seal of the Mayor <lb/>of the town where he dwells, his name is not replaced by that of anyone else; <lb/>for if the Share Clerk is not sufficiently cautious, the law requires him <lb/>to restore the late owner wholly to his former position. </s> <s>He writes out a <lb/>fresh document, and in this way gives proof of possession. </s> <s>Four times a <lb/>year, when the accounts of the quarterly expenditure are rendered, he <lb/>names the new proprietors to the manager of each mine, that the manager <lb/>may know from whom he should demand contributions and among whom <lb/>to distribute the profits of the mines. </s> <s>For this work the mine manager pays <lb/>the Clerk a fixed fee.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I will now speak of the duties of the mine manager. </s> <s>In the case of the <lb/>owners of every mine which is not yielding metal, the manager announces <lb/>to the proprietors their contributions in a document which is affixed to the <lb/>doors of the town hall, such contributions being large or small, according as <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and two Jurors determine. </s> <s>If anyone fails to pay these <lb/>contributions for the space of a month, the manager removes their names <lb/>from the list of owners, and makes their shares the common property of the <lb/>other proprietors. </s> <s>And so, whomsoever the mine manager names as not <lb/>having paid his contribution, that same man the Mining Clerk designates <lb/>in writing, and so also does the Share Clerk. </s> <s>Of the contribution, the <lb/>mine manager applies part to the payment of the foreman and workmen, <lb/>and lays by a part to purchase at the lowest price the necessary things for <lb/>the mine, such as iron tools, nails, firewood, planks, buckets, drawing-ropes, <lb/>or grease. </s> <s>But in the case of a mine which is yielding metal, the Tithe­<lb/>gatherer pays the mine manager week by week as much money as suffices <lb/>to discharge the workmen's wages and to provide the necessary implements <lb/>for mining. </s> <s>The mine manager of each mine also, in the presence of its <lb/>foreman, on Saturday in each week renders an account of his expenses to <pb pagenum="98"/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> and the Jurors, he renders an account of his receipts, <lb/>whether the money has been contributed by the owners or taken from the <lb/>Tithe-gatherer; and of his quarterly expenditure in the same way <lb/>to them and to the Mining Prefect and to the Mining Clerk, four <lb/>times a year at the appointed time; for just as there are four seasons <lb/>of the year, namely, Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter, so there are <lb/>fourfold accounts of profits and expenses. </s> <s>In the beginning of the first <lb/>month of each quarter an account is rendered of the money which the <lb/>manager has spent on the mine during the previous quarter, then of the <lb/>profit which he has taken from it during the same period; for example, <lb/>the account which is rendered at the beginning of spring is an account of all <lb/>the profits and expenses of each separate week of winter, which have been <lb/>entered by the Mining Clerk in the book of accounts. </s> <s>If the manager <lb/>has spent the money of the proprietors advantageously in the mine and <lb/>has faithfully looked after it, everyone praises him as a diligent and honest <lb/>man; if through ignorance in these matters he has caused loss, he is generally <lb/>deprived of his office; if by his carelessness and negligence the owners have <lb/>suffered loss, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> compels him to make good the loss; and finally, <lb/>if he has been guilty of fraud or theft, he is punished with fine, prison, or <lb/>death. </s> <s>Further, it is the business of the manager to see that the foreman <lb/>of the mine is present at the beginning and end of the shifts, that he digs <lb/>the ore in an advantageous manner, and makes the required timbering, <lb/>machines, and drains. </s> <s>The manager also makes the deductions from the <lb/>pay of the workmen whom the foreman has noted as negligent. </s> <s>Next, <lb/>if the mine is rich in metal, the manager must see that its ore-house is closed <lb/>on those days on which no work is performed; and if it is a rich vein of gold <lb/>or silver, he sees that the miners promptly transfer the output from the shaft <lb/>or tunnel into a chest or into the strong room next to the house where the <lb/>foreman dwells, that no opportunity for theft may be given to dishonest <lb/>persons. </s> <s>This duty he shares in common with the foreman, but the one <lb/>which follows is peculiarly his own. </s> <s>When ore is smelted he is present in <lb/>person, and watches that the smelting is performed carefully and advan­<lb/>tageously. </s> <s>If from it gold or silver is melted out, when it is melted in the <lb/>cupellation furnace he enters the weight of it in his books and carries it <lb/>to the Tithe-gatherer, who similarly writes a note of its weight in his books; <lb/>it is then conveyed to the refiner. </s> <s>When it has been brought back, both <lb/>the Tithe-gatherer and manager again enter its weight in their books. </s> <s>Why <lb/>again? </s> <s>Because he looks after the goods of the owners just as if they were <lb/>his own. </s> <s>Now the laws which relate to mining permit a manager to have <lb/>charge of more than one mine, but in the case of mines yielding gold or <lb/>silver, to have charge of only two. </s> <s>If, however, several mines following the <lb/>head-mine begin to produce metal, he remains in charge of these others until <lb/>he is freed from the duty of looking after them by the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Last of <lb/>all, the manager, the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the two Jurors, in agreement <lb/>with the owners, settle the remuneration for the labourers. </s> <s>Enough of the <lb/>duties and occupation of the manager.</s></p><pb pagenum="99"/><p type="main"> <s>I will now leave the manager, and discuss him who controls the workmen <lb/>of the mine, who is therefore called the foreman, although some call him <lb/>the watchman. </s> <s>It is he who distributes the work among the labourers, and <lb/>sees diligently that each faithfully and usefully performs his duties. </s> <s>He <lb/>also discharges workmen on account of incompetence, or negligence, and <lb/>supplies others in their places if the two Jurors and manager give their <lb/>consent. </s> <s>He must be skilful in working wood, that he may timber shafts, <lb/>place posts, and make underground structures capable of supporting an under­<lb/>mined mountain, lest the rocks from the hangingwall of the veins, not being <lb/>supported, become detached from the mass of the mountain and over­<lb/>whelm the workmen with destruction. </s> <s>He must be able to make and lay <lb/>out the drains in the tunnels, into which the water from the veins, stringers, <lb/>and seams in the rocks may collect, that it may be properly guided and <lb/>can flow away. </s> <s>Further, he must be able to recognize veins and stringers, <lb/>so as to sink shafts to the best advantage, and must be able to discern one <lb/>kind of material which is mined from another, or to train his subordinates <lb/>that they may separate the materials correctly. </s> <s>He must also be well <lb/>acquainted with all methods of washing, so as to teach the washers how <lb/>the metalliferous earth or sand is washed. </s> <s>He supplies the miners with iron <lb/>tools when they are about to start to work in the mines, and apportions a <lb/>certain weight of oil for their lamps, and trains them to dig to the best <lb/>advantage, and sees that they work faithfully. </s> <s>When their shift is finished, <lb/>he takes back the oil which has been left. </s> <s>On account of his numerous and <lb/>important duties and labours, only one mine is entrusted to one foreman, <lb/>nay, rather sometimes two or three foremen are set over one mine.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Since I have mentioned the shifts, I will briefly explain how these are <lb/>carried on. </s> <s>The twenty-four hours of a day and night are divided into three <lb/>shifts, and each shift consists of seven hours. </s> <s>The three remaining hours are <lb/>intermediate between the shifts, and form an interval during which the <lb/>workmen enter and leave the mines. </s> <s>The first shift begins at the fourth hour <lb/>in the morning and lasts till the eleventh hour; the second begins at the <lb/>twelfth and is finished at the seventh; these two are day shifts in the <lb/>morning and afternoon. </s> <s>The third is the night shift, and commences at the <lb/>eighth hour in the evening and finishes at the third in the morning. </s> <s>The <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> does not allow this third shift to be imposed upon the workmen <lb/>unless necessity demands it. </s> <s>In that case, whether they draw water from <lb/>the shafts or mine the ore, they keep their vigil by the night lamps, and to <lb/>prevent themselves falling asleep from the late hours or from fatigue, they <lb/>lighten their long and arduous labours by singing, which is neither wholly <lb/>untrained nor unpleasing. </s> <s>In some places one miner is not allowed to <lb/>undertake two shifts in succession, because it often happens that he either <lb/>falls asleep in the mine, overcome by exhaustion from too much labour, or <lb/>arrives too late for his shift, or leaves sooner than he ought. </s> <s>Elsewhere he <lb/>is allowed to do so, because he cannot subsist on the pay of one shift, <lb/>especially if provisions grow dearer. </s> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/> does not, however, <lb/>forbid an extraordinary shift when he concedes only one ordinary shift. <pb pagenum="100"/>When it is time to go to work the sound of a great bell, which the foreigners <lb/>call a “campana,” gives the workmen warning, and when this is heard they <lb/>run hither and thither through the streets toward the mines. </s> <s>Similarly, <lb/>the same sound of the bell warns the foreman that a shift has just been <lb/>finished; therefore as soon as he hears it, he stamps on the woodwork of the <lb/>shaft and signals the workmen to come out. </s> <s>Thereupon, the nearest as soon <lb/>as they hear the signal, strike the rocks with their hammers, and the sound <lb/>reaches those who are furthest away. </s> <s>Moreover, the lamps show that the <lb/>shift has come to an end when the oil becomes almost consumed and fails <lb/>them. </s> <s>The labourers do not work on Saturdays, but buy those things which <lb/>are necessary to life, nor do they usually work on Sundays or annual <lb/>festivals, but on these occasions devote the shift to holy things. </s> <s>However, <lb/>the workmen do not rest and do nothing if necessity demands their labour; <lb/>for sometimes a rush of water compels them to work, sometimes an impending <lb/>fall, sometimes something else, and at such times it is not considered <lb/>irreligious to work on holidays. </s> <s>Moreover, all workmen of this class are <lb/>strong and used to toil from birth.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The chief kinds of workmen are miners, shovelers, windlass men, carriers, <lb/>sorters, washers, and smelters, as to whose duties I will speak in the fol­<lb/>lowing books, in their proper place. </s> <s>At present it is enough to add this one <lb/>fact, that if the workmen have been reported by the foreman for negligence, <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster,<emph.end type="italics"/> or even the foreman himself, jointly with the manager, <lb/>dismisses them from their work on Saturday, or deprives them of part of <lb/>their pay; or if for fraud, throws them into prison. </s> <s>However, the owners <lb/>of works in which the metals are smelted, and the master of the smelter, look <lb/>after their own men. </s> <s>As to the government and duties of miners, I have <lb/>now said enough; I will explain them more fully in another work entitled <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Jure et Legibus Metallícís<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>.<lb/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>END OF BOOK IV.</s></p><figure></figure><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>BOOK V.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the last book I have explained the methods of <lb/>delimiting the meers along each kind of vein, and <lb/>the duties of mine officials. </s> <s>In this book<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/> I will <lb/>in like manner explain the principles of under­<lb/>ground mining and the art of surveying. </s> <s>First <lb/>then, I will proceed to deal with those matters <lb/>which pertain to the former heading, since both the <lb/>subject and methodical arrangement require it. <lb/></s> <s>And so I will describe first of all the digging of <lb/>shafts, tunnels, and drifts on <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae;<emph.end type="italics"/> next I will discuss the good <lb/>indications shown by <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>, by the materials which are dug out, and by <lb/>the rocks; then I will speak of the tools by which veins and rocks are broken <lb/>down and excavated; the method by which fire shatters the hard veins; <lb/>and further, of the machines with which water is drawn from the shafts <lb/>and air is forced into deep shafts and long tunnels, for digging is impeded <lb/>by the inrush of the former or the failure of the latter; next I will deal <lb/>with the two kinds of shafts, and with the making of them and of tunnels; <lb/>and finally, I will describe the method of mining <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae, venae cumu­<lb/>latae,<emph.end type="italics"/> and stringers.<lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="102"/><p type="main"> <s>Now when a miner discovers a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/> he begins sinking a shaft <lb/>and above it sets up a windlass, and builds a shed over the shaft to prevent <lb/>the rain from falling in, lest the men who turn the windlass be numbed <lb/>by the cold or troubled by the rain. </s> <s>The windlass men also place their <lb/>barrows in it, and the miners store their iron tools and other implements therein. <lb/></s> <s>Next to the shaft-house another house is built, where the mine foreman and the <lb/>other workmen dwell, and in which are stored the ore and other things which <lb/>are dug out. </s> <s>Although some persons build only one house, yet because <lb/>sometimes boys and other living things fall into the shafts, most miners <lb/>deliberately place one house apart from the other, or at least separate them <lb/>by a wall.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now a shaft is dug, usually two fathoms long, two-thirds of a fathom <lb/>wide, and thirteen fathoms deep; but for the purpose of connecting with a <lb/>tunnel which has already been driven in a hill, a shaft may be sunk to a <lb/>depth of only eight fathoms, at other times to fourteen, more or less<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>A <lb/>shaft may be made vertical or inclined, according as the vein which the <lb/>miners follow in the course of digging is vertical or inclined. </s> <s>A tunnel is a <lb/>subterranean ditch driven lengthwise, and is nearly twice as high as it is <lb/>broad, and wide enough that workmen and others may be able to pass and <lb/>carry their loads. </s> <s>It is usually one and a quarter fathoms high, while <lb/>its width is about three and three-quarters feet. </s> <s>Usually two workmen are <lb/>required to drive it, one of whom digs out the upper and the other the lower <lb/>part, and the one goes forward, while the other follows closely after. </s> <s>Each <lb/>sits upon small boards fixed securely from the footwall to the hangingwall, <lb/>or if the vein is a soft one, sometimes on a wedge-shaped plank fixed on to the <lb/>vein itself. </s> <s>Miners sink more inclined shafts than vertical, and some of each <lb/>kind do not reach to tunnels, while some connect with them. </s> <s>But as for <lb/>some shafts, though they have already been sunk to the required depth, <lb/>the tunnel which is to pierce the mountain may not yet have been driven <lb/>far enough to connect with them.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It is advantageous if a shaft connects with a tunnel, for then the miners <lb/>and other workmen carry on more easily the work they have undertaken; <lb/>but if the shaft is not so deep, it is usual to drift from one or both sides of it. <lb/></s> <s>From these openings the owner or foreman becomes acquainted with the <lb/>veins and stringers that unite with the principal vein, or cut across it, or <pb pagenum="103"/>divide it obliquely; however, my discourse is now concerned mainly with <lb/><emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> but most of all with the metallic material which it contains. </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>THREE VERTICAL SHAFTS, OF WHICH THE FIRST, A, DOES NOT REACH THE TUNNEL; THE <lb/>SECOND, B, REACHES THE TUNNEL; TO THE THIRD, C, THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET BEEN <lb/>DRIVEN. D—TUNNEL.<pb pagenum="104"/>Excavations of this kind were called by the Greeks <foreign lang="greek">kruptai</foreign> for, extending <lb/>along after the manner of a tunnel, they are entirely hidden within the </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>THREE INCLINED SHAFTS, OF WHICH A DOES NOT YET REACH THE TUNNEL; B REACHES THE <lb/>TUNNEL; TO THE THIRD, C, THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET BEEN DRIVEN. D—TUNNEL.<pb pagenum="105"/>ground. </s> <s>This kind of an opening, however, differs from a tunnel in that it <lb/>is dark throughout its length. </s> <s>whereas a tunnel has a mouth open to daylight.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SHAFT. B, C—DRIFT. D—ANOTHER SHAFT. E—TUNNEL. F—MOUTH OF TUNNEL.</s></p><pb pagenum="106"/><p type="main"> <s>I have spoken of shafts, tunnels, and drifts. </s> <s>I will now speak of the <lb/>indications given by the <emph type="italics"/>canales,<emph.end type="italics"/> by the materials which are dug out, and by <lb/>the rocks. </s> <s>These indications, as also many others which I will explain, are <lb/>to a great extent identical in <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>venae cumulatae<emph.end type="italics"/> with <emph type="italics"/>venae <lb/>profundae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>When a stringer junctions with a main vein and causes a swelling, a <lb/>shaft should be sunk at the junction. </s> <s>But when we find the stringer inter­<lb/>secting the main vein crosswise or obliquely, if it descends vertically down <lb/>to the depths of the earth, a second shaft should be sunk to the point where <lb/>the stringer cuts the main vein; but if the stringer cuts it obliquely the <lb/>shaft should be two or three fathoms back, in order that the junction may <lb/>be pierced lower down. </s> <s>At such junctions lies the best hope of finding the <lb/>ore for the sake of which we explore the ground, and if ore has already been <lb/>found, it is usually found in much greater abundance at that spot. </s> <s>Again, <lb/>if several stringers descend into the earth, the miner, in order to pierce <lb/>through the point of contact, should sink the shaft in the midst of these <lb/>stringers, or else calculate on the most prominent one.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Since an inclined vein often lies near a vertical vein, it is advisable <lb/>to sink a shaft at the spot where a stringer or cross-vein cuts them both; <lb/>or where a <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> or a stringer <emph type="italics"/>dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> passes through, for minerals <lb/>are usually found there. </s> <s>In the same way we have a good prospect of finding <lb/>metal at the point where an inclined vein joins a vertical one; this is why <lb/>miners cross-cut the hangingwall or footwall of a main vein, and in these <lb/>openings seek for a vein which may junction with the principal vein a few <lb/>fathoms below. </s> <s>Nay, further, these same miners, if no stringer or cross­<lb/>vein intersects the main vein so that they can follow it in their workings, <lb/>even cross-cut through the solid rock of the hangingwall or footwall. </s> <s>These <lb/>cross-cuts are likewise called “<foreign lang="greek">kruptai/,</foreign>” whether the beginning of the <lb/>opening which has to be undertaken is made from a tunnel or from a drift. <lb/></s> <s>Miners have some hope when only a cross vein cuts a main vein. </s> <s>Further, <lb/>if a vein which cuts the main vein obliquely does not appear anywhere <lb/>beyond it, it is advisable to dig into that side of the main vein toward which <lb/>the oblique vein inclines, whether the right or left side, that we may ascer­<lb/>tain if the main vein has absorbed it; if after cross-cutting six fathoms it <lb/>is not found, it is advisable to dig on the other side of the main vein, that <lb/>we may know for certain whether it has carried it forward. </s> <s>The owners <lb/>of a main vein can often dig no less profitably on that side where the vein <lb/>which cuts the main vein again appears, than where it first cuts it; the <lb/>owners of the intersecting vein, when that is found again, recover their title, <lb/>which had in a measure been lost.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The common miners look favourably upon the stringers which come <lb/>from the north and join the main vein; on the other hand, they look <lb/>unfavourably upon those which come from the south, and say that these do <lb/>much harm to the main vein, while the former improve it. </s> <s>But I think <lb/>that miners should not neglect either of them: as I showed in Book III, <lb/>experience does not confirm those who hold this opinion about veins, so now <pb pagenum="107"/>again I could furnish examples of each kind of stringers rejected by the <lb/>common miners which have proved good, but I know this could be of little <lb/>or no benefit to posterity.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If the miners find no stringers or veins in the hangingwall or footwall of <lb/>the main vein, and if they do not find much ore, it is not worth while to <lb/>undertake the labour of sinking another shaft. </s> <s>Nor ought a shaft to be sunk <lb/>where a vein is divided into two or three parts, unless the indications are <lb/>satisfactory that those parts may be united and joined together a little later. <lb/></s> <s>Further, it is a bad indication for a vein rich in mineral to bend and turn <lb/>hither and thither, for unless it goes down again into the ground vertically or <lb/>inclined, as it first began, it produces no more metal; and even though it <lb/>does go down again, it often continues barren. </s> <s>Stringers which in their <lb/>outcrops bear metals, often disappoint miners, no metal being found in depth. <lb/></s> <s>Further, inverted seams in the rocks are counted among the bad indications.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The miners hew out the whole of solid veins when they show clear evidence <lb/>of being of good quality; similarly they hew out the drusy<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/> veins, <lb/>especially if the cavities are plainly seen to have formerly borne metal, or <lb/>if the cavities are few and small. </s> <s>They do not dig barren veins through <lb/>which water flows, if there are no metallic particles showing; occasionally, <lb/>however, they dig even barren veins which are free from water, because <lb/>of the pyrites which is devoid of all metal, or because of a fine black soft <lb/>substance which is like wool. </s> <s>They dig stringers which are rich in metal, <lb/>or sometimes, for the purpose of searching for the vein, those that are devoid <lb/>of ore which lie near the hangingwall or footwall of the main vein. </s> <s>This <lb/>then, generally speaking, is the mode of dealing with stringers and veins.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Let us now consider the metallic material which is found in the <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae, venae dilatatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>venae cumulatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> being in all these <lb/>either cohesive and continuous, or scattered and dispersed among them, <lb/>or swelling out in bellying shapes, or found in veins or stringers which <lb/>originate from the main vein and ramify like branches; but these latter veins <lb/>and stringers are very short, for after a little space they do not appear again. <lb/></s> <s>If we come across a small quantity of metallic material it is an indication; <lb/>but if a large quantity, it is not an “indication,” but the very thing for <lb/>which we explore the earth. </s> <s>As soon as a miner who searches for veins <lb/>discovers pure metal or minerals, or rich metallic material, or a great <lb/>abundance of material which is poor in metal, let him sink a shaft on the <lb/>spot without any delay. </s> <s>If the material appears more abundant or of better <lb/>quality on the one side, he will incline his digging in that direction.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Gold, silver, copper, and quicksilver are often found native<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>; less <lb/>often iron and bismuth; almost never tin and lead. </s> <s>Nevertheless tin-stone <lb/>is not far removed from the pure white tin which is melted out of them, and <lb/>galena, from which lead is obtained, differs little from that metal itself.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now we may classify gold ores. </s> <s>Next after native gold, we come to the <lb/><pb pagenum="108"/><emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>, of yellowish green, yellow, purple, black, or outside red and inside <lb/>gold colour. </s> <s>These must be reckoned as the richest ores, because the gold <lb/>exceeds the stone or earth in weight. </s> <s>Next come all gold ores of which each. <lb/></s> <s>one hundred <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> contains more than three <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>; for although but <lb/>a small proportion of gold is found in the earth or stone, yet it equals in value <lb/>other metals of greater weight.<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> All other gold ores are considered poor, because <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="109"/>the earth or stone too far outweighs the gold. </s> <s>A vein which contains a <lb/>larger proportion of silver than of gold is rarely found to be a rich one. <lb/></s> <s>Earth, whether it be dry or wet, rarely abounds in gold; but in dry earth <lb/>there is more often found a greater quantity of gold, especially if it has the <pb pagenum="110"/>appearance of having been melted in a furnace, and if it is not lacking in <lb/>scales resembling mica. </s> <s>The solidified juices, azure, chrysocolla, orpiment, <lb/>and realgar, also frequently contain gold. </s> <s>Likewise native or <emph type="italics"/>rudís<emph.end type="italics"/> gold is <lb/>found sometimes in large, and sometimes in small quantities in quartz, <pb pagenum="111"/>schist, marble, and also in stone which easily melts in fire of the second <lb/>degree, and which is sometimes so porous that it seems completely decom­<lb/>posed. </s> <s>Lastly, gold is found in pyrites, though rarely in large quantities.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When considering silver ores other than native silver, those ores are <pb pagenum="112"/>classified as rich, of which each one hundred <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> contains more than three <lb/><emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>This quality comprises <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> silver, whether silver glance or <lb/>ruby silver, or whether white, or black, or grey, or purple, or yellow, or liver-<pb pagenum="113"/>coloured, or any other. </s> <s>Sometimes quartz, schist, or marble is of this quality <lb/>also, if much native or <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> silver adheres to it. </s> <s>But that ore is considered <lb/>of poor quality if three <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver at the utmost are found in each <lb/>one hundred <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of it.<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> Silver ore usually contains a greater quantity <pb pagenum="114"/>than this, because Nature bestows quantity in place of quality; such ore <lb/>is mixed with all kinds of earth and stone compounds, except the various <lb/>kinds of <emph type="italics"/>rudís<emph.end type="italics"/> silver; especially with pyrites, <emph type="italics"/>cadmia metallíca fossílís,<emph.end type="italics"/> galena, <lb/><emph type="italics"/>stibíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> and others.</s></p><pb pagenum="115"/><p type="main"> <s>As regards other kinds of metal, although some rich ores are found, <lb/>still, unless the veins contain a large quantity of ore, it is very rarely worth <lb/>while to dig them. </s> <s>The Indians and some other races do search for gems in <lb/>veins hidden deep in the earth, but more often they are noticed from their <lb/>clearness, or rather their brilliancy, when metals are mined. </s> <s>When they <lb/>outcrop, we follow veins of marble by mining in the same way as is <lb/>done with rock or building-stones when we come upon them. </s> <s>But <lb/>gems, properly so called, though they sometimes have veins of their own, <lb/>are still for the most part found in mines and rock quarries, as the <lb/>lodestone in iron mines, the emery in silver mines, the <emph type="italics"/>lapís judaícus, <lb/>trochítes,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the like in stone quarries where the diggers, at the bidding <lb/>of the owners, usually collect them from the seams in the rocks.<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> Nor does the <lb/>miner neglect the digging of “extraordinary earths,”<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> whether they are found <lb/><pb pagenum="116"/>in gold mines, silver mines, or other mines; nor do other miners neglect them <lb/>if they are found in stone quarries, or in their own veins; their value is usually <lb/>indicated by their taste. </s> <s>Nor, lastly, does the miner fail to give attention to <lb/>the solidified juices which are found in metallic veins, as well as in their own <lb/>veins, from which he collects and gathers them. </s> <s>But I will say no more <lb/>on these matters, because I have explained more fully all the metals and <lb/>mineral substances in the books “<emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossilium.<emph.end type="italics"/>”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But I will return to the indications. </s> <s>If we come upon earth which is <lb/>like lute, in which there are particles of any sort of metal, native or <emph type="italics"/>rudis,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>the best possible indication of a vein is given to miners, for the metallic <lb/>material from which the particles have become detached is necessarily close <lb/>by. </s> <s>But if this kind of earth is found absolutely devoid of all metallic <lb/>material, but fatty, and of white, green, blue, and similar colours, they must <lb/>not abandon the work that has been started. </s> <s>Miners have other indications in <lb/>the veins and stringers, which I have described already, and in the rocks, about <lb/>which I will speak a little later. </s> <s>If the miner comes across other dry earths <lb/>which contain native or <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> metal, that is a good indication; if he comes <lb/>across yellow, red, black, or some other “extraordinary” earth, though it is <lb/>devoid of mineral, it is not a bad indication. </s> <s>Chrysocolla, or azure, or verdigris, <lb/>or orpiment, or realgar, when they are found, are counted among the good <lb/>indications. </s> <s>Further, where underground springs throw up metal we ought <lb/>to continue the digging we have begun, for this points to the particles having <lb/>been detached from the main mass like a fragment from a body. </s> <s>In the <lb/>same way the thin scales of any metal adhering to stone or rock are counted <lb/>among the good indications. </s> <s>Next, if the veins which are composed partly <lb/>of quartz, partly of clayey or dry earth, descend one and all into the depths <lb/>of the earth together, with their stringers, there is good hope of metal being <lb/>found; but if the stringers afterward do not appear, or little metallic <lb/>material is met with, the digging should not be given up until there is nothing <lb/>remaining. </s> <s>Dark or black or horn or liver-coloured quartz is usually a good <lb/>sign; white is sometimes good, sometimes no sign at all. </s> <s>But calc-spar, <lb/>showing itself in a <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda,<emph.end type="italics"/> if it disappears a little lower down is not a <lb/>good indication; for it did not belong to the vein proper, but to some stringer. <lb/></s> <s>Those kinds of stone which easily melt in fire, especially if they are translucent <lb/>(fluorspar?), must be counted among the medium indications, for if other <lb/>good indications are present they are good, but if no good indications are <lb/>present, they give no useful significance. </s> <s>In the same way we ought to form <lb/>our judgment with regard to gems. </s> <s>Veins which at the hangingwall and <lb/>footwall have horn-coloured quartz or marble, but in the middle clayey <lb/>earth, give some hope; likewise those give hope in which the hangingwall <lb/>or footwall shows iron-rust coloured earth, and in the middle greasy and <lb/>sticky earth; also there is hope for those which have at the hanging or footwall <lb/>that kind of earth which we call “soldiers' earth,” and in the middle black <lb/>earth or earth which looks as if burnt. </s> <s>The special indication of gold is <lb/>orpiment; of silver is bismuth and <emph type="italics"/>stibium;<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper is verdigris, <emph type="italics"/>melantería, <lb/>sory, chalcitis, misy,<emph.end type="italics"/> and vitriol; of tin is the large pure black stones of <pb pagenum="117"/>which the tin itself is made, and a material they dig up resembling litharge; <lb/>of iron, iron rust. </s> <s>Gold and copper are equally indicated by chrysocolla and <lb/>azure; silver and lead, by the lead. </s> <s>But, though miners rightly <lb/>call bismuth “the roof of silver,” and though copper pyrites is the common <lb/>parent of vitriol and <emph type="italics"/>melantería,<emph.end type="italics"/> still these sometimes have their own <lb/>peculiar minerals, just as have orpiment and <emph type="italics"/>stibium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now, just as certain vein materials give miners a favourable indication, <lb/>so also do the rocks through which the <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/> of the veins wind their <lb/>way, for sand discovered in a mine is reckoned among the good indications, <lb/>especially if it is very fine. </s> <s>In the same way schist, when it is of a <lb/>bluish or blackish colour, and also limestone, of whatever colour it may be, is <lb/>a good sign for a silver vein. </s> <s>There is a rock of another kind that is a good sign; <lb/>in it are scattered tiny black stones from which tin is smelted; especially when <lb/>the whole space between the veins is composed of this kind of rock. <lb/></s> <s>Very often indeed, this good kind of rock in conjunction with valuable <lb/>stringers contains within its folds the <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/> of mineral bearing veins: if <lb/>it descends vertically into the earth, the benefit belongs to that mine in <lb/>which it is seen first of all; if inclined, it benefits the other neighbouring <lb/>mines<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>As a result the miner who is not ignorant of geometry can calculate <lb/>from the other mines the depth at which the <emph type="italics"/>canales<emph.end type="italics"/> of a vein bearing rich <lb/>metal will wind its way through the rock into his mine. </s> <s>So much for these <lb/>matters.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I now come to the mode of working, which is varied and complex, for in <lb/>some places they dig crumbling ore, in others hard ore, in others a harder <lb/>ore, and in others the hardest kind of ore. </s> <s>In the same way, in some places <lb/>the hangingwall rock is soft and fragile, in others hard, in others harder, and <lb/>in still others of the hardest sort. </s> <s>I call that ore “crumbling” which is com­<lb/>posed of earth, and of soft solidified juices; that ore “hard” which is composed <lb/>of metallic minerals and moderately hard stones, such as for the most part <lb/>are those which easily melt in a fire of the first and second orders, like lead <lb/>and similar materials. </s> <s>I call that ore “harder” when with those I have already <lb/>mentioned are combined various sorts of quartz, or stones which easily melt <lb/>in fire of the third degree, or pyrites, or <emph type="italics"/>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"/> or very hard marble. </s> <s>I call <lb/>that ore hardest, which is composed throughout the whole vein of these hard <lb/>stones and compounds. </s> <s>The hanging or footwalls of a vein are hard, when <lb/>composed of rock in which there are few stringers or seams; harder, in <lb/>which they are fewer; hardest, in which they are fewest or none at all. <lb/></s> <s>When these are absent, the rock is quite devoid of water which softens <lb/>it. </s> <s>But the hardest rock of the hanging or footwall, however, is seldom as <lb/>hard as the harder class of ore.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Miners dig out crumbling ore with the pick alone. </s> <s>When the metal <lb/>has not yet shown itself, they do not discriminate between the hangingwall <lb/>and the veins; when it has once been found, they work with the utmost care. <lb/></s> <s>For first of all they tear away the hangingwall rock separately from the vein, <lb/>afterward with a pick they dislodge the crumbling vein from the footwall <pb pagenum="118"/>into a dish placed underneath to prevent any of the metal from falling to <lb/>the ground. </s> <s>They break a hard vein loose from the footwall by blows with <lb/>a hammer upon the first kind of iron tool<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/>, all of which are designated by <lb/>appropriate names, and with the same tools they hew away the hard hanging­<lb/>wall rock. </s> <s>They hew out the hangingwall rock in advance more frequently, the <lb/>rock of the footwall more rarely; and indeed, when the rock of the footwall <lb/>resists iron tools, the rock of the hangingwall certainly cannot be broken unless <lb/>it is allowable to shatter it by fire. </s> <s>With regard to the harder veins which are <lb/>tractable to iron tools, and likewise with regard to the harder and hardest <lb/>kind of hangingwall rock, they generally attack them with more powerful <lb/>iron tools, in fact, with the fourth kind of iron tool, which are called by their <lb/>appropriate names; but if these are not ready to hand, they use two or <lb/>three iron tools of the first kind together. </s> <s>As for the hardest kind of metal­<lb/>bearing vein, which in a measure resists iron tools, if the owners of the <lb/>neighbouring mines give them permission, they break it with fires. </s> <s>But if <lb/>these owners refuse them permission, then first of all they hew out the rock of <lb/>the hangingwall, or of the footwall if it be less hard; then they place timbers <lb/>set in hitches in the hanging or footwall, a little above the vein, and from <lb/>the front and upper part, where the vein is seen to be seamed with small <lb/>cracks, they drive into one of the little cracks one of the iron tools which <lb/>I have mentioned; then in each fracture they place four thin iron <lb/>blocks, and in order to hold them more firmly, if necessary, they place <lb/>as many thin iron plates back to back; next they place thinner iron <lb/>plates between each two iron blocks, and strike and drive them by <lb/>turns with hammers, whereby the vein rings with a shrill sound; and the <lb/>moment when it begins to be detached from the hangingwall or footwall <lb/>rock, a tearing sound is heard. </s> <s>As soon as this grows distinct the miners <lb/>hastily flee away; then a great crash is heard as the vein is broken and torn, <lb/>and falls down. </s> <s>By this method they throw down a portion of a vein weigh­<lb/>ing a hundred pounds more or less. </s> <s>But if the miners by any other method <lb/>hew the hardest kind of vein which is rich in metal, there remain certain <lb/>cone-shaped portions which can be cut out afterward only with difficulty. </s> <s>As <lb/>for this knob of hard ore, if it is devoid of metal, or if they are not allowed to <lb/>apply fire to it, they proceed round it by digging to the right or left, because <lb/>it cannot be broken into by iron wedges without great expense. </s> <s>Meantime, <lb/>while the workmen are carrying out the task they have undertaken, the <lb/>depths of the earth often resound with sweet singing, whereby they lighten a <lb/>toil which is of the severest kind and full of the greatest dangers.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>As I have just said, fire shatters the hardest rocks, but the method of its <lb/>application is not simple<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>For if a vein held in the rocks cannot be hewn <lb/><pb pagenum="119"/>out because of the hardness or other difficulty, and the drift or tunnel is <lb/>low, a heap of dried logs is placed against the rock and fired; if the drift or <lb/>tunnel is high, two heaps are necessary, of which one is placed above the <lb/>other, and both burn until the fire has consumed them. </s> <s>This force does not <lb/>generally soften a large portion of the vein, but only some of the surface. <lb/></s> <s>When the rock in the hanging or footwall can be worked by the iron tools <lb/>and the vein is so hard that it is not tractable to the same tools, then the <lb/>walls are hollowed out; if this be in the end of the drift or tunnel or above <lb/>or below, the vein is then broken by fire, but not by the same method; for <lb/>if the hollow is wide, as many logs are piled into it as possible, but if narrow, <lb/>only a few. </s> <s>By the one method the greater fire separates the vein more <lb/>completely from the footwall or sometimes from the hangingwall, and by the <lb/>other, the smaller fire breaks away less of the vein from the rock, because in <lb/>that case the fire is confined and kept in check by portions of the rock which <lb/>surround the wood held in such a narrow excavation. </s> <s>Further, if the <lb/>excavation is low, only one pile of logs is placed in it, if high, there are <lb/>two, one placed above the other, by which plan the lower bundle being <lb/>kindled sets alight the upper one; and the fire being driven by the draught <lb/>into the vein, separates it from the rock which, however hard it may be, often <lb/>becomes so softened as to be the most easily breakable of all. </s> <s>Applying this <lb/>principle, Hannibal, the Carthaginian General, imitating the Spanish miners, <pb pagenum="120"/>overcame the hardness of the Alps by the use of vinegar and fire. </s> <s>Even <lb/>if a vein is a very wide one, as tin veins usually are, miners excavate into the <lb/>small streaks, and into those hollows they put dry wood and place amongst <lb/>them at frequent intervals sticks, all sides of which are shaved down fan­<lb/>shaped, which easily take light, and when once they have taken fire com­<lb/>municate it to the other bundles of wood, which easily ignite.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—KINDLED LOGS. B—STICKS SHAVED DOWN FAN-SHAPED. C—TUNNEL.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>While the heated veins and rock are giving forth a foetid vapour and the <lb/>shafts or tunnels are emitting fumes, the miners and other workmen do not <lb/>go down in the mines lest the stench affect their health or actually kill them, <lb/>as I will explain in greater detail when I come to speak of the evils which <lb/>affect miners. </s> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister,<emph.end type="italics"/> in order to prevent workmen from being <lb/>suffocated, gives no one permission to break veins or rock by fire in shafts or <lb/>tunnels where it is possible for the poisonous vapour and smoke to permeate <lb/>the veins or stringers and pass through into the neighbouring mines, which <lb/>have no hard veins or rock. </s> <s>As for that part of a vein or the surface of the <lb/>rock which the fire has separated from the remaining mass, if it is overhead, <lb/>the miners dislodge it with a crowbar, or if it still has some degree of hardness, <lb/>they thrust a smaller crowbar into the cracks and so break it down, but if <pb pagenum="121"/>it is on the sides they break it with hammers. </s> <s>Thus broken off, the rock <lb/>tumbles down; or if it still remains, they break it off with picks. </s> <s>Rock <lb/>and earth on the one hand, and metal and ore on the other, are filled into <lb/>buckets separately and drawn up to the open air or to the nearest tunnel. <lb/></s> <s>If the shaft is not deep, the buckets are drawn up by a machine turned by <lb/>men; if it is deep, they are drawn by machines turned by horses.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It often happens that a rush of water or sometimes stagnant air hinders <lb/>the mining; for this reason miners pay the greatest attention to these <lb/>matters, just as much as to digging, or they should do so. </s> <s>The water of the <lb/>veins and stringers and especially of vacant workings, must be drained out <lb/>through the shafts and tunnels. </s> <s>Air, indeed, becomes stagnant both in <lb/>tunnels and in shafts; in a deep shaft, if it be by itself, this occurs if it is <lb/>neither reached by a tunnel nor connected by a drift with another shaft; <lb/>this occurs in a tunnel if it has been driven too far into a mountain and no <lb/>shaft has yet been sunk deep enough to meet it; in neither case can the <lb/>air move or circulate. </s> <s>For this reason the vapours become heavy and <lb/>resemble mist, and they smell of mouldiness, like a vault or some under­<lb/>ground chamber which has been completely closed for many years. </s> <s>This <lb/>suffices to prevent miners from continuing their work for long in these places, <lb/>even if the mine is full of silver or gold, or if they do continue, they cannot <lb/>breathe freely and they have headaches; this more often happens if they <lb/>work in these places in great numbers, and bring many lamps, which then <lb/>supply them with a feeble light, because the foul air from both lamps and <lb/>men make the vapours still more heavy.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>A small quantity of water is drawn from the shafts by machines of <lb/>different kinds which men turn or work. </s> <s>If so great a quantity has flowed <lb/>into one shaft as greatly to impede mining, another shaft is sunk some <lb/>fathoms distant from the first, and thus in one of them work and labour are <lb/>carried on without hindrance, and the water is drained into the other, which <lb/>is sunk lower than the level of the water in the first one; then by these <lb/>machines or by those worked by horses, the water is drawn up into the drain <lb/>and flows out of the shaft-house or the mouth of the nearest tunnel. </s> <s>But <lb/>when into the shaft of one mine, which is sunk more deeply, there flows all <lb/>the water of all the neighbouring mines, not only from that vein in which <lb/>the shaft is sunk, but also from other veins, then it becomes necessary for a <lb/>large sump to be made to collect the water; from this sump the water is <lb/>drained by machines which draw it through pipes, or by ox-hides, about <lb/>which I will say more in the next book. </s> <s>The water which pours into the <lb/>tunnels from the veins and stringers and seams in the rocks is carried <lb/>away in the drains.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Air is driven into the extremities of deep shafts and long tunnels by <lb/>powerful blowing machines, as I will explain in the following book, which <lb/>will deal with these machines also. </s> <s>The outer air flows spontaneously into <lb/>the caverns of the earth, and when it can pass through them comes out again. <lb/></s> <s>This, however, comes about in different ways, for in spring and summer it <lb/>flows into the deeper shafts, traverses the tunnels or drifts, and finds its way <pb pagenum="122"/>out of the shallower shafts; similarly at the same season it pours into the <lb/>lowest tunnel and, meeting a shaft in its course, turns aside to a higher tunnel <lb/>and passes out therefrom; but in autumn and winter, on the other hand, it <lb/>enters the upper tunnel or shaft and comes out at the deeper ones. </s> <s>This <lb/>change in the flow of air currents occurs in temperate regions at the beginning <lb/>of spring and the end of autumn, but in cold regions at the end of spring <lb/>and the beginning of autumn. </s> <s>But at each period, before the air regularly <lb/>assumes its own accustomed course, generally for a space of fourteen days <lb/>it undergoes frequent variations, now blowing into an upper shaft or <lb/>tunnel, now into a lower one. </s> <s>But enough of this, let us now proceed to <lb/>what remains.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are two kinds of shafts, one of the depth already described, of <lb/>which kind there are usually several in one mine; especially if the mine is <lb/>entered by a tunnel and is metal-bearing. </s> <s>For when the first tunnel is <lb/>connected with the first shaft, two new shafts are sunk; or if the inrush of <lb/>water hinders sinking, sometimes three are sunk; so that one may take <lb/>the place of a sump and the work of sinking which has been begun may be <lb/>continued by means of the remaining two shafts; the same is done in the <lb/>case of the second tunnel and the third, or even the fourth, if so many are <lb/>driven into a mountain. </s> <s>The second kind of shaft is very deep, sometimes <lb/>as much as sixty, eighty, or one hundred fathoms. </s> <s>These shafts continue <lb/>vertically toward the depths of the earth, and by means of a hauling-rope <lb/>the broken rock and metalliferous ores are drawn out of the mine; for which <lb/>reason miners call them vertical shafts. </s> <s>Over these shafts are erected <lb/>machines by which water is extracted; when they are above ground the <lb/>machines are usually worked by horses, but when they are in tunnels, other <lb/>kinds are used which are turned by water-power. </s> <s>Such are the shafts which <lb/>are sunk when a vein is rich in metal.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now shafts, of whatever kind they may be, are supported in various <lb/>ways. </s> <s>If the vein is hard, and also the hanging and footwall rock, the shaft <lb/>does not require much timbering, but timbers are placed at intervals, one end <lb/>of each of which is fixed in a hitch cut into the rock of the hangingwall and <lb/>the other fixed into a hitch cut in the footwall. </s> <s>To these timbers are fixed <lb/>small timbers along the footwall, to which are fastened the lagging and <lb/>ladders. </s> <s>The lagging is also fixed to the timbers, both to those which screen <lb/>off the shaft on the ends from the vein, and to those which screen off the <lb/>rest of the shaft from that part in which the ladders are placed. </s> <s>The lagging <lb/>on the sides of the shaft confine the vein, so as to prevent fragments of it <lb/>which have become loosened by water from dropping into the shaft and <lb/>terrifying, or injuring, or knocking off the miners and other workmen who <lb/>are going up or down the ladders from one part of the mine to another. </s> <s>For <lb/>the same reason, the lagging between the ladders and the haulage-way on <lb/>the other hand, confine and shut off from the ladders the fragments of rock <lb/>which fall from the buckets or baskets while they are being drawn up; <lb/>moreover, they make the arduous and difficult descent and ascent to appear <lb/>less terrible, and in fact to be less dangerous.</s></p><pb pagenum="123"/><p type="main"> <s>If a vein is soft and the rock of the hanging and footwalls is weak, <lb/>a closer structure is necessary; for this purpose timbers are joined together <lb/>in rectangular shapes and placed one after the other without a break. </s> <s>These </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WALL PLATES. B—DIVIDERS. C—LONG END POSTS. D—END PLATES.<pb pagenum="124"/>are arranged on two different systems; for either the square ends of the <lb/>timbers, which reach from the hangingwall to the footwall, are fixed into corres­<lb/>ponding square holes in the timbers which lie along the hanging or footwall, <lb/>or the upper part of the end of one and the lower part of the end of the other <lb/>are cut out and one laid on the other. </s> <s>The great weight of these joined <lb/>timbers is sustained by stout beams placed at intervals, which are deeply set <lb/>into hitches in the footwall and hangingwall, but are inclined. </s> <s>In order that <lb/>these joined timbers may remain stationary, wooden wedges or poles cut <lb/>from trees are driven in between the timbers and the vein and the hanging <lb/>wall and the footwall; and the space which remains empty is filled with loose <lb/>dirt. </s> <s>If the hanging and footwall rock is sometimes hard and sometimes soft, <lb/>and the vein likewise, solid joined timbers are not used, but timbers are <lb/>placed at intervals; and where the rock is soft and the vein crumbling, <lb/>carpenters put in lagging between them and the wall rocks, and behind these <lb/>they fill with loose dirt; by this means they fill up the void.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When a very deep shaft, whether vertical or inclined, is supported by <lb/>joined timbers, then, since they are sometimes of bad material and a fall is <lb/>threatened, for the sake of greater firmness three or four pairs of strong end <lb/>posts are placed between these, one pair on the hangingwall side, the other <lb/>on the footwall side. </s> <s>To prevent them from falling out of position and to <lb/>make them firm and substantial, they are supported by frequent end plates, <lb/>and in order that these may be more securely fixed they are mortised into <lb/>the posts. </s> <s>Further, in whatever way the shaft may be timbered, dividers <lb/>are placed upon the wall plates, and to these is fixed lagging, and this <lb/>marks off and separates the ladder-way from the remaining part of the shaft. <lb/></s> <s>If a vertical shaft is a very deep one, planks are laid upon the timbers by the <lb/>side of the ladders and fixed on to the timbers, in order that the men who are <lb/>going up or down may sit or stand upon them and rest when they are tired. <lb/></s> <s>To prevent danger to the shovellers from rocks which, after being drawn up <lb/>from so deep a shaft fall down again, a little above the bottom of the shaft <lb/>small rough sticks are placed close together on the timbers, in such a way as <lb/>to cover the whole space of the shaft except the ladder-way. </s> <s>A hole, <lb/>however, is left in this structure near the footwall, which is kept open so that <lb/>there may be one opening to the shaft from the bottom, that the buckets <lb/>full of the materials which have been dug out may be drawn from the <lb/>shaft through it by machines, and may be returned to the same place again <lb/>empty; and so the shovellers and other workmen, as it were hiding beneath <lb/>this structure, remain perfectly safe in the shaft.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In mines on one vein there are driven one, two, or sometimes three <lb/>or more tunnels, always one above the other. </s> <s>If the vein is solid and <lb/>hard, and likewise the hanging and footwall rock, no part of the tunnel <lb/>needs support, beyond that which is required at the mouth, because at that <lb/>spot there is not yet solid rock; if the vein is soft, and the hanging and <lb/>footwall rock are likewise soft, the tunnel requires frequent strong timbering, <lb/>which is provided in the following way. </s> <s>First, two dressed posts are erected <lb/>and set into the tunnel floor, which is dug out a little; these are of medium <pb pagenum="125"/>thickness, and high enough that their ends, which are cut square, almost <lb/>touch the top of the tunnel; then upon them is placed a smaller dressed cap, <lb/>which is mortised into the heads of the posts: at the bottom, other small <lb/>timbers, whose ends are similarly squared, are mortised into the posts. </s> <s>At <lb/>each interval of one and a half fathoms, one of these sets is erected; each one <lb/>of these the miners call a “little doorway,” because it opens a certain amount <lb/>of passage way; and indeed, when necessity requires it, doors are fixed to the <lb/>timbers of each little doorway so that it can be closed. </s> <s>Then lagging of <lb/>planks or of poles is placed upon the caps lengthwise, so as to reach from one <lb/>set of timbers to another, and is laid along the sides, in case some portion of <lb/>the body of the mountain may fall, and by its bulk impede passage or crush <lb/>persons coming in or out. </s> <s>Moreover, to make the timbers remain stationary, <lb/>wooden pegs are driven between them and the sides of the tunnel. </s> <s>Lastly, <lb/>if rock or earth are carried out in wheelbarrows, planks joined together are <lb/>laid upon the sills; if the rock is hauled out in trucks, then two timbers <lb/>three-quarters of a foot thick and wide are laid on the sills, and, where they <lb/>join, these are usually hollowed out so that in the hollow, as in a road, the iron <lb/>pin of the truck may be pushed along; indeed, because of this pin in the <lb/>groove, the truck does not leave the worn track to the left or right. </s> <s>Beneath <lb/>the sills are the drains through which the water flows away.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—POSTS. B—CAPS. C—SILLS. D—DOORS. E—LAGGING. F—DRAINS.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Miners timber drifts in the same way as tunnels. </s> <s>These do not, however, <lb/>require sill-pieces, or drains; for the broken rock is not hauled very far, nor does <lb/>the water have far to flow. </s> <s>If the vein above is metal-bearing, as it sometimes is <pb pagenum="126"/>for a distance of several fathoms, then from the upper part of tunnels or even <lb/>drifts that have already been driven, other drifts are driven again <lb/>and again until that part of the vein is reached which does not yield metal. <lb/></s> <s>The timbering of these openings is done as follows: stulls are set at <lb/>intervals into hitches in the hanging and footwall, and upon them <lb/>smooth poles are laid continuously; and that they may be able to <lb/>bear the weight, the stulls are generally a foot and a half thick. </s> <s>After the <lb/>ore has been taken out and the mining of the vein is being done elsewhere, <lb/>the rock then broken, especially if it cannot be taken away without great <lb/>difficulty, is thrown into these openings among the timber, and the carriers <lb/>of the ore are saved toil, and the owners save half the expense. </s> <s>This then, <lb/>generally speaking, is the method by which everything relating to the <lb/>timbering of shafts, tunnels, and drifts is carried out.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>All that I have hitherto written is in part peculiar to <emph type="italics"/>venae profundae,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and in part common to all kinds of veins; of what follows, part is specially <lb/>applicable to <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> part to <emph type="italics"/>venae cumulatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> But first I will <lb/>describe how <emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> should be mined. </s> <s>Where torrents, rivers, or <lb/>streams have by inundations washed away part of the slope of a mountain or <lb/>a hill, and have disclosed a <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata,<emph.end type="italics"/> a tunnel should be driven first straight <lb/>and narrow, and then wider, for nearly all the vein should be hewn away; and <lb/>when this tunnel has been driven further, a shaft which supplies air should be <lb/>sunk in the mountain or hill, and through it from time to time the ore, earth, <lb/>and rock can be drawn up at less expense than if they be drawn out through the <lb/>very great length of the tunnel; and even in those places to which the tunnel <lb/>does not yet reach, miners dig shafts in order to open a <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/> which <lb/>they conjecture must lie beneath the soil. </s> <s>In this way, when the upper <lb/>layers are removed, they dig through rock sometimes of one kind and colour, <lb/>sometimes of one kind but different colours, sometimes of different kinds but <lb/>of one colour, and, lastly, of different kinds and different colours. </s> <s>The thickness <lb/>of rock, both of each single stratum and of all combined, is uncertain, for <lb/>the whole of the strata are in some places twenty fathoms deep, in others <lb/>more than fifty; individual strata are in some places half a foot thick; in others, <lb/>one, two, or more feet; in others, one, two, three, or more fathoms. </s> <s>For <lb/>example, in those districts which lie at the foot of the Harz mountains, <lb/>there are many different coloured strata, covering a copper <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>When the soil has been stripped, first of all is disclosed a stratum which <lb/>is red, but of a dull shade and of a thickness of twenty, thirty, or five and <lb/>thirty fathoms. </s> <s>Then there is another stratum, also red, but of a light <lb/>shade, which has usually a thickness of about two fathoms. </s> <s>Beneath this is a <lb/>stratum of ash-coloured clay nearly a fathom thick, which, although it is <lb/>not metalliferous, is reckoned a vein. </s> <s>Then follows a third stratum, <lb/>which is ashy, and about three fathoms thick. </s> <s>Beneath this lies a vein <lb/>of ashes to the thickness of five fathoms, and these ashes are mixed with <lb/>rock of the same colour. </s> <s>Joined to the last, and underneath, comes a <lb/>stratum, the fourth in number, dark in colour and a foot thick. </s> <s>Under this <lb/>comes the fifth stratum, of a pale or yellowish colour, two feet thick; under-<pb pagenum="127"/>neath which is the sixth stratum, likewise dark, but rough and three feet <lb/>thick. </s> <s>Afterward occurs the seventh stratum, likewise of dark colour, but <lb/>still darker than the last, and two feet thick. </s> <s>This is followed by an eighth <lb/>stratum, ashy, rough, and a foot thick. </s> <s>This kind, as also the others, <lb/>is sometimes distinguished by stringers of the stone which easily melts in <lb/>fire of the second order. </s> <s>Beneath this is another ashy rock, light in <lb/>weight, and five feet thick. </s> <s>Next to this comes a lighter ash-coloured <lb/>one, a foot thick; beneath this lies the eleventh stratum, which is dark and <lb/>very much like the seventh, and two feet thick. </s> <s>Below the last is <lb/>a twelfth stratum of a whitish colour and soft, also two feet thick; the <lb/>weight of this rests on a thirteenth stratum, ashy and one foot thick, whose <lb/>weight is in turn supported by a fourteenth stratum, which is blackish and <lb/>half a foot thick. </s> <s>There follows this, another stratum of black colour, <lb/>likewise half a foot thick, which is again followed by a sixteenth stratum <lb/>still blacker in colour, whose thickness is also the same. </s> <s>Beneath this, and <lb/>last of all, lies the cupriferous stratum, black coloured and schistose, in which <lb/>there sometimes glitter scales of gold-coloured pyrites in the very thin sheets, <lb/>which, as I said elsewhere, often take the forms of various living things.<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The miners mine out a <emph type="italics"/>vena dílatata<emph.end type="italics"/> laterally and longitudinally by <lb/>driving a low tunnel in it, and if the nature of the work and place permit, they <lb/>sink also a shaft in order to discover whether there is a second vein beneath <lb/>the first one; for sometimes beneath it there are two, three, or more similar <lb/>metal-bearing veins, and these are excavated in the same way laterally and <lb/>longitudinally. </s> <s>They generally mine <emph type="italics"/>venæ dilatatæ<emph.end type="italics"/> lying down; and to <pb pagenum="128"/>avoid wearing away their clothes and injuring their left shoulders they <lb/>usually bind on themselves small wooden cradles. </s> <s>For this reason, this <lb/>particular class of miners, in order to use their iron tools, are obliged to bend <lb/>their necks to the left, not infrequently having them twisted. </s> <s>Now these <lb/>veins also sometimes divide, and where these parts re-unite, ore of a richer and <lb/>a better quality is generally found; the same thing occurs where the stringers, <lb/>of which they are not altogether devoid, join with them, or cut them crosswise, <lb/>or divide them obliquely. </s> <s>To prevent a mountain or hill, which has in <lb/>this way been undermined, from subsiding by its weight, either some natural <lb/>pillars and arches are left, on which the pressure rests as on a foundation, or <lb/>timbering is done for support. </s> <s>Moreover, the materials which are dug out <lb/>and which are devoid of metal are removed in bowls, and are thrown back, <lb/>thus once more filling the caverns.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Next, as to <emph type="italics"/>venæ cumulatæ.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> These are dug by a somewhat different <lb/>method, for when one of these shows some metal at the top of the ground, <lb/>first of all one shaft is sunk; then, if it is worth while, around this one many <lb/>shafts are sunk and tunnels are driven into the mountain. </s> <s>If a torrent or <lb/>spring has torn fragments of metal from such a vein, a tunnel is first driven <lb/>into the mountain or hill for the purpose of searching for the ore; then <lb/>when it is found, a vertical shaft is sunk in it. </s> <s>Since the whole mountain, or <lb/>more especially the whole hill, is undermined, seeing that the whole of it is <lb/>composed of ore, it is necessary to leave the natural pillars and arches, or the <lb/>place is timbered. </s> <s>But sometimes when a vein is very hard it is broken by <lb/>fire, whereby it happens that the soft pillars break up, or the timbers are <lb/>burnt away, and the mountain by its great weight sinks into itself, and then <lb/>the shaft buildings are swallowed up in the great subsidence. </s> <s>Therefore, <lb/>about a <emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"/> it is advisable to sink some shafts which are not sub­<lb/>ject to this kind of ruin, through which the materials that are excavated may <lb/>be carried out, not only while the pillars and underpinnings still remain whole <lb/>and solid, but also after the supports have been destroyed by fire and have <lb/>fallen. </s> <s>Since ore which has thus fallen must necessarily be broken by fire, <lb/>new shafts through which the smoke can escape must be sunk in the abyss. <lb/></s> <s>At those places where stringers intersect, richer ore is generally obtained <lb/>from the mine; these stringers, in the case of tin mines, sometimes have in <lb/>them black stones the size of a walnut. </s> <s>If such a vein is found in a plain, <lb/>as not infrequently happens in the case of iron, many shafts are sunk, because <lb/>they cannot be sunk very deep. </s> <s>The work is carried on by this method <lb/>because the miners cannot drive a tunnel into a level plain of this kind.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There remain the stringers in which gold alone is sometimes found, <lb/>in the vicinity of rivers and streams, or in swamps. </s> <s>If upon the soil being <lb/>removed, many of these are found, composed of earth somewhat baked and <lb/>burnt, as may sometimes be seen in clay pits, there is some hope that gold <lb/>may be obtained from them, especially if several join together. </s> <s>But the <lb/>very point of junction must be pierced, and the length and width searched <lb/>for ore, and in these places very deep shafts cannot be sunk.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I have completed one part of this book, and now come to the other, in <lb/>which I will deal with the art of surveying. </s> <s>Miners measure the solid <pb pagenum="129"/>mass of the mountains in order that the owners may lay out their plans, and <lb/>that their workmen may not encroach on other people's possessions. </s> <s>The <lb/>surveyor either measures the interval not yet wholly dug through, which <lb/>lies between the mouth of a tunnel and a shaft to be sunk to that depth, or <lb/>between the mouth of a shaft and the tunnel to be driven to that spot which <lb/>lies under the shaft, or between both, if the tunnel is neither so long as to <lb/>reach to the shaft, nor the shaft so deep as to reach to the tunnel; and thus <lb/>on both sides work is still to be done. </s> <s>Or in some cases, within the tunnels <lb/>and drifts, are to be fixed the boundaries of the meers, just as the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeister<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>has determined the boundaries of the same meers above ground.<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Each method of surveying depends on the measuring of triangles. </s> <s>A <lb/>small triangle should be laid out, and from it calculations must be made <lb/>regarding a larger one. </s> <s>Most particular care must be taken that we do not <lb/>deviate at all from a correct measuring; for if, at the beginning, we are drawn <pb pagenum="130"/>by carelessness into a slight error, this at the end will produce great errors. <lb/></s> <s>Now these triangles are of many shapes, since shafts differ among themselves <lb/>and are not all sunk by one and the same method into the depths of the <lb/>earth, nor do the slopes of all mountains come down to the valley or plain in <lb/>the same manner. </s> <s>For if a shaft is vertical, there is a triangle with a right <lb/>angle, which the Greeks call <foreign lang="greek">o)rqogw/nion</foreign> and this, according to the <lb/>inequalities of the mountain slope, has either two equal sides or three unequal <lb/>sides. </s> <s>The Greeks call the former <foreign lang="greek">tri/gwnon i)soskele/s</foreign> the latter <foreign lang="greek">skalhno/n</foreign> for <lb/>a right angle triangle cannot have three equal sides. </s> <s>If a shaft is inclined <lb/>and sunk in the same vein in which the tunnel is driven, a triangle is likewise <lb/>made with a right angle, and this again, according to the various inequalities <lb/>of the mountain slope, has either two equal or three unequal sides. </s> <s>But if <lb/>a shaft is inclined and is sunk in one vein, and a tunnel is driven in <lb/>another vein, then a triangle comes into existence which has either an obtuse <lb/>angle or all acute angles. </s> <s>The former the Greeks call <foreign lang="greek">a)mblugw/nion,</foreign> the latter <lb/><foreign lang="greek">o)xugw/nion.</foreign> That triangle which has an obtuse angle cannot have three <lb/>equal sides, but in accordance with the different mountain slopes has either <lb/>two equal sides or three unequal sides. </s> <s>That triangle which has all acute <lb/>angles in accordance with the different mountain slopes has either three equal <lb/>sides, which the Greeks call <foreign lang="greek">tri/gwnon i)so/pleuron</foreign> or two equal sides or three <lb/>unequal sides.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The surveyor, as I said, employs his art when the owners of the mines <lb/>desire to know how many fathoms of the intervening ground require to be <lb/>dug; when a tunnel is being driven toward a shaft and does not yet reach <lb/>it; or when the shaft has not yet been sunk to the depth of the bottom of the <lb/>tunnel which is under it; or when neither the tunnel reaches to that point, <lb/>nor has the shaft been sunk to it. </s> <s>It is of importance that miners should <lb/>know how many fathoms remain from the tunnel to the shaft, or from the <lb/>shaft to the tunnel, in order to calculate the expenditure; and in order that <lb/>the owners of a metal-bearing mine may hasten the sinking of a shaft and <lb/>the excavation of the metal, before the tunnel reaches that point and the <lb/>tunnel owners excavate part of the metal by any right of their own; and on <lb/>the other hand, it is important that the owners of a tunnel may similarly <lb/>hasten their driving before a shaft can be sunk to the depth of a tunnel, so <lb/>that they may excavate the metal to which they will have a right.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The surveyor, first of all, if the beams of the shaft-house do not give him <lb/>the opportunity, sets a pair of forked posts by the sides of the shaft in such <lb/>a manner that a pole may be laid across them. </s> <s>Next, from the pole he lets <lb/>down into the shaft a cord with a weight attached to it. </s> <s>Then he stretches a <lb/>second cord, attached to the upper end of the first cord, right down along the <lb/>slope of the mountain to the bottom of the mouth of the tunnel, and fixes it to <lb/>the ground. </s> <s>Next, from the same pole not far from the first cord, he lets <lb/>down a third cord, similarly weighted, so that it may intersect the second <lb/>cord, which descends obliquely. </s> <s>Then, starting from that point where the <lb/>third cord cuts the second cord which descends obliquely to the mouth of the <lb/>tunnel, he measures the second cord upward to where it reaches the end of </s></p><pb pagenum="131"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—UPRIGHT FORKED POSTS. B—POLE OVER THE POSTS. C—SHAFT. D—FIRST CORD. <lb/>E—WEIGHT OF FIRST CORD. F—SECOND CORD. G—SAME FIXED GROUND. H—HEAD <lb/>OF FIRST CORD. I—MOUTH OF TUNNEL. K—THIRD CORD. L—WEIGHT OF THIRD CORD. <lb/>M—FIRST SIDE MINOR TRIANGLE. N—SECOND SIDE MINOR TRIANGLE. O—THIRD SIDE <lb/>MINOR TRIANGLE. P—THE MINOR TRIANGLE.<pb pagenum="132"/>the first cord, and makes a note of this first side of the minor triangle<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>. <lb/></s> <s>Afterward, starting again from that point where the third cord intersects the <lb/>second cord, he measures the straight space which lies between that point <lb/>and the opposite point on the first cord, and in that way forms the minor <lb/>triangle, and he notes this second side of the minor triangle in the same way as <lb/>before. </s> <s>Then, if it is necessary, from the angle formed by the first cord and <lb/>the second side of the minor triangle, he measures upward to the end of the <lb/>first cord and also makes a note of this third side of the minor triangle. </s> <s>The <lb/>third side of the minor triangle, if the shaft is vertical or inclined and is sunk <lb/>on the same vein in which the tunnel is driven, will necessarily be the same <lb/>length as the third cord above the point where it intersects the second cord; <lb/>and so, as often as the first side of the minor triangle is contained in the <lb/>length of the whole cord which descends obliquely, so many times the length <lb/>of the second side of the minor triangle indicates the distance between the <lb/>mouth of the tunnel and the point to which the shaft must be sunk; and <lb/>similarly, so many times the length of the third side of the minor triangle <lb/>gives the distance between the mouth of the shaft and the bottom of the <lb/>tunnel.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When there is a level bench on the mountain slope, the surveyor first <lb/>measures across this with a measuring-rod; then at the edges of this bench <lb/>he sets up forked posts, and applies the principle of the triangle to the two <lb/>sloping parts of the mountain; and to the fathoms which are the length of <lb/>that part of the tunnel determined by the triangles, he adds the number <lb/>of fathoms which are the width of the bench. </s> <s>But if sometimes the <lb/>mountain side stands up, so that a cord cannot run down from the shaft to <lb/>the mouth of the tunnel, or, on the other hand, cannot run up from the <lb/>mouth of the tunnel to the shaft, and, therefore, one cannot connect them in <lb/>a straight line, the surveyor, in order to fix an accurate triangle, measures the <lb/>mountain; and going downward he substitutes for the first part of the cord <lb/>a pole one fathom long, and for the second part a pole half a fathom <lb/>long. </s> <s>Going upward, on the contrary, for the first part of the cord he sub­<lb/>stitutes a pole half a fathom long, and for the next part, one a whole fathom <lb/>long; then where he requires to fix his triangle he adds a straight line to <lb/>these angles.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>To make this system of measuring clear and more explicit, I will proceed <lb/>by describing each separate kind of triangle. </s> <s>When a shaft is vertical or <lb/>inclined, and is sunk in the same vein on which the tunnel is driven, there <lb/>is created, as I said, a triangle containing a right angle. </s> <s>Now if the minor <lb/>triangle has the two sides equal, which, in accordance with the numbering <lb/>used by surveyors, are the second and third sides, then the second and third <lb/>sides of the major triangle will be equal; and so also the intervening <lb/>distances will be equal which lie between the mouth of the tunnel and the <lb/>bottom of the shaft, and which lie between the mouth of the shaft and the <lb/>bottom of the tunnel. </s> <s>For example, if the first side of the minor triangle is <lb/>seven feet long and the second and likewise the third sides are five feet, and <pb pagenum="133"/>the length shown by the cord for the side of the major triangle is 101 times <lb/>seven feet, that is 117 fathoms and five feet, then the intervening space, of <lb/>course, whether the whole of it has been already driven through or has yet <lb/>to be driven, will be one hundred times five feet, which makes eighty-three <lb/>fathoms and two feet. </s> <s>Anyone with this example of proportions will be <lb/>able to construct the major and minor triangles in the same way as I have <lb/>done, if there be the necessary upright posts and cross-beams. </s> <s>When a shaft is <lb/>vertical the triangle is absolutely upright; when it is inclined and is sunk on <lb/>the same vein in which the tunnel is driven, it is inclined toward one side. </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A TRIANGLE HAVING A RIGHT ANGLE AND TWO EQUAL SIDES.<lb/>Therefore, if a tunnel has been driven into the mountain for sixty fathoms, <lb/>there remains a space of ground to be penetrated twenty-three fathoms and <lb/>two feet long; for five feet of the second side of the major triangle, which <lb/>lies above the mouth of the shaft and corresponds with the first side of the <lb/>minor triangle, must not be added. </s> <s>Therefore, if the shaft has been sunk <lb/>in the middle of the head meer, a tunnel sixty fathoms long will reach <lb/>to the boundary of the meer only when the tunnel has been extended a <lb/>further two fathoms and two feet; but if the shaft is located in the middle of <lb/>an ordinary meer, then the boundary will be reached when the tunnel has been <lb/>driven a further length of nine fathoms and two feet. </s> <s>Since a tunnel, for <lb/>every one hundred fathoms of length, rises in grade one fathom, or at all <lb/>events, ought to rise as it proceeds toward the shaft, one more fathom must <lb/>always be taken from the depth allowed to the shaft, and one added to the <lb/>length allowed to the tunnel. </s> <s>Proportionately, because a tunnel fifty <lb/>fathoms long is raised half a fathom, this amount must be taken from the <lb/>depth of the shaft and added to the length of the tunnel. </s> <s>In the same way <lb/>if a tunnel is one hundred or fifty fathoms shorter or longer, the same propor­<lb/>tion also must be taken from the depth of the one and added to the length <lb/>of the other. </s> <s>For this reason, in the case mentioned above, half a fathom <lb/>and a little more must be added to the distance to be driven through, so <lb/>that there remain twenty-three fathoms, five feet, two palms, one and a half <lb/>digits and a fifth of a digit; that is, if even the minutest proportions are <lb/>carried out; and surveyors do not neglect these without good cause. <lb/></s> <s>Similarly, if the shaft is seventy fathoms deep, in order that it may reach to <lb/>the bottom of the tunnel, it still must be sunk a further depth of thirteen <lb/>fathoms and two feet, or rather twelve fathoms and a half, one foot, two <lb/>digits, and four-fifths of half a digit. </s> <s>And in this instance five feet must be <lb/>deducted from the reckoning, because these five feet complete the third side <lb/>of the minor triangle, which is above the mouth of the shaft, and from its <pb pagenum="134"/>depth there must be deducted half a fathom, two palms, one and a half digits <lb/>and the fifth part of half a digit. </s> <s>But if the tunnel has been driven to a <lb/>point where it is under the shaft, then to reach the roof of the tunnel the <lb/>shaft must still be sunk a depth of eleven fathoms, two and a half feet, one <lb/>palm, two digits, and four-fifths of half a digit.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If a minor triangle is produced of the kind having three unequal sides, <lb/>then the sides of the greater triangle cannot be equal; that is, if the first <lb/>side of the minor triangle is eight feet long, the second six feet long, and the <lb/>third five feet long, and the cord along the side of the greater triangle, not <lb/>to go too far from the example just given, is one hundred and one times <lb/>eight feet, that is, one hundred and thirty-four fathoms and four feet, the <lb/>distance which lies between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of the <lb/>shaft will occupy one hundred times six feet in length, that is, one hundred <lb/>fathoms. </s> <s>The distance between the mouth of the shaft and the bottom of the <lb/>tunnel is one hundred times five feet, that is, eighty-three fathoms and two feet. <lb/></s> <s>And so, if the tunnel is eighty-five fathoms long, the remainder to be driven <lb/>into the mountain is fifteen fathoms long, and here, too, a correction in <lb/>measurement must be taken from the depth of the shaft and added to the <lb/>length of the tunnel; what this is precisely, I will pursue no further, since <lb/>everyone having a small knowledge of arithmetic can work it out. </s> <s>If the <lb/>shaft is sixty-seven fathoms deep, in order that it may reach the bottom of <lb/>the tunnel, the further distance required to be sunk amounts to sixteen <lb/>fathoms and two feet.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A TRIANGLE HAVING A RIGHT ANGLE AND THREE UNEQUAL SIDES.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The surveyor employs this same method in measuring the mountain, <lb/>whether the shaft and tunnel are on one and the same vein, whether the vein <lb/>is vertical or inclined, or whether the shaft is on the principal vein and the tunnel <lb/>on a transverse vein descending vertically to the depths of the earth; in the <lb/>latter case the excavation is to be made where the transverse vein cuts the <lb/>vertical vein. </s> <s>If the principal vein descends on an incline and the cross-vein <lb/>descends vertically, then a minor triangle is created having one obtuse angle or <lb/>all three angles acute. </s> <s>If the minor triangle has one angle obtuse and the two <lb/>sides which are the second and third are equal, then the second and third <lb/>sides of the major triangle will be equal, so that if the first side of the minor <lb/>triangle is nine feet, the second, and likewise the third, will be five feet. </s> <s>Then <lb/>the first side of the major triangle will be one hundred and one times nine <lb/>feet, or one hundred and fifty-one and one-half fathoms, and each of the <lb/>other sides of the major triangle will be one hundred times five feet, that is, <lb/>eighty-three fathoms and two feet. </s> <s>But when the first shaft is inclined, <pb pagenum="135"/>generally speaking, it is not deep; but there are usually several, all <lb/>inclined, and one always following the other. </s> <s>Therefore, if a tunnel is seventy­<lb/>seven fathoms long, it will reach to the middle of the bottom of a shaft when <lb/>six fathoms and two feet further have been sunk. </s> <s>But if all such inclined <lb/>shafts are seventy-six fathoms deep, in order that the last one may reach <lb/>the bottom of the tunnel, a depth of seven fathoms and two feet remains to <lb/>be sunk.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>TRIANGLE HAVING AN OBTUSE ANGLE AND TWO EQUAL SIDES.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If a minor triangle is made which has an obtuse angle and three unequal <lb/>sides, then again the sides of the large triangle cannot be equal. </s> <s>For <lb/>example, if the first side of the minor triangle is six feet long, the second <lb/>three feet, and the third four feet, and the cord along the side of the greater <lb/>triangle one hundred and one times six feet, that is, one hundred and one <lb/>fathoms, the distance between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of <lb/>the last shaft will be a length one hundred times three feet, or fifty fathoms; <lb/>but the depth that lies between the mouth of the first shaft and the bottom of <lb/>the tunnel is one hundred times four feet, or sixty-six fathoms and four feet. <lb/></s> <s>Therefore, if a tunnel is forty-four fathoms long, the remaining distance to <lb/>be driven is six fathoms. </s> <s>If the shafts are fifty-eight fathoms deep, the <lb/>newest will touch the bottom of the tunnel when eight fathoms and four <lb/>feet have been sunk.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>TRIANGLE HAVING AN OBTUSE ANGLE AND THREE UNEQUAL SIDES.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If a minor triangle is produced which has all its angles acute and its <lb/>three sides equal, then necessarily the second and third sides of the minor <lb/>triangle will be equal, and likewise the sides of the major triangle frequently <lb/>referred to will be equal. </s> <s>Thus if each side of the minor triangle is six feet <lb/>long, and the cord measurement for the side of the major triangle is one <lb/>hundred and one times six feet, that is, one hundred and one fathoms, then <lb/>both the distances to be dug will be one hundred fathoms. </s> <s>And thus if the <lb/>tunnel is ninety fathoms long, it will reach the middle of the bottom of the <lb/>last shaft when ten fathoms further have been driven. </s> <s>If the shafts are <pb pagenum="136"/>ninety-five fathoms deep, the last will reach the bottom of the tunnel when <lb/>it is sunk a further depth of five fathoms.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND ITS THREE SIDES EQUAL.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If a triangle is made which has all its angles acute, but only two sides <lb/>equal, namely, the first and third, then the second and third sides are not <lb/>equal; therefore the distances to be dug cannot be equal. </s> <s>For example, if <lb/>the first side of the minor triangle is six feet long, and the second is four feet, <lb/>and the third is six feet, and the cord measurement for the side of the major <lb/>triangle is one hundred and one times six feet, that is, one hundred and one <lb/>fathoms, then the distance between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of <lb/>the last shaft will be sixty-six fathoms and four feet. </s> <s>But the distance from the <lb/>mouth of the first shaft to the bottom of the tunnel is one hundred fathoms. <lb/></s> <s>So if the tunnel is sixty fathoms long, the remaining distance to be driven <lb/>into the mountain is six fathoms and four feet. </s> <s>If the shaft is ninety-seven <lb/>fathoms deep, the last one will reach the bottom of the tunnel when a further <lb/>depth of three fathoms has been sunk.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND TWO SIDES EQUAL, A, B, UNEQUAL SIDE C.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If a minor triangle is produced which has all its angles acute, but its <lb/>three sides unequal, then again the distances to be dug cannot be equal. <lb/></s> <s>For example, if the first side of the minor triangle is seven feet long, the <lb/>second side is four feet, and the third side is six feet, and the cord measure­<lb/>ment for the side of the major triangle is one hundred and one times seven <lb/>feet or one hundred and seventeen fathoms and four feet, the distance <lb/>between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of the last shaft will be <lb/>four hundred feet or sixty-six fathoms, and the depth between the mouth of <lb/>the first shaft and the bottom of the tunnel will be one hundred fathoms. <lb/></s> <s>Therefore, if a tunnel is fifty fathoms long, it will reach the middle of the <lb/>bottom of the newest shaft when it has been driven sixteen fathoms and four <lb/>feet further. </s> <s>But if the shafts are then ninety-two fathoms deep, the last <pb pagenum="137"/>shaft will reach the bottom of the tunnel when it has been sunk a further <lb/>eight fathoms.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A TRIANGLE HAVING ALL ITS ANGLES ACUTE AND ITS THREE SIDES UNEQUAL.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>This is the method of the surveyor in measuring the mountain, if the <lb/>principal vein descends inclined into the depths of the earth or the transverse <lb/>vein is vertical. </s> <s>But if they are both inclined, the surveyor uses the same <lb/>method, or he measures the slope of the mountain separately from the slope <lb/>of the shaft. </s> <s>Next, if a transverse vein in which a tunnel is driven does not <lb/>cut the principal vein in that spot where the shaft is sunk, then it is necessary <lb/>for the starting point of the survey to be in the other shaft in which the <lb/>transverse vein cuts the principal vein. </s> <s>But if there be no shaft on that spot <lb/>where the outcrop of the transverse vein cuts the outcrop of the principal <lb/>vein, then the surface of the ground which lies between the shafts must <lb/>be measured, or that between the shaft and the place where the outcrop of <lb/>the one vein intersects the outcrop of the other.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some surveyors, although they use three cords, nevertheless ascertain <lb/>only the length of a tunnel by that method of measuring, and determine <lb/>the depth of a shaft by another method; that is, by the method by <lb/>which cords are re-stretched on a level part of the mountain or in <lb/>a valley, or in flat fields, and are measured again. </s> <s>Some, however, do <lb/>not employ this method in surveying the depth of a shaft and the <lb/>length of a tunnel, but use only two cords, a graduated hemicycle<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/> and a <lb/>rod half a fathom long. </s> <s>They suspend in the shaft one cord, fastened <lb/>from the upper pole and weighted, just as the others do. </s> <s>Fastened to the <lb/>upper end of this cord, they stretch another right down the slope of the mountain <lb/>to the bottom of the mouth of the tunnel and fix it to the ground. </s> <s>Then to <lb/>the upper part of this second cord they apply on its lower side the broad part <lb/>of a hemicycle. </s> <s>This consists of half a circle, the outer margin of which is <lb/>covered with wax, and within this are six semi-circular lines. </s> <s>From the <pb pagenum="138"/>waxed margin through the first semi-circular line, and reaching to the second, <lb/>there proceed straight lines converging toward the centre of the hemicycle; <lb/>these mark the middles of intervening spaces lying between other straight lines <lb/>which extend to the fourth semi-circular line. </s> <s>But all lines whatsoever, from <lb/>the waxed margin up to the fourth line, whether they go beyond it or not, <lb/>correspond with the graduated lines which mark the minor spaces of a rod. <lb/></s> <s>Those which go beyond the fourth line correspond with the lines marking </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WAXED SEMICIRCLE OF THE HEMICYCLE. B—SEMICIRCULAR LINES. C—STRAIGHT <lb/>LINES. D—LINE MEASURING THE HALF. E—LINE MEASURING THE WHOLE. F—TONGUE.<pb pagenum="139"/>the major spaces on the rod, and those which proceed further, mark the <lb/>middle of the intervening space which lies between the others. </s> <s>The <lb/>straight lines, which run from the fifth to the sixth semi-circular line, show <lb/>nothing further. </s> <s>Nor does the line which measures the half, show anything <lb/>when it has already passed from the sixth straight line to the base of the <lb/>hemicycle. </s> <s>When the hemicycle is applied to the cord, if its tongue indicates <lb/>the sixth straight line which lies between the second and third semi-circular <lb/>lines, the surveyor counts on the rod six lines which separate the minor <lb/>spaces, and if the length of this portion of the rod be taken from the second <lb/>cord, as many times as the cord itself is half-fathoms long, the remaining <lb/>length of cord shows the distance the tunnel must be driven to reach under <lb/>the shaft. </s> <s>But if he sees that the tongue has gone so far that it marks the <lb/>sixth line between the fourth and fifth semi-circular lines, he counts six lines <lb/>which separate the major spaces on the rod; and this entire space is deducted <lb/>from the length of the second cord, as many times as the number of whole <lb/>fathoms which the cord contains; and then, in like manner, the remaining <lb/>length of cord shows us the distance the tunnel must be driven to reach <lb/>under the shaft.<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>STRETCHED CORDS: A—FIRST CORD. B—SECOND CORD. C—THIRD CORD. <lb/>D—TRIANGLE.</s></p><pb pagenum="140"/><p type="main"> <s>Both these surveyors, as well as the others, in the first place make use <lb/>of the haulage rope. </s> <s>These they measure by means of others made of linden <lb/>bark, because the latter do not stretch at all, while the former become very <lb/>slack. </s> <s>These cords they stretch on the surveyor's field, the first one to <lb/>represent the parts of mountain slopes which descend obliquely. </s> <s>Then the <lb/>second cord, which represents the length of the tunnel to be driven to reach <lb/>the shaft, they place straight, in such a direction that one end of it can touch <lb/>the lower end of the first cord; then they similarly lay the third cord straight, <lb/>and in such a direction that its upper end may touch the upper end of <lb/>the first cord, and its lower end the other extremity of the second cord, and <lb/>thus a triangle is formed. </s> <s>This third cord is measured by the instrument <lb/>with the index, to determine its relation to the perpendicular; and the length <lb/>of this cord shows the depth of the shaft.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some surveyors, to make their system of measuring the depth of a shaft <lb/>more certain, use five stretched cords: the first one descending obliquely; <lb/>two, that is to say the second and third, for ascertaining the length of the <lb/>tunnel; two for the depth of the shaft; in which way they form a quadrangle <lb/>divided into two equal triangles, and this tends to greater accuracy.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>STRETCHED CORDS: A—FIRST. B—SECOND. B—THIRD. C—FOURTH. C—FIFTH. <lb/>D—QUADRANGLE.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>These systems of measuring the depth of a shaft and the length of a <lb/>tunnel, are accurate when the vein and also the shaft or shafts go down to the <pb pagenum="141"/>tunnel vertically or inclined, in an uninterrupted c<gap/>se. </s> <s>The same is true <lb/>when a tunnel runs straight on to a shaft. </s> <s>But when each of them bends <lb/>now in this, now in that direction, if they have not been completely driven <lb/>and sunk, no living man is clever enough to judge how far they are deflected <lb/>from a straight course. </s> <s>But if the whole of either one of the two has been ex­<lb/>cavated its full distance, then we can estimate more easily the length of one, <lb/>or the depth of the other; and so the location of the tunnel, which is below <lb/>a newly-started shaft, is determined by a method of surveying which I will <lb/>describe. </s> <s>First of all a tripod is fixed at the mouth of the tunnel, and likewise at <lb/>the mouth of the shaft which has been started, or at the place where the shaft will <lb/>be started. </s> <s>The tripod is made of three stakes fixed to the ground, a small <lb/>rectangular board being placed upon the stakes and fixed to them, and on <lb/>this is set a compass. </s> <s>Then from the lower tripod a weighted cord is let <lb/>down perpendicularly to the earth, close to which cord a stake is fixed in the <lb/>ground. </s> <s>To this stake another cord is tied and drawn straight into the tunnel <lb/>to a point as far as it can go without being bent by the hangingwall or the <lb/>footwall of the vein. </s> <s>Next, from the cord which hangs from the lower tripod, <lb/>a third cord likewise fixed is brought straight up the sloping side of the <lb/>mountain to the stake of the upper tripod, and fastened to it. </s> <s>In order that <lb/>the measuring of the depth of the shaft may be more certain, the third cord <lb/>should touch one and the same side of the cord hanging from the lower tripod <lb/>which is touched by the second cord—the one which is drawn into the tunnel. <lb/></s> <s>All this having been correctly carried out, the surveyor, when at length <lb/>the cord which has been drawn straight into the tunnel is about to be bent <lb/>by the hangingwall or footwall, places a plank in the bottom of the tunnel <lb/>and on it sets the orbis, an instrument which has an indicator peculiar <lb/>to itself. </s> <s>This instrument, although it also has waxed circles, differs from the <lb/>other, which I have described in the third book. </s> <s>But by both these <lb/>instruments, as well as by a rule and a square, he determines whether the <lb/>stretched cords reach straight to the extreme end of the tunnel, or whether <lb/>they sometimes reach straight, and are sometimes bent by the footwall or <lb/>hangingwall. </s> <s>Each instrument is divided into parts, but the compass into <lb/>twenty-four parts, the orbis into sixteen parts; for first of all it is divided <lb/>into four principal parts, and then each of these is again divided into four. <lb/></s> <s>Both have waxed circles, but the compass has seven circles, and the orbis <lb/>only five circles. </s> <s>These waxed circles the surveyor marks, whichever instru­<lb/>ment he uses, and by the succession of these same marks he notes any <lb/>change in the direction in which the cord extends. </s> <s>The orbis has an open­<lb/>ing running from its outer edge as far as the centre, into which opening he <lb/>puts an iron screw, to which he binds the second cord, and by screwing it into <lb/>the plank, fixes it so that the orbis may be immovable. </s> <s>He takes care <lb/>to prevent the second cord, and afterward the others which are put up, <lb/>from being pulled off the screw, by employing a heavy iron, into an opening <lb/>of which he fixes the head of the screw. </s> <s>In the case of the compass, since <lb/>it has no opening, he merely places it by the side of the screw. </s> <s>That the <lb/>instrument does not incline forward or backward, and in that way the <pb pagenum="142"/>measurement become a greater length than it should be, he sets upon the <lb/>instrument a standing plummet level, the tongue of which, if the instrument <lb/>is level, indicates no numbers, but the point from which the numbers start.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>COMPASS. A, B, C, D, E, F, G ARE THE SEVEN WAXED CIRCLES.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When the surveyor has carefully observed each separate angle of the <lb/>tunnel and has measured such parts as he ought to measure, then he lays <lb/>them out in the same way on the surveyor's field<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/> in the open air, and again <lb/>no less carefully observes each separate angle and measures them. </s> <s>First of <lb/>all, to each angle, according as the calculation of his triangle and his art <lb/>require it, he lays out a straight cord as a line. </s> <s>Then he stretches a cord at </s></p><pb/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B, C, D, E—FIVE WAXED CIRCLES OF THE <emph type="italics"/>orbis.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>F—OPENING OF SAME. G—SCREW. H—PERFORATED IRON.</s></p><pb/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LINES OF THE ROD WHICH SEPARATE MINOR SPACES. B—LINES OF THE ROD WHICH SEPARATE MAJOR SPACES.<pb pagenum="143"/>such an angle as represents the slope of the mountain, so that its lower end <lb/>may reach the end of the straight cord; then he stretches a third cord </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—STANDING PLUMMET LEVEL. B—TONGUE. C—LEVEL AND TONGUE.<pb pagenum="144"/>similarly straight and at such an angle, that with its upper end it may reach <lb/>the upper end of the second cord, and with its lower end the last end of the <lb/>first cord. </s> <s>The length of the third cord shows the depth of the shaft, as I <lb/>said before, and at the same time that point on the tunnel to which the shaft <lb/>will reach when it has been sunk.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If one or more shafts reach the tunnel through intermediate drifts and <lb/>shafts, the surveyor, starting from the nearest which is open to the air, <lb/>measures in a shorter time the depth of the shaft which requires to be sunk, <lb/>than if he starts from the mouth of the tunnel. </s> <s>First of all he measures <lb/>that space on the surface which lies between the shaft which has been sunk <lb/>and the one which requires to be sunk. </s> <s>Then he measures the incline of all <lb/>the shafts which it is necessary to measure, and the length of all the drifts <lb/>with which they are in any way connected to the tunnel. </s> <s>Lastly, he <lb/>measures part of the tunnel; and when all this is properly done, he demon­<lb/>strates the depth of the shaft and the point in the tunnel to which the shaft <lb/>will reach. </s> <s>But sometimes a very deep straight shaft requires to be sunk <lb/>at the same place where there is a previous inclined shaft, and to the same <lb/>depth, in order that loads may be raised and drawn straight up by machines. <lb/></s> <s>Those machines on the surface are turned by horses; those inside the earth, <lb/>by the same means, and also by water-power. </s> <s>And so, if it becomes <lb/>necessary to sink such a shaft, the surveyor first of all fixes an iron screw <lb/>in the upper part of the old shaft, and from the screw he lets down a cord <lb/>as far as the first angle, where again he fixes a screw, and again lets down the <lb/>cord as far as the second angle; this he repeats again and again until the <lb/>cord reaches to the bottom of the shaft. </s> <s>Then to each angle of the cord he <lb/>applies a hemicycle, and marks the waxed semi-circle according to the lines <lb/>which the tongue indicates, and designates it by a number, in case it should be <lb/>moved; then he measures the separate parts of the cord with another cord <lb/>made of linden bark. </s> <s>Afterward, when he has come back out of the shaft, <lb/>he goes away and transfers the markings from the waxed semi-circle of the <lb/>hemicycle to an orbis similarly waxed. </s> <s>Lastly, the cords are stretched on the <lb/>surveyor's field, and he measures the angles, as the system of measuring by <lb/>triangles requires, and ascertains which part of the footwall and which <lb/>part of the hangingwall rock must be cut away in order that the shaft may <lb/>descend straight. </s> <s>But if the surveyor is required to show the owners of the <lb/>mine, the spot in a drift or a tunnel in which a shaft needs to be raised <lb/>from the bottom upward, that it should cut through more quickly, he <lb/>begins measuring from the bottom of the drift or tunnel, at a point <lb/>beyond the spot at which the bottom of the shaft will arrive, when it has been <lb/>sunk. </s> <s>When he has measured the part of the drift or tunnel up to the first <lb/>shaft which connects with an upper drift, he measures the incline of this <lb/>shaft by applying a hemicycle or orbis to the cord. </s> <s>Then in a like manner <lb/>he measures the upper drift and the incline shaft which is sunk therein <lb/>toward which a raise is being dug, then again all the cords are stretched in <lb/>the surveyor's field, the last cord in such a way that it reaches the first, and <lb/>then he measures them. </s> <s>From this measurement is known in what part <pb pagenum="145"/>of the drift or tunnel the raise should be made, and how many fathoms of <lb/>vein remain to be broken through in order that the shaft may be connected.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I have described the first reason for surveying; I will now describe <lb/>another. </s> <s>When one vein comes near another, and their owners are different <lb/>persons who have late come into possession, whether they drive a tunnel <lb/>or a drift, or sink a shaft, they may encroach, or seem to encroach, without <lb/>any lawful right, upon the boundaries of the older owners, for which reason <lb/>the latter very often seek redress, or take legal proceedings. </s> <s>The surveyor <lb/>either himself settles the dispute between the owners, or by his art gives <lb/>evidence to the judges for making their decision, that one shall not encroach <lb/>on the mine of the other. </s> <s>Thus, first of all he measures the mines of each <lb/>party with a basket rope and cords of linden bark; and having applied to the <lb/>cords an orbis or a compass, he notes the directions in which they extend. <lb/></s> <s>Then he stretches the cords on the surveyor's field; and starting from that <lb/>point whose owners are in possession of the old meer toward the other, <lb/>whether it is in the hanging or footwall of the vein, he stretches a cross­<lb/>cord in a straight line, according to the sixth division of the compass, <lb/>that is, at a right angle to the vein, for a distance of three and a <lb/>half fathoms, and assigns to the older owners that which belongs to <lb/>them. </s> <s>But if both ends of one vein are being dug out in two tunnels, or <lb/>drifts from opposite directions, the surveyor first of all considers the lower <lb/>tunnel or drift and afterward the upper one, and judges how much each of <lb/>them has risen little by little. </s> <s>On each side strong men take in their hands <lb/>a stretched cord and hold it so that there is no point where it is not strained <lb/>tight; on each side the surveyor supports the cord with a rod half a fathom <lb/>long, and stays the rod at the end with a short stick as often as he thinks <lb/>it necessary. </s> <s>But some fasten cords to the rods to make them steadier. <lb/></s> <s>The surveyor attaches a suspended plummet level to the middle of the cord to <lb/>enable him to calculate more accurately on both sides, and from this he ascer­<lb/>tains whether one tunnel has risen more than another, or in like manner one <lb/>drift more than another. </s> <s>Afterward he measures the incline of the shafts <lb/>on both sides, so that he can estimate their position on each side. </s> <s>Then he <lb/>easily sees how many fathoms remain in the space which must be broken <lb/>through. </s> <s>But the grade of each tunnel, as I said, should rise one fathom in <lb/>the distance of one hundred fathoms.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The Swiss surveyors, when they wish to measure tunnels driven into <lb/>the highest mountains, also use a rod half a fathom long, but composed of <lb/>three parts, which screw together, so that they may be shortened. </s> <s>They <lb/>use a cord made of linden bark to which are fastened slips of paper showing <lb/>the number of fathoms. </s> <s>They also employ an instrument peculiar to them, <lb/>which has a needle; but in place of the waxed circles they carry in their <lb/>hands a chart on which they inscribe the readings of the instrument. </s> <s>The <lb/>instrument is placed on the back part of the rod so that the tongue, and the <lb/>extended cord which runs through the three holes in the tongue, demonstrates <lb/>the direction, and they note the number of fathoms. </s> <s>The tongue shows <lb/>whether the cord inclines forward or backward. </s> <s>The tongue does not hang, <pb pagenum="146"/>as in the case of the suspended plummet level, but is fixed to the instrument in <lb/>a half-lying position. </s> <s>They measure the tunnels for the purpose of knowing <lb/>how many fathoms they have been increased in elevation; how many fathoms <lb/>the lower is distant from the upper one; how many fathoms of interval is </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>INDICATOR OF A SUSPENDED PLUMMET LEVEL.<pb pagenum="147"/>not yet pierced between the miners who on opposite sides are digging on <lb/>the same vein, or cross-stringers, or two veins which are approaching one <lb/>another.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But I return to our mines. </s> <s>If the surveyor desires to fix the boundaries <lb/>of the meer within the tunnels or drifts, and mark to them with a sign cut in the <lb/>rock, in the same way that the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> has marked these boundaries <lb/>above ground, he first of all ascertains, by measuring in the manner <lb/>which I have explained above, which part of the tunnel or drift lies <lb/>beneath the surface boundary mark, stretching the cords along the drifts to <lb/>a point beyond that spot in the rock where he judges the mark should be <lb/>cut. </s> <s>Then, after the same cords have been laid out on the surveyor's field, <lb/>he starts from that upper cord at a point which shows the boundary mark, <lb/>and stretches another cross-cord straight downward according to the sixth </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—NEEDLE OF THE INSTRUMENT. B—ITS TONGUE. C, D, E—HOLES IN THE TONGUE.<pb pagenum="148"/>division of the compass—that is at a right angle. </s> <s>Then that part <lb/>of the lowest cord which lies beyond the part to which the cross-cord <lb/>runs being removed, it shows at what point the boundary mark should <lb/>be cut into the rock of the tunnel or drift. </s> <s>The cutting is made in the <lb/>presence of the two Jurors and the manager and the foreman of each <lb/>mine. </s> <s>For as the <emph type="italics"/>Bergmeíster<emph.end type="italics"/> in the presence of these same persons sets <lb/>the boundary stones on the surface, so the surveyor cuts in the rock a sign <lb/>which for this reason is called the boundary rock. </s> <s>If he fixes the boundary <lb/>mark of a meer in which a shaft has recently begun to be sunk on a vein, <lb/>first of all he measures and notes the incline of that shaft by the com­<lb/>pass or by another way with the applied cords; then he measures all <lb/>the drifts up to that one in whose rock the boundary mark has to <lb/>be cut. </s> <s>Of these drifts he measures each angle; then the cords, being <lb/>laid out on the surveyor's field, in a similar way he stretches a cross­<lb/>cord, as I said, and cuts the sign on the rock. </s> <s>But if the underground <lb/>boundary rock has to be cut in a drift which lies beneath the first drift, the <lb/>surveyor starts from the mark in the first drift, notes the different angles, <lb/>one by one, takes his measurements, and in the lower drift stretches a cord <lb/>beyond that place where he judges the mark ought to be cut; and then, <lb/>as I said before, lays out the cords on the surveyor's field. </s> <s>Even if a vein <lb/>runs differently in the lower drift from the upper one, in which the first <lb/>boundary mark has been cut in the rock, still, in the lower drift the mark <lb/>must be cut in the rock vertically beneath. </s> <s>For if he cuts the lower mark <lb/>obliquely from the upper one some part of the possession of one mine is <lb/>taken away to its detriment, and given to the other. </s> <s>Moreover, if it <lb/>happens that the underground boundary mark requires to be cut in an <lb/>angle, the surveyor, starting from that angle, measures one fathom toward <lb/>the front of the mine and another fathom toward the back, and from these <lb/>measurements forms a triangle, and dividing its middle by a cross-cord, <lb/>makes his cutting for the boundary mark.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Lastly, the surveyor sometimes, in order to make more certain, finds the <lb/>boundary of the meers in those places where many old boundary marks <lb/>are cut in the rock. </s> <s>Then, starting from a stake fixed on the surface, <lb/>he first of all measures to the nearest mine; then he measures one shaft <lb/>after another; then he fixes a stake on the surveyors' field, and making <lb/>a beginning from it stretches the same cords in the same way and measures <lb/>them, and again fixes in the ground a stake which for him will signify the end <lb/>of his measuring. </s> <s>Afterward he again measures underground from that <lb/>spot at which he left off, as many shafts and drifts as he can remember. </s> <s>Then <lb/>he returns to the surveyor's field, and starting again from the second stake, <lb/>makes his measurements; and he does this as far as the drift in which the <lb/>boundary mark must be cut in the rock. </s> <s>Finally, commencing from the <lb/>stake first fixed in the ground, he stretches a cross-cord in a straight line to <lb/>the last stake, and this shows the length of the lowest drift. </s> <s>The point <lb/>where they touch, he judges to be the place where the underground boundary <lb/>mark should be cut.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>END OF BOOK V.</s></p><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>BOOK VI.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Digging of veins I have written of, and the timbering <lb/>of shafts, tunnels, drifts, and other excavations, <lb/>and the art of surveying. </s> <s>I will now speak first of <lb/>all, of the iron tools with which veins and rocks are <lb/>broken, then of the buckets into which the lumps <lb/>of earth, rock, metal, and other excavated materials <lb/>are thrown, in order that they may be drawn, con­<lb/>veyed, or carried out. </s> <s>Also, I will speak of the <lb/>water vessels and drains, then of the machines of <lb/>different kinds,<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/> and lastly of the maladies of miners. </s> <s>And while all these <lb/>matters are being described accurately, many methods of work will be <lb/>explained.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are certain iron tools which the miners designate by names of their <lb/>own, and besides these, there are wedges, iron blocks, iron plates, hammers, <lb/>crowbars, pikes, picks, hoes, and shovels. </s> <s>Of those which are especially <lb/>referred to as “iron tools” there are four varieties, which are different <lb/>from one another in length or thickness, but not in shape, for the <lb/>upper end of all of them is broad and square, so that it can be struck by the <pb pagenum="150"/>hammer. </s> <s>The lower end is pointed so as to split the hard rocks and veins <lb/>with its point. </s> <s>All of these have eyes except the fourth. </s> <s>The first, <lb/>which is in daily use among miners, is three-quarters of a foot long, a digit <lb/>and a half wide, and a digit thick. </s> <s>The second is of the same width as the <lb/>first, and the same thickness, but one and one half feet long, and is used to <lb/>shatter the hardest veins in such a way that they crack open. </s> <s>The third <lb/>is the same length as the second, but is a little wider and thicker; with <lb/>this one they dig the bottoms of those shafts which slowly accumulate water. <lb/></s> <s>The fourth is nearly three palms and one digit long, two digits thick, and in <lb/>the upper end it is three digits wide, in the middle it is one palm wide, and <lb/>at the lower end it is pointed like the others; with this they cut out the <lb/>harder veins. </s> <s>The eye in the first tool is one palm distant from the upper <lb/>end, in the second and third it is seven digits distant; each swells out <lb/>around the eye on both sides, and into it they fit a wooden handle, which <lb/>they hold with one hand, while they strike the iron tool with a hammer, after <lb/>placing it against the rock. </s> <s>These tools are made larger or smaller as <lb/>necessary. </s> <s>The smiths, as far as possible, sharpen again all that become dull.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FIRST “IRON TOOL.” B—SECOND. C—THIRD. D—FOURTH.<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/> E—WEDGE. F—IRON <lb/>BLOCK. G—IRON PLATE. H—WOODEN HANDLE. I—HANDLE INSERTED IN FIRST TOOL.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>A wedge is usually three palms and two digits long and six digits wide; <lb/>at the upper end, for a distance of a palm, it is three digits thick, and <lb/>beyond that point it becomes thinner by degrees, until finally it is quite <lb/>sharp.</s></p><pb pagenum="151"/><p type="main"> <s>The iron block is six digits in length and width; at the upper end it is <lb/>two digits thick, and at the bottom a digit and a half. </s> <s>The iron plate is <lb/>the same length and width as the iron block, but it is very thin. </s> <s>All of these, <lb/>as I explained in the last book, are used when the hardest kind of veins are <lb/>hewn out. </s> <s>Wedges, locks, and plates, are likewise made larger or smaller.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SMALLEST OF THE SMALLER HAMMERS. B—INTERMEDIATE. C—LARGEST. D—SMALL <lb/>KIND OF THE LARGER HAMMER. E—LARGE KIND. F—WOODEN HANDLE. G—HANDLE <lb/>FIXED IN THE SMALLEST HAMMER.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Hammers are of two kinds, the smaller ones the miners hold in <lb/>one hand, and the larger ones they hold with both hands. </s> <s>The former, <lb/>because of their size and use, are of three sorts. </s> <s>With the smallest, <lb/>that is to say, the lightest, they strike the second “iron tool;” with the <lb/>intermediate one the first “iron tool;” and with the largest the third “iron <lb/>tool”; this one is two digits wide and thick. </s> <s>Of the larger sort of hammers <lb/>there are two kinds; with the smaller they strike the fourth “iron tool;” <lb/>with the larger they drive the wedges into the cracks; the former are three, <lb/>and the latter five digits wide and thick, and a foot long. </s> <s>All swell out in <lb/>their middle, in which there is an eye for a handle, but in most cases the <lb/>handles are somewhat light, in order that the workmen may be able to strike <lb/>more powerful blows by the hammer's full weight being thus concentrated.</s></p><pb pagenum="152"/><p type="main"> <s>The iron crowbars are likewise of two kinds, and each kind is pointed at <lb/>one end. </s> <s>One is rounded, and with this they pierce to a shaft full of water <lb/>when a tunnel reaches to it; the other is flat, and with this they knock out <lb/>of the stopes on to the floor, the rocks which have been softened by the fire, <lb/>and which cannot be dislodged by the pike. </s> <s>A miner's pike, like a sailor's, <lb/>is a long rod having an iron head.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—ROUND CROWBAR. B—FLAT CROWBAR. C—PIKE.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—PICK. B—HOE. C—SHOVEL.</s></p><pb pagenum="153"/><p type="main"> <s>The miner's pick differs from a peasant's pick in that the latter is wide <lb/>at the bottom and sharp, but the former is pointed. </s> <s>It is used to dig out <lb/>ore which is not hard, such as earth. </s> <s>Likewise a hoe and shovel are in no <lb/>way different from the common articles, with the one they scrape up earth <lb/>and sand, with the other they throw it into vessels.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now earth, rock, mineral substances and other things dug out with <lb/>the pick or hewn out with the “iron tools” are hauled out of the shaft <lb/>in buckets, or baskets, or hide buckets; they are drawn out of tunnels in <lb/>wheelbarrows or open trucks, and from both they are sometimes carried in <lb/>trays.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Buckets are of two kinds, which differ in size, but not in material or <lb/>shape. </s> <s>The smaller for the most part hold only about one <emph type="italics"/>metreta;<emph.end type="italics"/> the <lb/>larger are generally capable of carrying one-sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>congius;<emph.end type="italics"/> neither is <lb/>of unchangeable capacity, but they often vary.<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/> Each is made of staves circled <lb/>with hoops, one of which binds the top and the other the bottom. <lb/></s> <s>The hoops are sometimes made of hazel and oak, but these are easily <lb/>broken by dashing against the shaft, while those made of iron are more <lb/>durable. </s> <s>In the larger buckets the staves are thicker and wider, as also are <lb/>both hoops, and in order that the buckets may be more firm and strong, <lb/>they have eight iron straps, somewhat broad, four of which run from the <lb/>upper hoop downwards, and four from the lower hoop upwards, as if to meet <lb/>each other. </s> <s>The bottom of each bucket, both inside and outside, is furnished <lb/>with two or three straps of iron, which run from one side of the lower hoop <lb/>to the other, but the straps which are on the outside are fixed crosswise. <lb/></s> <s>Each bucket has two iron hafts which project above the edge, and it has an <lb/>iron semi-circular bail whose lower ends are fixed directly into the hafts, <lb/>that the bucket may be handled more easily. </s> <s>Each kind of bucket is much <lb/>deeper than it is wide, and each is wider at the top, in order that the material <lb/>which is dug out may be the more easily poured in and poured out again. <lb/></s> <s>Into the smaller buckets strong boys, and into larger ones men, fill earth <lb/>from the bottom of the shaft with hoes; or the other material dug up is <lb/>shovelled into them or filled in with their hands, for which reason these men <lb/>are called “shovellers.<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>” Afterward they fix the hook of the drawing-rope <lb/>into the bale; then the buckets are drawn up by machines—the smaller ones, <lb/>because of their lighter weight, by machines turned by men, and the larger <lb/>ones, being heavier, by the machines turned by horses. </s> <s>Some, in place <lb/>of these buckets, substitute baskets which hold just as much, or even more, <lb/>since they are lighter than the buckets; some use sacks made of ox-hide <lb/>instead of buckets, and the drawing-rope hook is fastened to their iron bale, <lb/>usually three of these filled with excavated material are drawn up at the <lb/>same time as three are being lowered and three are being filled by boys. </s> <s>The <lb/>latter are generally used at Schneeberg and the former at Freiberg.<lb/><pb pagenum="154"/><figure id="fig2"></figure></s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SMALL BUCKET. B—LARGE BUCKET. C—STAVES. D—IRON HOOPS. E—IRON <lb/>STRAPS. F—IRON STRAPS ON THE BOTTOM. G—HAFTS. H—IRON BALE. I—HOOK OF <lb/>DRAWING-ROPE. K—BASKET. L—HIDE BUCKET OR SACK.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>That which we call a <emph type="italics"/>cisíum<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> is a vehicle with one wheel, not with <lb/>two, such as horses draw. </s> <s>When filled with excavated material it is pushed <pb pagenum="155"/>by a workman out of tunnels or sheds. </s> <s>It is made as follows: two planks <lb/>are chosen about five feet long, one foot wide, and two digits thick; of <lb/>each of these the lower side is cut away at the front for a length of one <lb/>foot, and at the back for a length of two feet, while the middle is left whole. <lb/></s> <s>Then in the front parts are bored circular holes, in order that the ends of an <lb/>axle may revolve in them. </s> <s>The intermediate parts of the planks are <lb/>perforated twice near the bottom, so as to receive the heads of two little <lb/>cleats on which the planks are fixed; and they are also perforated in the <lb/>middle, so as to receive the heads of two end-boards, while keys fixed in <lb/>these projecting heads strengthen the whole structure. </s> <s>The handles are <lb/>made out of the extreme ends of the long planks, and they turn downward <lb/>at the ends that they may be grasped more firmly in the hands. </s> <s>The small <lb/>wheel, of which there is only one, neither has a nave nor does it revolve <lb/>around the axle, but turns around with it. </s> <s>From the felloe, which the <lb/>Greeks called <foreign lang="greek">a)yi_des,</foreign> two transverse spokes fixed into it pass through the <lb/>middle of the axle toward the opposite felloe; the axle is square, with <lb/>the exception of the ends, each of which is rounded so as to turn in the <lb/>opening. </s> <s>A workman draws out this barrow full of earth and rock and draws <lb/>it back empty. </s> <s>Miners also have another wheelbarrow, larger than this <lb/>one, which they use when they wash earth mixed with tin-stone on to which <lb/>a stream has been turned. </s> <s>The front end-board of this one is deeper, in <lb/>order that the earth which has been thrown into it may not fall out.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SMALL WHEELBARROW. B—LONG PLANKS THEREOF. C—END-BOARDS. D—SMALL <lb/>WHEEL. E—LARGER BARROW. F—FRONT END-BOARD THEREOF.</s></p><pb pagenum="156"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—RECTANGULAR IRON BANDS ON TRUCK. B—ITS IRON STRAPS. C—IRON AXLE. <lb/>D—WOODEN ROLLERS. E—SMALL IRON KEYS. F—LARGE BLUNT IRON PIN. <lb/>G—SAME TRUCK UPSIDE DOWN.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The open truck has a capacity half as large again as a wheelbarrow; it is <lb/>about four feet long and about two and a half feet wide and deep; and since <lb/>its shape is rectangular, it is bound together with three rectangular iron <lb/>bands, and besides these there are iron straps on all sides. </s> <s>Two small iron <lb/>axles are fixed to the bottom, around the ends of which wooden rollers revolve <lb/>on either side; in order that the rollers shall not fall off the immovable <lb/>axles, there are small iron keys. </s> <s>A large blunt pin fixed to the bottom of the <lb/>truck runs in a groove of a plank in such a way that the truck does not <lb/>leave the beaten track. </s> <s>Holding the back part with his hands, the carrier <lb/>pushes out the truck laden with excavated material, and pushes it back <lb/>again empty. </s> <s>Some people call it a “dog”<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>, because when it moves it <lb/>makes a noise which seems to them not unlike the bark of a dog. </s> <s>This truck <lb/>is used when they draw loads out of the longest tunnels, both because it is <lb/>moved more easily and because a heavier load can be placed in it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Bateas<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/> are hollowed out of a single block of wood; the smaller kind <lb/>are generally two feet long and one foot wide. </s> <s>When they have been <lb/>filled with ore, especially when but little is dug from the shafts and tunnels, <lb/>men either carry them out on their shoulders, or bear them away hung from <lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="157"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SMALL BATEA. B—ROPE. C—LARGE BATEA.<lb/>their necks. </s> <s>Pliny<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> is our authority that among the ancients everything <lb/>which was mined was carried out on men's shoulders, but in truth this <lb/>method of carrying forth burdens is onerous, since it causes great fatigue <lb/>to a great number of men, and involves a large expenditure for labour; for <lb/>this reason it has been rejected and abandoned in our day. </s> <s>The length of <lb/>the larger batea is as much as three feet, the width up to a foot and a palm. <lb/></s> <s>In these bateas the metallic earth is washed for the purpose of testing it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Water-vessels differ both in the use to which they are put and in the <lb/>material of which they are made; some draw the water from the shafts and <lb/>pour it into other things, as dippers; while some of the vessels filled with <lb/>water are drawn out by machines, as buckets and bags; some are made of <lb/>wood, as the dippers and buckets, and others of hides, as the bags. </s> <s>The <lb/>water-buckets, just like the buckets which are filled with dry material, are of <lb/>two kinds, the smaller and the larger, but these are unlike the other buckets at <lb/>the top, as in this case they are narrower, in order that the water may not be <lb/>spilled by being bumped against the timbers when they are being drawn out <lb/>of the shafts, especially those considerably inclined. </s> <s>The water is poured <lb/>into these buckets by dippers, which are small wooden buckets, but unlike the <lb/>water-buckets, they are neither narrow at the top nor bound with iron hoops, <lb/>but with hazel,—because there is no necessity for either. </s> <s>The smaller buckets <lb/>are drawn up by machines turned by men, the larger ones by those turned by <lb/>horses.</s></p><pb pagenum="158"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SMALLER WATER-BUCKET. B—LARGER WATER-BUCKET. C—DIPPER</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WATER-BAG WHICH TAKES IN WATER BY ITSELF. B—WATER-BAG INTO WHICH WATER <lb/>POURS WHEN IT IS PUSHED WITH A SHOVEL.</s></p><pb pagenum="159"/><p type="main"> <s>Our people give the name of water-bags to those very large skins for <lb/>carrying water which are made of two, or two and a half, ox-hides. </s> <s>When <lb/>these water-bags have undergone much wear and use, first the hair comes <lb/>off them and they become bald and shining; after this they become <lb/>torn. </s> <s>If the tear is but a small one, a piece of smooth notched stick is put <lb/>into the broken part, and the broken bag is bound into its notches on either <lb/>side and sewn together; but if it is a large one, they mend it with a piece of <lb/>ox-hide. </s> <s>The water-bags are fixed to the hook of a drawing-chain and let <lb/>down and dipped into the water, and as soon as they are filled they are drawn <lb/>up by the largest machine. </s> <s>They are of two kinds; the one kind take in the <lb/>water by themselves; the water pours into the other kind when it is pushed <lb/>in a certain way by a wooden shovel.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When the water has been drawn out from the shafts, it is run off in <lb/>troughs, or into a hopper, through which it runs into the trough. </s> <s>Likewise <lb/>the water which flows along the sides of the tunnels is carried off in drains. <lb/></s> <s>These are composed of two hollowed beams joined firmly together, so as to <lb/>hold the water which flows through them, and they are covered by planks <lb/>all along their course, from the mouth of the tunnel right up to the extreme <lb/>end of it, to prevent earth or rock falling into them and obstructing the flow <lb/>of the water. </s> <s>If much mud gradually settles in them the planks are raised <lb/>and the drains are cleaned out, for they would otherwise become stopped up <lb/>and obstructed by this accident. </s> <s>With regard to the trough lying above </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TROUGH. B—HOPPER.<pb pagenum="160"/>ground, which miners place under the hoppers which are close by the shaft <lb/>houses, these are usually hollowed out of single trees. </s> <s>Hoppers are generally <lb/>made of four planks, so cut on the lower side and joined together that the <lb/>top part of the hopper is broader and the bottom part narrower.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I have sufficiently indicated the nature of the miners' iron tools and <lb/>their vessels. </s> <s>I will now explain their machines, which are of three kinds, <lb/>that is, hauling machines, ventilating machines, and ladders. </s> <s>By means of <lb/>the hauling machines loads are drawn out of the shafts; the ventilating <lb/>machines receive the air through their mouths and blow it into shafts or <lb/>tunnels, for if this is not done, diggers cannot carry on their labour without <lb/>great difficulty in breathing; by the steps of the ladders the miners go <lb/>down into the shafts and come up again.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Hauling machines are of varied and diverse forms, some of them being <lb/>made with great skill, and if I am not mistaken, they were unknown to the <lb/>Ancients. </s> <s>They have been invented in order that water may be drawn from <lb/>the depths of the earth to which no tunnels reach, and also the excavated <lb/>material from shafts which are likewise not connected with a tunnel, or if <lb/>so, only with very long ones. </s> <s>Since shafts are not all of the same depth, there <lb/>is a great variety among these hauling machines. </s> <s>Of those by which dry loads <lb/>are drawn out of the shafts, five sorts are in the most common use, of which <lb/>I will now describe the first. </s> <s>Two timbers a little longer than the shaft are <lb/>placed beside it, the one in the front of the shaft, the other at the back. <lb/></s> <s>Their extreme ends have holes through which stakes, pointed at the bottom <lb/>like wedges, are driven deeply into the ground, so that the timbers may remain <lb/>stationary. </s> <s>Into these timbers are mortised the ends of two cross-timbers, <lb/>one laid on the right end of the shaft, while the other is far enough <lb/>from the left end that between it and that end there remains suitable <lb/>space for placing the ladders. </s> <s>In the middle of the cross-timbers, posts are <lb/>fixed and secured with iron keys. </s> <s>In hollows at the top of these posts <lb/>thick iron sockets hold the ends of the barrel, of which each end projects <lb/>beyond the hollow of the post, and is mortised into the end of another <lb/>piece of wood a foot and a half long, a palm wide and three digits thick; <lb/>the other end of these pieces of wood is seven digits wide, and into each <lb/>of them is fixed a round handle, likewise a foot and a half long. </s> <s>A <lb/>winding-rope is wound around the barrel and fastened to it at the <lb/>middle part. </s> <s>The loop at each end of the rope has an iron hook which <lb/>is engaged in the bale of a bucket, and so when the windlass revolves by <lb/>being turned by the cranks, a loaded bucket is always being drawn out of the <lb/>shaft and an empty one is being sent down into it. </s> <s>Two robust men turn <lb/>the windlass, each having a wheelbarrow near him, into which he unloads <lb/>the bucket which is drawn up nearest to him; two buckets generally fill a <lb/>wheelbarrow; therefore when four buckets have been drawn up, each man <lb/>runs his own wheelbarrow out of the shed and empties it. </s> <s>Thus it happens <lb/>that if shafts are dug deep, a hillock rises around the shed of the windlass. <lb/></s> <s>If a vein is not metal-bearing, they pour out the earth and rock without <lb/>discriminating; whereas if it is metal-bearing, they preserve these materials, <pb pagenum="161"/>which they unload separately and crush and wash. </s> <s>When they draw up <lb/>buckets of water they empty the water through the hopper into a trough, <lb/>through which it flows away.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TIMBER PLACED IN FRONT OF THE SHAFT. B—TIMBER PLACED AT THE BACK OF THE <lb/>SHAFT. C—POINTED STAKES. D—CROSS-TIMBERS. E—POSTS OR THICK PLANKS. <lb/>F—IRON SOCKETS. G—BARREL. H—ENDS OF BARREL. I—PIECES OF WOOD. <lb/>K—HANDLE. L—DRAWING-ROPE. M—ITS HOOK. N—BUCKET. O—BALE OF THE <lb/>BUCKET.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The next kind of machine, which miners employ when the shaft is <lb/>deeper, differs from the first in that it possesses a wheel as well as cranks. <lb/></s> <s>This windlass, if the load is not being drawn up from a great depth, is turned <lb/>by one windlass man, the wheel taking the place of the other man. </s> <s>But if the <lb/>depth is greater, then the windlass is turned by three men, the wheel being <lb/>substituted for a fourth, because the barrel having been once set in motion, <lb/>the rapid revolutions of the wheel help, and it can be turned more easily. <lb/></s> <s>Sometimes masses of lead are hung on to this wheel, or are fastened to the <lb/>spokes, in order that when it is turned they depress the spokes by their weight <lb/>and increase the motion; some persons for the same reason fasten into the <lb/>barrel two, three, or four iron rods, and weight their ends with lumps of lead. <lb/></s> <s>The windlass wheel differs from the wheel of a carriage and from the one </s></p><pb pagenum="162"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BARREL. B—STRAIGHT LEVERS. C—USUAL CRANK. D—SPOKES OF WHEEL. <lb/>E—RIM OF THE SAME WHEEL.<lb/>which is turned by water power, for it lacks the buckets of a water-wheel <lb/>and it lacks the nave of a carriage wheel. </s> <s>In the place of the nave it has a thick <lb/>barrel, in which are mortised the lower ends of the spokes, just as their upper <lb/>ends are mortised into the rim. </s> <s>When three windlass men turn this machine, <lb/>four straight levers are fixed to the one end of the barrel, and to the <lb/>other the crank which is usual in mines, and which is composed of two limbs, <lb/>of which the rounded horizontal one is grasped by the hands; the rect­<lb/>angular limb, which is at right angles to the horizontal one, has mortised in its <lb/>lower end the round handle, and in the upper end the end of the barrel. </s> <s>This <lb/>crank is worked by one man, the levers by two men, of whom one pulls while <lb/>the other pushes; all windlass workers, whatsoever kind of a machine they <lb/>may turn, are necessarily robust that they can sustain such great toil.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The third kind of machine is less fatiguing for the workman, while it <lb/>raises larger loads; even though it is slower, like all other machines which <lb/>have drums, yet it reaches greater depths, even to a depth of 180 feet. </s> <s>It <lb/>consists of an upright axle with iron journals at its extremities, which <lb/>turn in two iron sockets, the lower of which is fixed in a block set in the <lb/>ground and the upper one in the roof beam. </s> <s>This axle has at its lower end a </s></p><pb pagenum="163"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—UPRIGHT AXLE. B—BLOCK. C—ROOF BEAM. D—WHEEL. E—TOOTHED-DRUM. <lb/>F—HORIZONTAL AXLE. G—DRUM COMPOSED OF RUNDLES. H—DRAWING ROPE. <lb/>I—POLE. K—UPRIGHT POSTS. L—CLEATS ON THE WHEEL.<lb/>wheel made of thick planks joined firmly together, and at its upper end a <lb/>toothed drum; this toothed drum turns another drum made of rundles, which <lb/>is on a horizontal axle. </s> <s>A winding-rope is wound around this latter axle, <lb/>which turns in iron bearings set in the beams. </s> <s>So that they may not fall, the <lb/>two workmen grasp with their hands a pole fixed to two upright posts, and <lb/>then pushing the cleats of the lower wheel backward with their feet, they <lb/>revolve the machine; as often as they have drawn up and emptied one <lb/>bucket full of excavated material, they turn the machine in the opposite <lb/>direction and draw out another.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The fourth machine raises burdens once and a half as large again as the <lb/>two machines first explained. </s> <s>When it is made, sixteen beams are erected <lb/>each forty feet long, one foot thick and one foot wide, joined at the top with <lb/>clamps and widely separated at the bottom. </s> <s>The lower ends of all of <lb/>them are mortised into separate sills laid flat upon the ground; these sills <lb/>are five feet long, a foot and a half wide, and a foot thick. </s> <s>Each beam is also <lb/>connected with its sill by a post, whose upper end is mortised into the beam <pb pagenum="164"/>and its lower end mortised into the sill; these posts are four feet long, one <lb/>foot thick, and one foot wide. </s> <s>Thus a circular area is made, the diameter of <lb/>which is fifty feet; in the middle of this area a hole is sunk to a depth of ten <lb/>feet, and rammed down tight, and in order to give it sufficient firmness, it is <lb/>strengthened with contiguous small timbers, through which pins are driven, <lb/>for by them the earth around the hole is held so that it cannot fall in. </s> <s>In <lb/>the bottom of the hole is planted a sill, three or four feet long and a foot and a <lb/>half thick and wide; in order that it may remain fixed, it is set into the small <lb/>timbers; in the middle of it is a steel socket in which the pivot of the axle turns. <lb/></s> <s>In like manner a timber is mortised into two of the large beams, at the top <lb/>beneath the clamps; this has an iron bearing in which the other iron journal of <lb/>the axle revolves. </s> <s>Every axle used in mining, to speak of them once for all, <lb/>has two iron journals, rounded off on all sides, one fixed with keys in the centre <lb/>of each end. </s> <s>That part of this journal which is fixed to the end <lb/>of the axle is as broad as the end itself and a digit thick; that which <lb/>projects beyond the axle is round and a palm thick, or thicker if necessity <lb/>requires; the ends of each miner's axle are encircled and bound by an <lb/>iron band to hold the journal more securely. </s> <s>The axle of this machine, <lb/>except at the ends, is square, and is forty feet long, a foot and a half thick <lb/>and wide. </s> <s>Mortised and clamped into the axle above the lower end are the <lb/>ends of four inclined beams; their outer ends support two double cross­<lb/>beams similarly mortised into them; the inclined beams are eighteen feet <lb/>long, three palms thick, and five wide. </s> <s>The two cross-beams are fixed to <lb/>the axle and held together by wooden keys so that they will not separate, <lb/>and they are twenty-four feet long. </s> <s>Next, there is a drum which is made of <lb/>three wheels, of which the middle one is seven feet distant from the upper <lb/>one and from the lower one; the wheels have four spokes which are <lb/>supported by the same number of inclined braces, the lower ends of which <lb/>are joined together round the axle by a clamp; one end of each spoke is <lb/>mortised into the axle and the other into the rim. </s> <s>There are rundles all <lb/>round the wheels, reaching from the rim of the lowest one to the rim of the <lb/>middle one, and likewise from the rim of the middle wheel to the rim of the top <lb/>one; around these rundles are wound the drawing-ropes, one between the lowest <lb/>wheel and the middle one, the other between the middle and top wheels. <lb/></s> <s>The whole of this construction is shaped like a cone, and is covered with a <lb/>shingle roof, with the exception of that square part which faces the shaft. <lb/></s> <s>Then cross-beams, mortised at both ends, connect a double row of upright <lb/>posts; all of these are eighteen feet long, but the posts are one foot thick <lb/>and one foot wide, and the cross-beams are three palms thick and wide. <lb/></s> <s>There are sixteen posts and eight cross-beams, and upon these cross-beams <lb/>are laid two timbers a foot wide and three palms thick, hollowed out to a <lb/>width of half a foot and to a depth of five digits; the one is laid upon the <lb/>upper cross-beams and the other upon the lower; each is long enough to <lb/>reach nearly from the drum of the whim to the shaft. </s> <s>Near the same drum <lb/>each timber has a small round wooden roller six digits thick, whose ends are </s></p><pb pagenum="165"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—UPRIGHT BEAMS. B—SILLS LAID FLAT UPON THE GROUND. C—POSTS. D—AREA. <lb/>E—SILL SET AT THE BOTTOM OF THE HOLE. F—AXLE. G—DOUBLE CROSS-BEAMS. <lb/>H—DRUM. I—WINDING-ROPES. K—BUCKET. L—SMALL PIECES OF WOOD HANGING <lb/>FROM DOUBLE CROSS-BEAMS. M—SHORT WOODEN BLOCK. N—CHAIN. O—POLE BAR. <lb/>P—GRAPPLING HOOK. (Some members mentioned in the text are not shown).<pb pagenum="166"/>covered with iron bands and revolve in iron rings. </s> <s>Each timber also has a <lb/>wooden pulley, which together with its iron axle revolves in holes in the <lb/>timber. </s> <s>These pulleys are hollowed out all round, in order that the drawing­<lb/>rope may not slip out of them, and thus each rope is drawn tight and turns <lb/>over its own roller and its own pulley. </s> <s>The iron hook of each rope is engaged <lb/>with the bale of the bucket. </s> <s>Further, with regard to the double cross­<lb/>beams which are mortised to the lower part of the main axle, to each end <lb/>of them there is mortised a small piece of wood four feet long. </s> <s>These appear <lb/>to hang from the double cross-beams, and a short wooden block is fixed to the <lb/>lower part of them, on which a driver sits. </s> <s>Each of these blocks has an iron <lb/>clavis which holds a chain, and that in turn a pole-bar. </s> <s>In this way it is <lb/>possible for two horses to draw this whim, now this way and now that; turn <lb/>by turn one bucket is drawn out of the shaft full and another is let down <lb/>into it empty; if, indeed, the shaft is very deep four horses turn the whim. <lb/></s> <s>When a bucket has been drawn up, whether filled with dry or wet materials, <lb/>it must be emptied, and a workman inserts a grappling hook and overturns <lb/>it; this hook hangs on a chain made of three or four links, fixed to a timber.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The fifth machine is partly like the whim, and partly like the third rag <lb/>and chain pump, which draws water by balls when turned by horse power, <lb/>as I will explain a little later. </s> <s>Like this pump, it is turned by horse <lb/>power and has two axles, namely, an upright one—about whose lower end, <lb/>which decends into an underground chamber, there is a toothed drum—and a <lb/>horizontal one, around which there is a drum made of rundles. </s> <s>It has indeed <lb/>two drums around its horizontal axle, similar to those of the big machine, but <lb/>smaller, because it draws buckets from a shaft almost two hundred and forty <lb/>feet deep. </s> <s>One drum is made of hubs to which cleats are fixed, and <lb/>the other is made of rundles; and near the latter is a wheel two <lb/>feet deep, measured on all sides around the axle, and one foot wide; and <lb/>against this impinges a brake,<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> which holds the whim when occasion demands <lb/>that it be stopped. </s> <s>This is necessary when the hide buckets are emptied <lb/>after being drawn up full of rock fragments or earth, or as often as water <lb/>is poured out of buckets similarly drawn up; for this machine not only <lb/>raises dry loads, but also wet ones, just like the other four machines which <lb/>I have already described. </s> <s>By this also, timbers fastened on to its winding­<lb/>chain are let down into a shaft. </s> <s>The brake is made of a piece of wood one <lb/>foot thick and half a foot long, projecting from a timber that is suspended <lb/>by a chain from one end of a beam which oscillates on an iron pin, this in <lb/>turn being supported in the claws of an upright post; and from the other end <lb/>of this oscillating beam a long timber is suspended by a chain, and from this <lb/>long timber again a short beam is suspended. </s> <s>A workman sits on the short <lb/>beam when the machine needs to be stopped, and lowers it; he then inserts <lb/>a plank or small stick so that the two timbers are held down and cannot be <lb/>raised. </s> <s>In this way the brake is raised, and seizing the drum, presses it <lb/>so tightly that sparks often fly from it; the suspended timber to which <lb/>the short beam is attached, has several holes in which the chain is </s></p><pb pagenum="167"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TOOTHED DRUM WHICH IS ON THE UPRIGHT AXLE. B—HORIZONTAL AXLE. C—DRUM <lb/>WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. D—WHEEL NEAR IT. E—DRUM MADE OF HUBS. <lb/>F—BRAKE. G—OSCILLATING BEAM. H—SHORT BEAM. I—HOOK.<pb pagenum="168"/>fixed, so that it may be raised as much as is convenient. </s> <s>Above this wheel <lb/>there are boards to prevent the water from dripping down and wetting it, for <lb/>if it becomes wet the brake will not grip the machine so well. </s> <s>Near the <lb/>other drum is a pin from which hangs a chain, in the last link of which there <lb/>is an iron hook three feet long; a ring is fixed to the bottom of the bucket, <lb/>and this hook, being inserted into it, holds the bucket back so that the water <lb/>may be poured out or the fragments of rock emptied.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The miners either carry, draw, or roll down the mountains the ore which <lb/>is hauled out of the shafts by these five machines or taken out of the <lb/>tunnels. </s> <s>In the winter time our people place a box on a sledge and draw <lb/>it down the low mountains with a horse; and in this season they <lb/>also fill sacks made of hide and load them on dogs, or place two or <lb/>three of them on a small sledge which is higher in the fore part and lower at <lb/>the back. </s> <s>Sitting on these sacks, not without risk of his life, the bold <lb/>driver guides the sledge as it rushes down the mountain into the valleys with <lb/>a stick, which he carries in his hand; when it is rushing down too <lb/>quickly he arrests it with the stick, or with the same stick brings it back to <lb/>the track when it is turning aside from its proper course. </s> <s>Some of the </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SLEDGE WITH BOX PLACED ON IT. B—SLEDGE WITH SACKS PLACED ON IT. C—STICK. <lb/>D—DOGS WITH PACK-SADDLES. E—PIG-SKIN SACKS TIED TO A ROPE.<pb pagenum="169"/>Noricians<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> collect ore during the winter into sacks made of bristly pigskins, <lb/>and drag them down from the highest mountains, which neither horses, <lb/>mules nor asses can climb. </s> <s>Strong dogs, that are trained to bear pack <lb/>saddles, carry these sacks when empty into the mountains. </s> <s>When they <lb/>are filled with ore, bound with thongs, and fastened to a rope, a man, <lb/>winding the rope round his arm or breast, drags them down through the <lb/>snow to a place where horses, mules, or asses bearing pack-saddles can <lb/>climb. </s> <s>There the ore is removed from the pigskin sacks and put into other <lb/>sacks made of double or triple twilled linen thread, and these placed on the <lb/>pack-saddles of the beasts are borne down to the works where the ores <lb/>are washed or smelted. </s> <s>If, indeed, the horses, mules, or asses are able <lb/>to climb the mountains, linen sacks filled with ore are placed on their saddles, <lb/>and they carry these down the narrow mountain paths, which are passable <lb/>neither by wagons nor sledges, into the valleys lying below the steeper <lb/>portions of the mountains. </s> <s>But on the declivity of cliffs which beasts cannot <lb/>climb, are placed long open boxes made of planks, with transverse cleats to <lb/>hold them together; into these boxes is thrown the ore which has been <lb/>brought in wheelbarrows, and when it has run down to the level it is gathered <lb/>into sacks, and the beasts either carry it away on their backs or drag it away <lb/>after it has been thrown into sledges or wagons. </s> <s>When the drivers bring <lb/>ore down steep mountain slopes they use two-wheeled carts, and they drag <lb/>behind them on the ground the trunks of two trees, for these by their weight <lb/>hold back the heavily-laden carts, which contain ore in their boxes, and check <lb/>their descent, and but for these the driver would often be obliged to <lb/>bind chains to the wheels. </s> <s>When these men bring down ore from mountains <lb/>which do not have such declivities, they use wagons whose beds are twice <lb/>as long as those of the carts. </s> <s>The planks of these are so put together that, <lb/>when the ore is unloaded by the drivers, they can be raised and taken apart, <lb/>for they are only held together by bars. </s> <s>The drivers employed by the owners <lb/>of the ore bring down thirty or sixty wagon-loads, and the master of the <lb/>works marks on a stick the number of loads for each driver. </s> <s>But some <lb/>ore, especially tin, after being taken from the mines, is divided into eight <lb/>parts, or into nine, if the owners of the mine give “ninth parts” to the <lb/>owners of the tunnel. </s> <s>This is occasionally done by measuring with a bucket, <lb/>but more frequently planks are put together on a spot where, with the <lb/>addition of the level ground as a base, it forms a hollow box. </s> <s>Each owner <lb/>provides for removing, washing, and smelting that portion which has fallen <lb/>to him. (Illustration p. </s> <s>170).</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Into the buckets, drawn by these five machines, the boys or men throw <lb/>the earth and broken rock with shovels, or they fill them with their hands; <lb/>hence they get their name of shovellers. </s> <s>As I have said, the same <lb/>machines raise not only dry loads, but also wet ones, or water; but before <lb/>I explain the varied and diverse kinds of machines by which miners are wont </s></p><pb pagenum="170"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HORSES WITH PACK-SADDLES. B—LONG BOX PLACED ON THE SLOPE OF THE CLIFF. <lb/>C—CLEATS THEREOF. D—WHEELBARROW. E—TWO-WHEELED CART. F—TRUNKS OF <lb/>TREES. G—WAGON. H—ORE BEING UNLOADED FROM THE WAGON. I—BARS. <lb/>K—MASTER OF THE WORKS MARKING THE NUMBER OF CARTS ON A STICK. L—BOXES <lb/>INTO WHICH ARE THROWN THE ORE WHICH HAS TO BE DIVIDED.<pb pagenum="171"/>to draw water alone, I will explain how heavy bodies, such as axles, iron <lb/>chains, pipes, and heavy timbers, should be lowered into deep vertical shafts. <lb/></s> <s>A windlass is erected whose barrel has on each end four straight levers; it <lb/>is fixed into upright beams and around it is wound a rope, one end of which <lb/>is fastened to the barrel and the other to those heavy bodies which are slowly <lb/>lowered down by workmen; and if these halt at any part of the shaft they <lb/>are drawn up a little way. </s> <s>When these bodies are very heavy, then behind <lb/>this windlass another is erected just like it, that their combined strength <lb/>may be equal to the load, and that it may be lowered slowly. </s> <s>Sometimes for <lb/>the same reason, a pulley is fastened with cords to the roof-beam, and the rope <lb/>descends and ascends over it.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WINDLASS. B—STRAIGHT LEVERS. C—UPRIGHT BEAMS. D—ROPE. E—PULLEY. <lb/>F—TIMBERS TO BE LOWERED.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Water is either hoisted or pumped out of shafts. </s> <s>It is hoisted up after <lb/>being poured into buckets or water-bags; the water-bags are generally <lb/>brought up by a machine whose water-wheels have double paddles, while the <lb/>buckets are brought up by the five machines already described, although in <lb/>certain localities the fourth machine also hauls up water-bags of moderate <lb/>size. </s> <s>Water is drawn up also by chains of dippers, or by suction pumps, or <pb pagenum="172"/>by “rag and chain” pumps.<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/> When there is but a small quantity, it is <lb/>either brought up in buckets or drawn up by chains of dippers or suction <lb/>pumps, and when there is much water it is either drawn up in hide bags or <lb/>by rag and chain pumps.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>First of all, I will describe the machines which draw water by chains <lb/>of dippers, of which there are three kinds. </s> <s>For the first, a frame is <lb/>made entirely of iron bars: it is two and a half feet high, likewise two and <lb/>a half feet long, and in addition one-sixth and one-quarter of a digit <lb/>long, one-fourth and one-twenty-fourth of a foot wide. </s> <s>In it there are three <lb/>little horizontal iron axles, which revolve in bearings or wide pillows of steel. <lb/></s> <s>and also four iron wheels, of which two are made with rundles and the same <lb/>number are toothed. </s> <s>Outside the frame, around the lowest axle, is a <lb/>wooden fly-wheel, so that it can be more readily turned, and inside the frame <lb/>is a smaller drum which is made of eight rundles, one-sixth and one twenty­<lb/>fourth of a foot long. </s> <s>Around the second axle, which does not project <lb/>beyond the frame, and is therefore only two and a half feet and one-twelfth <lb/>and one-third part of a digit long, there is on the one side, a smaller toothed <lb/>wheel, which has forty-eight teeth, and on the other side a larger drum, <lb/>which is surrounded by twelve rundles one-quarter of a foot long. </s> <s>Around the <lb/>third axle, which is one inch and one-third thick, is a larger toothed wheel <lb/>projecting one foot from the axle in all directions, which has seventy-two <lb/>teeth. </s> <s>The teeth of each wheel are fixed in with screws, whose threads are <lb/>screwed into threads in the wheel, so that those teeth which are broken can be <lb/>replaced by others; both the teeth and rundles are steel. </s> <s>The upper axle <lb/>projects beyond the frame, and is so skilfully mortised into the body of <lb/>another axle that it has the appearance of being one; this axle proceeds <lb/>through a frame made of beams which stands around the shaft, into an iron <lb/>fork set in a stout oak timber, and turns on a roller made of pure steel. <lb/></s> <s>Around this axle is a drum of the kind possessed by those machines which <lb/>draw water by rag and chain; this drum has triple curved iron clamps, <lb/>to which the links of an iron chain hook themselves, so that a great weight <lb/>cannot tear them away. </s> <s>These links are not whole like the links of other <lb/>chains, but each one being curved in the upper part on each side catches the <lb/>one which comes next, whereby it presents the appearance of a double chain. <lb/></s> <s>At the point where one catches the other, dippers made of iron or brass plates <lb/>and holding half a <emph type="italics"/>congíus<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/> are bound to them with thongs; thus, if there are <lb/>one hundred links there will be the same number of dippers pouring out water. <lb/></s> <s>When the shafts are inclined, the mouths of the dippers project and are covered <lb/>on the top that they may not spill out the water, but when the shafts are <lb/>vertical the dippers do not require a cover. </s> <s>By fitting the end of the lowest <lb/>small axle into the crank, the man who works the crank turns the axle, and at <lb/>the same time the drum whose rundles turn the toothed wheel of the second <lb/>axle; by this wheel is driven the one that is made of rundles, which <lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="173"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—IRON FRAME. B—LOWEST AXLE. C—FLY-WHEEL. D—SMALLER DRUM MADE OF <lb/>RUNDLES. E—SECOND AXLE. F—SMALLER TOOTHED WHEEL G—LARGER DRUM MADE <lb/>OF RUNDLES. H—UPPER AXLE. I—LARGER TOOTHED WHEEL. K—BEARINGS. <lb/>L—PILLOW. M—FRAMEWORK. N—OAK TIMBER O—SUPPORT OF IRON BEARING <lb/>P—ROLLER Q—UPPER DRUM. R—CLAMPS. S—CHAIN. T—LINKS. V—DIPPERS <lb/>X—CRANK. Y—LOWER DRUM OR BALANCE WEIGHT.<pb pagenum="174"/>again turns the toothed wheel of the upper small axle and thus the drum to <lb/>which the clamps are fixed. </s> <s>In this way the chain, together with the empty <lb/>dippers, is slowly let down, close to the footwall side of the vein, into the sump <lb/>to the bottom of the balance drum, which turns on a little iron axle, both ends <lb/>of which are set in a thick iron bearing. </s> <s>The chain is rolled round the drum <lb/>and the dippers fill with water; the chain being drawn up close to the hanging­<lb/>wall side, carries the dippers filled with water above the drum of the upper <lb/>axle. </s> <s>Thus there are always three of the dippers inverted and pouring <lb/>water into a lip, from which it flows away into the drain of the tunnel. </s> <s>This <lb/>machine is less useful, because it cannot be constructed without great expense, <lb/>and it carries off but little water and is somewhat slow, as also are other <lb/>machines which possess a great number of drums.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WHEEL WHICH IS TURNED BY TREADING. B—AXLE. C—DOUBLE CHAIN. D—LINK <lb/>OF DOUBLE CHAIN. E—DIPPERS. F—SIMPLE CLAMPS. G—CLAMP WITH TRIPLE CURVES.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The next machine of this kind, described in a few words by Vitruvius,<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>more rapidly brings up dippers, holding a <emph type="italics"/>congius;<emph.end type="italics"/> for this reason, it is <pb pagenum="175"/>more useful than the first one for drawing water out of shafts, into which <lb/>much water is continually flowing. </s> <s>This machine has no iron frame nor <lb/>drums, but has around its axle a wooden wheel which is turned by treading; <lb/>the axle, since it has no drum, does not last very long. </s> <s>In other respects <lb/>this pump resembles the first kind, except that it differs from it by having <lb/>a double chain. </s> <s>Clamps should be fixed to the axle of this machine, just as <lb/>to the drum of the other one; some of these are made simple and others <lb/>with triple curves, but each kind has four barbs.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The third machine, which far excels the two just described, is made <lb/>when a running stream can be diverted to a mine; the impetus of the <lb/>stream striking the paddles revolves a water-wheel in place of the wheel <lb/>turned by treading. </s> <s>With regard to the axle, it is like the second machine, </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WHEEL WHOSE PADDLES ARE TURNED BY THE FORCE OF THE STREAM. B—AXLE. <lb/>C—DRUM OF AXLE, TO WHICH CLAMPS ARE FIXED. D—CHAIN. E—LINK. F—DIPPERS. <lb/>G—BALANCE DRUM.<lb/>but the drum which is round the axle, the chain, and the balance drum, are <lb/>like the first machine. </s> <s>It has much more capacious dippers than even the <lb/>second machine, but since the dippers are frequently broken, miners rarely <lb/>use these machines; for they prefer to lift out small quantities of water by <lb/>the first five machines or to draw it up by suction pumps, or, if there is <pb pagenum="176"/>much water, to drain it by the rag and chain pump or to bring it up in <lb/>water-bags.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Enough, then, of the first sort of pumps. </s> <s>I will now explain the other, <lb/>that is the pump which draws, by means of pistons, water which has been <lb/>raised by suction. </s> <s>Of these there are seven varieties, which though they <lb/>differ from one another in structure, nevertheless confer the same benefits <lb/>upon miners, though some to a greater degree than others. </s> <s>The first pump <lb/>is made as follows. </s> <s>Over the sump is placed a flooring, through which a <lb/>pipe—or two lengths of pipe, one of which is joined into the other—are let <lb/>down to the bottom of the sump; they are fastened with pointed iron clamps <lb/>driven in straight on both sides, so that the pipes may remain fixed. </s> <s>The <lb/>lower end of the lower pipe is enclosed in a trunk two feet deep; this trunk, <lb/>hollow like the pipe, stands at the bottom of the sump, but the lower opening <lb/>of it is blocked with a round piece of wood; the trunk has perforations <lb/>round about, through which water flows into it. </s> <s>If there is one length of <lb/>pipe, then in the upper part of the trunk which has been hollowed out there is <lb/>enclosed a box of iron, copper, or brass, one palm deep, but without a bottom, <lb/>and a rounded valve so tightly closes it that the water, which has been drawn <lb/>up by suction, cannot run back; but if there are two lengths of pipe, the <lb/>box is enclosed in the lower pipe at the point of junction. </s> <s>An opening or a <lb/>spout in the upper pipe reaches to the drain of the tunnel. </s> <s>Thus the work­<lb/>man, eager at his labour, standing on the flooring boards, pushes the piston <lb/>down into the pipe and draws it out again. </s> <s>At the top of the piston-rod is a <lb/>hand-bar and the bottom is fixed in a shoe; this is the name given to the <lb/>leather covering, which is almost cone-shaped, for it is so stitched that it is <lb/>tight at the lower end, where it is fixed to the piston-rod which it surrounds, <lb/>but in the upper end where it draws the water it is wide open. </s> <s>Or else an <lb/>iron disc one digit thick is used, or one of wood six digits thick, each of which <lb/>is far superior to the shoe. </s> <s>The disc is fixed by an iron key which pene­<lb/>trates through the bottom of the piston-rod, or it is screwed on to the <lb/>rod; it is round, with its upper part protected by a cover, and has five or <lb/>six openings, either round or oval, which taken together present a star-like <lb/>appearance; the disc has the same diameter as the inside of the pipe, <lb/>so that it can be just drawn up and down in it. </s> <s>When the workman draws <lb/>the piston up, the water which has passed in at the openings of the disc, <lb/>whose cover is then closed, is raised to the hole or little spout, through which <lb/>it flows away; then the valve of the box opens, and the water which has <lb/>passed into the trunk is drawn up by the suction and rises into the pipe; <lb/>but when the workman pushes down the piston, the valve closes and allows <lb/>the disc again to draw in the water.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The piston of the second pump is more easily moved up and down. </s> <s>When <lb/>this pump is made, two beams are placed over the sump, one near the right side <lb/>of it, and the other near the left. </s> <s>To one beam a pipe is fixed with iron clamps; <lb/>to the other is fixed either the forked branch of a tree or a timber cut out at <lb/>the top in the shape of a fork, and through the prongs of the fork a round <lb/>hole is bored. </s> <s>Through a wide round hole in the middle of a sweep passes </s></p><pb pagenum="177"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SUMP. B—PIPES. C—FLOORING. D—TRUNK. E—PERFORATIONS OF TRUNK. <lb/>F—VALVE. G—SPOUT. H—PISTON-ROD. I—HAND-BAR OF PISTON. K—SHOE. L—DISC <lb/>WITH ROUND OPENINGS. M—DISC WITH OVAL OPENINGS. N—COVER. O—THIS MAN IS <lb/>BORING LOGS AND MAKING THEM INTO PIPES. P—BORER WITH AUGER. Q—WIDER BORER.</s></p><pb pagenum="178"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—ERECT TIMBER. B—AXLE. C—SWEEP WHICH TURNS ABOUT THE AXLE. D—PISTON <lb/>ROD. E—CROSS-BAR. F—RING WITH WHICH TWO PIPES ARE GENERALLY JOINED.<lb/>an iron axle, so fastened in the holes in the fork that it remains fixed, and <lb/>the sweep turns on this axle. </s> <s>In one end of the sweep the upper end of a <lb/>piston-rod is fastened with an iron key; at the other end a cross-bar is also <lb/>fixed, to the extreme ends of which are handles to enable it to be held more <lb/>firmly in the hands. </s> <s>And so when the workman pulls the cross-bar upward, <lb/>he forces the piston into the pipe; when he pushes it down again he draws <lb/>the piston out of the pipe; and thus the piston carries up the water which <lb/>has been drawn in at the openings of the disc, and the water flows away through <lb/>the spout into the drains. </s> <s>This pump, like the next one, is identical with <lb/>the first in all that relates to the piston, disc, trunk, box, and valve.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The third pump is not unlike the one just described, but in place of <lb/>one upright, posts are erected with holes at the top, and in these holes the <lb/>ends of an axle revolve. </s> <s>To the middle of this axle are fixed two wooden <lb/>bars, to the end of one of which is fixed the piston, and to the end of the <lb/>other a heavy piece of wood, but short, so that it can pass between the two <lb/>posts and may move backward and forward. </s> <s>When the workman pushes <lb/>this piece of wood, the piston is drawn out of the pipe; when it returns by its </s></p><pb pagenum="179"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—POSTS. B—AXLE. C—WOODEN BARS. D—PISTON ROD. E—SHORT PIECE OF WOOD. <lb/>F—DRAIN. G—THIS MAN IS DIVERTING THE WATER WHICH IS FLOWING OUT OF THE DRAIN, <lb/>TO PREVENT IT FROM FLOWING INTO THE TRENCHES WHICH ARE BEING DUG.<lb/>own weight, the piston is pushed in. </s> <s>In this way, the water which the pipe <lb/>contains is drawn through the openings in the disc and emptied by the piston <lb/>through the spout into the drain. </s> <s>There are some who place a hand-bar <lb/>underneath in place of the short piece of wood. </s> <s>This pump, as also the last <lb/>before described, is less generally used among miners than the others.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The fourth kind is not a simple pump but a duplex one. </s> <s>It is made as <lb/>follows. </s> <s>A rectangular block of beechwood, five feet long, two and a half <lb/>feet wide, and one and a half feet thick, is cut in two and hollowed out wide <lb/>and deep enough so that an iron axle with cranks can revolve in it. </s> <s>The axle <lb/>is placed between the two halves of this box, and the first part of the axle, <lb/>which is in contact with the wood, is round and the straight end forms a <lb/>journal. </s> <s>Then the axle is bent down the depth of a foot and again bent so <lb/>as to continue straight, and at this point a round piston-rod hangs from it; <lb/>next it is bent up as far as it was bent down; then it continues a little way <lb/>straight again, and then it is bent up a foot and again continues straight, <lb/>at which point a second round piston-rod is hung from it; afterward it </s></p><pb pagenum="180"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BOX B—LOWER PART OF BOX. C—UPPER PART OF SAME. D—CLAMPS. E—PIPES <lb/>BELOW THE BOX. F—COLUMN PIPE FIXED ABOVE THE BOX. G—IRON AXLE. H—PISTON­<lb/>RODS. I—WASHERS TO PROTECT THE BEARINGS. K—LEATHERS. L—EYES IN THE AXLE. <lb/>M—RODS WHOSE ENDS ARE WEIGHTED WITH LUMPS OF LEAD. N—CRANK. <lb/>(<emph type="italics"/>This plate is unlettered in the first edition but corrected in those later.<emph.end type="italics"/>)<pb pagenum="181"/>is bent down the same distance as it was bent up the last time; the other <lb/>end of it, which also acts as a journal, is straight. </s> <s>This part which protrudes <lb/>through the wood is protected by two iron washers in the shape of discs, to <lb/>which are fastened two leather washers of the same shape and size, in order <lb/>to prevent the water which is drawn into the box from gushing out. </s> <s>These <lb/>discs are around the axle; one of them is inside the box and the other <lb/>outside. </s> <s>Beyond this, the end of the axle is square and has two eyes, in <lb/>which are fixed two iron rods, and to their ends are weighted lumps of lead, <lb/>so that the axle may have a greater propensity to revolve; this axle can <lb/>easily be turned when its end has been mortised in a crank. </s> <s>The upper part <lb/>of the box is the shallower one, and the lower part the deeper, the upper <lb/>part is bored out once straight down through the middle, the diameter of the <lb/>opening being the same as the outside diameter of the column pipe; the <lb/>lower box has, side by side, two apertures also bored straight down; <lb/>these are for two pipes, the space of whose openings therefore is twice as <lb/>great as that of the upper part; this lower part of the box is placed <lb/>upon the two pipes, which are fitted into it at their upper ends, and the <lb/>lower ends of these pipes penetrate into trunks which stand in the <lb/>sump. </s> <s>These trunks have perforations through which the water flows into <lb/>them. </s> <s>The iron axle is placed in the inside of the box, then the two iron <lb/>piston-rods which hang from it are let down through the two pipes to the depth <lb/>of a foot. </s> <s>Each piston has a screw at its lower end which holds a thick iron <lb/>plate, shaped like a disc and full of openings, covered with a leather, and <lb/>similarly to the other pump it has a round valve in a little box. </s> <s>Then the <lb/>upper part of the box is placed upon the lower one and properly fitted to it on <lb/>every side, and where they join they are bound by wide thick iron plates, and <lb/>held with small wide iron wedges, which are driven in and are fastened with <lb/>clamps. </s> <s>The first length of column pipe is fixed into the upper part of the <lb/>box, and another length of pipe extends it, and a third again extends this one, <lb/>and so on, another extending on another, until the uppermost one reaches the <lb/>drain of the tunnel. </s> <s>When the crank worker turns the axle, the pistons in <lb/>turn draw the water through their discs; since this is done quickly, and <lb/>since the area of openings of the two pipes over which the box is set, is twice <lb/>as large as the opening of the column pipe which rises from the box, and since <lb/>the pistons do not lift the water far up, the impetus of the water from the <lb/>lower pipes forces it to rise and flow out of the column pipe into the drain of <lb/>the tunnel. </s> <s>Since a wooden box frequently cracks open, it is better to <lb/>make it of lead or copper or brass.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The fifth kind of pump is still less simple, for it is composed of two or <lb/>three pumps whose pistons are raised by a machine turned by men, for each <lb/>piston-rod has a tappet which is raised, each in succession, by two cams on <lb/>a barrel; two or four strong men turn it. </s> <s>When the pistons descend into <lb/>the pipes their discs draw the water; when they are raised these force the <lb/>water out through the pipes. </s> <s>The upper part of each of these piston-rods, <lb/>which is half a foot square, is held in a slot in a cross-beam; the lower part, <lb/>which drops down into the pipes, is made of another piece of wood and is <lb/>round. </s> <s>Each of these three pumps is composed of two lengths of pipe fixed </s></p><pb pagenum="182"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TAPPETS OF PISTON-RODS. B—CAMS OF THE BARREL. C—SQUARE UPPER PARTS <lb/>OF PISTON-RODS. D—LOWER ROUNDED PARTS OF PISTON-RODS. E—CROSS-BEAMS. <lb/>F—PIPES. G—APERTURES OF PIPES. H—TROUGH. (Fifth kind of pump—see p. </s> <s>181).</s></p><pb pagenum="183"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WATER-WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—TRUNK ON WHICH THE LOWEST PIPE STANDS. <lb/>D—BASKET SURROUNDING TRUNK. (Sixth kind of pump—see p. </s> <s>184.)<pb pagenum="184"/>to the shaft timbers. </s> <s>This machine draws the water higher, as much as <lb/>twenty-four feet. </s> <s>If the diameter of the pipes is large, only two pumps are <lb/>made; if smaller, three, so that by either method the volume of water is the <lb/>same. </s> <s>This also must be understood regarding the other machines and <lb/>their pipes. </s> <s>Since these pumps are composed of two lengths of pipe, the <lb/>little iron box having the iron valve which I described before, is not enclosed <lb/>in a trunk, but is in the lower length of pipe, at that point where it joins <lb/>the upper one; thus the rounded part of the piston-rod is only as long as <lb/>the upper length of pipe; but I will presently explain this more clearly.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The sixth kind of pump would be just the same as the fifth were it not <lb/>that it has an axle instead of a barrel, turned not by men but by a water­<lb/>wheel, which is revolved by the force of water striking its buckets. <lb/></s> <s>Since water-power far exceeds human strength, this machine draws water <lb/>through its pipes by discs out of a shaft more than one hundred feet deep. <lb/></s> <s>The bottom of the lowest pipe, set in the sump, not only of this pump but <lb/>also of the others, is generally enclosed in a basket made of wicker-work, to <lb/>prevent wood shavings and other things being sucked in. (See p. </s> <s>183.)</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The seventh kind of pump, invented ten years ago, which is the most <lb/>ingenious, durable, and useful of all, can be made without much expense. </s> <s>It <lb/>is composed of several pumps, which do not, like those last described, go down <lb/>into the shaft together, but of which one is below the other, for if there are <lb/>three, as is generally the case, the lower one lifts the water of the sump and <lb/>pours it out into the first tank; the second pump lifts again from that tank <lb/>into a second tank, and the third pump lifts it into the drain of the tunnel. <lb/></s> <s>A wheel fifteen feet high raises the piston-rods of all these pumps at the same <lb/>time and causes them to drop together. </s> <s>The wheel is made to revolve by <lb/>paddles, turned by the force of a stream which has been diverted to the <lb/>mountain. </s> <s>The spokes of the water-wheel are mortised in an axle six feet <lb/>long and one foot thick, each end of which is surrounded by an iron band, <lb/>but in one end there is fixed an iron journal; to the other end is attached an <lb/>iron like this journal in its posterior part, which is a digit thick and as wide <lb/>as the end of the axle itself. </s> <s>Then the iron extends horizontally, being <lb/>rounded and about three digits in diameter, for the length of a foot, and <lb/>serves as a journal; thence, it bends to a height of a foot in a curve, <lb/>like the horn of the moon, after which it again extends straight out for <lb/>one foot; thus it comes about that this last straight portion, as it <lb/>revolves in an orbit becomes alternately a foot higher and a foot lower than <lb/>the first straight part. </s> <s>From this round iron crank there hangs the first flat <lb/>pump-rod, for the crank is fixed in a perforation in the upper end of this flat <lb/>pump-rod just as the iron key of the first set of “claws” is fixed into the <lb/>lower end. </s> <s>In order to prevent the pump-rod from slipping off it, as it <lb/>could easily do, and that it may be taken off when necessary, its opening <lb/>is wider than the corresponding part of the crank, and it is fastened on <lb/>both sides by iron keys. </s> <s>To prevent friction, the ends of the pump-rods are <lb/>protected by iron plates or intervening leathers. </s> <s>This first pump-rod is <lb/>about twelve feet long, the other two are twenty-six feet, and each is a palm </s></p><pb pagenum="185"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SHAFT. B—BOTTOM PUMP. C—FIRST TANK. D—SECOND PUMP. E—SECOND TANK. <lb/>F—THIRD PUMP. G—TROUGH. H—THE IRON SET IN THE AXLE. I—FIRST PUMP ROD. <lb/>K—SECOND PUMP ROD. L—THIRD PUMP ROD. M—FIRST PISTON ROD. N—SECOND <lb/>PISTON ROD. O—THIRD PISTON ROD. P—LITTLE AXLES. Q—“CLAWS.”<pb pagenum="186"/>wide and three digits thick. </s> <s>The sides of each pump-rod are covered and <lb/>protected by iron plates, which are held on by iron screws, so that a part <lb/>which has received damage can be repaired. </s> <s>In the “claws” is set a <lb/>small round axle, a foot and a half long and two palms thick. </s> <s>The ends are <lb/>encircled by iron bands to prevent the iron journals which revolve in the <lb/>iron bearings of the wood from slipping out of it.<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/> From this little axle <lb/>the wooden “claws” extend two feet, with a width and thickness of six <lb/>digits; they are three palms distant from each other, and both the inner and <lb/>outer sides are covered with iron plates. </s> <s>Two rounded iron keys two digits <lb/>thick are immovably fixed into the claws. </s> <s>The one of these keys per­<lb/>forates the lower end of the first pump-rod, and the upper end of the second <lb/>pump-rod which is held fast. </s> <s>The other key, which is likewise immovable, <lb/>perforates the iron end of the first piston-rod, which is bent in a curve and <lb/>is immovable. </s> <s>Each such piston-rod is thirteen feet long and three digits <lb/>thick, and descends into the first pipe of each pump to such depth that its <lb/>disc nearly reaches the valve-box. </s> <s>When it descends into the pipe, the <lb/>water, penetrating through the openings of the disc, raises the leather, and <lb/>when the piston-rod is raised the water presses down the leather, and this <lb/>supports its weight; then the valve closes the box as a door closes an <lb/>entrance. </s> <s>The pipes are joined by two iron bands, one palm wide, one <lb/>outside the other, but the inner one is sharp all round that it may <lb/>fit into each pipe and hold them together. </s> <s>Although at the present time <lb/>pipes lack the inner band, still they have nipples by which they are joined <lb/>together, for the lower end of the upper one holds the upper end of the lower <lb/>one, each being hewn away for a length of seven digits, the former inside, the <lb/>latter outside, so that the one can fit into the other. </s> <s>When the piston-rod <lb/>descends into the first pipe, that valve which I have described is closed; <lb/>when the piston-rod is raised, the valve is opened so that the water can run <lb/>in through the perforations. </s> <s>Each one of such pumps is composed of two <lb/>lengths of pipe, each of which is twelve feet long, and the inside diameter is <lb/>seven digits. </s> <s>The lower one is placed in the sump of the shaft, or in a tank, <lb/>and its lower end is blocked by a round piece of wood, above which there are <lb/>six perforations around the pipe through which the water flows into it. </s> <s>The <lb/>upper part of the upper pipe has a notch one foot deep and a palm wide, <lb/>through which the water flows away into a tank or trough. </s> <s>Each tank is <lb/>two feet long and one foot wide and deep. </s> <s>There is the same number of <lb/>axles, “claws,” and rods of each kind as there are pumps; if there are three <lb/>pumps, there are only two tanks, because-the sump of the shaft and the drain <lb/>of the tunnel take the place of two. </s> <s>The following is the way this machine <lb/>draws water from a shaft. </s> <s>The wheel being turned raises the first pump­<lb/>rod, and the pump-rod raises the first “claw,” and thus also the second <lb/>pump-rod, and the first piston-rod; then the second pump-rod raises the <lb/>second “claw,” and thus the third pump-rod and the second piston-rod; <lb/>then the third pump-rod raises the third “claw” and the third piston-rod, <pb pagenum="187"/>for there hangs no pump-rod from the iron key of these claws, for it can be of <lb/>no use in the last pump. </s> <s>In turn, when the first pump-rod descends, each <lb/>set of “claws” is lowered, each pump-rod and each piston-rod. </s> <s>And by this <lb/>system, at the same time the water is lifted into the tanks and drained out of <lb/>them; from the sump at the bottom of the shaft it is drained out, and it <lb/>is poured into the trough of the tunnel. </s> <s>Further, around the main axle there <lb/>may be placed two water wheels, if the river supplies enough water to turn <lb/>them, and from the back part of each round iron crank, one or two pump-rods <lb/>can be hung, each of which can move the piston-rods of three pumps. <lb/></s> <s>Lastly, it is necessary that the shafts from which the water is pumped out in <lb/>pipes should be vertical, for as in the case of the hauling machines, all pumps <lb/>which have pipes do not draw the water so high if the pipes are inclined in <lb/>inclined shafts, as if they are placed vertically in vertical shafts.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If the river does not supply enough water-power to turn the last­<lb/>described pump, which happens because of the nature of the locality <lb/>or occurs during the summer season when there are daily droughts, a <lb/>machine is built with a wheel so low and light that the water of ever so little a </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WATER WHEEL OF UPPER MACHINE. B—ITS PUMP. C—ITS TROUGH. D—WHEEL OF <lb/>LOWER MACHINE. E—ITS PUMP. F—RACE.<pb pagenum="188"/>stream can turn it. </s> <s>This water, falling into a race, runs therefrom on to a <lb/>second high and heavy wheel of a lower machine, whose pump lifts the water <lb/>out of a deep shaft. </s> <s>Since, however, the water of so small a stream cannot <lb/>alone revolve the lower water-wheel, the axle of the latter is turned at the start <lb/>with a crank worked by two men, but as soon as it has poured out into a pool <lb/>the water which has been drawn up by the pumps, the upper wheel draws <lb/>up this water by its own pump, and pours it into the race, from which it <lb/>flows on to the lower water-wheel and strikes its buckets. </s> <s>So both this <lb/>water from the mine, as well as the water of the stream, being turned down <lb/>the races on to that subterranean wheel of the lower machine, turns it, and <lb/>water is pumped out of the deeper part of the shaft by means of two or <lb/>three pumps.<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>If the stream supplies enough water straightway to turn a higher and <lb/>heavier water-wheel, then a toothed drum is fixed to the other end of the <lb/>axle, and this turns the drum made of rundles on another axle set below it. <lb/></s> <s>To each end of this lower axle there is fitted a crank of round iron curved <lb/>like the horns of the moon, of the kind employed in machines of this <lb/>description. </s> <s>This machine, since it has rows of pumps on each side, <lb/>draws great quantities of water.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Of the rag and chain pumps there are six kinds known to us, of which <lb/>the first is made as follows: A cave is dug under the surface of earth or in a <lb/>tunnel, and timbered on all sides by stout posts and planks, to prevent either <lb/>the men from being crushed or the machine from being broken by its collapse. <lb/></s> <s>In this cave, thus timbered, is placed a water-wheel fitted to an angular axle. <lb/></s> <s>The iron journals of the axle revolve in iron pillows, which are held in timbers <lb/>of sufficient strength. </s> <s>The wheel is generally twenty-four feet high, <lb/>occasionally thirty, and in no way different from those which are made for <lb/>grinding corn, except that it is a little narrower. </s> <s>The axle has on one side <lb/>a drum with a groove in the middle of its circumference, to which are fixed <lb/>many four-curved iron clamps. </s> <s>In these clamps catch the links of the chain, <lb/>which is drawn through the pipes out of the sump, and which again falls, <lb/>through a timbered opening, right down to the bottom into the sump to a <lb/>balancing drum. </s> <s>There is an iron band around the small axle of the <lb/>balancing drum, each journal of which revolves in an iron bearing fixed to a <lb/>timber. </s> <s>The chain turning about this drum brings up the water by the <lb/>balls through the pipes. </s> <s>Each length of pipe is encircled and protected by <lb/>five iron bands, a palm wide and a digit thick, placed at equal distances from <lb/>each other; the first band on the pipe is shared in common with the <lb/>preceding length of pipe into which it is fitted, the last band with the succeed­<lb/>ing length of pipe which is fitted into it. </s> <s>Each length of pipe, except the <lb/>first, is bevelled on the outer circumference of the upper end to a distance <lb/>of seven digits and for a depth of three digits, in order that it may be inserted <lb/>into the length of pipe which goes before it; each, except the last, is reamed <lb/>out on the inside of the lower end to a like distance, but to the depth </s></p><pb pagenum="189"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—UPPER AXLE. B—WHEEL WHOSE BUCKETS THE FORCE OF THE STREAM STRIKES. <lb/>C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—SECOND AXLE. E—DRUM COMPOSED OF RUNDLES. F—CURVED <lb/>ROUND IRONS. G—ROWS OF PUMPS.<pb pagenum="190"/>of a palm, that it may be able to take the end of the pipe which <lb/>follows. </s> <s>And each length of pipe is fixed with iron clamps to the timbers of <lb/>the shaft, that it may remain stationary. </s> <s>Through this continuous series <lb/>of pipes, the water is drawn by the balls of the chain up out of the sump as <lb/>far as the tunnel, where it flows out into the drains through an aperture in <lb/>the highest pipe. </s> <s>The balls which lift the water are connected by the iron <lb/>links of the chain, and are six feet distant from one another; they are made <lb/>of the hair of a horse's tail sewn into a covering to prevent it from being <lb/>pulled out by the iron clamps on the drum; the balls are of such size that <lb/>one can be held in each hand. </s> <s>If this machine is set up on the surface of <lb/>the earth, the stream which turns the water-wheel is led away through open­<lb/>air ditches; if in a tunnel, the water is led away through the subterranean <lb/>drains. </s> <s>The buckets of the water-wheel, when struck by the impact of the <lb/>stream, move forward and turn the wheel, together with the drum, whereby <lb/>the chain is wound up and the balls expel the water through the pipes. </s> <s>If <lb/>the wheel of this machine is twenty-four feet in diameter, it draws water from a <lb/>shaft two hundred and ten feet deep; if thirty feet in diameter, it will draw <lb/>water from a shaft two hundred and forty feet deep. </s> <s>But such work requires <lb/>a stream with greater water-power.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The next pump has two drums, two rows of pipes and two drawing­<lb/>chains whose balls lift out the water; otherwise they are like the last pump. <lb/></s> <s>This pump is usually built when an excessive amount of water flows into the <lb/>sump. </s> <s>These two pumps are turned by water-power; indeed, water draws <lb/>water.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The following is the way of indicating the increase or decrease of the <lb/>water in an underground sump, whether it is pumped by this rag and chain <lb/>pump or by the first pump, or the third, or some other. </s> <s>From a beam which <lb/>is as high above the shaft as the sump is deep, is hung a cord, to one <lb/>end of which there is fastened a stone, the other end being attached to a <lb/>plank. </s> <s>The plank is lowered down by an iron wire fastened to the <lb/>other end; when the stone is at the mouth of the shaft the plank <lb/>is right down the shaft in the sump, in which water it floats. </s> <s>This <lb/>plank is so heavy that it can drag down the wire and its iron clasp and <lb/>hook, together with the cord, and thus pull the stone upwards. </s> <s>Thus, as <lb/>the water decreases, the plank decends and the stone is raised; on the <lb/>contrary, when the water increases the plank rises and the stone is lowered. <lb/></s> <s>When the stone nearly touches the beam, since this indicates that the water <lb/>has been exhausted from the sump by the pump, the overseer in charge of the <lb/>machine closes the water-race and stops the water-wheel: when the stone <lb/>nearly touches the ground at the side of the shaft, this indicates that the <lb/>sump is full of water which has again collected in it, because the water raises <lb/>the plank and thus the stone drags back both the rope and the iron wire; <lb/>then the overseer opens the water-race, whereupon the water of the stream <lb/>again strikes the buckets of the water-wheel and turns the pump. </s> <s>As <lb/>workmen generally cease from their labours on the yearly holidays, and </s></p><pb pagenum="191"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—JOURNALS. D—PILLOWS. E—DRUM. F—CLAMPS. <lb/>G—DRAWING-CHAIN. H—TIMBERS. I—BALLS. K—PIPE. L—RACE OF STREAM.<pb pagenum="192"/>sometimes on working days, and are thus not always near the pump, and as <lb/>the pump, if necessary, must continue to draw water all the time, a bell rings <lb/>aloud continuously, indicating that this pump, or any other kind, is uninjured <lb/>and nothing is preventing its turning. </s> <s>The bell is hung by a cord from <lb/>a small wooden axle held in the timbers which stand over the shaft, and <lb/>a second long cord whose upper end is fastened to the small axle is lowered <lb/>into the shaft; to the lower end of this cord is fastened a piece of wood; <lb/>and as often as a cam on the main axle strikes it, so often does the bell ring <lb/>and give forth a sound.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The third pump of this kind is employed by miners when no river capable <lb/>of turning a water-wheel can be diverted, and it is made as follows. </s> <s>They <lb/>first dig a chamber and erect strong timbers and planks to prevent the sides <lb/>from falling in, which would overwhelm the pump and kill the men. </s> <s>The <lb/>roof of the chamber is protected with contiguous timbers, so arranged that <lb/>the horses which pull the machine can travel over it. </s> <s>Next they again set up <lb/>sixteen beams forty feet long and one foot wide and thick, joined by clamps <lb/>at the top and spreading apart at the bottom, and they fit the lower end <lb/>of each beam into a separate sill laid flat on the ground, and join these by a <lb/>post; thus there is created a circular area of which the diameter is fifty <lb/>feet. </s> <s>Through an opening in the centre of this area there descends an <lb/>upright square axle, forty-five feet long and a foot and a half wide and thick; <lb/>its lower pivot revolves in a socket in a block laid flat on the ground in the <lb/>chamber, and the upper pivot revolves in a bearing in a beam which is mor­<lb/>tised into two beams at the summit beneath the clamps; the lower pivot is <lb/>seventeen feet distant from either side of the chamber, <emph type="italics"/>i.e.,<emph.end type="italics"/> from its front and <lb/>rear. </s> <s>At the height of a foot above its lower end, the axle has a toothed wheel, <lb/>the diameter of which is twenty-two feet. </s> <s>This wheel is composed of four <lb/>spokes and eight rim pieces; the spokes are fifteen feet long and three­<lb/>quarters of a foot wide and thick<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>; one end of them is mortised in the axle, <lb/>the other in the two rims where they are joined together. </s> <s>These rims are three­<lb/>quarters of a foot thick and one foot wide, and from them there rise and <lb/>project upright teeth three-quarters of a foot high, half a foot wide, and six <lb/>digits thick. </s> <s>These teeth turn a second horizontal axle by means of a drum <lb/>composed of twelve rundles, each three feet long and six digits wide and <lb/>thick. </s> <s>This drum, being turned, causes the axle to revolve, and around this <lb/>axle there is a drum having iron clamps with four-fold curves in which catch <lb/>the links of a chain, which draws water through pipes by means of balls. <lb/></s> <s>The iron journals of this horizontal axle revolve on pillows which are set in <lb/>the centre of timbers. </s> <s>Above the roof of the chamber there are mortised <lb/>into the upright axle the ends of two beams which rise obliquely; the upper <lb/>ends of these beams support double cross-beams, likewise mortised to the <lb/>axle. </s> <s>In the outer end of each cross-beam there is mortised a small wooden <lb/>piece which appears to hang down; in this wooden piece there is similarly </s></p><pb pagenum="193"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—UPRIGHT AXLE. B—TOOTHED WHEEL. C—TEETH. D—HORIZONTAL AXLE. <lb/>E—DRUM WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. F—SECOND DRUM. G—DRAWING-CHAIN. <lb/>H—THE BALLS.<pb pagenum="194"/>mortised at the lower end a short board; this has an iron key which engages <lb/>a chain, and this chain again a pole-bar. </s> <s>This machine, which draws water <lb/>from a shaft two hundred and forty feet deep, is worked by thirty-two horses; <lb/>eight of them work for four hours, and then these rest for twelve hours, and <lb/>the same number take their place. </s> <s>This kind of machine is employed at the <lb/>foot of the Harz<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/> mountains and in the neighbourhood. </s> <s>Further, if <lb/>necessity arises, several pumps of this kind are often built for the purpose of <lb/>mining one vein, but arranged differently in different localities varying <lb/>according to the depth. </s> <s>At Schemnitz, in the Carpathian mountains, there <lb/>are three pumps, of which the lowest lifts water from the lowest sump to <lb/>the first drains, through which it flows into the second sump; the intermediate <lb/>one lifts from the second sump to the second drain, from which it flows into <lb/>the third sump; and the upper one lifts it to the drains of the tunnel, through <lb/>which it flows away. </s> <s>This system of three machines of this kind is turned <lb/>by ninety-six horses; these horses go down to the machines by an inclined </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—AXLE. B—DRUM. C—DRAWING-CHAIN. D—BALLS. E—CLAMPS.<pb pagenum="195"/>shaft, which slopes and twists like a screw and gradually descends. </s> <s>The <lb/>lowest of these machines is set in a deep place, which is distant from the <lb/>surface of the ground 660 feet.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The fourth species of pump belongs to the same genera, and is made <lb/>as follows. </s> <s>Two timbers are erected, and in openings in them, the ends of a <lb/>barrel revolve. </s> <s>Two or four strong men turn the barrel, that is to say, one <lb/>or two pull the cranks, and one or two push them, and in this way help the <lb/>others; alternately another two or four men take their place. </s> <s>The barrel <lb/>of this machine, just like the horizontal axle of the other machines, has a <lb/>drum whose iron clamps catch the links of a drawing-chain. </s> <s>Thus water <lb/>is drawn through the pipes by the balls from a depth of forty-eight feet. <lb/></s> <s>Human strength cannot draw water higher than this, because such very <lb/>heavy labour exhausts not only men, but even horses; only water-power <lb/>can drive continuously a drum of this kind. </s> <s>Several pumps of this kind, as <lb/>of the last, are often built for the purpose of mining on a single vein, <lb/>but they are arranged differently for different positions and depths.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—AXLES. B—LEVERS. C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—DRUM MADE OF RUNDLES. <lb/>E—DRUM IN WHICH IRON CLAMPS ARE FIXED.</s></p><pb pagenum="196"/><p type="main"> <s>The fifth pump of this kind is partly like the third and partly like the <lb/>fourth, because it is turned by strong men like the last, and like the third <lb/>it has two axles and three drums, though each axle is horizontal. </s> <s>The <lb/>journals of each axle are so fitted in the pillows of the beams that they cannot <lb/>fly out; the lower axle has a crank at one end and a toothed drum at the <lb/>other end; the upper axle has at one end a drum made of rundles, and at <lb/>the other end, a drum to which are fixed iron clamps, in which the links of a <lb/>chain catch in the same way as before, and from the same depth, draw water <lb/>through pipes by means of balls. </s> <s>This revolving machine is turned by two <lb/>pairs of men alternately, for one pair stands working while the other sits <lb/>taking a rest; while they are engaged upon the task of turning, one pulls <lb/>the crank and the other pushes, and the drums help to make the pump turn <lb/>more easily.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The sixth pump of this kind likewise has two axles. </s> <s>At one end of the <lb/>lower axle is a wheel which is turned by two men treading, this is twenty­<lb/>three feet high and four feet wide, so that one man may stand alongside <lb/>the other. </s> <s>At the other end of this axle is a toothed wheel. </s> <s>The upper<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>axle has two drums and one wheel; the first drum is made of rundles, and to <lb/>the other there are fixed the iron clamps. </s> <s>The wheel is like the one on the <lb/>second machine which is chiefly used for drawing earth and broken rock <lb/>out of shafts. </s> <s>The treaders, to prevent themselves from falling, grasp in <lb/>their hands poles which are fixed to the inner sides of the wheel. </s> <s>When <lb/>they turn this wheel, the toothed drum being made to revolve, sets in motion <lb/>the other drum which is made of rundles, by which means again the links <lb/>of the chain catch to the cleats of the third drum and draw water through <lb/>pipes by means of balls,—from a depth of sixty-six feet.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But the largest machine of all those which draw water is the one which <lb/>follows. </s> <s>First of all a reservoir is made in a timbered chamber; this reser­<lb/>voir is eighteen feet long and twelve feet wide and high. </s> <s>Into this reservoir <lb/>a stream is diverted through a water-race or through the tunnel; it has two <lb/>entrances and the same number of gates. </s> <s>Levers are fixed to the upper part <lb/>of these gates, by which they can be raised and let down again, so that by one <lb/>way the gates are opened and in the other way closed. </s> <s>Beneath the openings <lb/>are two plank troughs which carry the water flowing from the reservoir, and <lb/>pour it on to the buckets of the water-wheel, the impact of which turns the <lb/>wheel. </s> <s>The shorter trough carries the water, which strikes the buckets <lb/>that turn the wheel toward the reservoir, and the longer trough carries <lb/>the water which strikes those buckets that turn the wheel in the opposite <lb/>direction. </s> <s>The casing or covering of the wheel is made of joined boards to <lb/>which strips are affixed on the inner side. </s> <s>The wheel itself is thirty-six feet <lb/>in diameter, and is mortised to an axle, and it has, as I have already said, <lb/>two rows of buckets, of which one is set the opposite way to the other, so <lb/>that the wheel may be turned toward the reservoir or in the opposite </s></p><pb pagenum="197"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—AXLES. B—WHEEL WHICH IS TURNED BY TREADING. C—TOOTHED WHEEL. <lb/>D—DRUM MADE OF RUNDLES. E—DRUM TO WHICH ARE FIXED IRON CLAMPS. <lb/>F—SECOND WHEEL. G—BALLS.<pb pagenum="198"/>direction. </s> <s>The axle is square and is thirty-five feet long and two feet thick <lb/>and wide. </s> <s>Beyond the wheel, at a distance of six feet, the axle has four hubs, <lb/>one foot wide and thick, each one of which is four feet distant from the next<gap/><lb/>to these hubs are fixed by iron nails as many pieces of wood as are necessary <lb/>to cover the hubs, and, in order that the wood pieces may fit tight, they are <lb/>broader on the outside and narrower on the inside; in this way a drum is <lb/>made, around which is wound a chain to whose ends are hooked leather bags. <lb/></s> <s>The reason why a drum of this kind is made, is that the axle may be kept in <lb/>good condition, because this drum when it becomes worn away by use can <lb/>be repaired easily. </s> <s>Further along the axle, not far from the end, is another <lb/>drum one foot broad, projecting two feet on all sides around the axle. </s> <s>And <lb/>to this, when occasion demands, a brake is applied forcibly and holds back <lb/>the machine; this kind of brake I have explained before. </s> <s>Near the axle, <lb/>in place of a hopper, there is a floor with a considerable slope, having in <lb/>front of the shaft a width of fifteen feet and the same at the back; at each <lb/>side of it there is a stout post carrying an iron chain which has a large hook. <lb/></s> <s>Five men operate this machine; one lets down the doors which close the <lb/>reservoir gates, or by drawing down the levers, opens the water-races; this <lb/>man, who is the director of this machine, stands in a hanging cage beside the <lb/>reservoir. </s> <s>When one bag has been drawn out nearly as far as the sloping <lb/>floor, he closes the water gate in order that the wheel may be stopped; when <lb/>the bag has been emptied he opens the other water gate, in order that the <lb/>other set of buckets may receive the water and drive the wheel in the opposite <lb/>direction. </s> <s>If he cannot close the water-gate quickly enough, and the water <lb/>continues to flow, he calls out to his comrade and bids him raise the brake <lb/>upon the drum and stop the wheel. </s> <s>Two men alternately empty the bags, <lb/>one standing on that part of the floor which is in front of the shaft, <lb/>and the other on that part which is at the back. </s> <s>When the bag has been <lb/>nearly drawn up—of which fact a certain link of the chain gives warning—the <lb/>man who stands on the one part of the floor, catches a large iron hook in one <lb/>link of the chain, and pulls out all the subsequent part of the chain toward <lb/>the floor, where the bag is emptied by the other man. </s> <s>The object of this <lb/>hook is to prevent the chain, by its own weight, from pulling down the <lb/>other empty bag, and thus pulling the whole chain from its axle and <lb/>dropping it down the shaft. </s> <s>His comrade in the work, seeing that the bag <lb/>filled with water has been nearly drawn out, calls to the director of the <lb/>machine and bids him close the water of the tower so that there will be time <lb/>to empty the bag; this being emptied, the director of the machine first of <lb/>all slightly opens the other water-gate of the tower to allow the end of the <lb/>chain, together with the empty bag, to be started into the shaft again, and <lb/>then opens entirely the water-gates. </s> <s>When that part of the chain which <lb/>has been pulled on to the floor has been wound up again, and has been let <lb/>down over the shaft from the drum, he takes out the large hook which was <lb/>fastened into a link of the chain. </s> <s>The fifth man stands in a sort of cross-cut <lb/>beside the sump, that he may not be hurt, if it should happen that a link </s></p><pb pagenum="199"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—RESERVOIR. B—RACE. C, D—LEVERS. E, F—TROUGHS UNDER THE WATER GATES. <lb/>G, H—DOUBLE ROWS OF BUCKETS. I—AXLE. K—LARGER DRUM. L—DRAWING-CHAIN. <lb/>M—BAG. N—HANGING CAGE. O—MAN WHO DIRECTS THE MACHINE. P, Q—MEN <lb/>EMPTYING BAGS.<pb pagenum="200"/>is broken and part of the chain or anything else should fall down; he guides <lb/>the bag with a wooden shovel, and fills it with water if it fails to take <lb/>in the water spontaneously. </s> <s>In these days, they sew an iron band into the <lb/>top of each bag that it may constantly remain open, and when lowered into <lb/>the sump may fill itself with water, and there is no need for a man to act as <lb/>governor of the bags. </s> <s>Further, in these days, of those men who stand on <lb/>the floor the one empties the bags, and the other closes the gates of the <lb/>reservoir and opens them again, and the same man usually fixes the large <lb/>hook in the link of the chain. </s> <s>In this way, three men only are employed in <lb/>working this machine; or even—since sometimes the one who empties the <lb/>bag presses the brake which is raised against the other drum and thus stops <lb/>the wheel—two men take upon themselves the whole labour.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But enough of haulage machines; I will now speak of ventilating <lb/>machines. </s> <s>If a shaft is very deep and no tunnel reaches to it, or no drift <lb/>from another shaft connects with it, or when a tunnel is of great length and <lb/>no shaft reaches to it, then the air does not replenish itself. </s> <s>In such a case it <lb/>weighs heavily on the miners, causing them to breathe with difficulty, and <lb/>sometimes they are even suffocated, and burning lamps are also extinguished. <lb/></s> <s>There is, therefore, a necessity for machines which the Greeks call <lb/><foreign lang="greek">pneumatika/i</foreign> and the Latins <emph type="italics"/>spiritales<emph.end type="italics"/>—though they do not give forth any <lb/>sound—which enable the miners to breathe easily and carry on their work.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>These devices are of three genera. </s> <s>The first receives and diverts into <lb/>the shaft the blowing of the wind, and this genus is divided into three species, <lb/>of which the first is as follows. </s> <s>Over the shaft—to which no tunnel connects— <lb/>are placed three sills a little longer than the shaft, the first over the front, <lb/>the second over the middle, and the third over the back of the shaft. </s> <s>Their <lb/>ends have openings, through which pegs, sharpened at the bottom, are driven <lb/>deeply into the ground so as to hold them immovable, in the same way that <lb/>the sills of the windlass are fixed. </s> <s>Each of these sills is mortised into each <lb/>of three cross-beams, of which one is at the right side of the shaft, the second <lb/>at the left, and the third in the middle. </s> <s>To the second sill and the second <lb/>cross-beam—each of which is placed over the middle of the shaft—planks <lb/>are fixed which are joined in such a manner that the one which precedes <lb/>always fits into the groove of the one which follows. </s> <s>In this way four angles <lb/>and the same number of intervening hollows are created, which collect the <lb/>winds that blow from all directions. </s> <s>The planks are roofed above with a <lb/>cover made in a circular shape, and are open below, in order that the wind may <lb/>not be diverted upward and escape, but may be carried downward; and there­<lb/>by the winds of necessity blow into the shafts through these four openings. <lb/></s> <s>However, there is no need to roof this kind of machine in those localities in <lb/>which it can be so placed that the wind can blow down through its topmost <lb/>part.</s></p><pb pagenum="201"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SILLS. B—POINTED STAKES. C—CROSS-BEAMS. D—UPRIGHT PLANKS. <lb/>E—HOLLOWS. F—WINDS. G—COVERING DISC. H—SHAFTS. I—MACHINE <lb/>WITHOUT A COVERING.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The second machine of this genus turns the blowing wind into a shaft <lb/>through a long box-shaped conduit, which is made of as many lengths of <lb/>planks, joined together, as the depth of the shaft requires; the joints are <lb/>smeared with fat, glutinous clay moistened with water. </s> <s>The mouth of this con­<lb/>duit either projects out of the shaft to a height of three or four feet, or it does <lb/>not project; if it projects, it is shaped like a rectangular funnel, broader and <lb/>wider at the top than the conduit itself, that it may the more easily gather <lb/>the wind; if it does not project, it is not broader than the conduit, but <lb/>planks are fixed to it away from the direction in which the wind is blowing, <lb/>which catch the wind and force it into the conduit.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The third of this genus of machine is made of a pipe or pipes and <lb/>a barrel. </s> <s>Above the uppermost pipe there is erected a wooden barrel, four </s></p><pb pagenum="202"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—PROJECTING MOUTH OF CONDUIT. B—PLANKS FIXED TO THE MOUTH OF THE CONDUIT <lb/>WHICH DOES NOT PROJECT.<lb/>feet high and three feet in diameter, bound with wooden hoops; it has a <lb/>square blow-hole always open, which catches the breezes and guides them <lb/>down either by a pipe into a conduit or by many pipes into the shaft. </s> <s>To <lb/>the top of the upper pipe is attached a circular table as thick as <lb/>the bottom of the barrel, but of a little less diameter, so that the barrel may be <lb/>turned around on it; the pipe projects out of the table and is fixed in a <lb/>round opening in the centre of the bottom of the barrel. </s> <s>To the end of the <lb/>pipe a perpendicular axle is fixed which runs through the centre of the barrel <lb/>into a hole in the cover, in which it is fastened, in the same way as at the <lb/>bottom. </s> <s>Around this fixed axle and the table on the pipe, the movable <lb/>barrel is easily turned by a zephyr, or much more by a wind, which govern <lb/>the wing on it. </s> <s>This wing is made of thin boards and fixed to the upper <lb/>part of the barrel on the side furthest away from the blow-hole; this, as I <lb/>have said, is square and always open. </s> <s>The wind, from whatever quarter of <pb pagenum="203"/>the world it blows, drives the wing straight toward the opposite direction, in <lb/>which way the barrel turns the blow-hole towards the wind itself; the <lb/>blow-hole receives the wind, and it is guided down into the shaft by means <lb/>of the conduit or pipes.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WOODEN BARRELS. B—HOOPS. C—BLOW-HOLES. D—PIPE. <lb/>E—TABLE. F—AXLE. G—OPENING IN THE BOTTOM OF THE BARREL. <lb/>H—WING.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The second genus of blowing machine is made with fans, and is likewise <lb/>varied and of many forms, for the fans are either fitted to a windlass barrel <lb/>or to an axle. </s> <s>If to an axle, they are either contained in a hollow drum, <lb/>which is made of two wheels and a number of boards joining them together, <lb/>or else in a box-shaped casing. </s> <s>The drum is stationary and closed on the <lb/>sides, except for round holes of such size that the axle may turn in them; <lb/>it has two square blow-holes, of which the upper one receives the air, while <lb/>the lower one empties into the conduit through which the air is led down the <lb/>shaft. </s> <s>The ends of the axle, which project on each side of the drum, are <lb/>supported by forked posts or hollowed beams plated with thick iron; one <lb/>end of the axle has a crank, while in the other end are fixed four rods with <lb/>thick heavy ends, so that they weight the axle, and when turned, make it </s></p><pb pagenum="204"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—DRUM. B—BOX-SHAPED CASING. C—BLOW-HOLE. D—SECOND HOLE. <lb/>E—CONDUIT. F—AXLE. G—LEVER OF AXLE. H—RODS.<pb pagenum="205"/>prone to motion as it revolves. </s> <s>And so, when the workman turns the axle <lb/>by the crank, the fans, the description of which I will give a little later, draw <lb/>in the air by the blow-hole, and force it through the other blow-hole which <lb/>leads to the conduit, and through this conduit the air penetrates into the <lb/>shaft.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The one with the box-shaped casing is furnished with just the same <lb/>things as the drum, but the drum is far superior to the box: for the fans so <lb/>fill the drum that they almost touch it on every side, and drive into the <lb/>conduit all the air that has been accumulated; but they cannot thus fill <lb/>the box-shaped casing, on account of its angles, into which the air partly <lb/>retreats; therefore it cannot be as useful as the drum. </s> <s>The kind with a <lb/>box-shaped casing is not only placed on the ground, but is also set up on timbers <lb/>like a windmill, and its axle, in place of a crank, has four sails outside, <lb/>like the sails of a windmill. </s> <s>When these are struck by the wind they turn <lb/>the axle, and in this way its fans—which are placed within the casing—drive </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BOX-SHAPED CASING PLACED ON THE GROUND. B—ITS BLOW-HOLE. C—ITS AXLE <lb/>WITH FANS. D—CRANK OF THE AXLE. E—RODS OF SAME. F—CASING SET ON TIMBERS. <lb/>G—SAILS WHICH THE AXLE HAS OUTSIDE THE CASING.<pb pagenum="206"/>the air through the blow-hole and the conduit into the shaft. </s> <s>Although <lb/>this machine has no need of men whom it is necessary to pay to work the <lb/>crank, still when the sky is devoid of wind, as it often is, the machine does <lb/>not turn, and it is therefore less suitable than the others for ventilating a shaft.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the kind where the fans are fixed to an axle, there is generally a <lb/>hollow stationary drum at one end of the axle, and on the other end is fixed <lb/>a drum made of rundles. </s> <s>This rundle drum is turned by the toothed wheel <lb/>of a lower axle, which is itself turned by a wheel whose buckets receive the <lb/>impetus of water. </s> <s>If the locality supplies an abundance of water this <lb/>machine is most useful, because to turn the crank does not need men <lb/>who require pay, and because it forces air without cessation through the <lb/>conduit into the shaft.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HOLLOW DRUM. B—ITS BLOW-HOLE. C—AXLE WITH FANS. D—DRUM <lb/>WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES. E—LOWER AXLE. F—ITS TOOTHED WHEEL. <lb/>G—WATER WHEEL.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Of the fans which are fixed on to an axle contained in a drum or box, <lb/>there are three sorts. </s> <s>The first sort is made of thin boards of such length <lb/>and width as the height and width of the drum or box require; the second <pb pagenum="207"/>sort is made of boards of the same width, but shorter, to which are bound <lb/>long thin blades of poplar or some other flexible wood; the third sort has <lb/>boards like the last, to which are bound double and triple rows of goose <lb/>feathers. </s> <s>This last is less used than the second, which in turn is less used <lb/>than the first. </s> <s>The boards of the fan are mortised into the quadrangular <lb/>parts of the barrel axle.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FIRST KIND OF FAN. B—SECOND KIND OF FAN. C—THIRD KIND OF <lb/>FAN. D—QUADRANGULAR PART OF AXLE. E—ROUND PART OF SAME. <lb/>F—CRANK.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Blowing machines of the third genus, which are no less varied and of no <lb/>fewer forms than those of the second genus, are made with bellows, for by its <lb/>blasts the shafts and tunnels are not only furnished with air through conduits <lb/>or pipes, but they can also be cleared by suction of their heavy and pestilential <lb/>vapours. </s> <s>In the latter case, when the bellows is opened it draws the <lb/>vapours from the conduits through its blow-hole and sucks these vapours <lb/>into itself; in the former case, when it is compressed, it drives the air through <lb/>its nozzle into the conduits or pipes. </s> <s>They are compressed either by a man, <pb pagenum="208"/>or by a horse or by water-power; if by a man, the lower board of a large bellows is <lb/>fixed to the timbers above the conduit which projects out of the shaft, and so <lb/>placed that when the blast is blown through the conduit, its nozzle is <lb/>set in the conduit. </s> <s>When it is desired to suck out heavy or pestilential <lb/>vapours, the blow-hole of the bellows is fitted all round the mouth of the <lb/>conduit. </s> <s>Fixed to the upper bellows board is a lever which couples <lb/>with another running downward from a little axle, into which it is <lb/>mortised so that it may remain immovable; the iron journals of this little <lb/>axle revolve in openings of upright posts; and so when the workman pulls <lb/>down the lever the upper board of the bellows is raised, and at the same time <lb/>the flap of the blow-hole is dragged open by the force of the wind. </s> <s>If the <lb/>nozzle of the bellows is enclosed in the conduit it draws pure air into itself, <lb/>but if its blow-hole is fitted all round the mouth of the conduit it exhausts <lb/>the heavy and pestilential vapours out of the conduit and thus from the <lb/>shaft, even if it is one hundred and twenty feet deep. </s> <s>A stone placed on the <lb/>upper board of the bellows depresses it and then the flap of the blow-hole is </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SMALLER PART OF SHAFT. B—SQUARE CONDUIT. C—BELLOWS. D—LARGER PART <lb/>OF SHAFT.<pb pagenum="209"/>closed. </s> <s>The bellows, by the first method, blows fresh air into the conduit <lb/>through its nozzle, and by the second method blows out through the nozzle <lb/>the heavy and pestilential vapours which have been collected. </s> <s>In this <lb/>latter case fresh air enters through the larger part of the shaft, and the miners <lb/>getting the benefit of it can sustain their toil. </s> <s>A certain smaller part of the <lb/>shaft which forms a kind of estuary, requires to be partitioned off from the <lb/>other larger part by uninterrupted lagging, which reaches from the top of the <lb/>shaft to the bottom; through this part the long but narrow conduit reaches <lb/>down nearly to the bottom of the shaft.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When no shaft has been sunk to such depth as to meet a tunnel driven <lb/>far into a mountain, these machines should be built in such a manner that <lb/>the workman can move them about. </s> <s>Close by the drains of the tunnel <lb/>through which the water flows away, wooden pipes should be placed and <lb/>joined tightly together in such a manner that they can hold the air; these <lb/>should reach from the mouth of the tunnel to its furthest end. </s> <s>At the mouth <lb/>of the tunnel the bellows should be so placed that through its nozzle it can <lb/>blow its accumulated blasts into the pipes or the conduit; since one blast </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TUNNEL. B—PIPE. C—NOZZLE OF DOUBLE BELLOWS.<pb pagenum="210"/>always drives forward another, they penetrate into the tunnel and change <lb/>the air, whereby the miners are enabled to continue their work.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If heavy vapours need to be drawn off from the tunnels, generally three <lb/>double or triple bellows, without nozzles and closed in the forepart, are placed <lb/>upon benches. </s> <s>A workman compresses them by treading with his feet, just <lb/>as persons compress those bellows of the organs which give out varied and <lb/>sweet sounds in churches. </s> <s>These heavy vapours are thus drawn along the <lb/>air-pipes and through the blow-hole of the lower bellows board, and are <lb/>expelled through the blow-hole of the upper bellows board into the open <lb/>air, or into some shaft or drift. </s> <s>This blow-hole has a flap-valve, which the <lb/>noxious blast opens, as often as it passes out. </s> <s>Since one volume of air con­<lb/>stantly rushes in to take the place of another which has been drawn out by <lb/>the bellows, not only is the heavy air drawn out of a tunnel as great as 1,200 <lb/>feet long, or even longer, but also the wholesome air is naturally drawn in <lb/>through that part of the tunnel which is open outside the conduits. </s> <s>In this way <lb/>the air is changed, and the miners are enabled to carry on the work they have <lb/>begun. </s> <s>If machines of this kind had not been invented, it would be necessary <lb/>for miners to drive two tunnels into a mountain, and continually, at every <lb/>two hundred feet at most, to sink a shaft from the upper tunnel to the <lb/>lower one, that the air passing into the one, and descending by the shafts <lb/>into the other, would be kept fresh for the miners; this could not be done <lb/>without great expense.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are two different machines for operating, by means of horses, the <lb/>above described bellows. </s> <s>The first of these machines has on its axle a <lb/>wooden wheel, the rim of which is covered all the way round by steps; a <lb/>horse is kept continually within bars, like those within which horses are held <lb/>to be shod with iron, and by treading these steps with its feet it turns the wheel, <lb/>together with the axle; the cams on the axle press down the sweeps which <lb/>compress the bellows. </s> <s>The way the instrument is made which raises the <lb/>bellows again, and also the benches on which the bellows rest, I will explain <lb/>more clearly in Book IX. </s> <s>Each bellows, if it draws heavy vapours <lb/>out of a tunnel, blows them out of the hole in the upper board; if they are <lb/>drawn out of a shaft, it blows them out through its nozzle. </s> <s>The wheel has <lb/>a round hole, which is transfixed with a pole when the machine needs to be <lb/>stopped.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The second machine has two axles; the upright one is turned by a horse, <lb/>and its toothed drum turns a drum made of rundles on a horizontal axle; <lb/>in other respects this machine is like the last. </s> <s>Here, also, the nozzles of <lb/>the bellows placed in the conduits blow a blast into the shaft or tunnel.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the same way that this last machine can refresh the heavy air of a <lb/>shaft or tunnel, so also could the old system of ventilating by the constant <lb/>shaking of linen cloths, which Pliny<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/> has explained; the air not only grows </s></p><pb pagenum="211"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—MACHINE FIRST DESCRIBED. B—THIS WORKMAN, TREADING WITH HIS FEET, IS COM­<lb/>PRESSING THE BELLOWS. C—BELLOWS WITHOUT NOZZLES. D—HOLE BY WHICH HEAVY <lb/>VAPOURS OR BLASTS ARE BLOWN OUT. E—CONDUITS. F—TUNNEL. G—SECOND <lb/>MACHINE DESCRIBED. H—WOODEN WHEEL. I—ITS STEPS. K—BARS. L—HOLE IN <lb/>SAME WHEEL. M—POLE. N—THIRD MACHINE DESCRIBED. O—UPRIGHT AXLE. <lb/>P—ITS TOOTHED DRUM. Q—HORIZONTAL AXLE. R—ITS DRUM WHICH IS MADE OF RUNDLES.</s></p><pb pagenum="212"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TUNNEL. B—LINEN CLOTH.<lb/>heavier with the depth of a shaft, of which fact he has made mention, but <lb/>also with the length of a tunnel.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The climbing machines of miners are ladders, fixed to one side of the shaft, <lb/>and these reach either to the tunnel or to the bottom of the shaft. </s> <s>I need not <lb/>describe how they are made, because they are used everywhere, and need <lb/>not so much skill in their construction as care in fixing them. </s> <s>However, <lb/>miners go down into mines not only by the steps of ladders, but they are <lb/>also lowered into them while sitting on a stick or a wicker basket, fastened to <lb/>the rope of one of the three drawing machines which I described at first. <lb/></s> <s>Further, when the shafts are much inclined, miners and other workmen <lb/>sit in the dirt which surrounds their loins and slide down in the same way <lb/>that boys do in winter-time when the water on some hillside has congealed <lb/>with the cold, and to prevent themselves from falling, one arm is wound about <lb/>a rope, the upper end of which is fastened to a beam at the mouth of the shaft, <lb/>and the lower end to a stake fixed in the bottom of the shaft. </s> <s>In these three <lb/>ways miners descend into the shafts. </s> <s>A fourth way may be mentioned <lb/>which is employed when men and horses go down to the underground </s></p><pb pagenum="213"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—DESCENDING INTO THE SHAFT BY LADDERS. B—BY SITTING ON A STICK. C—BY <lb/>SITTING ON THE DIRT. D—DESCENDING BY STEPS CUT IN THE ROCK.<pb pagenum="214"/>machines and come up again, that is by inclined shafts which are twisted like <lb/>a screw and have steps cut in the rock, as I have already described.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It remains for me to speak of the ailments and accidents of miners, and of <lb/>the methods by which they can guard against these, for we should always <lb/>devote more care to maintaining our health, that we may freely perform our <lb/>bodily functions, than to making profits. </s> <s>Of the illnesses, some affect the <lb/>joints, others attack the lungs, some the eyes, and finally some are fatal to <lb/>men.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Where water in shafts is abundant and very cold, it frequently injures <lb/>the limbs, for cold is harmful to the sinews. </s> <s>To meet this, miners should <lb/>make themselves sufficiently high boots of rawhide, which protect their <lb/>legs from the cold water; the man who does not follow this advice will <lb/>suffer much ill-health, especially when he reaches old age. </s> <s>On the other <lb/>hand, some mines are so dry that they are entirely devoid of water, and this <lb/>dryness causes the workmen even greater harm, for the dust which is stirred <lb/>and beaten up by digging penetrates into the windpipe and lungs, and <lb/>produces difficulty in breathing, and the disease which the Greeks call <lb/><foreign lang="greek">a)\sqma.</foreign> If the dust has corrosive qualities, it eats away the lungs, and <lb/>implants consumption in the body; hence in the mines of the Carpathian <lb/>Mountains women are found who have married seven husbands, all of whom <lb/>this terrible consumption has carried off to a premature death. </s> <s>At Altenberg <lb/>in Meissen there is found in the mines black <emph type="italics"/>pompholyx,<emph.end type="italics"/> which eats wounds <lb/>and ulcers to the bone; this also corrodes iron, for which reason the keys <lb/>of their sheds are made of wood. </s> <s>Further, there is a certain kind of <emph type="italics"/>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>which eats away the feet of the workmen when they have become wet, and <lb/>similarly their hands, and injures their lungs and eyes. </s> <s>Therefore, for their <pb pagenum="215"/>digging they should make for themselves not only boots of rawhide, but gloves <lb/>long enough to reach to the elbow, and they should fasten loose veils over their <lb/>faces; the dust will then neither be drawn through these into their wind­<lb/>pipes and lungs, nor will it fly into their eyes. </s> <s>Not dissimilarly, among the <lb/>Romans<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/> the makers of vermilion took precautions against breathing its fatal <lb/>dust.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Stagnant air, both that which remains in a shaft and that which remains <lb/>in a tunnel, produces a difficulty in breathing; the remedies for this evil <lb/>are the ventilating machines which I have explained above. </s> <s>There is another <lb/>illness even more destructive, which soon brings death to men who work <lb/>in those shafts or levels or tunnels in which the hard rock is broken by fire. <lb/></s> <s>Here the air is infected with poison, since large and small veins and seams <lb/>in the rocks exhale some subtle poison from the minerals, which is driven <lb/>out by the fire, and this poison itself is raised with the smoke not unlike <lb/><emph type="italics"/>pompholyx,<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/> which clings to the upper part of the walls in the works in which <lb/>ore is smelted. </s> <s>If this poison cannot escape from the ground, but falls down <lb/>into the pools and floats on their surface, it often causes danger, for if at any <lb/>time the water is disturbed through a stone or anything else, these fumes rise <lb/>again from the pools and thus overcome the men, by being drawn in with their <lb/>breath; this is even much worse if the fumes of the fire have not yet all <lb/>escaped. </s> <s>The bodies of living creatures who are infected with this poison <lb/>generally swell immediately and lose all movement and feeling, and they die <lb/>without pain; men even in the act of climbing from the shafts by the <lb/>steps of ladders fall back into the shafts when the poison overtakes them, <lb/>because their hands do not perform their office, and seem to them to be round <lb/>and spherical, and likewise their feet. </s> <s>If by good fortune the injured <lb/>ones escape these evils, for a little while they are pale and look like <lb/>dead men. </s> <s>At such times, no one should descend into the mine or into the <lb/>neighbouring mines, or if he is in them he should come out quickly. </s> <s>Prudent <lb/>and skilled miners burn the piles of wood on Friday, towards evening, and <lb/><pb pagenum="216"/>they do not descend into the shafts nor enter the tunnels again before Monday, <lb/>and in the meantime the poisonous fumes pass away.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are also times when a reckoning has to be made with Orcus,<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>for some metalliferous localities, though such are rare, spontaneously <lb/>produce poison and exhale pestilential vapour, as is also the case with some <lb/>openings in the ore, though these more often contain the noxious fumes. <lb/></s> <s>In the towns of the plains of Bohemia there are some caverns which, <lb/>at certain seasons of the year, emit pungent vapours which put out lights <lb/>and kill the miners if they linger too long in them. </s> <s>Pliny, too, has left <lb/>a record that when wells are sunk, the sulphurous or aluminous vapours <lb/>which arise kill the well-diggers, and it is a test of this danger if a burning <lb/>lamp which has been let down is extinguished. </s> <s>In such cases a second well <lb/>is dug to the right or left, as an air-shaft, which draws off these noxious <lb/>vapours. </s> <s>On the plains they construct bellows which draw up these noxious <lb/>vapours and remedy this evil; these I have described before.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Further, sometimes workmen slipping from the ladders into the shafts <lb/>break their arms, legs, or necks, or fall into the sumps and are drowned; <lb/>often, indeed, the negligence of the foreman is to blame, for it is his special <lb/>work both to fix the ladders so firmly to the timbers that they cannot break <lb/>away, and to cover so securely with planks the sumps at the bottom of the <lb/>shafts, that the planks cannot be moved nor the men fall into the water; <lb/>wherefore the foreman must carefully execute his own work. </s> <s>Moreover, <lb/>he must not set the entrance of the shaft-house toward the north wind, <lb/>lest in winter the ladders freeze with cold, for when this happens the men's <lb/>hands become stiff and slippery with cold, and cannot perform their office <lb/>of holding. </s> <s>The men, too, must be careful that, even if none of these things <lb/>happen, they do not fall through their own carelessness.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Mountains, too, slide down and men are crushed in their fall and perish. <lb/></s> <s>In fact, when in olden days Rammelsberg, in Goslar, sank down, so many <lb/>men were crushed in the ruins that in one day, the records tell us, about <lb/>400 women were robbed of their husbands. </s> <s>And eleven years ago, part <lb/>of the mountain of Altenberg, which had been excavated, became loose and <lb/>sank, and suddenly crushed six miners; it also swallowed up a hut and one <lb/>mother and her little boy. </s> <s>But this generally occurs in those mountains <lb/>which contain <emph type="italics"/>venae cumulatae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Therefore, miners should leave numerous <lb/>arches under the mountains which need support, or provide underpinning. <lb/></s> <s>Falling pieces of rock also injure their limbs, and to prevent this from hap­<lb/>pening, miners should protect the shafts, tunnels, and drifts.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The venomous ant which exists in Sardinia is not found in our mines. <lb/></s> <s>This animal is, as Solinus<emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/> writes, very small and like a spider in shape; it <lb/>is called <emph type="italics"/>solífuga,<emph.end type="italics"/> because it shuns (<emph type="italics"/>fugít<emph.end type="italics"/>) the light (<emph type="italics"/>solem<emph.end type="italics"/>). It is very common <lb/><pb pagenum="217"/>in silver mines; it creeps unobserved and brings destruction upon those <lb/>who imprudently sit on it. </s> <s>But, as the same writer tells us, springs of warm <lb/>and salubrious waters gush out in certain places, which neutralise the venom <lb/>inserted by the ants.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In some of our mines, however, though in very few, there are other <lb/>pernicious pests. </s> <s>These are demons of ferocious aspect, about which I have <lb/>spoken in my book <emph type="italics"/>De Animantibus Subterraneis.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Demons of this kind <lb/>are expelled and put to flight by prayer and fasting.<emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some of these evils, as well as certain other things, are the reason why <lb/>pits are occasionally abandoned. </s> <s>But the first and principal cause is that <lb/>they do not yield metal, or if, for some fathoms, they do bear metal they <lb/>become barren in depth. </s> <s>The second cause is the quantity of water which <lb/>flows in; sometimes the miners can neither divert this water into the <lb/>tunnels, since tunnels cannot be driven so far into the mountains, or they <lb/>cannot draw it out with machines because the shafts are too deep; or if they <lb/>could draw it out with machines, they do not use them, the reason <lb/>undoubtedly being that the expenditure is greater than the profits of a <lb/>moderately poor vein. </s> <s>The third cause is the noxious air, which the owners <lb/>sometimes cannot overcome either by skill or expenditure, for which reason <lb/>the digging is sometimes abandoned, not only of shafts, but also of tunnels. </s> <s>The <lb/>fourth cause is the poison produced in particular places, if it is not in our <lb/>power either completely to remove it or to moderate its effects. </s> <s>This is the <lb/>reason why the caverns in the Plain known as Laurentius<emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/> used not to be <lb/><pb pagenum="218"/>worked, though they were not deficient in silver. </s> <s>The fifth cause are the <lb/>fierce and murderous demons, for if they cannot be expelled, no one escapes <lb/>from them. </s> <s>The sixth cause is that the underpinnings become loosened <lb/>and collapse, and a fall of the mountain usually follows; the underpinnings <lb/>are then only restored when the vein is very rich in metal. </s> <s>The seventh <lb/>cause is military operations. </s> <s>Shafts and tunnels should not be re-opened <lb/>unless we are quite certain of the reasons why the miners have deserted them, <lb/>because we ought not to believe that our ancestors were so indolent and <lb/>spiritless as to desert mines which could have been carried on with profit. <lb/></s> <s>Indeed, in our own days, not a few miners, persuaded by old women's tales, <lb/>have re-opened deserted shafts and lost their time and trouble. </s> <s>Therefore, <lb/>to prevent future generations from being led to act in such a way, it is <lb/>advisable to set down in writing the reason why the digging of each shaft or <lb/>tunnel has been abandoned, just as it is agreed was once done at Freiberg, <lb/>when the shafts were deserted on account of the great inrush of water.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>END OF BOOK VI.</s></p><figure></figure><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>BOOK VII.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Since the Sixth Book has described the iron tools, <lb/>the vessels and the machines used in mines, this <lb/>Book will describe the methods of assaying<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/> ores; <lb/>because it is desirable to first test them in order <lb/>that the material mined may be advantageously <lb/>smelted, or that the dross may be purged away and <lb/>the metal made pure. </s> <s>Although writers have men­<lb/>tioned such tests, yet none of them have set down the <lb/>directions for performing them, wherefore it is no <lb/>wonder that those who come later have written nothing on the subject. <lb/></s> <s>By tests of this kind miners can determine with certainty whether <lb/>ores contain any metal in them or not; or if it has already been <lb/>indicated that the ore contains one or more metals, the tests show whether <lb/>it is much or little; the miners also ascertain by such tests the method by <lb/>which the metal can be separated from that part of the ore devoid of it; <lb/>and further, by these tests, they determine that part in which there is much <lb/>metal from that part in which there is little. </s> <s>Unless these tests have been <lb/>carefully applied before the metals are melted out, the ore cannot be smelted <lb/>without great loss to the owners, for the parts which do not easily melt in the <lb/>fire carry the metals off with them or consume them. </s> <s>In the last case, they pass <lb/>off with the fumes; in the other case they are mixed with the slag and furnace <lb/>accretions, and in such event the owners lose the labour which they have spent <lb/>in preparing the furnaces and the crucibles, and further, it is necessary for them <lb/>to incur fresh expenditure for fluxes and other things. </s> <s>Metals, when they have <lb/>been melted out, are usually assayed in order that we may ascertain what pro­<lb/>portion of silver is in a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper or lead, or what quantity of <lb/>gold is in one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver; and, on the other hand, what proportion of copper <lb/>or lead is contained in a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, or what quantity of silver is <lb/>contained in one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold. </s> <s>And from this we can calculate whether it <lb/>will be worth while to separate the precious metals from the base metals, or <lb/>not. </s> <s>Further, a test of this kind shows whether coins are good or are <lb/>debased; and readily detects silver, if the coiners have mixed more than is <lb/>lawful with the gold; or copper, if the coiners have alloyed with the gold or <lb/>silver more of it than is allowable. </s> <s>I will explain all these methods with the <lb/>utmost care that I can.</s></p><pb pagenum="220"/><p type="main"> <s>The method of assaying ore used by mining people, differs from <lb/>smelting only by the small amount of material used. </s> <s>Inasmuch as, by <lb/>smelting a small quantity, they learn whether the smelting of a large <pb pagenum="221"/>quantity will compensate them for their expenditure; hence, if they are not <lb/>particular to employ assays, they may, as I have already said, sometimes smelt <lb/>the metal from the ore with a loss or sometimes without any profit; for they <pb pagenum="222"/>can assay the ore at a very small expense, and smelt it only at a great <lb/>expense. </s> <s>Both processes, however, are carried out in the same way, for just <lb/>as we assay ore in a little furnace, so do we smelt it in the large furnace. </s> <s>Also <lb/>in both cases charcoal and not wood is burned. </s> <s>Moreover, in the crucible <lb/>when metals are tested, be they gold, silver, copper, or lead, they are mixed in <lb/>precisely the same way as they are mixed in the blast furnace when they <lb/>are smelted. </s> <s>Further, those who assay ores with fire, either pour out the <lb/>metal in a liquid state, or, when it has cooled, break the crucible and clean <pb pagenum="223"/>the metal from slag; and in the same way the smelter, as soon as the metal <lb/>flows from the furnace into the forehearth, pours in cold water and takes the <lb/>slag from the metal with a hooked bar. </s> <s>Finally, in the same way that gold <lb/>and silver are separated from lead in a cupel, so also are they separated in <lb/>the cupellation furnace.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It is necessary that the assayer who is testing ore or metals should be <lb/>prepared and instructed in all things necessary in assaying, and that he <lb/>should close the doors of the room in which the assay furnace stands, lest </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>ROUND ASSAY FURNACE.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>RECTANGULAR ASSAY FURNACE.<pb pagenum="224"/>anyone coming at an inopportune moment might disturb his thoughts when <lb/>they are intent on the work. </s> <s>It is also necessary for him to place his balances <lb/>in a case, so that when he weighs the little buttons of metal the scales may <lb/>not be agitated by a draught of air, for that is a hindrance to his work.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now I will describe the different things which are necessary in assaying, <lb/>beginning with the assay furnace, of which one differs from another in <lb/>shape, material, and the place in which it is set. </s> <s>In shape, they may be <lb/>round or rectangular, the latter shape being more suited to assaying ores. <lb/></s> <s>The materials of the assay furnaces differ, in that one is made of bricks, <lb/>another of iron, and certain ones of clay. </s> <s>The one of bricks is built on a <lb/>chimney-hearth which is three and a half feet high; the iron one is placed <lb/>in the same position, and also the one of clay. </s> <s>The brick one is a cubit high, <lb/>a foot wide on the inside, and one foot two digits long; at a point five digits <lb/>above the hearth—which is usually the thickness of an unbaked<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/> brick— <lb/>an iron plate is laid, and smeared over with lute on the upper side to prevent <lb/>it from being injured by the fire; in front of the furnace above the plate is a <lb/>mouth a palm high, five digits wide, and rounded at the top. </s> <s>The iron plate </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—OPENINGS IN THE PLATE. B—PART OF PLATE WHICH PROJECTS BEYOND THE FURNACE.<lb/>has three openings which are one digit wide and three digits long, one is at <lb/>each side and the third at the back; through them sometimes the ash falls <lb/>from the burning charcoal, and sometimes the draught blows through the <lb/>chamber which is below the iron plate, and stimulates the fire. </s> <s>For this <lb/>reason this furnace when used by metallurgists is named from assaying, but <lb/>when used by the alchemists it is named from the wind<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>The part of the <lb/>iron plate which projects from the furnace is generally three-quarters of a <lb/><pb pagenum="225"/>palm long and a palm wide; small pieces of charcoal, after being laid thereon, <lb/>can be placed quickly in the furnace through its mouth with a pair of tongs, <lb/>or again, if necessary, can be taken out of the furnace and laid there.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The iron assay furnace is made of four iron bars a foot and a half high, <lb/>which at the bottom are bent outward and broadened a short distance to enable <lb/>them to stand more firmly; the front part of the furnace is made from two <lb/>of these bars, and the back part from two of them; to these bars on both <lb/>sides are joined and welded three iron cross-bars, the first at a height of a palm <lb/>from the bottom, the second at a height of a foot, and the third at the top. <lb/></s> <s>The upright bars are perforated at that point where the side cross-bars are <lb/>joined to them, in order that three similar iron bars on the remaining sides <lb/>can be engaged in them; thus there are twelve cross-bars, which make <lb/>three stages at unequal intervals. </s> <s>At the lower stage, the upright bars are <lb/>distant from each other one foot and five digits; and at the middle stage the <lb/>front is distant from the back three palms and one digit, and the sides are <lb/>distant from each other three palms and as many digits; at the highest stage <lb/>from the front to the back there is a distance of two palms, and between the <lb/>sides three palms, so that in this way the furnace becomes narrower at the <lb/>top. </s> <s>Furthermore, an iron rod, bent to the shape of the mouth, is set into <lb/>the lowest bar of the front; this mouth, just like that of the brick furnace, <lb/>is a palm high and five digits wide. </s> <s>Then the front cross-bar of the lower <lb/>stage is perforated on each side of the mouth, and likewise the back one; <lb/>through these perforations there pass two iron rods, thus making altogether <lb/>four bars in the lower stage, and these support an iron plate smeared with <lb/>lute; part of this plate also projects outside the furnace. </s> <s>The outside of <lb/>the furnace from the lower stage to the upper, is covered with iron plates, <lb/>which are bound to the bars by iron wires, and smeared with lute to enable <lb/>them to bear the heat of the fire as long as possible.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>As for the clay furnace, it must be made of fat, thick clay, medium so <lb/>far as relates to its softness or hardness. </s> <s>This furnace has exactly the same <lb/>height as the iron one, and its base is made of two earthenware tiles, one <lb/>foot and three palms long and one foot and one palm wide. </s> <s>Each side of the <lb/>fore part of both tiles is gradually cut away for the length of a palm, so <lb/>that they are half a foot and a digit wide, which part projects from the <lb/>furnace; the tiles are about a digit and a half thick. </s> <s>The walls are similarly <lb/>of clay, and are set on the lower tiles at a distance of a digit from the edge, <lb/>and support the upper tiles; the walls are three digits high and have four <lb/>openings, each of which is about three digits high; those of the back part and <lb/>of each side are five digits wide, and of the front, a palm and a half wide, to <lb/>enable the freshly made cupels to be conveniently placed on the hearth, when <lb/>it has been thoroughly warmed, that they may be dried there. </s> <s>Both tiles <lb/>are bound on the outer edge with iron wire, pressed into them, so that they <lb/>will be less easily broken; and the tiles, not unlike the iron bed-plate, have <lb/>three openings three digits long and a digit wide, in order that when the upper <lb/>one on account of the heat of the fire or for some other reason has become <lb/>damaged, the lower one may be exchanged and take its place. </s> <s>Through these <pb pagenum="226"/>holes, the ashes from the burning charcoal, as I have stated, fall down, and <lb/>air blows into the furnace after passing through the openings in the walls of <lb/>the chamber. </s> <s>The furnace is rectangular, and inside at the lower part it is <lb/>three palms and one digit wide and three palms and as many digits long. </s> <s>At <lb/>the upper part it is two palms and three digits wide, so that it also grows <lb/>narrower; it is one foot high; in the middle of the back it is cut out at <lb/>the bottom in the shape of a semicircle, of half a digit radius. </s> <s>Not <lb/>unlike the furnace before described, it has in its forepart a mouth which is <lb/>rounded at the top, one palm high and a palm and a digit wide. </s> <s>Its door <lb/>is also made of clay, and this has a window and a handle; even the lid <lb/>of the furnace which is made of clay has its own handle, fastened on with iron <lb/>wire. </s> <s>The outer parts and sides of this furnace are bound with iron wires, <lb/>which are usually pressed in, in the shape of triangles. </s> <s>The brick furnaces <lb/>must remain stationary; the clay and iron ones can be carried from one <lb/>place to another. </s> <s>Those of brick can be prepared more quickly, while those <lb/>of iron are more lasting, and those of clay are more suitable. </s> <s>Assayers <lb/>also make temporary furnaces in another way; they stand three bricks <lb/>on a hearth, one on each side and a third one at the back, the fore-part lies <lb/>open to the draught, and on these bricks is placed an iron plate, upon which <lb/>they again stand three bricks, which hold and retain the charcoal.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The setting of one furnace differs from another, in that some are placed <lb/>higher and others lower; that one is placed higher, in which the man who is <lb/>assaying the ore or metals introduces the scorifier through the mouth with the <lb/>tongs; that one is placed lower, into which he introduces the crucible <lb/>through its open top.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In some cases the assayer uses an iron hoop<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/> in place of a furnace; <lb/>this is placed upon the hearth of a chimney, the lower edge being daubed <lb/>with lute to prevent the blast of the bellows from escaping under it. <lb/></s> <s>If the blast is given slowly, the ore will be smelted and the copper will melt in <lb/>the triangular crucible, which is placed in it and taken away again with the <lb/>tongs. </s> <s>The hoop is two palms high and half a digit thick; its diameter is <lb/>generally one foot and one palm, and where the blast from the bellows enters <lb/>into it, it is notched out. </s> <s>The bellows is a double one, such as goldworkers <lb/>use, and sometimes smiths. </s> <s>In the middle of the bellows there is a board in <lb/>which there is an air-hole, five digits wide and seven long, covered by a <lb/>little flap which is fastened over the air-hole on the lower side of the board; <lb/>this flap is of equal length and width. </s> <s>The bellows, without its head, is <lb/>three feet long, and at the back is one foot and one palm wide and <lb/>somewhat rounded, and it is three palms wide at the head; the head itself <lb/>is three palms long and two palms and a digit wide at the part where it joins <lb/>the boards, then it gradually becomes narrower. </s> <s>The nozzle, of which there <lb/>is only one, is one foot and two digits long; this nozzle, and one-half of the <lb/>head in which the nozzle is fixed, are placed in an opening of the wall, this <lb/>being one foot and one palm thick; it reaches only to the iron hoop on the <pb pagenum="227"/>hearth, for it does not project beyond the wall. </s> <s>The hide of the bellows is <lb/>fixed to the bellows-boards with its own peculiar kind of iron nails. </s> <s>It joins <lb/>both bellows-boards to the head, and over it there are cross strips of <lb/>hide fixed to the bellows-boards with broad-headed nails, and similarly <lb/>fixed to the head. </s> <s>The middle board of the bellows rests on an iron bar, <lb/>to which it is fastened with iron nails clinched on both ends, so that it cannot <lb/>move; the iron bar is fixed between two upright posts, through which it <lb/>penetrates. </s> <s>Higher up on these upright posts there is a wooden axle, with <lb/>iron journals which revolve in the holes in the posts. </s> <s>In the middle of <lb/>this axle there is mortised a lever, fixed with iron nails to prevent it from <lb/>flying out; the lever is five and a half feet long, and its posterior end is <lb/>engaged in the iron ring of an iron rod which reaches to the “tail” of the <lb/>lowest bellows-board, and there engages another similar ring. </s> <s>And so when <lb/>the workman pulls down the lever, the lower part of the bellows is raised and <lb/>drives the wind into the nozzle; then the wind, penetrating through the hole <lb/>in the middle bellows-board, which is called the air-hole, lifts up the upper <lb/>part of the bellows, upon whose upper board is a piece of lead, heavy enough <lb/>to press down that part of the bellows again, and this being pressed down <lb/>blows a blast through the nozzle. </s> <s>This is the principle of the double bellows, <lb/>which is peculiar to the iron hoop where are placed the triangular crucibles in <lb/>which copper ore is smelted and copper is melted.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—IRON HOOP. B—DOUBLE BELLOWS. C—ITS NOZZLE. D—LEVER.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I have spoken of the furnaces and the iron hoop; I will now speak of <lb/>the muffles and the crucibles. </s> <s>The muffle is made of clay, in the shape <lb/>of an inverted gutter tile; it covers the scorifiers, lest coal dust fall into <lb/>them and interfere with the assay. </s> <s>It is a palm and a half broad, and the <lb/>height, which corresponds with the mouth of the furnace, is generally a palm, <pb pagenum="228"/>and it is nearly as long as the furnace; only at the front end does it touch <lb/>the mouth of the furnace, everywhere else on the sides and at the back <lb/>there is a space of three digits, to allow the charcoal to lie in the open space <lb/>between it and the furnace. </s> <s>The muffle is as thick as a fairly thick earthen <lb/>jar; its upper part is entire; the back has two little windows, and each side <lb/>has two or three or even four, through which the heat passes into the scorifiers <lb/>and melts the ore. </s> <s>In place of little windows, some muffles have small holes, <lb/>ten in the back and more on each side. </s> <s>Moreover, in the back below the <lb/>little windows, or small holes, there are cut away three semi-circular notches <lb/>half a digit high, and on each side there are four. </s> <s>The back of the muffle <lb/>is generally a little lower than the front.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BROAD LITTLE WINDOWS OF MUFFLE. B—NARROW ONES. C—OPENINGS IN THE <lb/>BACK THEREOF.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The crucibles differ in the materials from which they are made, because <lb/>they are made of either clay or ashes; and those of clay, which we also call <lb/>“earthen,” differ in shape and size. </s> <s>Some are made in the shape of a mod­<lb/>erately thick salver (scorifiers), three digits wide, and of a capacity of an <lb/><emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> measure; in these the ore mixed with fluxes is melted, and they are used <lb/>by those who assay gold or silver ore. </s> <s>Some are triangular and much <lb/>thicker and more capacious, holding five, or six, or even more <emph type="italics"/>uncíae;<emph.end type="italics"/> in <lb/>these copper is melted, so that it can be poured out, expanded, and tested <lb/>with fire, and in these copper ore is usually melted.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The cupels are made of ashes; like the preceding scorifiers they are <lb/>tray-shaped, and their lower part is very thick but their capacity is less. <lb/></s> <s>In these lead is separated from silver, and by them assays are concluded. <lb/></s> <s>Inasmuch as the assayers themselves make the cupels, something must <lb/>be said about the material from which they are made, and the method <lb/>of making them. </s> <s>Some make them out of all kinds of ordinary ashes; these <lb/>are not good, because ashes of this kind contain a certain amount of fat, <lb/>whereby such cupels are easily broken when they are hot. </s> <s>Others make <lb/>them likewise out of any kind of ashes which have been previously <lb/>leached; of this kind are the ashes into which warm water has been infused <lb/>for the purpose of making lye. </s> <s>These ashes, after being dried in the sun or <lb/>a furnace, are sifted in a hair sieve; and although warm water washes away the </s></p><pb pagenum="229"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SCORIFIER. B—TRIANGULAR CRUCIBLE. C—CUPEL.<lb/>fat from the ashes, still the cupels which are made from such ashes are not <lb/>very good because they often contain charcoal dust, sand, and pebbles. <lb/></s> <s>Some make them in the same way out of any kind of ashes, but first of all <lb/>pour water into the ashes and remove the scum which floats thereon; then, <lb/>after it has become clear, they pour away the water, and dry the ashes; they <lb/>then sift them and make the cupels from them. </s> <s>These, indeed, are good, <lb/>but not of the best quality, because ashes of this kind are also not devoid of <lb/>small pebbles and sand. </s> <s>To enable cupels of the best quality to be made, all <lb/>the impurities must be removed from the ashes. </s> <s>These impurities are of <lb/>two kinds; the one sort light, to which class belong charcoal dust and fatty <lb/>material and other things which float in water, the other sort heavy, such <lb/>as small stones, fine sand, and any other materials which settle in the <lb/>bottom of a vessel. </s> <s>Therefore, first of all, water should be poured into the <lb/>ashes and the light impurities removed; then the ashes should be <lb/>kneaded with the hands, so that they will become properly mixed with <lb/>the water. </s> <s>When the water has become muddy and turbid, it should be <lb/>poured into a second vessel. </s> <s>In this way the small stones and fine sand, or <lb/>any other heavy substance which may be there, remain in the first vessel, <lb/>and should be thrown away. </s> <s>When all the ashes have settled in this second <lb/>vessel, which will be shown if the water has become clear and does not taste <lb/>of the flavour of lye, the water should be thrown away, and the ashes <lb/>which have settled in the vessel should be dried in the sun or in a furnace. <lb/></s> <s>This material is suitable for the cupels, especially if it is the ash of beech <lb/>wood or other wood which has a small annual growth; those ashes made <lb/>from twigs and limbs of vines, which have rapid annual growth, are not so <pb pagenum="230"/>good, for the cupels made from them, since they are not sufficiently dry, <lb/>frequently crack and break in the fire and absorb the metals. </s> <s>If ashes of <lb/>beech or similar wood are not to be had, the assayer makes little balls of such <lb/>ashes as he can get, after they have been cleared of impurities in the manner <lb/>before described, and puts them in a baker's or potter's oven to burn, and from <lb/>these the cupels are made, because the fire consumes whatever fat or damp <lb/>there may be. </s> <s>As to all kinds of ashes, the older they are the better, for it is <lb/>necessary that they should have the greatest possible dryness. </s> <s>For this <lb/>reason ashes obtained from burned bones, especially from the bones of the <lb/>heads of animals, are the most suitable for cupels, as are also those ashes <lb/>obtained from the horns of deer and the spines of fishes. </s> <s>Lastly, some take the <lb/>ashes which are obtained from burnt scrapings of leather, when the tanners <lb/>scrape the hides to clear them from hair. </s> <s>Some prefer to use compounds, <lb/>that one being recommended which has one and a half parts of ashes from the <lb/>bones of animals or the spines of fishes, and one part of beech ashes, and half a <lb/>part of ashes of burnt hide scrapings. </s> <s>From this mixture good cupels are <lb/>made, though far better ones are obtained from equal portions of ashes of <lb/>burnt hide scrapings, ashes of the bones of heads of sheep and calves, and <lb/>ashes of deer horns. </s> <s>But the best of all are produced from deer horns alone, <lb/>burnt to powder; this kind, by reason of its extreme dryness, absorbs metals <lb/>least of all. </s> <s>Assayers of our own day, however, generally make the <lb/>cupels from beech ashes. </s> <s>These ashes, after being prepared in the <lb/>manner just described, are first of all sprinkled with beer or water, to make <lb/>them stick together, and are then ground in a small mortar. </s> <s>They are ground <lb/>again after being mixed with the ashes obtained from the skulls of beasts or from <lb/>the spines of fishes; the more the ashes are ground the better they are. <lb/></s> <s>Some rub bricks and sprinkle the dust so obtained, after sifting it, into the <lb/>beech ashes, for dust of this kind does not allow the hearth-lead to absorb <lb/>the gold or silver by eating away the cupels. </s> <s>Others, to guard against the <lb/>same thing, moisten the cupels with white of egg after they have been made, <lb/>and when they have been dried in the sun, again crush them; especially if they <lb/>want to assay in it an ore or copper which contains iron. </s> <s>Some moisten the <lb/>ashes again and again with cow's milk, and dry them, and grind them in a <lb/>small mortar, and then mould the cupels. </s> <s>In the works in which silver <lb/>is separated from copper, they make cupels from two parts of the ashes of <lb/>the crucible of the cupellation furnace, for these ashes are very dry, and from <lb/>one part of bone-ash. </s> <s>Cupels which have been made in these ways also <lb/>need to be placed in the sun or in a furnace; afterward, in whatever way <lb/>they have been made, they must be kept a long time in dry places, for the <lb/>older they are, the dryer and better they are.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Not only potters, but also the assayers themselves, make scorifiers <lb/>and triangular crucibles. </s> <s>They make them out of fatty clay, which is <lb/>dry<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>, and neither hard nor soft. </s> <s>With this clay they mix the dust of old <lb/>broken crucibles, or of burnt and worn bricks; then they knead with a <lb/>pestle the clay thus mixed with dust, and then dry it. </s> <s>As to these crucibles, <pb pagenum="231"/>the older they are, the dryer and better they are. </s> <s>The moulds in which the <lb/>cupels are moulded are of two kinds, that is, a smaller size and a larger size. <lb/></s> <s>In the smaller ones are made the cupels in which silver or gold is purged <lb/>from the lead which has absorbed it; in the larger ones are made cupels in <lb/>which silver is separated from copper and lead. </s> <s>Both moulds are made out <lb/>of brass and have no bottom, in order that the cupels can be taken out of <lb/>them whole. </s> <s>The pestles also are of two kinds, smaller and larger, each <lb/>likewise of brass, and from the lower end of them there projects a round <lb/>knob, and this alone is pressed into the mould and makes the hollow part of <lb/>the cupel. </s> <s>The part which is next to the knob corresponds to the upper <lb/>part of the mould.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LITTLE MOULD. B—INVERTED MOULD. C—PESTLE. D—ITS KNOB. E—SECOND <lb/>PESTLE.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>So much for these matters. </s> <s>I will now speak of the preparation of the <lb/>ore for assaying. </s> <s>It is prepared by roasting, burning, crushing, and wash­<lb/>ing. </s> <s>It is necessary to take a fixed weight of ore in order that one may <lb/>determine how great a portion of it these preparations consume. </s> <s>The <lb/>hard stone containing the metal is burned in order that, when its hardness <lb/>has been overcome, it can be crushed and washed; indeed, the very hardest <lb/>kind, before it is burned, is sprinkled with vinegar, in order that it may more <lb/>rapidly soften in the fire. </s> <s>The soft stone should be broken with a hammer, <lb/>crushed in a mortar and reduced to powder; then it should be washed <lb/>and then dried again. </s> <s>If earth is mixed with the mineral, it is washed in a <lb/>basin, and that which settles is assayed in the fire after it is dried. </s> <s>All mining <lb/>products which are washed must again be dried. </s> <s>But ore which is rich in <lb/>metal is neither burned nor crushed nor washed, but is roasted, lest that <lb/>method of preparation should lose some of the metal. </s> <s>When the fires have <pb pagenum="232"/>been kindled, this kind of ore is roasted in an enclosed pot, which is stopped <lb/>up with lute. </s> <s>A less valuable ore is even burned on a hearth, being placed <lb/>upon the charcoal; for we do not make a great expenditure upon metals, if <lb/>they are not worth it. </s> <s>However, I will go into fuller details as to all these <lb/>methods of preparing ore, both a little later, and in the following Book.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>For the present, I have decided to explain those things which mining <lb/>people usually call fluxes<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> because they are added to ores, not only for <lb/>assaying, but also for smelting. </s> <s>Great power is discovered in all these fluxes, <lb/>but we do not see the same effects produced in every case; and some are of a <lb/>very complicated nature. </s> <s>For when they have been mixed with the ore <lb/>and are melted in either the assay or the smelting furnace, some of them, <lb/>because they melt easily, to some extent melt the ore; others, because they <lb/>either make the ore very hot or penetrate into it, greatly assist the fire in <lb/>separating the impurities from the metals, and they also mix the fused part <lb/>with the lead, or they partly protect from the fire the ore whose metal contents <lb/>would be either consumed in the fire, or carried up with the fumes and fly out <lb/>of the furnace; some fluxes absorb the metals. </s> <s>To the first order be­<lb/>longs lead, whether it be reduced to little granules or resolved into ash by <lb/>fire, or red-lead<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>, or ochre made from lead<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/>, or litharge, or hearth-lead, or <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="233"/>galena; also copper, the same either roasted or in leaves or filings<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/>; also the <lb/>slags of gold, silver, copper, and lead; also soda<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/>, its slags, saltpetre, burned <lb/>alum, vitriol, <emph type="italics"/>sal tostus,<emph.end type="italics"/> and melted salt<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/>; stones which easily melt <lb/>in hot furnaces, the sand which is made from them<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/>; soft <emph type="italics"/>tophus<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/>, <lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="234"/>and a certain white schist<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>But lead, its ashes, red-lead, ochre, and <lb/>litharge, are more efficacious for ores which melt easily; hearth-lead for <lb/>those which melt with difficulty; and galena for those which melt with <lb/>greater difficulty. </s> <s>To the second order belong iron filings, their slag, <emph type="italics"/>sal <lb/>artificíosus,<emph.end type="italics"/> argol, dried lees of vinegar<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/>, and the lees of the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> which separates <lb/>gold from silver<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/>; these lees and <emph type="italics"/>sal artíficíosus<emph.end type="italics"/> have the power of penetrating <lb/>into ore, the argol to a considerable degree, the lees of vinegar to a greater <lb/>degree, but most of all those of the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> which separates gold from silver; <lb/>filings and slags of iron, since they melt more slowly, have the power of heat­<lb/>ing the ore. </s> <s>To the third order belong pyrites, the cakes which are melted <lb/>from them, soda, its slags, salt, iron, iron scales, iron filings, iron slags, vitriol, <lb/>the sand which is resolved from stones which easily melt in the fire, and <lb/><emph type="italics"/>tophus;<emph.end type="italics"/> but first of all are pyrites and the cakes which are melted from it, for <lb/>they absorb the metals of the ore and guard them from the fire which con­<lb/>sumes them. </s> <s>To the fourth order belong lead and copper, and their relations. <lb/></s> <s>And so with regard to fluxes, it is manifest that some are natural, others <lb/>fall in the category of slags, and the rest are purged from slag. </s> <s>When we <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="235"/>assay ores, we can without great expense add to them a small portion of any <lb/>sort of flux, but when we smelt them we cannot add a large portion without <lb/>great expense. </s> <s>We must, therefore, consider how great the cost is, to avoid <lb/>incurring a greater expense on smelting an ore than the profit we make out of <lb/>the metals which it yields.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The colour of the fumes which the ore emits after being placed on a hot <lb/>shovel or an iron plate, indicates what flux is needed in addition to the lead, <lb/>for the purpose of either assaying or smelting. </s> <s>If the fumes have a purple <lb/>tint, it is best of all, and the ore does not generally require any flux whatever. <lb/></s> <s>If the fumes are blue, there should be added cakes melted out of pyrites or <lb/>other cupriferous rock; if yellow, litharge and sulphur should be added; if <lb/>red, glass-galls<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/> and salt; if green, then cakes melted from cupriferous stones, <lb/>litharge, and glass-galls; if the fumes are black, melted salt or iron slag, <lb/>litharge and white lime rock. </s> <s>If they are white, sulphur and iron which is <lb/>eaten with rust; if they are white with green patches, iron slag and <lb/>sand obtained from stones which easily melt; if the middle part of the <lb/>fumes are yellow and thick, but the outer parts green, the same sand and <lb/>iron slag. </s> <s>The colour of the fumes not only gives us information as to the <lb/>proper remedies which should be applied to each ore, but also more or less <lb/>indication as to the solidified juices which are mixed with it, and which give <lb/>forth such fumes. </s> <s>Generally, blue fumes signify that the ore contains azure; <lb/>yellow, orpiment; red, realgar; green, chrysocolla; black, black bitumen; <lb/>white, tin<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/>; white with green patches, the same mixed with chrysocolla; <lb/>the middle part yellow and other parts green show that it contains sulphur. <lb/></s> <s>Earth, however, and other things dug up which contain metals, some­<lb/>times emit similarly coloured fumes.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If the ore contains any <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> then iron slag is added to it; if pyrites, <lb/>then are added cakes melted from a cupriferous stone and sand made from <lb/>stones which easily melt. </s> <s>If the ore contains iron, then pyrites and sulphur <lb/>are added; for just as iron slag is the flux for an ore mixed with sulphur, so <lb/>on the contrary, to a gold or silver ore containing iron, from which they are <lb/><pb pagenum="236"/>not easily separated, is added sulphur and sand made from stones which <lb/>easily melt.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Sal artíficíosus<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/> suitable for use in assaying ore is made in many ways. <lb/></s> <s>By the first method, equal portions of argol, lees of vinegar, and urine, <lb/>are all boiled down together till turned into salt. </s> <s>The second method is from <lb/>equal portions of the ashes which wool-dyers use, of lime. </s> <s>of argol purified, <lb/>and of melted salt; one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of each of these ingredients is thrown into <lb/>twenty <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of urine; then all are boiled down to one-third and strained, <lb/>and afterward there is added to what remains one <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and four <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of unmelted salt, eight pounds of lye being at the same time poured into <lb/>the pots, with litharge smeared around on the inside, and the whole is boiled <lb/>till the salt becomes thoroughly dry. </s> <s>The third method follows. </s> <s>Unmelted <lb/>salt, and iron which is eaten with rust, are put into a vessel, and after <lb/>urine has been poured in, it is covered with a lid and put in a warm place <lb/>for thirty days; then the iron is washed in the urine and taken out, and <lb/>the residue is boiled until it is turned into salt. </s> <s>In the fourth method by <lb/>which <emph type="italics"/>sal artíficíosus<emph.end type="italics"/> is prepared, the lye made from equal portions of <lb/>lime and the ashes which wool-dyers use, together with equal portions of <lb/>salt, soap, white argol, and saltpetre, are boiled until in the end the mix­<lb/>ture evaporates and becomes salt. </s> <s>This salt is mixed with the concentrates <lb/>from washing, to melt them.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Saltpetre is prepared in the following manner, in order that it may be <lb/>suitable for use in assaying ore. </s> <s>It is placed in a pot which is smeared on <lb/>the inside with litharge, and lye made of quicklime is repeatedly poured over <lb/>it, and it is heated until the fire consumes it. </s> <s>Wherefore the saltpetre <lb/>does not kindle with the fire, since it has absorbed the lime which preserves <lb/>it, and thus it is prepared<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The following compositions<emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/> are recommended to smelt all ores which <lb/>the heat of fire breaks up or melts only with difficulty. </s> <s>Of these, one is made <lb/>from stones of the third order, which easily melt when thrown into hot <lb/>furnaces. </s> <s>They are crushed into pure white powder, and with half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="237"/>of this powder there are mixed two <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of yellow litharge, likewise crushed. <lb/></s> <s>This mixture is put into a scorifier large enough to hold it, and placed under <lb/>the muffle of a hot furnace; when the charge flows like water, which occurs <lb/>after half an hour, it is taken out of the furnace and poured on to a stone, <lb/>and when it has hardened it has the appearance of glass, and this is likewise <lb/>crushed. </s> <s>This powder is sprinkled over any metalliferous ore which does <lb/>not easily melt when we are assaying it, and it causes the slag to exude.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Others, in place of litharge, substitute lead ash,<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/> which is made in the <lb/>following way: sulphur is thrown into lead which has been melted in a <lb/>crucible, and it soon becomes covered with a sort of scum; when this is <lb/>removed, sulphur is again thrown in, and the skin which forms is again taken <lb/>off; this is frequently repeated, in fact until all the lead is turned into <lb/>powder. </s> <s>There is a powerful flux compound which is made from one <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>each of prepared saltpetre, melted salt, glass-gall, and argol, and one-third <lb/>of an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of litharge and a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of glass ground to powder; this flux, being <lb/>added to an equal weight of ore, liquefies it. </s> <s>A more powerful flux is made by <lb/>placing together in a pot, smeared on the inside with litharge, equal portions <lb/>of white argol, common salt, and prepared saltpetre, and these are heated <lb/>until a white powder is obtained from them, and this is mixed with as much <lb/>litharge; one part of this compound is mixed with two parts of the ore which <lb/>is to be assayed. </s> <s>A still more powerful flux than this is made out of ashes <lb/>of black lead, saltpetre, orpiment, <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> and dried lees of the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> with <lb/>which gold workers separate gold from silver. </s> <s>The ashes of lead<emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/> are made from <lb/>one pound of lead and one pound of sulphur; the lead is flattened out into <lb/>sheets by pounding with a hammer, and placed alternately with sulphur in a <lb/>crucible or pot, and they are heated together until the fire consumes the <lb/>sulphur and the lead turns to ashes. </s> <s>One <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of crushed saltpetre is mixed <lb/>with one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of orpiment similarly ground to powder, and the two are cooked <lb/>in an iron pan until they liquefy; they are then poured out, and after cool­<lb/>ing are again ground to powder. </s> <s>A <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of the <lb/>dried lees (<emph type="italics"/>of what?<emph.end type="italics"/>) are placed alternately in a crucible and heated to the <lb/>point at which they form a button, which is similarly reduced to powder. <lb/></s> <s>A <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of this powder and one <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the ashes of lead, as well as a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>powder made out of the saltpetre and orpiment, are mixed together and a <lb/><pb pagenum="238"/>powder is made from them, one part of which added to two parts of ore <lb/>liquefies it and cleanses it of dross. </s> <s>But the most powerful flux is one which <lb/>has two <emph type="italics"/>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"/> of sulphur and as much glass-galls, and half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of each of <lb/>the following,—<emph type="italics"/>stíbíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> salt obtained from boiled urine, melted common salt, <lb/>prepared saltpetre, litharge, vitriol, argol, salt obtained from ashes of musk ivy, <lb/>dried lees of the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> by which gold-workers separate gold from silver, <lb/>alum reduced by fire to powder, and one <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of camphor<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/> combined with <lb/>sulphur and ground into powder. </s> <s>A half or whole portion of this mixture, <lb/>as the necessity of the case requires, is mixed with one portion of the ore <lb/>and two portions of lead, and put in a scorifier; it is sprinkled with powder <lb/>of crushed Venetian glass, and when the mixture has been heated for an hour <lb/>and a half or two hours, a button will settle in the bottom of the scorifier, and <lb/>from it the lead is soon separated.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There is also a flux which separates sulphur, orpiment and realgar from <lb/>metalliferous ore. </s> <s>This flux is composed of equal portions of iron slag, <lb/>white <emph type="italics"/>tophus,<emph.end type="italics"/> and salt. </s> <s>After these juices have been secreted, the ores <lb/>themselves are melted, with argol added to them. </s> <s>There is one flux which <lb/>preserves <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"/> from the fire, that the fire may not consume it, and <lb/>which preserves the metals from the <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum;<emph.end type="italics"/> and this is composed of equal <lb/>portions of sulphur, prepared saltpetre, melted salt, and vitriol, heated <lb/>together in lye until no odour emanates from the sulphur, which occurs after <lb/>a space of three or four hours.<emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>It is also worth while to substitute certain other mixtures. </s> <s>Take two <lb/>portions of ore properly prepared, one portion of iron filings, and likewise <lb/>one portion of salt, and mix; then put them into a scorifier and place them <lb/>in a muffle furnace; when they are reduced by the fire and run together, a <lb/>button will settle in the bottom of the scorifier. </s> <s>Or else take equal portions <lb/>of ore and of lead ochre, and mix with them a small quantity of iron filings, <lb/>and put them into a scorifier, then scatter iron filings over the mixture. </s> <s>Or <lb/>else take ore which has been ground to powder and sprinkle it in a crucible, <lb/>and then sprinkle over it an equal quantity of salt that has been three or <lb/>four times moistened with urine and dried; then, again and again alternately, <lb/>powdered ore and salt; next, after the crucible has been covered with a <lb/>lid and sealed, it is placed upon burning charcoal. </s> <s>Or else take one portion of <lb/>ore, one portion of minute lead granules, half a portion of Venetian glass, <lb/>and the same quantity of glass-galls. </s> <s>Or else take one portion of ore, one <lb/>portion of lead granules, half a portion of salt, one-fourth of a portion of argol, <lb/>and the same quantity of lees of the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> which separates gold from silver. <lb/></s> <s>Or else take equal portions of prepared ore and a powder in which there <lb/><pb pagenum="239"/>are equal portions of very minute lead granules, melted salt, <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>iron slag Or else take equal portions of gold ore, vitriol, argol, and of salt. <lb/></s> <s>So much for the fluxes.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the assay furnace, when it has been prepared in the way in which I <lb/>have described, is first placed a muffle. </s> <s>Then selected pieces of live charcoals <lb/>are laid on it, for, from pieces of inferior quality, a great quantity of ash collects <lb/>around the muffle and hinders the action of the fire. </s> <s>Then the scorifiers are <lb/>placed under the muffle with tongs, and glowing coals are placed under the <lb/>fore part of the muffle to warm the scorifiers more quickly; and when the lead <lb/>or ore is to be placed in the scorifiers, they are taken out again with the <lb/>tongs. </s> <s>When the scorifiers glow in the heat, first of all the ash or small <lb/>charcoals, if any have fallen into them, should be blown away with an iron <lb/>pipe two feet long and a digit in diameter; this same thing must be done <lb/>if ash or small coal has fallen into the cupels. </s> <s>Next, put in a small ball of lead <lb/>with the tongs, and when this lead has begun to be turned into fumes and <lb/>consumed, add to it the prepared ore wrapped in paper. </s> <s>It is preferable that <lb/>the assayer should wrap it in paper, and in this way put it in the scorifier, <lb/>than that he should drop it in with a copper ladle; for when the <lb/>scorifiers are small, if he uses a ladle he frequently spills some part of the <lb/>ore. </s> <s>When the paper is burnt, he stirs the ore with a small charcoal held in <lb/>the tongs, so that the lead may absorb the metal which is mixed in the ore; <lb/>when this mixture has taken place, the slag partly adheres by its cir­<lb/>cumference to the scorifier and makes a kind of black ring, and partly <lb/>floats on the lead in which is mixed the gold or silver; then the slag must <lb/>be removed from it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The lead used must be entirely free from every trace of silver, as is that <lb/>which is known as <emph type="italics"/>Víllacense.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/> But if this kind is not obtainable, the lead <lb/>must be assayed separately, to determine with certainty that proportion of <lb/>silver it contains, so that it may be deducted from the calculation of the <lb/>ore, and the result be exact; for unless such lead be used, the assay will be <lb/>false and misleading. </s> <s>The lead balls are made with a pair of iron tongs, <lb/>about one foot long; its iron claws are so formed that when pressed <lb/>together they are egg-shaped; each claw contains a hollow cup, and when <lb/>the claws are closed there extends upward from the cup a passage, so there <lb/>are two openings, one of which leads to each hollow cup. </s> <s>And so when the <lb/>molten lead is poured in through the openings, it flows down into the hollow <lb/>cup, and two balls are formed by one pouring.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In this place I ought not to omit mention of another method of assaying <lb/>employed by some assayers. </s> <s>They first of all place prepared ore in the <lb/>scorifiers and heat it, and afterward they add the lead. </s> <s>Of this method I <lb/>cannot approve, for in this way the ore frequently becomes cemented, and <lb/>for this reason it does not stir easily afterward, and is very slow in mixing <lb/>with the lead.</s></p><pb pagenum="240"/><p type="main"> <s>If the whole space of the furnace covered by the muffle is not filled with <lb/>scorifiers, cupels are put in the empty space, in order that they may become <lb/>warmed in the meantime. </s> <s>Sometimes, however, it is filled with scorifiers, <lb/>when we are assaying many different ores, or many portions of one ore at the <lb/>same time. </s> <s>Although the cupels are usually dried in one hour, yet smaller <lb/>ones are done more quickly, and the larger ones more slowly. </s> <s>Unless the <lb/>cupels are heated before the metal mixed with lead is placed in them, they </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CLAWS OF THE TONGS. B—IRON, GIVING FORM OF AN EGG. C—OPENING.<lb/>frequently break, and the lead always sputters and sometimes leaps out of them; <lb/>if the cupel is broken or the lead leaps out of it, it is necessary to assay <lb/>another portion of ore; but if the lead only sputters, then the cupels should <lb/>be covered with broad thin pieces of glowing charcoal, and when the lead <lb/>strikes these, it falls back again, and thus the mixture is slowly exhaled. <lb/></s> <s>Further, if in the cupellation the lead which is in the mixture is not con­<lb/>sumed, but remains fixed and set, and is covered by a kind of skin, this is a <lb/>sign that it has not been heated by a sufficiently hot fire; put into the <lb/>mixture, therefore, a dry pine stick, or a twig of a similar tree, and hold it <lb/>in the hand in order that it can be drawn away when it has been heated. <lb/></s> <s>Then take care that the heat is sufficient and equal; if the heat has not <lb/>passed all round the charge, as it should when everything is done rightly, <lb/>but causes it to have a lengthened shape, so that it appears to have a tail, <lb/>this is a sign that the heat is deficient where the tail lies. </s> <s>Then in order <lb/>that the cupel may be equally heated by the fire, turn it around with a small <lb/>iron hook, whose handle is likewise made of iron and is a foot and a half long.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>SMALL IRON HOOK.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Next, if the mixture has not enough lead, add as much of it as is required <lb/>with the iron tongs, or with the brass ladle to which is fastened a very long <lb/>handle. </s> <s>In order that the charge may not be cooled, warm the lead beforehand. <pb pagenum="241"/>But it is better at first to add as much lead as is required to the ore which <lb/>needs melting, rather than afterward when the melting has been half finished, <lb/>that the whole quantity may not vanish in fumes, but part of it remain <lb/>fast. </s> <s>When the heat of the fire has nearly consumed the lead, then is the <lb/>time when the gold and silver gleam in their varied colours, and when all the <lb/>lead has been consumed the gold or silver settles in the cupel. </s> <s>Then as <lb/>soon as possible remove the cupel out of the furnace, and take the button out <lb/>of it while it is still warm, in order that it does not adhere to the ashes. </s> <s>This <lb/>generally happens if the button is already cold when it is taken out. </s> <s>If the <lb/>ashes do adhere to it, do not scrape it with a knife, lest some of it be lost and <lb/>the assay be erroneous, but squeeze it with the iron tongs, so that the ashes <lb/>drop off through the pressure. </s> <s>Finally, it is of advantage to make two or <lb/>three assays of the same ore at the same time, in order that if by chance <lb/>one is not successful, the second, or in any event the third, may be certain.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>While the assayer is assaying the ore, in order to prevent the great heat <lb/>of the fire from injuring his eyes, it will be useful for him always to have <lb/>ready a thin wooden tablet, two palms wide, with a handle by which it may <lb/>be held, and with a slit down the middle in order that he may look through <lb/>it as through a crack, since it is necessary for him to look frequently within <lb/>and carefully to consider everything.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HANDLE OF TABLET. B—ITS CRACK.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now the lead which has absorbed the silver from a metallic ore is con­<lb/>sumed in the cupel by the heat in the space of three quarters of an hour. </s> <s>When <lb/>the assays are completed the muffle is taken out of the furnace, and the <lb/>ashes removed with an iron shovel, not only from the brick and iron furnaces, <lb/>but also from the earthen one, so that the furnace need not be removed from <lb/>its foundation.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>From ore placed in the triangular crucible a button is melted out, from <lb/>which metal is afterward made. </s> <s>First of all, glowing charcoal is put into <lb/>the iron hoop, then is put in the triangular crucible, which contains the ore <lb/>together with those things which can liquefy it and purge it of its dross; <lb/>then the fire is blown with the double bellows, and the ore is heated until <lb/>the button settles in the bottom of the crucible. </s> <s>We have explained that <lb/>there are two methods of assaying ore,—one, by which the lead is mixed <pb pagenum="242"/>with ore in the scorifier and afterward again separated from it in the cupel; <lb/>the other, by which it is first melted in the triangular earthen crucible and <lb/>afterward mixed with lead in the scorifier, and later separated from it in the <lb/>cupel. </s> <s>Now let us consider which is more suitable for each ore, or, if neither <lb/>is suitable, by what other method in one way or another we can assay it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We justly begin with a gold ore, which we assay by both methods, for <lb/>if it is rich and seems not to be strongly resistant to fire, but to liquefy easily, <lb/>one <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of it (known to us as the lesser weights),<emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/> together with <lb/>one and a half, or two <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead of the larger weights, are mixed together <lb/>and placed in the scorifier, and the two are heated in the fire until they are <lb/>well mixed. </s> <s>But since such an ore sometimes resists melting, add a little <lb/>salt to it, either <emph type="italics"/>sal torrefactus<emph.end type="italics"/> or <emph type="italics"/>sal artificiosus,<emph.end type="italics"/> for this will subdue it, and <lb/>prevent the alloy from collecting much dross; stir it frequently with an iron <lb/>rod, in order that the lead may flow around the gold on every side, and absorb <lb/>it and cast out the waste. </s> <s>When this has been done, take out the alloy and <lb/>cleanse it of slag; then place it in the cupel and heat it until it exhales all <lb/>the lead, and a bead of gold settles in the bottom.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If the gold ore is seen not to be easily melted in the fire, roast it and <lb/>extinguish it with brine. </s> <s>Do this again and again, for the more often you <lb/>roast it and extinguish it, the more easily the ore can be crushed fine, and the <lb/>more quickly does it melt in the fire and give up whatever dross it possesses. <pb pagenum="243"/>Mix one part of this ore, when it has been roasted, crushed, and washed, with <lb/>three parts of some powder compound which melts ore, and six parts of lead. <lb/></s> <s>Put the charge into the triangular crucible, place it in the iron hoop to which <lb/>the double bellows reaches, and heat first in a slow fire, and afterward <lb/>gradually in a fiercer fire, till it melts and flows like water. </s> <s>If the ore does <lb/>not melt, add to it a little more of these fluxes, mixed with an equal portion <lb/>of yellow litharge, and stir it with a hot iron rod until it all melts. </s> <s>Then <lb/>take the crucible out of the hoop, shake off the button when it has cooled, <lb/>and when it has been cleansed, melt first in the scorifier and afterward in <lb/>the cupel. </s> <s>Finally, rub the gold which has settled in the bottom of the cupel, <lb/>after it has been taken out and cooled, on the touchstone, in order to find out <lb/>what proportion of silver it contains. </s> <s>Another method is to put a <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondium<emph.end type="italics"/> (of the lesser weights) of gold ore into the triangular crucible, and <lb/>add to it a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> (of the larger weights) of glass-galls. </s> <s>If it resists melting, <lb/>add half a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of roasted argol, and if even then it resists, add the <lb/>same quantity of roasted lees of vinegar, or lees of the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> which separates <lb/>gold from silver, and the button will settle in the bottom of the crucible. <lb/></s> <s>Melt this button again in the scorifier and a third time in the cupel.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We determine in the following way, before it is melted in the muffle <lb/>furnace, whether pyrites contains gold in it or not: if, after being three times <lb/>roasted and three times quenched in sharp vinegar, it has not broken nor <lb/>changed its colour, there is gold in it. </s> <s>The vinegar by which it is quenched <lb/>should be mixed with salt that is put in it, and frequently stirred and dissolved <lb/>for three days. </s> <s>Nor is pyrites devoid of gold, when, after being roasted and <lb/>then rubbed on the touchstone, it colours the touchstone in the same way that <lb/>it coloured it when rubbed in its crude state. </s> <s>Nor is gold lacking in that, <lb/>whose concentrates from washing, when heated in the fire, easily melt, giving <lb/>forth little smell and remaining bright; such concentrates are heated in the <lb/>fire in a hollowed piece of charcoal covered over with another charcoal.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We also assay gold ore without fire, but more often its sand or the con­<lb/>centrates which have been made by washing, or the dust gathered up by <lb/>some other means. </s> <s>A little of it is slightly moistened with water and heated <lb/>until it begins to exhale an odour, and then to one portion of ore are placed <lb/>two portions of quicksilver<emph type="sup"/>28<emph.end type="sup"/> in a wooden dish as deep as a basin. </s> <s>They are <lb/>mixed together with a little brine, and are then ground with a wooden pestle <lb/>for the space of two hours, until the mixture becomes of the thickness of dough, <lb/>and the quicksilver can no longer be distinguished from the concentrates <lb/>made by the washing, nor the concentrates from the quicksilver. </s> <s>Warm, or <lb/>at least tepid, water is poured into the dish and the material is washed until <lb/>the water runs out clear. </s> <s>Afterward cold water is poured into the same dish, <lb/>and soon the quicksilver, which has absorbed all the gold, runs together <lb/>into a separate place away from the rest of the concentrates made by <lb/>washing. </s> <s>The quicksilver is afterward separated from the gold by means <lb/>of a pot covered with soft leather, or with canvas made of woven <lb/>threads of cotton; the amalgam is poured into the middle of the cloth or <pb pagenum="244"/>leather, which sags about one hand's breadth; next, the leather is folded <lb/>over and tied with a waxed string, and the dish catches the quicksilver <lb/>which is squeezed through it. </s> <s>As for the gold which remains in the leather, <lb/>it is placed in a scorifier and purified by being placed near glowing coals. </s> <s>Others <lb/>do not wash away the dirt with warm water, but with strong lye and vinegar, <lb/>for they pour these liquids into the pot, and also throw into it the quicksilver <lb/>mixed with the concentrates made by washing. </s> <s>Then they set the pot in a <lb/>warm place, and after twenty-four hours pour out the liquids with the dirt, and <lb/>separate the quicksilver from the gold in the manner which I have described. <lb/></s> <s>Then they pour urine into a jar set in the ground, and in the jar place a <lb/>pot with holes in the bottom, and in the pot they place the gold; then the <lb/>lid is put on and cemented, and it is joined with the jar; they afterward heat <lb/>it till the pot glows red. </s> <s>After it has cooled, if there is copper in the gold <lb/>they melt it with lead in a cupel, that the copper may be separated from it; <lb/>but if there is silver in the gold they separate them by means of the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which has the power of parting these two metals. </s> <s>There are some who, <lb/>when they separate gold from quicksilver, do not pour the amalgam into <lb/>a leather, but put it into a gourd-shaped earthen vessel, which they place <lb/>in the furnace and heat gradually over burning charcoal; next, with an iron <lb/>plate, they cover the opening of the operculum, which exudes vapour, and as <lb/>soon as it has ceased to exude, they smear it with lute and heat it for a short <lb/>time; then they remove the operculum from the pot, and wipe off the <lb/>quicksilver which adheres to it with a hare's foot, and preserve it for future <lb/>use. </s> <s>By the latter method, a greater quantity of quicksilver is lost, and by <lb/>the former method, a smaller quantity.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If an ore is rich in silver, as is <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> silver<emph type="sup"/>29<emph.end type="sup"/>, frequently silver glance, <lb/>or rarely ruby silver, gray silver, black silver, brown silver, or yellow silver, <lb/>as soon as it is cleansed and heated, a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> (of the lesser weights) of <lb/>it is placed in an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of molten lead in a cupel, and is heated until the lead <lb/>exhales. </s> <s>But if the ore is of poor or moderate quality, it must first be dried, <lb/>then crushed, and then to a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> (of the lesser weights) an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of lead is added, and it is heated in the scorifier until it melts. </s> <s>If it is not <lb/>soon melted by the fire, it should be sprinkled with a little powder of the <lb/>first order of fluxes, and if then it does not melt, more is added little by little <lb/>until it melts and exudes its slag; that this result may be reached sooner, <lb/>the powder which has been sprinkled over it should be stirred in with an iron <lb/>rod. </s> <s>When the scorifier has been taken out of the assay furnace, the alloy <lb/>should be poured into a hole in a baked brick; and when it has cooled and been <lb/>cleansed of the slag, it should be placed in a cupel and heated until it exhales <lb/>all its lead; the weight of silver which remains in the cupel indicates what <lb/>proportion of silver is contained in the ore.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We assay copper ore without lead, for if it is melted with it, the copper <lb/>usually exhales and is lost. </s> <s>Therefore, a certain weight of such an ore <pb pagenum="245"/>is first roasted in a hot fire for about six or eight hours; next, when it has <lb/>cooled, it is crushed and washed; then the concentrates made by washing <lb/>are again roasted, crushed, washed, dried, and weighed. </s> <s>The portion which <lb/>it has lost whilst it is being roasted and washed is taken into account, and <lb/>these concentrates by washing represent the cake which will be melted out <lb/>of the copper ore. </s> <s>Place three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> (lesser weights) of this, mixed <lb/>with three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> (lesser weights) each of copper scales<emph type="sup"/>30<emph.end type="sup"/>, saltpetre, <lb/>and Venetian glass, mixed, into the triangular crucible, and place it in the iron <lb/>hoop which is set on the hearth in front of the double bellows. </s> <s>Cover the crucible <lb/>with charcoal in such a way that nothing may fall into the ore which is to be <lb/>melted, and so that it may melt more quickly. </s> <s>At first blow a gentle blast with <lb/>the bellows in order that the ore may be heated gradually in the fire; then <lb/>blow strongly till it melts, and the fire consumes that which has been added to <lb/>it, and the ore itself exudes whatever slag it possesses. </s> <s>Next, cool <lb/>the crucible which has been taken out, and when this is broken you will find <lb/>the copper; weigh this, in order to ascertain how great a portion of the ore <lb/>the fire has consumed. </s> <s>Some ore is only once roasted, crushed, and washed; <lb/>and of this kind of concentrates, three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> (lesser weights) are <lb/>taken with one <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> each of common salt, argol and glass­<lb/>galls. </s> <s>Heat them in the triangular crucible, and when the mixture has <lb/>cooled a button of pure copper will be found, if the ore is rich in this metal. <lb/></s> <s>If, however, it is less rich, a stony lump results, with which the copper is <lb/>intermixed; this lump is again roasted, crushed, and, after adding stones <lb/>which easily melt and saltpetre, it is again melted in another crucible, and <lb/>there settles in the bottom of the crucible a button of pure copper. </s> <s>If you <lb/>wish to know what proportion of silver is in this copper button, melt it in a <lb/>cupel after adding lead. </s> <s>With regard to this test I will speak later.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Those who wish to know quickly what portion of silver the copper ore <lb/>contains, roast the ore, crush and wash it, then mix a little yellow litharge <lb/>with one <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> (lesser weights) of the concentrates, and put the <lb/>mixture into a scorifier, which they place under the muffle in a hot furnace for <lb/>the space of half an hour. </s> <s>When the slag exudes, by reason of the melting force <lb/>which is in the litharge, they take the scorifier out; when it has cooled, they <lb/>cleanse it of slag and again crush it, and with one <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of it they <lb/>mix one and a half <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead granules. </s> <s>They then put it into another <lb/>scorifier, which they place under the muffle in a hot furnace, adding to the <lb/>mixture a little of the powder of some one of the fluxes which cause ore to <lb/>melt; when it has melted they take it out, and after it has cooled, cleanse <lb/>it of slag; lastly, they heat it in the cupel till it has exhaled all of the lead, <lb/>and only silver remains.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Lead ore may be assayed by this method: crush half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>pure lead-stone and the same quantity of the <emph type="italics"/>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"/> which they call <lb/>borax, mix them together, place them in a crucible, and put a glowing coal <pb pagenum="246"/>in the middle of it. </s> <s>As soon as the borax crackles and the lead-stone melts, <lb/>which soon occurs, remove the coal from the crucible, and the lead will settle <lb/>to the bottom of it; weigh it out, and take account of that portion of it <lb/>which the fire has consumed. </s> <s>If you also wish to know what portion of silver <lb/>is contained in the lead, melt the lead in the cupel until all of it exhales.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Another way is to roast the lead ore, of whatsoever quality it be, wash <lb/>it, and put into the crucible one <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of the concentrates, together <lb/>with three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of the powdered compound which melts ore, mixed <lb/>together, and place it in the iron hoop that it may melt; when it has cooled, <lb/>cleanse it of its slag, and complete the test as I have already said. </s> <s>Another way is <lb/>to take two <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of prepared ore, five <emph type="italics"/>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"/> of roasted copper, one <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>glass, or glass-galls reduced to powder, a <emph type="italics"/>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of salt, and mix them. </s> <s>Put <lb/>the mixture into the triangular crucible, and heat it over a gentle fire to <lb/>prevent it from breaking; when the mixture has melted, blow the fire <lb/>vigorously with the bellows; then take the crucible off the live coals and <lb/>let it cool in the open air; do not pour water on it, lest the lead button being <lb/>acted upon by the excessive cold should become mixed with the slag, and the <lb/>assay in this way be erroneous. </s> <s>When the crucible has cooled, you will find <lb/>in the bottom of it the lead button. </s> <s>Another way is to take two <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>ore, a <emph type="italics"/>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of litharge, two <emph type="italics"/>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"/> of Venetian glass and a <emph type="italics"/>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of saltpetre. </s> <s>If there is difficulty in melting the ore, add to it iron filings, <lb/>which, since they increase the heat, easily separate the waste from lead and <lb/>other metals. </s> <s>By the last way, lead ore properly prepared is placed in the <lb/>crucible, and there is added to it only the sand made from stones which easily <lb/>melt, or iron filings, and then the assay is completed as formerly.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>You can assay tin ore by the following method. </s> <s>First roast it, then <lb/>crush, and afterward wash it; the concentrates are again roasted, crushed, <lb/>and washed. </s> <s>Mix one and a half <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of this with one <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of the <emph type="italics"/>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"/> which they call borax; from the mixture, <lb/>when it has been moistened with water, make a lump. </s> <s>Afterwards, <lb/>perforate a large round piece of charcoal, making this opening a palm deep, <lb/>three digits wide on the upper side and narrower on the lower side; when <lb/>the charcoal is put in its place the latter should be on the bottom and the <lb/>former uppermost. </s> <s>Let it be placed in a crucible, and let glowing coal be <lb/>put round it on all sides; when the perforated piece of coal begins to burn, <lb/>the lump is placed in the upper part of the opening, and it is covered with a <lb/>wide piece of glowing coal, and after many pieces of coal have been put round <lb/>it, a hot fire is blown up with the bellows, until all the tin has run out <lb/>of the lower opening of the charcoal into the crucible. </s> <s>Another way is to <lb/>take a large piece of charcoal, hollow it out, and smear it with lute, that the <lb/>ore may not leap out when white hot. </s> <s>Next, make a small hole through the <lb/>middle of it, then fill up the large opening with small charcoal, and put the <lb/>ore upon this; put fire in the small hole and blow the fire with the nozzle of <lb/>a hand bellows; place the piece of charcoal in a small crucible, smeared <lb/>with lute, in which, when the melting is finished, you will find a button <lb/>of tin.</s></p><pb pagenum="247"/><p type="main"> <s>In assaying bismuth ore, place pieces of ore in the scorifier, and put <lb/>it under the muffle in a hot furnace; as soon as they are heated, they <lb/>drip with bismuth, which runs together into a button.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Quicksilver ore is usually tested by mixing one part of broken ore <lb/>with three-parts of charcoal dust and a handful of salt. </s> <s>Put the mixture into <lb/>a crucible or a pot or a jar, cover it with a lid, seal it with lute, place it on <lb/>glowing charcoal, and as soon as a burnt cinnabar colour shows in it, take <lb/>out the vessel; for if you continue the heat too long the mixture exhales the <lb/>quicksilver with the fumes. </s> <s>The quicksilver itself, when it has become cool, is <lb/>found in the bottom of the crucible or other vessel. </s> <s>Another way is to place <lb/>broken ore in a gourd-shaped earthen vessel, put it in the assay furnace, <lb/>and cover with an operculum which has a long spout; under the spout, put <lb/>an ampulla to receive the quicksilver which distills. </s> <s>Cold water should be <lb/>poured into the ampulla, so that the quicksilver which has been heated by the <lb/>fire may be continuously cooled and gathered together, for the quicksilver <lb/>is borne over by the force of the fire, and flows down through the spout of <lb/>the operculum into the ampulla. </s> <s>We also assay quicksilver ore in the very <lb/>same way in which we smelt it. </s> <s>This I will explain in its proper place.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Lastly, we assay iron ore in the forge of a blacksmith. </s> <s>Such ore is burned, <lb/>crushed, washed, and dried; a magnet is laid over the concentrates, and <lb/>the particles of iron are attracted to it; these are wiped off with a brush, <lb/>and are caught in a crucible, the magnet being continually passed over the <lb/>concentrates and the particles wiped off, so long as there remain any particles <lb/>which the magnet can attract to it. </s> <s>These particles are heated in the crucible <lb/>with saltpetre until they melt, and an iron button is melted out of them. <lb/></s> <s>If the magnet easily and quickly attracts the particles to it, we infer that the <lb/>ore is rich in iron; if slowly, that it is poor; if it appears actually to repel <lb/>the ore, then it contains little or no iron. </s> <s>This is enough for the assaying of <lb/>ores.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I will now speak of the assaying of the metal alloys. </s> <s>This is done both <lb/>by coiners and merchants who buy and sell metal, and by miners, but most <lb/>of all by the owners and mine masters, and by the owners and masters of <lb/>the works in which the metals are smelted, or in which one metal is parted <lb/>from another.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>First I will describe the way assays are usually made to ascertain what <lb/>portion of precious metal is contained in base metal. </s> <s>Gold and silver are <lb/>now reckoned as precious metals and all the others as base metals. </s> <s>Once <lb/>upon a time the base metals were burned up, in order that the precious metals <lb/>should be left pure; the Ancients even discovered by such burning what <lb/>portion of gold was contained in silver, and in this way all the silver was <lb/>consumed, which was no small loss. </s> <s>However, the famous mathematician, <lb/>Archimedes<emph type="sup"/>31<emph.end type="sup"/>, to gratify King Hiero, invented a method of testing the silver, <pb pagenum="248"/>which was not very rapid, and was more accurate for testing a large mass <lb/>than a small one. </s> <s>This I will explain in my commentaries. </s> <s>The <lb/>alchemists have shown us a way of separating silver from gold by which <lb/>neither of them is lost<emph type="sup"/>32<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Gold which contains silver,<emph type="sup"/>33<emph.end type="sup"/> or silver which contains gold, is first rubbed <lb/>on the touchstone. </s> <s>Then a needle in which there is a similar amount of <lb/>gold or silver is rubbed on the same touchstone, and from the lines which are <lb/>produced in this way, is perceived what portion of silver there is in the gold, <lb/>or what portion of gold there is in the silver. </s> <s>Next there is added to the <lb/>silver which is in the gold, enough silver to make it three times as much as the <lb/>gold. </s> <s>Then lead is placed in a cupel and melted; a little later, a small <lb/>amount of copper is put in it, in fact, half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of it, or half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"/> (of the smaller weights) if the gold or silver does not contain any <lb/>copper. </s> <s>The cupel, when the lead and copper are wanting, attracts the particles <lb/>of gold and silver, and absorbs them. </s> <s>Finally, one-third of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the gold, <lb/>and one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>34<emph.end type="sup"/> of the silver must be placed together in the same cupel and <lb/>melted; for if the gold and silver were first placed in the cupel and melted, as I <lb/>have already said, it absorbs particles of them, and the gold, when separated <lb/>from the silver, will not be found pure. </s> <s>These metals are heated until the <lb/>lead and the copper are consumed, and again, the same weight of each is melted <lb/>in the same manner in another cupel. </s> <s>The buttons are pounded with a <lb/>hammer and flattened out, and each little leaf is shaped in the form of a <lb/>tube, and each is put into a small glass ampulla. </s> <s>Over these there is poured <lb/>one <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> and one <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> (of the large weight) of the third quality <emph type="italics"/>aqua <lb/>valens,<emph.end type="italics"/> which I will describe in the Tenth Book. </s> <s>This is heated over a slow <lb/>fire, and small bubbles, resembling pearls in shape, will be seen to adhere <lb/>to the tubes. </s> <s>The redder the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> appears, the better it is judged to be; <lb/>when the redness has vanished, small white bubbles are seen to be resting <lb/>on the tubes, resembling pearls not only in shape, but also in colour. </s> <s>After <lb/>a short time the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is poured off and other is poured on; when this has <lb/>again raised six or eight small white bubbles, it is poured off and the tubes are <lb/>taken out and washed four or five times with spring water; or if they are <lb/>heated with the same water, when it is boiling, they will shine more brilliantly. <lb/></s> <s>Then they are placed in a saucer, which is held in the hand and gradually <lb/>dried by the gentle heat of the fire; afterward the saucer is placed over glowing <lb/>charcoal and covered with a charcoal, and a moderate blast is blown upon it <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="249"/>with the mouth and then a blue flame will be emitted. </s> <s>In the end the tubes <lb/>are weighed, and if their weights prove equal, he who has undertaken this work <lb/>has not laboured in vain. </s> <s>Lastly, both are placed in another balance-pan and <lb/>weighed; of each tube four grains must not be counted, on account of the <lb/>silver which remains in the gold and cannot be separated from it. </s> <s>From the <lb/>weight of the tubes we learn the weight both of the gold and of the silver <lb/>which is in the button. </s> <s>If some assayer has omitted to add so much silver to <lb/>the gold as to make it three times the quantity, but only double, or two and a <lb/>half times as much, he will require the stronger quality of <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> which <lb/>separates gold from silver, such as the fourth quality. </s> <s>Whether the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which he employs for gold and silver is suitable for the purpose, or whether <lb/>it is more or less strong than is right, is recognised by its effect. </s> <s>That of <lb/>medium strength raises the little bubbles on the tubes and is found to colour <lb/>the ampulla and the operculum a strong red; the weaker one is found to <lb/>colour them a light red, and the stronger one to break the tubes. </s> <s>To pure <lb/>silver in which there is some portion of gold, nothing should be added when <lb/>they are being heated in the cupel prior to their being parted, except a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of lead and one-fourth or one-third its amount of copper of the lesser weights. <lb/></s> <s>If the silver contains in itself a certain amount of copper, let it be weighed, <lb/>both after it has been melted with the lead, and after the gold has been parted <lb/>from it; by the former we learn how much copper is in it, by the latter how <lb/>much gold. </s> <s>Base metals are burnt up even to-day for the purpose of assay, <lb/>because to lose so little of the metal is small loss, but from a large mass of <lb/>base metal, the precious metal is always extracted, as I will explain in <lb/>Books X. and XI.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We assay an alloy of copper and silver in the following way. </s> <s>From a <lb/>few cakes of copper the assayer cuts out portions, small samples from small <lb/>cakes, medium samples from medium cakes, and large samples from large <lb/>cakes; the small ones are equal in size to half a hazel nut, the large <lb/>ones do not exceed the size of half a chestnut, and those of medium size come <lb/>between the two. </s> <s>He cuts out the samples from the middle of the <lb/>bottom of each cake. </s> <s>He places the samples in a new, clean, triangular <lb/>crucible and fixes to them pieces of paper upon which are written the weight <lb/>of the cakes of copper, of whatever size they may be; for example, he writes, <lb/>“These samples have been cut from copper which weighs twenty <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondía.”<emph.end type="italics"/> When he wishes to know how much silver one <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>copper of this kind has in it, first of all he throws glowing coals into the <lb/>iron hoop, then adds charcoal to it. </s> <s>When the fire has become hot, the paper <lb/>is taken out of the crucible and put aside, he then sets that crucible on the <lb/>fire and gradually heats it for a quarter of an hour until it becomes red hot. <lb/></s> <s>Then he stimulates the fire by blowing with a blast from the double bellows <lb/>for half an hour, because copper which is devoid of lead requires this time to <lb/>become hot and to melt; copper not devoid of lead melts quicker. </s> <s>When <lb/>he has blown the bellows for about the space of time stated, he removes the <lb/>glowing charcoal with the tongs, and stirs the copper with a splinter of wood, <lb/>which he grasps with the tongs. </s> <s>If it does not stir easily, it is a sign that the <pb pagenum="250"/>copper is not wholly liquefied; if he finds this is the case, he again places a <lb/>large piece of charcoal in the crucible, and replaces the glowing charcoal which <lb/>had been removed, and again blows the bellows for a short time. </s> <s>When all <lb/>the copper has melted he stops using the bellows, for if he were to continue <lb/>to use them, the fire would consume part of the copper, and then that which <lb/>remained would be richer than the cake from which it had been cut; this is <lb/>no small mistake. </s> <s>Therefore, as soon as the copper has become sufficiently <lb/>liquified, he pours it out into a little iron mould, which may be large or small, <lb/>according as more or less copper is melted in the crucible for the purpose of the <lb/>assay. </s> <s>The mould has a handle, likewise made of iron, by which it is held <lb/>when the copper is poured in, after which, he plunges it into a tub of water <lb/>placed near at hand, that the copper may be cooled. </s> <s>Then he again dries the <lb/>copper by the fire, and cuts off its point with an iron wedge; the portion <lb/>nearest the point he hammers on an anvil and makes into a leaf, which he <lb/>cuts into pieces.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—IRON MOULD. B—ITS HANDLE.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Others stir the molten copper with a stick of linden tree charcoal, and <lb/>then pour it over a bundle of new clean birch twigs, beneath which is placed <lb/>a wooden tub of sufficient size and full of water, and in this manner the copper <lb/>is broken up into little granules as small as hemp seeds. </s> <s>Others employ straw <lb/>in place of twigs. </s> <s>Others place a broad stone in a tub and pour in enough <lb/>water to cover the stone, then they run out the molten copper from the <lb/>crucible on to the stone, from which the minute granules roll off; others <lb/>pour the molten copper into water and stir it until it is resolved into granules. <lb/></s> <s>The fire does not easily melt the copper in the cupel unless it has been poured <lb/>and a thin leaf made of it, or unless it has been resolved into granules or <lb/>made into filings; and if it does not melt, all the labour has been undertaken <lb/>in vain. </s> <s>In order that they may be accurately weighed out, silver and lead <lb/>are resolved into granules in the same manner as copper. </s> <s>But to return <lb/>to the assay of copper. </s> <s>When the copper has been prepared by these <lb/>methods, if it is free of lead and iron, and rich in silver, to each <emph type="italics"/>centumpon­<lb/>díum<emph.end type="italics"/> (lesser weights) add one and a half <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead (larger weights). If, <lb/>however, the copper contains some lead, add one <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead; if it contains <lb/>iron, add two <emph type="italics"/>unciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> First put the lead into a cupel, and after it begins <lb/>to smoke, add the copper; the fire generally consumes the copper, together <lb/>with the lead, in about one hour and a quarter. </s> <s>When this is done, the silver <pb pagenum="251"/>will be found in the bottom of the cupel. </s> <s>The fire consumes both of those <lb/>metals more quickly if they are heated in that furnace which draws in air. </s> <s>It <lb/>is better to cover the upper half of it with a lid, and not only to put on the <lb/>muffle door, but also to close the window of the muffle door with a piece of <lb/>charcoal, or with a piece of brick. </s> <s>If the copper be such that the silver can <lb/>only be separated from it with difficulty, then before it is tested with fire in <lb/>the cupel, lead should first be put into the scorifier, and then the copper should <lb/>be added with a moderate quantity of melted salt, both that the lead may <lb/>absorb the copper and that the copper may be cleansed of the dross which <lb/>abounds in it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Tin which contains silver should not at the beginning of the assay be <lb/>placed in a cupel, lest the silver, as often happens, be consumed and converted <lb/>into fumes, together with the tin. </s> <s>As soon as the lead<emph type="sup"/>35<emph.end type="sup"/> has begun to fume <lb/>in the scorifier, then add that<emph type="sup"/>36<emph.end type="sup"/> to it. </s> <s>In this way the lead will take the <lb/>silver and the tin will boil and turn into ashes, which may be removed with a <lb/>wooden splinter. </s> <s>The same thing occurs if any alloy is melted in which there <lb/>is tin. </s> <s>When the lead has absorbed the silver which was in the tin, then, <lb/>and not till then, it is heated in the cupel. </s> <s>First place the lead with which <lb/>the silver is mixed, in an iron pan, and stand it on a hot furnace and let it <lb/>melt; afterward pour this lead into a small iron mould, and then beat it <lb/>out with a hammer on an anvil and make it into leaves in the same way as <lb/>the copper. </s> <s>Lastly, place it in the cupel, which assay can be carried out in <lb/>the space of half an hour. </s> <s>A great heat is harmful to it, for which reason <lb/>there is no necessity either to cover the half of the furnace with a lid or to <lb/>close up its mouth.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The minted metal alloys, which are known as money, are assayed in the <lb/>following way. </s> <s>The smaller silver coins which have been picked out from <lb/>the bottom and top and sides of a heap are first carefully cleansed; then, after <lb/>they have been melted in the triangular crucible, they are either resolved <lb/>into granules, or made into thin leaves. </s> <s>As for the large coins which weigh <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>drachma,<emph.end type="italics"/> a <emph type="italics"/>sícílícus,<emph.end type="italics"/> half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía,<emph.end type="italics"/> or an <emph type="italics"/>uncia,<emph.end type="italics"/> beat them into leaves. <lb/></s> <s>Then take a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of the granules, or an equal weight of the leaves, and likewise <lb/>take another <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> in the same way. </s> <s>Wrap each sample separately in paper, <lb/>and afterwards place two small pieces of lead in two cupels which have first <lb/>been heated. </s> <s>The more precious the money is, the smaller portion of lead <lb/>do we require for the assay, the more base, the larger is the portion required; <lb/>for if a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver is said to contain only half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> or one <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper, <lb/>we add to the <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of granules half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead. </s> <s>If it is composed of equal <lb/>parts of silver and copper, we add an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead, but if in a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper <lb/>there is only half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> or one <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, we add an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and a half <lb/>of lead. </s> <s>As soon as the lead has begun to fume, put into each cupel one of <lb/>the papers in which is wrapped the sample of silver alloyed with copper, and <lb/>close the mouth of the muffle with charcoal. </s> <s>Heat them with a gentle fire <lb/>until all the lead and copper are consumed, for a hot fire by its heat forces the <lb/><pb pagenum="252"/>silver, combined with a certain portion of lead, into the cupel, in which way <lb/>the assay is rendered erroneous. </s> <s>Then take the beads out of the cupel and <lb/>clean them of dross. </s> <s>If neither depresses the pan of the balance in which it <lb/>is placed, but their weight is equal, the assay has been free from error; but <lb/>if one bead depresses its pan, then there is an error, for which reason the <lb/>assay must be repeated. </s> <s>If the <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of coin contains but seven <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>pure silver it is because the King, or Prince, or the State who coins the money, <lb/>has taken one <emph type="italics"/>uncia,<emph.end type="italics"/> which he keeps partly for profit and partly for the <lb/>expense of coining, he having added copper to the silver. </s> <s>Of all these <lb/>matters I have written extensively in my book <emph type="italics"/>De Precio Metallorum et <lb/>Monetís.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>We assay gold coins in various ways. </s> <s>If there is copper mixed with <lb/>the gold, we melt them by fire in the same way as silver coins; if there is <lb/>silver mixed with the gold, they are separated by the strongest <emph type="italics"/>aqua valens;<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>if there is copper and silver mixed with the gold, then in the first place, after <lb/>the addition of lead, they are heated in the cupel until the fire consumes the <lb/>copper and the lead, and afterward the gold is parted from the silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It remains to speak of the touchstone<emph type="sup"/>37<emph.end type="sup"/> with which gold and silver are <lb/>tested, and which was also used by the Ancients. </s> <s>For although the assay made <lb/>by fire is more certain, still, since we often have no furnace, nor muffle, nor <lb/>crucibles, or some delay must be occasioned in using them, we can always <lb/>rub gold or silver on the touchstone, which we can have in readiness. <lb/></s> <s>Further, when gold coins are assayed in the fire, of what use are they after­<lb/>ward? </s> <s>A touchstone must be selected which is thoroughly black and free <lb/>of sulphur, for the blacker it is and the more devoid of sulphur, the better it <pb pagenum="253"/>generally is; I have written elsewhere of its nature<emph type="sup"/>38<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>First the gold is <lb/>rubbed on the touchstone, whether it contains silver or whether it is obtained <lb/>from the mines or from the smelting; silver also is rubbed in the same <lb/>way. </s> <s>Then one of the needles, that we judge by its colour to be of similar <lb/>composition, is rubbed on the touchstone; if this proves too pale, another <lb/>needle which has a stronger colour is rubbed on the touchstone; and if this <lb/>proves too deep in colour, a third which has a little paler colour is used. </s> <s>For <lb/>this will show us how great a proportion of silver or copper, or silver and <lb/>copper together, is in the gold, or else how great a proportion of copper is in <lb/>silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>These needles are of four kinds.<emph type="sup"/>39<emph.end type="sup"/> The first kind are made of gold and <lb/>silver, the second of gold and copper, the third of gold, silver, and copper, <lb/>and the fourth of silver and copper. </s> <s>The first three kinds of needles are <lb/>used principally for testing gold, and the fourth for silver. </s> <s>Needles of this <lb/>kind are prepared in the following ways. </s> <s>The lesser weights correspond <lb/>proportionately to the larger weights, and both of them are used, not <lb/>only by mining people, but by coiners also. </s> <s>The needles are made in <lb/>accordance with the lesser weights, and each set corresponds to a <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which, in our own vocabulary, is called a <emph type="italics"/>mark.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is employed <lb/>by those who coin gold, is divided into twenty-four double <emph type="italics"/>sextulae,<emph.end type="italics"/> which <lb/><pb pagenum="254"/>are now called after the Greek name <emph type="italics"/>ceratía;<emph.end type="italics"/> and each double <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/> is <lb/>divided into four <emph type="italics"/>semi-sextulae,<emph.end type="italics"/> which are called <emph type="italics"/>granas;<emph.end type="italics"/> and each <emph type="italics"/>semí-sextula<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>is divided into three units of four <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each, of which each unit is called <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>grenlín.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> If we made the needles to be each four <emph type="italics"/>síliquae,<emph.end type="italics"/> there would be <lb/>two hundred and eighty-eight in a <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/> but if each were made to be a <emph type="italics"/>semí-sextula<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>or a double <emph type="italics"/>scripula,<emph.end type="italics"/> then there would be ninety-six in a <emph type="italics"/>bes.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> By these two <lb/>methods too many needles would be made, and the majority of them, by reason <lb/>of the small difference in the proportion of the gold, would indicate nothing, <lb/>therefore it is advisable to make them each of a double <emph type="italics"/>sextula;<emph.end type="italics"/> in this way <lb/>twenty-four needles are made, of which the first is made of twenty-three <lb/><emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and one of gold. </s> <s>Fannius is our authority that the Ancients <lb/>called the double <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/> a <emph type="italics"/>duella.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> When a bar of silver is rubbed on the <lb/>touchstone and colours it just as this needle does, it contains one <emph type="italics"/>duella<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold. <lb/></s> <s>In this manner we determine by the other needles what proportion of gold <lb/>there is, or when the gold exceeds the silver in weight, what proportion of <lb/>silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The needles are made<emph type="sup"/>40<emph.end type="sup"/>:—</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 1st needle of 23 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 1 <emph type="italics"/>duella<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 2nd needle of 22 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 2 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 3rd needle of 21 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 3 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 4th needle of 20 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 4 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 5th needle of 19 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 5 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 6th needle of 18 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 6 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 7th needle of 17 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 7 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 8th needle of 16 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 8 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><pb pagenum="255"/><p type="main"> <s>The 9th needle of 15 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 9 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 10th needle of 14 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 10 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 11th needle of 13 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 11 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 12th needle of 12 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 12 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 13th needle of 11 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 13 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 14th needle of 10 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 14 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 15th needle of 9 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 15 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 16th needle of 8 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 16 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 17th needle of 7 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 17 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 18th needle of 6 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 18 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 19th needle of 5 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 19 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 20th needle of 4 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 20 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 21st needle of 3 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 21 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 22nd needle of 2 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 22 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 23rd needle of 1 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and 23 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 24th needle of pure gold</s></p><figure></figure><p type="main"> <s>By the first eleven needles, when they are rubbed on the touchstone, we <lb/>test what proportion of gold a bar of silver contains, and with the remaining <lb/>thirteen we test what proportion of silver is in a bar of gold; and also what <lb/>proportion of either may be in money.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Since some gold coins are composed of gold and copper, thirteen needles <lb/>of another kind are made as follows:—</s></p><pb pagenum="256"/><p type="main"> <s>The 1st of 12 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and 12 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 2nd of 13 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and 11 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 3rd of 14 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and 10 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 4th of 15 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and 9 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 5th of 16 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and 8 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 6th of 17 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and 7 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 7th of 18 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and 6 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 8th of 19 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and 5 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 9th of 20 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and 4 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 10th of 21 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and 3 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 11th of 22 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and 2 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 12th of 23 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and 1 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 13th of pure gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>These needles are not much used, because gold coins of that kind are <lb/>somewhat rare; the ones chiefly used are those in which there is much <lb/>copper. </s> <s>Needles of the third kind, which are composed of gold, silver, and <lb/>copper, are more largely used, because such gold coins are common. </s> <s>But since <lb/>with the gold there are mixed equal or unequal portions of silver and copper, <lb/>two sorts of needles are made. </s> <s>If the proportion of silver and copper is <lb/>equal, the needles are as follows:—<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table2"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table2"></table.target><row><cell>Gold.</cell><cell>Silver.</cell><cell>Copper.</cell></row><row><cell>The 1st of 12 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>6 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> 0 <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>6 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> 0 <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>The 2nd of 13 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>5 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> 1 <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>5 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> 1 <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>The 3rd of 14 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>5 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>5 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>The 4th of 15 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> 1 <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> 1 <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>The 5th of 16 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>The 6th of 17 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>3 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> 1 <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>3 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> 1 <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>The 7th of 18 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>3 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>3 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>The 8th of 19 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>2 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> 1 <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>2 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> 1 <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>The 9th of 20 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>2 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>2 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>The 10th of 21 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> 1 <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> 1 <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>The 11th of 22 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>The 12th of 23</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 13th of pure gold.</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row></table><p type="main"> <s>Some make twenty-five needles, in order to be able to detect the two <lb/><emph type="italics"/>scrípula<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver or copper which are in a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold. </s> <s>Of these needles, the <lb/>first is composed of twelve <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and six of silver, and the same <lb/>number of copper. </s> <s>The second, of twelve <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> and one <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold and <lb/>five <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> and one and a half <emph type="italics"/>sextulae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, and the same number of <lb/><emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> and one and a half <emph type="italics"/>sextulae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper. </s> <s>The remaining needles are <lb/>made in the same proportion.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Pliny is our authority that the Romans could tell to within one <emph type="italics"/>scrípulum<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>how much gold was in any given alloy, and how much silver or copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Needles may be made in either of two ways, namely, in the ways of which <lb/>I have spoken, and in the ways of which I am now about to speak. </s> <s>If <pb pagenum="257"/>unequal portions of silver and copper have been mixed with the gold, thirty­<lb/>seven needles are made in the following way:—<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table3"></arrow.to.target></s></p><pb pagenum="258"/><table><table.target id="table3"></table.target><row><cell></cell><cell>Gold.</cell><cell></cell><cell>Silver.</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Copper.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sext-<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sext-<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Duellae.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>ulae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>ulae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 1st of</cell><cell>12</cell><cell>9</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>0</cell></row><row><cell>The 2nd of</cell><cell>12</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>0</cell></row><row><cell>The 3rd of</cell><cell>12</cell><cell>7</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>5</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 4th of</cell><cell>13</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 5th of</cell><cell>13</cell><cell>7</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 6th of</cell><cell>13</cell><cell>6</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 7th of</cell><cell>14</cell><cell>7</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 8th of</cell><cell>14</cell><cell>6</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 9th of</cell><cell>14</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 10th of</cell><cell>15</cell><cell>6</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 11th of</cell><cell>15</cell><cell>6</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>3</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 12th of</cell><cell>15</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 13th of</cell><cell>16</cell><cell>6</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 14th of</cell><cell>16</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 15th of</cell><cell>16</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 16th of</cell><cell>17</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 17th of</cell><cell>17</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 18th of</cell><cell>17</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 19th of</cell><cell>18</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 20th of</cell><cell>18</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>0</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 21st of</cell><cell>18</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 22nd of</cell><cell>19</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 23rd of</cell><cell>19</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 24th of</cell><cell>19</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 25th of</cell><cell>20</cell><cell>3</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 26th of</cell><cell>20</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 27th of</cell><cell>20</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 28th of</cell><cell>21</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 29th of</cell><cell>21</cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 30th of</cell><cell>21</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 31st of</cell><cell>22</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 32nd of</cell><cell>22</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>0</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 33rd of</cell><cell>22</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>8</cell><cell></cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 34th of</cell><cell>23</cell><cell></cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 35th of</cell><cell>23</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell></cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 36th of</cell><cell>23</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 37th of</cell><cell>pure gold.</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row></table><p type="main"> <s>Since it is rarely found that gold, which has been coined, does not amount to <lb/>at least fifteen <emph type="italics"/>duellae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold in a <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/> some make only twenty-eight needles, and <lb/>some make them different from those already described, inasmuch as the <lb/>alloy of gold with silver and copper is sometimes differently proportioned.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>These needles are made:—<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table4"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table4"></table.target><row><cell></cell><cell>Gold.</cell><cell></cell><cell>Silver.</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Copper.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sext-<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sext-<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Duellae.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>ulae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>ulae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 1st of</cell><cell>15</cell><cell>6</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 2nd of</cell><cell>15</cell><cell>6</cell><cell></cell><cell>4</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 3rd of</cell><cell>15</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 4th of</cell><cell>16</cell><cell>6</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 5th of</cell><cell>16</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 6th of</cell><cell>16</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>3</cell><cell></cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 7th of</cell><cell>17</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 8th of</cell><cell>17</cell><cell>5</cell><cell></cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 9th of</cell><cell>17</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 10th of</cell><cell>18</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 11th of</cell><cell>18</cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 12th of</cell><cell>18</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 13th of</cell><cell>19</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 14th of</cell><cell>19</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 15th of</cell><cell>19</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 16th of</cell><cell>20</cell><cell>3</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 17th of</cell><cell>20</cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 18th of</cell><cell>20</cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 19th of</cell><cell>21</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 20th of</cell><cell>21</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 21st of</cell><cell>21</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 22nd of</cell><cell>22</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 23rd of</cell><cell>22</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 24th of</cell><cell>22</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 25th of</cell><cell>23</cell><cell></cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>8</cell></row><row><cell>The 26th of</cell><cell>23</cell><cell></cell><cell>1 1/2</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 27th of</cell><cell>23</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell></cell><cell>1/2</cell><cell>4</cell></row><row><cell>The 28th of</cell><cell>pure gold</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row></table><p type="main"> <s>Next follows the fourth kind of needles, by which we test silver coins <lb/>which contain copper, or copper coins which contain silver. </s> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> by <lb/>which we weigh the silver is divided in two different ways. </s> <s>It is either <lb/>divided twelve times, into units of five <emph type="italics"/>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"/> and one <emph type="italics"/>scrípulum<emph.end type="italics"/> each, <pb pagenum="259"/>which the ordinary people call <emph type="italics"/>nummi<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>41<emph.end type="sup"/>; each of these units we again divide <lb/>into twenty-four units of four <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each, which the same ordinary people <lb/>call a <emph type="italics"/>grenlin;<emph.end type="italics"/> or else the <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> is divided into sixteen <emph type="italics"/>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"/> which <lb/>are called <emph type="italics"/>loths,<emph.end type="italics"/> each of which is again divided into eighteen units of four <lb/><emph type="italics"/>silíquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each, which they call <emph type="italics"/>grenlín.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Or else the <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> is divided into <lb/>sixteen <emph type="italics"/>semuncíae,<emph.end type="italics"/> of which each is divided into four <emph type="italics"/>drachmae,<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>each <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> into four <emph type="italics"/>pfennige.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Needles are made in accordance with <lb/>each method of dividing the <emph type="italics"/>bes.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> According to the first method, to the <lb/>number of twenty-four half <emph type="italics"/>nummí;<emph.end type="italics"/> according to the second method, to the <lb/>number of thirty-one half <emph type="italics"/>semuncíae,<emph.end type="italics"/> that is to say a <emph type="italics"/>sícílícus;<emph.end type="italics"/> for if the <lb/>needles were made to the number of the smaller weights, the number of <lb/>needles would again be too large, and not a few of them, by reason of the <lb/>small difference in proportion of silver or copper, would have no significance. <lb/></s> <s>We test both bars and coined money composed of silver and copper by both <lb/>scales. </s> <s>The one is as follows: the first needle is made of twenty-three <lb/>parts of copper and one part silver; whereby, whatsoever bar or coin, when <lb/>rubbed on the touchstone, colours it just as this needle does, in that bar or <lb/>money there is one twenty-fourth part of silver, and so also, in accordance <lb/>with the proportion of silver, is known the remaining proportion of the copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 1st needle is made of 23 parts of copper and 1 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 2nd needle is made of 22 parts of copper and 2 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 3rd needle is made of 21 parts of copper and 3 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 4th needle is made of 20 parts of copper and 4 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 5th needle is made of 19 parts of copper and 5 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 6th needle is made of 18 parts of copper and 6 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 7th needle is made of 17 parts of copper and 7 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 8th needle is made of 16 parts of copper and 8 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 9th needle is made of 15 parts of copper and 9 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 10th needle is made of 14 parts of copper and 10 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 11th needle is made of 13 parts of copper and 11 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 12th needle is made of 12 parts of copper and 12 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 13th needle is made of 11 parts of copper and 13 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 14th needle is made of 10 parts of copper and 14 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 15th needle is made of 9 parts of copper and 15 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 16th needle is made of 8 parts of copper and 16 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 17th needle is made of 7 parts of copper and 17 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 18th needle is made of 6 parts of copper and 18 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 19th needle is made of 5 parts of copper and 19 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 20th needle is made of 4 parts of copper and 20 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 21st needle is made of 3 parts of copper and 21 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 22nd needle is made of 2 parts of copper and 22 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 23rd needle is made of 1 parts of copper and 23 of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 24th of pure silver.</s></p><pb pagenum="260"/><p type="main"> <s>The other method of making needles is as follows:—<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table5"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table5"></table.target><row><cell></cell><cell>Copper.</cell><cell></cell><cell>Silver.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Semunciae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sícilící<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Semuncíae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sícilící<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>The 1st is of</cell><cell>15</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 2nd is of</cell><cell>14</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 3rd is of</cell><cell>14</cell><cell></cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 4th is of</cell><cell>13</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 5th is of</cell><cell>13</cell><cell></cell><cell>3</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 6th is of</cell><cell>12</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 7th is of</cell><cell>12</cell><cell></cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 8th is of</cell><cell>11</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 9th is of</cell><cell>11</cell><cell></cell><cell>5</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 10th is of</cell><cell>10</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 11th is of</cell><cell>10</cell><cell></cell><cell>6</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 12th is of</cell><cell>9</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>6</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 13th is of</cell><cell>9</cell><cell></cell><cell>7</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 14th is of</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>7</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 15th is of</cell><cell>8</cell><cell></cell><cell>8</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 16th is of</cell><cell>7</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>8</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 17th is of</cell><cell>7</cell><cell></cell><cell>9</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 18th is of</cell><cell>6</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>9</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 19th is of</cell><cell>6</cell><cell></cell><cell>10</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 20th is of</cell><cell>5</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>10</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 21st is of</cell><cell>5</cell><cell></cell><cell>11</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 22nd is of</cell><cell>4</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>11</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 23rd is of</cell><cell>4</cell><cell></cell><cell>12</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 24th is of</cell><cell>3</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>12</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 25th is of</cell><cell>3</cell><cell></cell><cell>13</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 26th is of</cell><cell>2</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>13</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 27th is of</cell><cell>2</cell><cell></cell><cell>14</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 28th is of</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>1</cell><cell>14</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 29th is of</cell><cell>1</cell><cell></cell><cell>15</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>The 30th is of</cell><cell></cell><cell>1</cell><cell>15</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>The 31st of pure silver.</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row></table><p type="main"> <s>So much for this. </s> <s>Perhaps I have used more words than those most <lb/>highly skilled in the art may require, but it is necessary for the understanding <lb/>of these matters.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I will now speak of the weights, of which I have frequently made mention. <lb/></s> <s>Among mining people these are of two kinds, that is, the greater weights and <lb/>the lesser weights. </s> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> is the first and largest weight, and of <pb pagenum="261"/>course consists of one hundred <emph type="italics"/>librae,<emph.end type="italics"/> and for that reason is called a <lb/>hundred weight.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The various weights are:—</s></p><p type="main"> <s>1st = 100 <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> = <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>2nd = 50 <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>3rd = 52 <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>4th = 16 <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>5th = 8 <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>6th = 4 <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>7th = 2 <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>8th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>libra.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>This <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> consists of sixteen <emph type="italics"/>unciae,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the half part of the <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> is <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>selibra,<emph.end type="italics"/> which our people call a <emph type="italics"/>mark,<emph.end type="italics"/> and consists of eight <emph type="italics"/>unciae,<emph.end type="italics"/> or, as <lb/>they divide it, of sixteen <emph type="italics"/>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"/>:—</s></p><p type="main"> <s>9th = 8 <emph type="italics"/>unciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>10th = 8 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>11th = 4 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>12th = 2 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>13th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>semuncia.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>14th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>sicilicus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>15th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>drachma.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>16th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>dimidi-drachma.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The above is how the “greater” weights are divided. </s> <s>The “lesser” <lb/>weights are made of silver or brass or copper. </s> <s>Of these, the first and largest <lb/>generally weighs one <emph type="italics"/>drachma,<emph.end type="italics"/> for it is necessary for us to weigh, not only <lb/>ore, but also metals to be assayed, and smaller quantities of lead. </s> <s>The first <lb/>of these weights is called a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> and the number of <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> in it <lb/>corresponds to the larger scale, being likewise one hundred<emph type="sup"/>42<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 1st is called 1 <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 2nd is called 50 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 3rd is called 25 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 4th is called 16 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 5th is called 8 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 6th is called 4 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 7th is called 2 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 8th is called 1 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 9th is called 1 <emph type="italics"/>selibra.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 10th is called 8 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 11th is called 4 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 12th is called 2 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 13th is called 1 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 14th is called 1 <emph type="italics"/>sicilicus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The fourteenth is the last, for the proportionate weights which correspond <lb/>with a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> and half a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> are not used. </s> <s>On all these weights of <lb/>the lesser scale, are written the numbers of <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> and of <emph type="italics"/>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Some <pb pagenum="262"/>copper assayers divide both the lesser and greater scale weights into divisions <lb/>of a different scale. </s> <s>Their largest weight of the greater scale weighs one <lb/>hundred and twelve <emph type="italics"/>líbrae,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is the first unit of measurement.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>1st = 112 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>2nd = 64 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>3rd = 32 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>4th = 16 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>5th = 8 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>6th = 4 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>7th = 2 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>8th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>9th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>selibra<emph.end type="italics"/> or sixteen <emph type="italics"/>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>10th = 8 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>11th = 4 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>12th = 2 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>13th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><figure></figure><p type="main"> <s>As for the <emph type="italics"/>selíbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the lesser weights, which our people, as I have often <lb/>said, call a <emph type="italics"/>mark,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the Romans call a <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/> coiners who coin gold, divide it <lb/>just like the greater weights scale, into twenty-four units of two <emph type="italics"/>sextulae<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>each, and each unit of two <emph type="italics"/>sextulae<emph.end type="italics"/> is divided into four <emph type="italics"/>semí-sextulae<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>each <emph type="italics"/>semí-sextula<emph.end type="italics"/> into three units of four <emph type="italics"/>síliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each. </s> <s>Some also divide <lb/>the separate units of four <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> into four individual <emph type="italics"/>síliquae,<emph.end type="italics"/> but most, <lb/>omitting the <emph type="italics"/>semi-sextulae,<emph.end type="italics"/> then divide the double <emph type="italics"/>sextula<emph.end type="italics"/> into twelve units of <lb/>four <emph type="italics"/>sílíquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each, and do not divide these into four individual <emph type="italics"/>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Thus <lb/>the first and greatest unit of measurement, which is the <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/> weighs twenty­<lb/>four double <emph type="italics"/>sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><pb pagenum="263"/><p type="main"> <s>The 2nd = 12 double <emph type="italics"/>sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 3rd = 6 double <emph type="italics"/>sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 4th = 3 double <emph type="italics"/>sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 5th = 2 double <emph type="italics"/>sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 6th = 1 double <emph type="italics"/>sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 7th = 2 <emph type="italics"/>semí-sextulae<emph.end type="italics"/> or four <emph type="italics"/>semí-sextulae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 8th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>semi-sextula<emph.end type="italics"/> or 3 units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>síliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 9th = 2 units of four <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 10th = 1 units of four <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Coiners who mint silver also divide the <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of the lesser weights in the same <lb/>way as the greater weights; our people, indeed, divide it into sixteen <emph type="italics"/>sem­<lb/>uncíae,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the <emph type="italics"/>semuncia<emph.end type="italics"/> into eighteen units of four <emph type="italics"/>silíquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are ten weights which are placed in the other pan of the balance, <lb/>when they weigh the silver which remains from the copper that has been <lb/>consumed, when they assay the alloy with fire.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 1st = 16 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"/> = 1 <emph type="italics"/>bes.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 2nd = 8 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 3rd = 4 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 4th = 2 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 5th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>semunciae<emph.end type="italics"/> or 18 units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>sílíquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 6th = 9 units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 7th = 6 units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 8th = 3 units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 9th = 2 units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 10th = 1 units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The coiners of Nuremberg who mint silver, divide the <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> into sixteen <emph type="italics"/>sem­<lb/>uncíae,<emph.end type="italics"/> but divide the <emph type="italics"/>semuncía<emph.end type="italics"/> into four <emph type="italics"/>drachmae,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> into <lb/>four <emph type="italics"/>pfenníge.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> They employ nine weights.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 1st = 16 <emph type="italics"/>semuncíae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 2nd = 8 <emph type="italics"/>semuncíae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 3rd = 4 <emph type="italics"/>semuncíae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 4th = 2 <emph type="italics"/>semuncíae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The 5th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>semuncíae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>For they divide the <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> in the same way as our own people, but since they <lb/>divide the <emph type="italics"/>semuncía<emph.end type="italics"/> into four <emph type="italics"/>drachmae,<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 6th weight = 2 <emph type="italics"/>drachmae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 7th weight = 1 <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> or 4 <emph type="italics"/>pfenníge.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 8th weight = 2 <emph type="italics"/>pfenníge.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 9th weight = 1 <emph type="italics"/>pfenníg<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The men of Cologne and Antwerp<emph type="sup"/>43<emph.end type="sup"/> divide the <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> into twelve units of <lb/>five <emph type="italics"/>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"/> and one <emph type="italics"/>scrípulum,<emph.end type="italics"/> which weights they call <emph type="italics"/>nummi.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Each <lb/>of these they again divide into twenty-four units of four <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each, <lb/>which they call <emph type="italics"/>grenlíns.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> They have ten weights, of which</s></p><pb pagenum="264"/><p type="main"> <s>the 1st = 12 <emph type="italics"/>nummi<emph.end type="italics"/> = 1 <emph type="italics"/>bes.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 2nd = 6 <emph type="italics"/>nummi<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 3rd = 3 <emph type="italics"/>nummi<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 4th = 2 <emph type="italics"/>nummi<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 5th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>nummi<emph.end type="italics"/> = 24 units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 6th = 12 units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 7th = 6 units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 8th = 3 units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 9th = 2 units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 10th = 1 units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>And so with them, just as with our own people, the <emph type="italics"/>mark<emph.end type="italics"/> is divided into <lb/>two hundred and eighty-eight <emph type="italics"/>grenlíns,<emph.end type="italics"/> and by the people of Nuremberg it is <lb/>divided into two hundred and fifty-six <emph type="italics"/>pfennige.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Lastly, the Venetians divide <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> into eight <emph type="italics"/>unciae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> into four <emph type="italics"/>sicilici,<emph.end type="italics"/> the <emph type="italics"/>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"/> into <lb/>thirty-six <emph type="italics"/>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> They make twelve weights, which they use whenever they <lb/>wish to assay alloys of silver and copper. </s> <s>Of these</s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 1st = 8 <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> = 1 <emph type="italics"/>bes.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 2nd = 4 <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 3rd = 2 <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 4th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> or 4 <emph type="italics"/>sícílicí.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 5th = 2 <emph type="italics"/>sícilíc´.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 6th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>sícilicus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 7th = 18 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 8th = 9 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 9th = 6 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 10th = 3 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 11th = 2 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>the 12th = 1 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Since the Venetians divide the <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> into eleven hundred and fifty-two <emph type="italics"/>siliquae,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>or two hundred and eighty-eight units of 4 <emph type="italics"/>siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/> each, into which number <lb/>our people also divide the <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/> they thus make the same number of <emph type="italics"/>siliquae,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and both agree, even though the Venetians divide the <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> into smaller <lb/>divisions.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>This, then, is the system of weights, both of the greater and the lesser kinds, <lb/>which metallurgists employ, and likewise the system of the lesser weights <lb/>which coiners and merchants employ, when they are assaying metals and <lb/>coined money. </s> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of the larger weight with which they provide them­<lb/>selves when they weigh large masses of these things, I have explained in my <lb/>work <emph type="italics"/>De Mensuris et Ponderibus,<emph.end type="italics"/> and in another book, <emph type="italics"/>De Precio Metallorum <lb/>et Monetis.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are three small balances by which we weigh ore, metals, and <lb/>fluxes. </s> <s>The first, by which we weigh lead and fluxes, is the largest among these <lb/>smaller balances, and when eight <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> (of the greater weights) are placed in <lb/>one of its pans, and the same number in the other, it sustains no damage. <lb/></s> <s>The second is more delicate, and by this we weigh the ore or the metal, which <lb/>is to be assayed; this is well able to carry one <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of the lesser <pb pagenum="265"/>weights in one pan, and in the other, ore or metal as heavy as that weight. <lb/></s> <s>The third is the most delicate, and by this we weigh the beads of gold or <lb/>silver, which, when the assay is completed, settle in the bottom of the cupel. <lb/></s> <s>But if anyone weighs lead in the second balance, or an ore in the third, he <lb/>will do them much injury.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Whatsoever small amount of metal is obtained from a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of the lesser weights of ore or metal alloy, the same greater weight of metal <lb/>is smelted from a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of the greater weight of ore or metal alloy.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FIRST SMALL BALANCE. B—SECOND. C—THIRD, PLACED IN A CASE.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>END OF BOOK VII.</s></p><pb/><figure></figure><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>BOOK VIII.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Questions of assaying were explained in the last <lb/>Book, and I have now come to a greater task, that <lb/>is, to the description of how we extract the metals. <lb/></s> <s>First of all I will explain the method of preparing <lb/>the ore<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/>; for since Nature usually creates metals <lb/>in an impure state, mixed with earth, stones, and <lb/>solidified juices, it is necessary to separate most of <lb/>these impurities from the ores as far as can be, <lb/>before they are smelted, and therefore I will now <lb/>describe the methods by which the ores are sorted, broken with hammers, <lb/>burnt, crushed with stamps, ground into powder, sifted, washed, roasted, <lb/>and calcined<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>.<lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="268"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LONG TABLE. B—TRAY. C—TUB.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I will start at the beginning with the first sort of work. </s> <s>Experienced <lb/>miners, when they dig the ore, sort the metalliferous material from earth, <lb/>stones, and solidified juices before it is taken from the shafts and tunnels, <lb/>and they put the valuable metal in trays and the waste into buckets. </s> <s>But <lb/>if some miner who is inexperienced in mining matters has omitted to do this, <lb/>or even if some experienced miner, compelled by some unavoidable necessity, <lb/>has been unable to do so, as soon as the material which has been dug out <lb/>has been removed from the mine, all of it should be examined, and that part of <lb/>the ore which is rich in metal sorted from that part of it which is devoid of <lb/>metal, whether such part be earth, or solidified juices, or stones. </s> <s>To smelt <lb/>waste together with an ore involves a loss, for some expenditure is thrown <lb/>away, seeing that out of earth and stones only empty and useless slags are <pb pagenum="269"/>melted out, and further, the solidified juices also impede the smelting of the <lb/>metals and cause loss. </s> <s>The rock which lies contiguous to rich ore should also be <lb/>broken into small pieces, crushed, and washed, lest any of the mineral should <lb/>be lost. </s> <s>When, either through ignorance or carelessness, the miners while <lb/>excavating have mixed the ore with earth or broken rock, the work of sorting <lb/>the crude metal or the best ore is done not only by men, but also by boys and <lb/>women. </s> <s>They throw the mixed material upon a long table, beside which they <lb/>sìt for almost the whole day, and they sort out the ore; when it has been <lb/>sorted out, they collect it in trays, and when collected they throw it into <lb/>tubs, which are carried to the works in which the ores are smelted.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The metal which is dug out in a pure or crude state, to which class belong <lb/>native silver, silver glance, and gray silver, is placed on a stone by the <lb/>mine foreman and flattened out by pounding with heavy square hammers. <lb/></s> <s>These masses, when they have been thus flattened out like plates, are placed <lb/>either on the stump of a tree, and cut into pieces by pounding an iron chisel <lb/>into them with a hammer, or else they are cut with an iron tool similar to a <lb/>pair of shears. </s> <s>One blade of these shears is three feet long, and is firmly <lb/>fixed in a stump, and the other blade which cuts the metal is six feet long. </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—MASSES OF METAL. B—HAMMER. C—CHISEL. D—TREE STUMPS. E—IRON TOOL <lb/>SIMILAR TO A PAIR OF SHEARS.<pb pagenum="270"/>These pieces of metal are afterward heated in iron basins and smelted in the <lb/>cupellation furnace by the smelters.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Although the miners, in the shafts or tunnels, have sorted over the <lb/>material which they mine, still the ore which has been broken down and carried <lb/>out must be broken into pieces by a hammer or minutely crushed, so that <lb/>the more valuable and better parts can be distinguished from the inferior and <lb/>worthless portions. </s> <s>This is of the greatest importance in smelting ore, for <lb/>if the ore is smelted without this separation, the valuable part frequently <lb/>receives great damage before the worthless part melts in the fire, or else the <lb/>one consumes the other; this latter difficulty can, however, be partly <lb/>avoided by the exercise of care and partly by the use of fluxes. </s> <s>Now, if a <lb/>vein is of poor quality, the better portions which have been broken down and <lb/>carried out should be thrown together in one place, and the inferior portion <lb/>and the rock thrown away. </s> <s>The sorters place a hard broad stone on a table; <lb/>the tables are generally four feet square and made of joined planks, and to <lb/>the edge of the sides and back are fixed upright planks, which rise about a <lb/>foot from the table; the front, where the sorter sits, is left open. </s> <s>The </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TABLES. B—UPRIGHT PLANKS. C—HAMMER. D—QUADRANGULAR HAMMER. <lb/>E—DEEPER VESSEL. F—SHALLOWER VESSEL. G—IRON ROD.<pb pagenum="271"/>lumps of ore, rich in gold or silver, are put by the sorters on the stone and <lb/>broken up with a broad, but not thick, hammer; they either break them into <lb/>pieces and throw them into one vessel, or they break and sort—whence they <lb/>get their name—the more precious from the worthless, throwing and collecting <lb/>them separately into different vessels. </s> <s>Other men crush the lumps of ore <lb/>less rich in gold or silver, which have likewise been put on the stone, with a <lb/>broad thick hammer, and when it has been well crushed, they collect it and <lb/>throw it into one vessel. </s> <s>There are two kinds of vessels; one is deeper, and a <lb/>little wider in the centre than at the top or bottom; the other is not so deep <lb/>though it is broader at the bottom, and becomes gradually a little narrower <lb/>toward the top. </s> <s>The latter vessel is covered with a lid, while the former is not <lb/>covered; an iron rod through the handles, bent over on either end, is <lb/>grasped in the hand when the vessel is carried. </s> <s>But, above all, it behooves <lb/>the sorters to be assiduous in their labours.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>By another method of breaking ore with hammers, large hard frag­<lb/>ments of ore are broken before they are burned. </s> <s>The legs of the workmen <lb/>—at all events of those who crush pyrites in this manner with large hammers <lb/>in Goslar—are protected with coverings resembling leggings, and their hands </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—PYRITES. B—LEGGINGS. C—GLOVES. D—HAMMER.<pb pagenum="272"/>are protected with long gloves, to prevent them from being injured by the <lb/>chips which fly away from the fragments.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In that district of Greater Germany which is called Westphalia and in <lb/>that district of Lower Germany which is named Eifel, the broken ore which <lb/>has been burned, is thrown by the workmen into a round area paved with the <lb/>hardest stones, and the fragments are pounded up with iron tools, which are <lb/>very much like hammers in shape and are used like threshing sledges. </s> <s>This <lb/>tool is a foot long, a palm wide, and a digit thick, and has an opening in the <lb/>middle just as hammers have, in which is fixed a wooden handle of no great <lb/>thickness, but up to three and a half feet long, in order that the workmen <lb/>can pound the ore with greater force by reason of its weight falling from a <lb/>greater height. </s> <s>They strike and pound with the broad side of the tool, in the <lb/>same way as corn is pounded out on a threshing floor with the threshing <lb/>sledges, although the latter are made of wood and are smooth and fixed to <lb/>poles. </s> <s>When the ore has been broken into small pieces, they sweep it <lb/>together with brooms and remove it to the works, where it is washed </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—AREA PAVED WITH STONES. B—BROKEN ORE. C—AREA COVERED WITH BROKEN ORE. <lb/>D—IRON TOOL. E—ITS HANDLE. F—BROOM. G—SHORT STRAKE. H—WOODEN HOE.<pb pagenum="273"/>in a short strake, at the head of which stands the washer, who draws the water <lb/>upward with a wooden hoe. </s> <s>The water running down again, carries all <lb/>the light particles into a trough placed underneath. </s> <s>I shall deal more fully <lb/>with this method of washing a little later.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Ore is burned for two reasons; either that from being hard, it may become <lb/>soft and more easily broken and more readily crushed with a hammer or <lb/>stamps, and then can be smelted; or that the fatty things, that is to say, <lb/>sulphur, bitumen, orpiment, or realgar<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/> may be consumed. </s> <s>Sulphur is <lb/>frequently found in metallic ores, and, generally speaking, is more harmful <lb/>to the metals, except gold, than are the other things. </s> <s>It is most harmful of <lb/>all to iron, and less to tin than to bismuth, lead, silver, or copper. <lb/></s> <s>Since very rarely gold is found in which there is not some silver, even gold <lb/>ores containing sulphur ought to be roasted before they are smelted, because, <lb/>in a very vigorous furnace fire, sulphur resolves metal into ashes and makes <lb/>slag of it. </s> <s>Bitumen acts in the same way, in fact sometimes it consumes <lb/>silver, which we may see in bituminous <emph type="italics"/>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I now come to the methods of roasting, and first of all to that one which <lb/>is common to all ores. </s> <s>The earth is dug out to the required extent, and <lb/>thus is made a quadrangular area of fair size, open at the front, and above <lb/>this, firewood is laid close together, and on it other wood is laid trans­<lb/>versely, likewise close together, for which reason our countrymen call this <lb/>pile of wood a crate; this is repeated until the pile attains a height of one <lb/>or two cubits. </s> <s>Then there is placed upon it a quantity of ore that has been <lb/>broken into small pieces with a hammer; first the largest of these pieces, <lb/>next those of medium size, and lastly the smallest, and thus is built up a <lb/>gently sloping cone. </s> <s>To prevent it from becoming scattered, fine sand of the <lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="274"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—AREA. B—WOOD. C—ORE. D—CONE-SHAPED PILES. E—CANAL.<lb/>same ore is soaked with water and smeared over it and beaten on with shovels; <lb/>some workers, if they cannot obtain such fine sand, cover the pile with char­<lb/>coal-dust, just as do charcoal-burners. </s> <s>But at Goslar, the pile, when it has <lb/>been built up in the form of a cone, is smeared with <emph type="italics"/>atramentum sutorium <lb/>rubrum<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>, which is made by the leaching of roasted pyrites soaked with water. <lb/></s> <s>In some districts the ore is roasted once, in others twice, in others three times, <lb/>as its hardness may require. </s> <s>At Goslar, when pyrites is roasted for the third <lb/>time, that which is placed on the top of the pyre exudes a certain greenish, <lb/>dry, rough, thin substance, as I have elsewhere written<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>; this is no more <lb/>easily burned by the fire than is asbestos. </s> <s>Very often also, water is put on <lb/><pb pagenum="275"/>to the ore which has been roasted, while it is still hot, in order to make <lb/>it softer and more easily broken; for after fire has dried up the moisture <lb/>in the ore, it breaks up more easily while it is still hot, of which fact burnt <lb/>limestone affords the best example.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>By digging out the earth they make the areas much larger, and square; <lb/>walls should be built along the sides and back to hold the heat of the <lb/>fire more effectively, and the front should be left open. </s> <s>In these compart­<lb/>ments tin ore is roasted in the following manner. </s> <s>First of all wood about <lb/>twelve feet long should be laid in the area in four layers, alternately straight <lb/>and transverse. </s> <s>Then the larger pieces of ore should be laid upon them, and <lb/>on these again the smaller ones, which should also be placed around the sides; <lb/>the fine sand of the same ore should also be spread over the pile and pounded <lb/>with shovels, to prevent the pile from falling before it has been roasted; the <lb/>wood should then be fired.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LIGHTED PYRE. B—PYRE WHICH IS BEING CONSTRUCTED. C—ORE. D—WOOD. <lb/>E—PILE OF THE SAME WOOD.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Lead ore, if roasting is necessary, should be piled in an area just like the <lb/>last, but sloping, and the wood should be placed over it. </s> <s>A tree trunk should <lb/>be laid right across the front of the ore to prevent it from falling out. </s> <s>The <lb/>ore, being roasted in this way, becomes partly melted and resembles slag. <pb pagenum="276"/>Thuringian pyrites, in which there is gold, sulphur, and vitriol, after the last <lb/>particle of vitriol has been obtained by heating it in water, is thrown into a <lb/>furnace, in which logs are placed. </s> <s>This furnace is very similar to an oven <lb/>in shape, in order that when the ore is roasted the valuable contents may not <lb/>fly away with the smoke, but may adhere to the roof of the furnace. </s> <s>In this <lb/>way sulphur very often hangs like icicles from the two openings of the roof <lb/>through which the smoke escapes.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BURNING PYRE WHICH IS COMPOSED OF LEAD ORE WITH WOOD PLACED ABOVE IT. <lb/>B—WORKMAN THROWING ORE INTO ANOTHER AREA. C—OVEN-SHAPED FURNACE. <lb/>D—OPENINGS THROUGH WHICH THE SMOKE ESCAPES.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If pyrites or <emph type="italics"/>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"/> or any other ore containing metal, possesses a good <lb/>deal of sulphur or bitumen, it should be so roasted that neither is lost. </s> <s>For <lb/>this purpose it is thrown on an iron plate full of holes, and roasted with char­<lb/>coal placed on top; three walls support this plate, two on the sides and the <lb/>third at the back. </s> <s>Beneath the plate are placed pots containing water, into <lb/>which the sulphurous or bituminous vapour descends, and in the water the <lb/>fat accumulates and floats on the top. </s> <s>If it is sulphur, it is generally of a <lb/>yellow colour; if bitumen, it is black like pitch. </s> <s>If these were not drawn <lb/>out they would do much harm to the metal, when the ore is being smelted. <lb/></s> <s>When they have thus been separated they prove of some service to man, <lb/>especially the sulphurous kind. </s> <s>From the vapour which is carried down, not </s></p><pb pagenum="277"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—IRON PLATES FULL OF HOLES. B—WALLS. C—PLATE ON WHICH ORE IS PLACED. <lb/>D—BURNING CHARCOAL PLACED ON THE ORE. E—POTS. F—FURNACE. G—MIDDLE <lb/>PART OF UPPER CHAMBER. H—THE OTHER TWO COMPARTMENTS. I—DIVISIONS OF THE <lb/>LOWER CHAMBER. K—MIDDLE WALL. L—POTS WHICH ARE FILLED WITH ORE. M—LIDS <lb/>OF SAME POTS. N—GRATING.<pb pagenum="278"/>into the water, but into the ground, there is created a sulphurous or a <lb/>bituminous substance resembling <emph type="italics"/>pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>, and so light that it can be <lb/>blown away with a breath. </s> <s>Some employ a vaulted furnace, open at the <lb/>front and divided into two chambers. </s> <s>A wall built in the middle of the <lb/>furnace divides the lower chamber into two equal parts, in which are set pots <lb/>containing water, as above described. </s> <s>The upper chamber is again divided <lb/>into three parts, the middle one of which is always open, for in it the wood <lb/>is placed, and it is not broader than the middle wall, of which it forms the <lb/>topmost portion. </s> <s>The other two compartments have iron doors which are <lb/>closed, and which, together with the roof, keep in the heat when the wood <lb/>is lighted. </s> <s>In these upper compartments are iron bars which take the place <lb/>of a floor, and on these are arranged pots without bottoms, having in <lb/>place of a bottom, a grating made of iron wire, fixed to each, through <lb/>the openings of which the sulphurous or bituminous vapours roasted from <lb/>the ore run into the lower pots. </s> <s>Each of the upper pots holds a hundred </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEAP OF CUPRIFEROUS STONES. B—KINDLED HEAP. C—STONES BEING TAKEN TO <lb/>THE BEDS OF FAGGOTS.<pb pagenum="279"/>pounds of ore; when they are filled they are covered with lids and smeared <lb/>with lute.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In Eisleben and the neighbourhood, when they roast the schistose <lb/>stone from which copper is smelted, and which is not free from bitumen, <lb/>they do not use piles of logs, but bundles of faggots. </s> <s>At one time, they used <lb/>to pile this kind of stone, when extracted from the pit, on bundles of <lb/>faggots and roast it by firing the faggots; nowadays, they first of all <lb/>carry these same stones to a heap, where they are left to lie for some time in <lb/>such a way as to allow the air and rain to soften them. </s> <s>Then they make a <lb/>bed of faggot bundles near the heap, and carry the nearest stones to this <lb/>bed; afterward they again place bundles of faggots in the empty place <lb/>from which the first stones have been removed, and pile over this extended <lb/>bed, the stones which lay nearest to the first lot; and they do this right up to <lb/>the end, until all the stones have been piled mound-shape on a bed of faggots. <lb/></s> <s>Finally they fire the faggots, not, however, on the side where the wind is <lb/>blowing, but on the opposite side, lest the fire blown up by the force of the <lb/>wind should consume the faggots before the stones are roasted and made soft; <lb/>by this method the stones which are adjacent to the faggots take fire and <lb/>communicate it to the next ones, and these again to the adjoining ones, and <lb/>in this way the heap very often burns continuously for thirty days or more. <lb/></s> <s>This schist rock when rich in copper, as I have said elsewhere, exudes a <lb/>substance of a nature similar to asbestos.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Ore is crushed with iron-shod stamps, in order that the metal may be <lb/>separated from the stone and the hanging-wall rock.<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> The machines which <lb/>miners use for this purpose are of four kinds, and are made by the following <lb/>method. </s> <s>A block of oak timber six feet long, two feet and a palm square, is <lb/>laid on the ground. </s> <s>In the middle of this is fixed a mortar-box, two feet and six <lb/>digits long, one foot and six digits deep; the front, which might be called a <pb pagenum="280"/>mouth, lies open; the bottom is covered with a plate of iron, a palm thick <lb/>and two palms and as many digits wide, each end of which is wedged into the <lb/>timber with broad wedges, and the front and back part of it are fixed to the <lb/>timber with iron nails. </s> <s>To the sides of the mortar above the block are fixed <lb/>two upright posts, whose upper ends are somewhat cut back and are mor­<lb/>tised to the timbers of the building. </s> <s>Two and a half feet above the mortar <pb pagenum="281"/>are placed two cross-beams joined together, one in front and one in the back, <lb/>the ends of which are mortised into the upright posts already mentioned. <lb/></s> <s>Through each mortise is bored a hole, into which is driven an iron clavis<gap/><lb/>one end of the clavis has two horns, and the other end is perforated in order <lb/>that a wedge driven through, binds the beams more firmly; one horn of the <lb/>clavis turns up and the other down. </s> <s>Three and a half feet above the cross-<pb pagenum="282"/>beams, two other cross-beams of the same kind are again joined in a similar <lb/>manner; these cross-beams have square openings, in which the iron-shod <lb/>stamps are inserted. </s> <s>The stamps are not far distant from each other, and <lb/>fit closely in the cross-beams. </s> <s>Each stamp has a tappet at the back, which <lb/>requires to be daubed with grease on the lower side that it can be raised <lb/>more easily. </s> <s>For each stamp there are on a cam-shaft, two cams, rounded on <pb pagenum="283"/>the outer end, which alternately raise the stamp, in order that, by its dropping <lb/>into the mortar, it may with its iron head pound and crush the rock which <lb/>has been thrown under it. </s> <s>To the cam-shaft is fixed a water-wheel whose <lb/>buckets are turned by water-power. </s> <s>Instead of doors, the mouth of the <lb/>mortar has a board, which is fitted into notches cut out of the front of the block. <lb/></s> <s>This board can be raised, in order that when the mouth is open, the workmen </s></p><pb pagenum="284"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—MORTAR. B—UPRIGHT POSTS. C—CROSS-BEAMS. D—STAMPS. E—THEIR HEADS. <lb/>F—AXLE (CAM-SHAFT). G—TOOTH OF THE STAMP (TAPPET). H—TEETH OF AXLE (CAMS).<lb/>can remove with a shovel the fine sand, and likewise the coarse sand and <lb/>broken rock, into which the rocks have been crushed; this board can be <lb/>lowered, so that the mouth thus being closed, the fresh rock thrown in may <lb/>be crushed with the iron-shod stamps. </s> <s>If an oak block is not available, <lb/>two timbers are placed on the ground and joined together with iron clamps, <lb/>each of the timbers being six feet long, a foot wide, and a foot and a half thick. <lb/></s> <s>Such depth as should be allowed to the mortar, is obtained by cutting out the <lb/>first beam to a width of three-quarters of a foot and to a length of two and a <lb/>third and one twenty-fourth of a foot. </s> <s>In the bottom of the part thus dug <lb/>out, there should be laid a very hard rock, a foot thick and three-quarters of a <lb/>foot wide; about it, if any space remains, earth or sand should be filled in <lb/>and pounded. </s> <s>On the front, this bed rock is covered with a plank; this <lb/>rock when it has been broken, should be taken away and replaced by <lb/>another. </s> <s>A smaller mortar having room for only three stamps may also be <lb/>made in the same manner.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The stamp-stems are made of small square timbers nine feet long and <lb/>half a foot wide each way. </s> <s>The iron head of each is made in the following <pb pagenum="285"/>way; the lower part of the head is three palms long and the upper part the <lb/>same length. </s> <s>The lower part is a palm square in the middle for two palms, <lb/>then below this, for a length of two digits it gradually spreads until it <lb/>becomes five digits square; above the middle part, for a length of two <lb/>digits, it again gradually swells out until it becomes a palm and a half square. <lb/></s> <s>Higher up, where the head of the shoe is enclosed in the stem, it is bored <lb/>through and similarly the stem itself is pierced, and through the opening of <lb/>each, there passes a broad iron wedge, which prevents the head falling off the <lb/>stem. </s> <s>To prevent the stamp head from becoming broken by the constant <lb/>striking of fragments of ore or rocks, there is placed around it a quadrangular <lb/>iron band a digit thick, seven digits wide, and six digits deep. </s> <s>Those who <lb/>use three stamps, as is common, make them much larger, and they are <lb/>made square and three palms broad each way; then the iron shoe <lb/>of each has a total length of two feet and a palm; at the lower end, it is <lb/>hexagonal, and at that point it is seven digits wide and thick. </s> <s>The lower <lb/>part of it which projects beyond the stem is one foot and two palms long; <lb/>the upper part, which is enclosed in the stem, is three palms long; the </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—STAMP. B—STEM CUT OUT IN LOWER PART. C—SHOE. D—THE OTHER SHOE, <lb/>BARBED AND GROOVED. E—QUADRANGULAR IRON BAND. F—WEDGE. G—TAPPET. <lb/>H—ANGULAR CAM-SHAFT. I—CAMS. K—PAIR OF COMPASSES.<pb pagenum="286"/>lower part is a palm wide and thick; then gradually the upper part becomes <lb/>narrower and thinner, so that at the top it is three digits and a half wide and <lb/>two thick. </s> <s>It is bored through at the place where the angles have been <lb/>somewhat cut away; the hole is three digits long and one wide, and is one <lb/>digit's distance from the top. </s> <s>There are some who make that part of the <lb/>head which is enclosed in the stem, barbed and grooved, in order that when <lb/>the hooks have been fixed into the stem and wedges fitted to the grooves, <lb/>it may remain tightly fixed, especially when it is also held with two quad­<lb/>rangular iron bands. </s> <s>Some divide the cam-shaft with a compass into six <lb/>sides, others into nine; it is better for it to be divided into twelve sides, in <lb/>order that successively one side may contain a cam and the next be without one.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The water-wheel is entirely enclosed under a quadrangular box, in case <lb/>either the deep snows or ice in winter, or storms, may impede its running and <lb/>its turning around. </s> <s>The joints in the planks are stopped all around with <lb/>moss. </s> <s>The cover, however, has one opening, through which there passes <lb/>a race bringing down water which, dropping on the buckets of the wheel, <lb/>turns it round, and flows out again in the lower race under the box. </s> <s>The <lb/>spokes of the water-wheel are not infrequently mortised into the middle of </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BOX. ALTHOUGH THE UPPER PART IS NOT OPEN, IT IS SHOWN OPEN HERE, THAT THE <lb/>WHEEL MAY BE SEEN. B—WHEEL. C—CAM-SHAFT. D—STAMPS.<pb pagenum="287"/>the cam-shaft; in this case the cams on both sides raise the stamps, which <lb/>either both crush dry or wet ore, or else the one set crushes dry ore and the <lb/>other set wet ore, just as circumstances require the one or the other; <lb/>further, when the one set is raised and the iron clavises in them are fixed <lb/>into openings in the first cross-beam, the other set alone crushes the ore.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Broken rock or stones, or the coarse or fine sand, are removed from <lb/>the mortar of this machine and heaped up, as is also done with the same <lb/>materials when raked out of the dump near the mine. </s> <s>They are thrown <lb/>by a workman into a box, which is open on the top and the front, and is three <lb/>feet long and nearly a foot and a half wide. </s> <s>Its sides are sloping and made <lb/>of planks, but its bottom is made of iron wire netting, and fastened with <lb/>wire to two iron rods, which are fixed to the two side planks. </s> <s>This bottom <lb/>has openings, through which broken rock of the size of a hazel nut cannot <lb/>pass; the pieces which are too large to pass through are removed by the <lb/>workman, who again places them under stamps, while those which have <lb/>passed through, together with the coarse and fine sand, he collects in a large <lb/>vessel and keeps for the washing. </s> <s>When he is performing his laborious </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BOX LAID FLAT ON THE GROUND. B—ITS BOTTOM WHICH IS MADE OF IRON WIRE. <lb/>C—BOX INVERTED. D—IRON RODS. E—BOX SUSPENDED FROM A BEAM, THE INSIDE <lb/>BEING VISIBLE. F—BOX SUSPENDED FROM A BEAM, THE OUTSIDE BEING VISIBLE.<pb pagenum="288"/>task he suspends the box from a beam by two ropes. </s> <s>This box may rightly <lb/>be called a quadrangular sieve, as may also that kind which follows.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some employ a sieve shaped like a wooden bucket, bound with two iron <lb/>hoops; its bottom, like that of the box, is made of iron wire netting. <lb/></s> <s>They place this on two small cross-planks fixed upon a post set in the ground. <lb/></s> <s>Some do not fix the post in the ground, but stand it on the ground until <lb/>there arises a heap of the material which has passed through the sieve, and <lb/>in this the post is fixed. </s> <s>With an iron shovel the workman throws into this <lb/>sieve broken rock, small stones, coarse and fine sand raked out of the dump; <lb/>holding the handles of the sieve in his hands, he agitates it up and down in </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SIEVE. B—SMALL PLANKS. C—POST. D—BOTTOM OF SIEVE. E—OPEN BOX. <lb/>F—SMALL CROSS-BEAM. G—UPRIGHT POSTS.<lb/>order that by this movement the dust, fine and coarse sand, small stones, and <lb/>fine broken rock may fall through the bottom. </s> <s>Others do not use a sieve, but <lb/>an open box, whose bottom is likewise covered with wire netting; this they <lb/>fix on a small cross-beam fastened to two upright beams and tilt it backward <lb/>and forward.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some use a sieve made of copper, having square copper handles on both <lb/>sides, and through these handles runs a pole, of which one end projects three­<lb/>quarters of a foot beyond one handle; the workman then places that end in <lb/>a rope which is suspended from a beam, and rapidly shakes the pole alter-<pb pagenum="289"/>nately backward and forward. </s> <s>By this movement the small particles <lb/>fall through the bottom of the sieve. </s> <s>In order that the end of the pole <lb/>may be easily placed in the rope, a stick, two palms long, holds open the <lb/>lower part of the rope as it hangs double, each end of the rope being tied to <lb/>the beam; part of the rope, however, hangs beyond the stick to a length of <lb/>half a foot. </s> <s>A large box is also used for this purpose, of which the bottom <lb/>is either made of a plank full of holes or of iron netting, as are the other <lb/>boxes. </s> <s>An iron bale is fastened from the middle of the planks which form <lb/>its sides; to this bale is fastened a rope which is suspended from a wooden <lb/>beam, in order that the box may be moved or tilted in any direction. </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BOX. B—BALE. C—ROPE. D—BEAM. E—HANDLES. F—FIVE-TOOTHED RAKE. <lb/>G—SIEVE. H—ITS HANDLES. I—POLE. K—ROPE. L—TIMBER.<lb/>There are two handles on each end, not unlike the handles of a wheel­<lb/>barrow; these are held by two workmen, who shake the box to and fro. <lb/></s> <s>This box is the one principally used by the Germans who dwell in the <lb/>Carpathian mountains. </s> <s>The smaller particles are separated from the larger <lb/>ones by means of three boxes and two sieves, in order that those which <lb/>pass through each, being of equal size, may be washed together; for the <lb/>bottoms of both the boxes and sieves have openings which do not let <lb/>through broken rock of the size of a hazel nut. </s> <s>As for the dry remnants <pb pagenum="290"/>in the bottoms of the sieves, if they contain any metal the miners put them <lb/>under the stamps. </s> <s>The larger pieces of broken rock are not separated from <lb/>the smaller by this method until the men and boys, with five-toothed rakes, <lb/>have separated them from the rock fragments, the little stones, the <lb/>coarse and the fine sand and earth, which have been thrown on to the dumps.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>At Neusohl, in the Carpathians, there are mines where the veins of copper <lb/>lie in the ridges and peaks of the mountains, and in order to save expense <lb/>being incurred by a long and difficult transport, along a rough and sometimes <lb/>very precipitous road, one workman sorts over the dumps which have been <lb/>thrown out from the mines, and another carries in a wheelbarrow the earth, <lb/>fine and coarse sand, little stones, broken rock, and even the poorer ore, and <lb/>overturns the barrow into a long open chute fixed to a steep rock. </s> <s>This <lb/>chute is held apart by small cleats, and the material slides down a distance of <lb/>about one hundred and fifty feet into a short box, whose bottom is made of a <lb/>thick copper plate, full of holes. </s> <s>This box has two handles by which it is <lb/>shaken to and fro, and at the top there are two bales made of hazel sticks, <lb/>in which is fixed the iron hook of a rope hung from the branch of a tree or <lb/>from a wooden beam which projects from an upright post. </s> <s>From time to <lb/>time a sifter pulls this box and thrusts it violently against the tree or post, <lb/>by which means the small particles passing through its holes descend down <lb/>another chute into another short box, in whose bottom there are smaller <lb/>holes. </s> <s>A second sifter, in like manner, thrusts this box violently against a <lb/>tree or post, and a second time the smaller particles are received into a third <lb/>chute, and slide down into a third box, whose bottom has still smaller holes. <lb/></s> <s>A third sifter, in like manner, thrusts this box violently against a tree or post, <lb/>and for the third time the tiny particles fall through the holes upon a table. <lb/></s> <s>While the workman is bringing in the barrow, another load which has been <lb/>sorted from the dump, each sifter withdraws the hooks from his bale <lb/>and carries away his own box and overturns it, heaping up the broken rock <lb/>or sand which remains in the bottom of it. </s> <s>As for the tiny particles which <lb/>have slid down upon the table, the first washer—for there are as many <lb/>washers as sifters—sweeps them off and in a tub nearly full of water, washes <lb/>them through a sieve whose holes are smaller than the holes of the third box. <lb/></s> <s>When this tub has been filled with the material which has passed through <lb/>the sieve, he draws out the plug to let the water run away; then he removes <lb/>with a shovel that which has settled in the tub and throws it upon the table <lb/>of a second washer, who washes it in a sieve with smaller holes. </s> <s>The sedi­<lb/>ment which has this time settled in his tub, he takes out and throws on the <lb/>table of a third washer, who washes it in a sieve with the smallest holes. <lb/></s> <s>The copper concentrates which have settled in the last tub are taken out and <lb/>smelted; the sediment which each washer has removed with a limp is <lb/>washed on a canvas strake. </s> <s>The sifters at Altenberg, in the tin mines of <lb/>the mountains bordering on Bohemia, use such boxes as I have described, <lb/>hung from wooden beams. </s> <s>These, however, are a little larger and open in <lb/>the front, through which opening the broken rock which has not gone through <lb/>the sieve can be shaken out immediately by thrusting the sieve against its post.</s></p><pb pagenum="291"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WORKMAN CARRYING BROKEN ROCK IN A BARROW. B—FIRST CHUTE. C—FIRST BOX. <lb/>D—ITS HANDLES. E—ITS BALES. F—ROPE. G—BEAM. H—POST. I—SECOND <lb/>CHUTE. K—SECOND BOX. L—THIRD CHUTE. M—THIRD BOX. N—FIRST TABLE. <lb/>O—FIRST SIEVE. P—FIRST TUB. Q—SECOND TABLE. R—SECOND SIEVE. S—SECOND <lb/>TUB. T—THIRD TABLE. V—THIRD SIEVE. X—THIRD TUB. Y—PLUGS.</s></p><pb pagenum="292"/><p type="main"> <s>If the ore is rich in metal, the earth, the fine and coarse sand, and the <lb/>pieces of rock which have been broken from the hanging-wall, are dug out of <lb/>the dump with a spade or rake and, with a shovel, are thrown into a large sieve <lb/>or basket, and washed in a tub nearly full of water. </s> <s>The sieve is generally <lb/>a cubit broad and half a foot deep; its bottom has holes of such size that the <lb/>larger pieces of broken rock cannot pass through them, for this material rests <lb/>upon the straight and cross iron wires, which at their points of contact are <lb/>bound by small iron clips. </s> <s>The sieve is held together by an iron band and by <lb/>two cross-rods likewise of iron; the rest of the sieve is made of staves in the <lb/>shape of a little tub, and is bound with two iron hoops; some, however, <lb/>bind it with hoops of hazel or oak, but in that case they use three of them. <lb/></s> <s>On each side it has handles, which are held in the hands by whoever washes <lb/>the metalliferous material. </s> <s>Into this sieve a boy throws the material to be <lb/>washed, and a woman shakes it up and down, turning it alternately to the </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SIEVE. B—ITS HANDLES. C—TUB. D—BOTTOM OF SIEVE MADE OF IRON WIRES. <lb/>E—HOOP. F—RODS. G—HOOPS. H—WOMAN SHAKING THE SIEVE. I—BOY SUPPLYING <lb/>IT WITH MATERIAL WHICH REQUIRES WASHING. K—MAN WITH SHOVEL REMOVING FROM <lb/>THE TUB THE MATERIAL WHICH HAS PASSED THROUGH THE SIEVE.<pb pagenum="293"/>right and to the left, and in this way passes through it the smaller pieces of <lb/>earth, sand, and broken rock. </s> <s>The larger pieces remain in the sieve, and <lb/>these are taken out, placed in a heap and put under the stamps. </s> <s>The <lb/>mud, together with fine sand, coarse sand, and broken rock, which remain <lb/>after the water has been drawn out of the tub, is removed by an iron shovel <lb/>and washed in the sluice, about which I will speak a little later.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The Bohemians use a basket a foot and a half broad and half a foot deep, <lb/>bound together by osiers. </s> <s>It has two handles by which it is grasped, when <lb/>they move it about and shake it in the tub or in a small pool nearly full <lb/>of water. </s> <s>All that passes through it into the tub or pool they take out and <lb/>wash in a bowl, which is higher in the back part and lower and flat in the <lb/>front; it is grasped by the two handles and shaken in the water, the lighter <lb/>particles flowing away, and the heavier and mineral portion sinking to the <lb/>bottom.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BASKET. B—ITS HANDLES. C—DISH. D—ITS BACK PART. E—ITS FRONT PART. <lb/>F—HANDLES OF SAME.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Gold ore, after being broken with hammers or crushed by the stamps, <lb/>and even tin ore, is further milled to powder. </s> <s>The upper millstone, which <pb pagenum="294"/>is turned by water-power, is made in the following way. </s> <s>An axle is rounded <lb/>to compass measure, or is made angular, and its iron pinions turn in iron <lb/>sockets which are held in beams. </s> <s>The axle is turned by a water-wheel, the <lb/>buckets of which are fixed to the rim and are struck by the force of a stream. </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—AXLE. B—WATER-WHEEL. C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—DRUM MADE OF RUNDLES. <lb/>E—IRON AXLE. F—MILLSTONE. G—HOPPER. H—ROUND WOODEN PLATE. <lb/>I—TROUGH.<lb/>Into the axle is mortised a toothed drum, whose teeth are fixed in the side <lb/>of the rim. </s> <s>These teeth turn a second drum of rundles, which are made of <lb/>very hard material. </s> <s>This drum surrounds an iron axle which has a pinion <lb/>at the bottom and revolves in an iron cup in a timber. </s> <s>At the top of the <lb/>iron axle is an iron tongue, dove-tailed into the millstone, and so when the <lb/>teeth of the one drum turn the rundles of the other, the millstone is made to <lb/>turn round. </s> <s>An overhanging machine supplies it with ore through a hopper, <lb/>and the ore, being ground to powder, is discharged from a round wooden plate <lb/>into a trough and flowing away through it accumulates on the floor; <lb/>from there the ore is carried away and reserved for washing. </s> <s>Since this <pb pagenum="295"/>method of grinding requires the millstone to be now raised and now <lb/>lowered, the timber in whose socket the iron of the pinion axle revolves, rests <lb/>upon two beams, which can be raised and lowered.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are three mills in use in milling gold ores, especially for quartz<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>which is not lacking in metal. </s> <s>They are not all turned by water-power, <lb/>but some by the strength of men, and two of them even by the power <lb/>of beasts of burden. </s> <s>The first revolving one differs from the next only <lb/>in its driving wheel, which is closed in and turned by men treading it, or by <lb/>horses, which are placed inside, or by asses, or even by strong goats; the <lb/>eyes of these beasts are covered by linen bands. </s> <s>The second mill, both <lb/>when pushed and turned round, differs from the two above by having an <lb/>upright axle in the place of the horizontal one; this axle has at its lower end <lb/>a disc, which two workmen turn by treading back its cleats with their feet, <lb/>though frequently one man sustains all the labour; or sometimes there <lb/>projects from the axle a pole which is turned by a horse or an ass, for which <lb/>reason it is called an <emph type="italics"/>asinaria.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The toothed drum which is at the upper end <lb/>of the axle turns the drum which is made of rundles, and together with it the <lb/>millstone.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The third mill is turned round and round, and not pushed by hand; but <lb/>between this and the others there is a great distinction, for the lower <lb/>millstone is so shaped at the top that it can hold within it the upper mill­<lb/>stone, which revolves around an iron axle; this axle is fastened in the <lb/>centre of the lower stone and passes through the upper stone. </s> <s>A workman, <lb/>by grasping in his hand an upright iron bar placed in the upper millstone, <lb/>moves it round. </s> <s>The middle of the upper millstone is bored through, and <lb/>the ore, being thrown into this opening, falls down upon the lower millstone <lb/>and is there ground to powder, which gradually runs out through its opening; <lb/>it is washed by various methods before it is mixed with quicksilver, <lb/>which I will explain presently.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some people build a machine which at one and the same time can crush, <lb/>grind, cleanse, and wash the gold ore, and mix the gold with quicksilver. <lb/></s> <s>This machine has one water-wheel, which is turned by a stream striking its <lb/>buckets; the main axle on one side of the water-wheel has long cams, which <lb/>raise the stamps that crush the dry ore. </s> <s>Then the crushed ore is thrown <lb/>into the hopper of the upper millstone, and gradually falling through the <lb/>opening, is ground to powder. </s> <s>The lower millstone is square, but has a round <lb/>depression in which the round, upper millstone turns, and it has an outlet <lb/>from which the powder falls into the first tub. </s> <s>A vertical iron axle is dove­<lb/>tailed into a cross-piece, which is in turn fixed into the upper millstone; <lb/>the upper pinion of this axle is held in a bearing fixed in a beam; the drum <lb/>of the vertical axle is made of rundles, and is turned by the toothed drum <lb/>on the main axle, and thus turns the millstone. </s> <s>The powder falls continually <lb/>into the first tub, together with water, and from there runs into a second tub <lb/>which is set lower down, and out of the second into a third, which is the <lb/>lowest; from the third, it generally flows into a small trough hewn out of a </s></p><pb pagenum="296"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FIRST MILL. B—WHEEL TURNED BY GOATS. C—SECOND MILL. D—DISC OF <lb/>UPRIGHT AXLE. E—ITS TOOTHED DRUM. F—THIRD MILL. G—SHAPE OF LOWER <lb/>MILLSTONE. H—SMALL UPRIGHT AXLE OF THE SAME. I—ITS OPENING. K—LEVER <lb/>OF THE UPPER MILLSTONE. L—ITS OPENING.<pb pagenum="297"/>tree trunk. </s> <s>Quicksilver<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/> is placed in each tub, across which is fixed a small <lb/>plank, and through a hole in the middle of each plank there passes a small <lb/>upright axle, which is enlarged above the plank to prevent it from dropping <lb/>into the tub lower than it should. </s> <s>At the lower end of the axle three sets <lb/>of paddles intersect, each made from two little boards fixed to the axle <lb/>opposite each other. </s> <s>The upper end of this axle has a pinion held by a <lb/>bearing set in a beam, and around each of these axles is a small drum made <lb/>of rundles, each of which is turned by a small toothed drum on a horizontal <pb pagenum="298"/>axle, one end of which is mortised into the large horizontal axle, and the <lb/>other end is held in a hollow covered with thick iron plates in a beam. </s> <s>Thus <lb/>the paddles, of which there are three sets in each tub, turn round, and <lb/>agitating the powder, thoroughly mix it with water and separate the minute <lb/>particles of gold from it, and these are attracted by the quicksilver and <lb/>purified. </s> <s>The water carries away the waste. </s> <s>The quicksilver is poured <lb/>into a bag made of leather or cloth woven from cotton, and when this bag is <lb/>squeezed, as I have described elsewhere, the quicksilver drips through it into <lb/>a jar placed underneath. </s> <s>The pure gold<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/> remains in the bag. </s> <s>Some people <lb/>substitute three broad sluices for the tubs, each of which has an angular axle <lb/>on which are set six narrow spokes, and to them are fixed the same number of <lb/>broad paddles; the water that is poured in strikes these paddles and turns <lb/>them round, and they agitate the powder which is mixed with the water and <lb/>separate the metal from it. </s> <s>If the powder which is being treated contains <lb/>gold particles, the first method of washing is far superior, because the quick­<lb/>silver in the tubs immediately attracts the gold; if it is powder in which <lb/>are the small black stones from which tin is smelted, this latter method is <lb/>not to be despised. </s> <s>It is very advantageous to place interlaced fir boughs <lb/>in the sluices in which such tin-stuff is washed, after it has run through the <lb/>launders from the mills, because the fine tin-stone is either held back by the <lb/>twigs, or if the current carries them along they fall away from the water <lb/>and settle down.</s></p><pb pagenum="299"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WATER-WHEEL. B—AXLE. C—STAMP. D—HOPPER IN THE UPPER MILLSTONE. <lb/>E—OPENING PASSING THROUGH THE CENTRE. F—LOWER MILLSTONE. G—ITS <lb/>ROUND DEPRESSION. H—ITS OUTLET. I—IRON AXLE. K—ITS CROSSPIECE. L—BEAM. <lb/>M—DRUM OF RUNDLES ON THE IRON AXLE. N—TOOTHED DRUM OF MAIN AXLE. O—TUBS. <lb/>P—THE SMALL PLANKS. Q—SMALL UPRIGHT AXLES. R—ENLARGED PART OF ONE. <lb/><gap/></s></p><pb pagenum="300"/><p type="main"> <s>Seven methods of washing are in common use for the ores of many <lb/>metals; for they are washed either in a simple buddle, or in a divided buddle, <lb/>or in an ordinary strake, or in a large tank, or in a short strake, or in a canvas <lb/>strake, or in a jigging sieve. </s> <s>Other methods of washing are either peculiar <lb/>to some particular metal, or are combined with the method of crushing wet <lb/>ore by stamps.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>A simple buddle is made in the following way. </s> <s>In the first place, the head <lb/>is higher than the rest of the buddle, and is three feet long and a foot and a half <lb/>broad; this head is made of planks laid upon a timber and fastened, and <lb/>on both sides, side-boards are set up so as to hold the water, which flows in <lb/>through a pipe or trough, so that it shall fall straight down. </s> <s>The middle of <lb/>the head is somewhat depressed in order that the broken rock and the larger <lb/>metallic particles may settle into it. </s> <s>The buddle is sunk into the earth to a <lb/>depth of three-quarters of a foot below the head, and is twelve feet long and <lb/>a foot and a half wide and deep; the bottom and each side are lined with <lb/>planks to prevent the earth, when it is softened by the water, from falling <lb/>in or from absorbing the metallic particles. </s> <s>The lower end of the buddle is <lb/>obstructed by a board, which is not as high as the sides. </s> <s>To this straight <lb/>buddle there is joined a second transverse buddle, six feet long and a foot <lb/>and a half wide and deep, similarly lined with planks; at the lower <pb pagenum="301"/>end it is closed up with a board, also lower than the sides of the buddle so <lb/>that the water can flow away: this water falls into a launder and is carried <lb/>outside the building. </s> <s>In this simple buddle is washed the metallic material <lb/>which has passed on to the floor of the works through the five large sieves. <lb/></s> <s>When this has been gathered into a heap, the washer throws it into the head <lb/>of the buddle, and water is poured upon it through the pipe or small trough, <lb/>and the portion which sinks and settles in the middle of the head compart­<lb/>ment he stirs with a wooden scrubber,—this is what we will henceforth call <lb/>the implement made of a stick to which is fixed a piece of wood a foot long <lb/>and a palm broad. </s> <s>The water is made turbid by this stirring, and carries <lb/>the mud and sand and small particles of metal into the buddle below. <lb/></s> <s>Together with the broken rock, the larger metallic particles remain in the <lb/>head compartment, and when these have been removed, boys throw them upon <lb/>the platform of a washing tank or the short strake, and separate them from <lb/>the broken rock. </s> <s>When the buddle is full of mud and sand, the washer closes <lb/>the pipe through which the water flows into the head; very soon the <lb/>water which remains in the buddle flows away, and when this has taken </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEAD OF BUDDLE. B—PIPE. C—BUDDLE. D—BOARD. E—TRANSVERSE BUDDLE. <lb/>F—SHOVEL. G—SCRUBBER.<pb pagenum="302"/>place, he removes with a shovel the mud and sand which are mixed with <lb/>minute particles of metal, and washes them on a canvas strake. </s> <s>Sometimes <lb/>before the buddles have been filled full, the boys throw the material into a <lb/>bowl and carry it to the strakes and wash it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Pulverized ore is washed in the head of this kind of a buddle; but usually <lb/>when tin-stone is washed in it, interlacing fir boughs are put into the buddle, in <lb/>the same manner as in the sluice when wet ore is crushed with stamps. </s> <s>The <lb/>larger tin-stone particles, which sink in the upper part of the buddle, <lb/>are washed separately in a strake; those particles which are of medium <lb/>size, and settle in the middle part, are washed separately in the same way; <lb/>and the mud mixed with minute particles of tin-stone, which has settled in <lb/>the lowest part of the buddle below the fir boughs, is washed separately on <lb/>the canvas strakes.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The divided buddle differs from the last one by having several cross­<lb/>boards, which, being placed inside it, divide it off like steps; if the buddle <lb/>is twelve feet long, four of them are placed within; if nine feet long, three. <lb/></s> <s>The nearer each one is to the head, the greater is its height; the further from <lb/>the head, the lower it is; and so when the highest is a foot and a palm high, </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—PIPE. B—CROSS LAUNDER. C—SMALL TROUGHS. D—HEAD OF THE BUDDLE. <lb/>E—WOODEN SCRUBBER. F—DIVIDING BOARDS. G—SHORT STRAKE.<pb pagenum="303"/>the second is usually a foot and three digits high, the third a foot and two <lb/>digits, and the lowest a foot and one digit. </s> <s>In this buddle is generally washed <lb/>that metalliferous material which has been sifted through the large sieve <lb/>into the tub containing water. </s> <s>This material is continuously thrown with <lb/>an iron shovel into the head of the buddle, and the water which has been <lb/>let in is stirred up by a wooden scrubber, until the buddle is full, then the <lb/>cross-boards are taken out by the washer, and the water is drained off; next <lb/>the metalliferous material which has settled in the compartments is again <lb/>washed, either on a short strake or on the canvas strakes or in the jigging <lb/>sieves. </s> <s>Since a short strake is often united with the upper part of this buddle, <lb/>a pipe in the first place carries the water into a cross launder, from which it <lb/>flows down through one little launder into the buddle, and through another <lb/>into the short strake.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>An ordinary strake, so far as the planks are concerned, is not unlike the <lb/>last two. </s> <s>The head of this, as of the others, is first made of earth stamped <lb/>down, then covered with planks; and where it is necessary, earth is <lb/>thrown in and beaten down a second time, so that no crevice may remain <lb/>through which water carrying the particles of metal can escape. </s> <s>The water <lb/>ought to fall straight down into the strake, which has a length of eight feet </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEAD B—STRAKE. C—TROWEL. D—SCRUBBER. E—CANVAS F—ROD BY <lb/>WHICH THE CANVAS IS MADE SMOOTH.<pb pagenum="304"/>and a breadth of a foot and a half; it is connected with a transverse launder, <lb/>which then extends to a settling pit outside the building. </s> <s>A boy with <lb/>a shovel or a ladle takes the impure concentrates or impure tin-stone from a <lb/>heap, and throws them into the head of the strake or spreads them over it. <lb/></s> <s>A washer with a wooden scrubber then agitates them in the strake, whereby <lb/>the mud mixed with water flows away into the transverse launder, and the <lb/>concentrates or the tin-stone settle on the strake. </s> <s>Since sometimes the <lb/>concentrates or fine tin-stone flow down together with the mud into the <lb/>transverse launder, a second washer closes it, after a distance of about six feet, <lb/>with a cross-board and frequently stirs the mud with a shovel, in order that <lb/>when mixed with water it may flow out into the settling-pit; and there <lb/>remains in the launder only the concentrates or tin-stone. </s> <s>The tin-stuff <lb/>of Schlackenwald and Erbisdroff is washed in this kind of a strake once <lb/>or twice; those of Altenberg three or four times; those of Geyer often <lb/>seven times; for in the ore at Schlackenwald and Erbisdorff the tin-stone <lb/>particles are of a fair size, and are crushed with stamps; at Altenberg they <lb/>are of much smaller size, and in the broken ore at Geyer only a few particles <lb/>of tin-stone can be seen occasionally.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>This method of washing was first devised by the miners who treated <lb/>tin ore, whence it passed on from the works of the tin workers to those of the <lb/>silver workers and others; this system is even more reliable than <lb/>washing in jigging-sieves. </s> <s>Near this ordinary strake there is generally a <lb/>canvas strake.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In modern times two ordinary strakes, similarly made, are generally <lb/>joined together; the head of one is three feet distant from that of the other, <lb/>while the bodies are four feet distant from each other, and there is only one <lb/>cross launder under the two strakes. </s> <s>One boy shovels, from the heap into the <lb/>head of each, the concentrates or tin-stone mixed with mud. </s> <s>There are <lb/>two washers, one of whom sits at the right side of one strake, and the <lb/>other at the left of the other strake, and each pursues his task, using the <lb/>following sort of implement. </s> <s>Under each strake is a sill, from a socket in <lb/>which a round pole rises, and is held by half an iron ring in a beam of the <lb/>building, so that it may revolve; this pole is nine feet long and a palm <lb/>thick. </s> <s>Penetrating the pole is a small round piece of wood, three palms <lb/>long and as many digits thick, to which is affixed a small board two feet <lb/>long and five digits wide, in an opening of which one end of a small axle <lb/>revolves, and to this axle is fixed the handle of a little scrubber. </s> <s>The other <lb/>end of this axle turns in an opening of a second board, which is likewise fixed <lb/>to a small round piece of wood; this round piece, like the first one, is three <lb/>palms long and as many digits thick, and is used by the washer as a handle. <lb/></s> <s>The little scrubber is made of a stick three feet long, to the end of which is <lb/>fixed a small tablet of wood a foot long, six digits broad, and a digit and a <lb/>half thick. </s> <s>The washer constantly moves the handle of this implement <lb/>with one hand; in this way the little scrubber stirs the concentrates or <lb/>the fine tin-stone mixed with mud in the head of the strake, and the mud, on <lb/>being stirred, flows on to the strake. </s> <s>In the other hand he holds a second </s></p><pb pagenum="305"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—UPPER CROSS LAUNDER. B—SMALL LAUNDERS. C—HEADS OF STRAKES. <lb/>D—STRAKES. E—LOWER TRANSVERSE LAUNDER. F—SETTLING PIT. G—SOCKET <lb/>IN THE SILL. H—HALVED IRON RINGS FIXED TO BEAM. I—POLE. K—ITS LITTLE <lb/>SCRUBRER. L—SECOND SMALL SCRUBBER.<pb pagenum="306"/>little scrubber, which has a handle of half the length, and with this he cease­<lb/>lessly stirs the concentrates or tin-stone which have settled in the upper <lb/>part of the strake; in this way the mud and water flow down into the <lb/>transverse launder, and from it into the settling-pit which is outside the <lb/>building.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Before the short strake and the jigging-sieve had been invented, metallifer­<lb/>ous ores, especially tin, were crushed dry with stamps and washed in a large <lb/>trough hollowed out of one or two tree trunks; and at the head of this trough <lb/>was a platform, on which the ore was thrown after being completely crushed. <lb/></s> <s>The washer pulled it down into the trough with a wooden scrubber which <lb/>had a long handle, and when the water had been let into the trough, he stirred <lb/>the ore with the same scrubber.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TROUGH. B—PLATFORM. C—WOODEN SCRUBBER.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The short strake is narrow in the upper part where the water flows down <lb/>into it through the little launder; in fact it is only two feet wide; at the lower <lb/>end it is wider, being three feet and as many palms. </s> <s>At the sides, which are <lb/>six feet long, are fixed boards two palms high. </s> <s>In other respects the head <lb/>resembles the head of the simple buddle, except that it is not depressed in the <lb/>middle. </s> <s>Beneath is a cross launder closed by a low board. </s> <s>In this short <lb/>strake not only is ore agitated and washed with a wooden scrubber, but boys <pb pagenum="307"/>also separate the concentrates from the broken rock in them and collect them <lb/>in tubs. </s> <s>The short strake is now rarely employed by miners, owing to the <lb/>carelessness of the boys, which has been frequently detected; for this <lb/>reason, the jigging-sieve has taken its place. </s> <s>The mud which settles in the <lb/>launder, if the ore is rich, is taken up and washed in a jigging-sieve or on a <lb/>canvas strake.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SHORT STRAKE. B—SMALL LAUNDER. C—TRANSVERSE LAUNDER. D—WOODEN <lb/>SCRUBBER.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>A canvas strake is made in the following way. </s> <s>Two beams, eighteen feet <lb/>long and half a foot broad and three palms thick, are placed on a slope; one <lb/>half of each of these beams is partially cut away lengthwise, to allow the ends <lb/>of planks to be fastened in them, for the bottom is covered by planks three <lb/>feet long, set crosswise and laid close together. </s> <s>One half of each supporting <lb/>beam is left intact and rises a palm above the planks, in order that the water <lb/>that is running down may not escape at the sides, but shall flow straight <lb/>down. </s> <s>The head of the strake is higher than the rest of the body, and slopes <lb/>so as to enable the water to flow away. </s> <s>The whole strake is covered by six <lb/>stretched pieces of canvas, smoothed with a stick. </s> <s>The first of them occupies <lb/>the lowest division, and the second is so laid as to slightly overlap it; on </s></p><pb pagenum="308"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BEAMS. B—CANVAS. C—HEAD OF STRAKE. D—SMALL LAUNDER. E—SETTLING <lb/>PIT OR TANK. F—WOODEN SCRUBBER. G—TUBS.<lb/>the second division, the third is similarly laid, and so on, one on the other. <lb/></s> <s>If they are laid in the opposite way, the water flowing down carries the <lb/>concentrates or particles of tin-stone under the canvas, and a useless task <lb/>is attempted. </s> <s>Boys or men throw the concentrates or tin-stuff mixed with <lb/>mud into the head of the strake, after the canvas has been thus stretched, <lb/>and having opened the small launder they let the water flow in; then <lb/>they stir the concentrates or tin-stone with a wooden scrubber till the water <lb/>carries them all on to the canvas; next they gently sweep the linen with <lb/>the wooden scrubber until the mud flows into the settling-pit or into the <lb/>transverse launder. </s> <s>As soon as there is little or no mud on the canvas, but <lb/>only concentrates or tin-stone, they carry the canvas away and wash it in a <lb/>tub placed close by. </s> <s>The tin-stone settles in the tub, and the men return <lb/>immediately to the same task. </s> <s>Finally, they pour the water out of the tub, <lb/>and collect the concentrates or tin-stone. </s> <s>However, if either concentrates <lb/>or tin-stone have washed down from the canvas and settled in the settling­<lb/>pit or in the transverse launder, they wash the mud again.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some neither remove the canvas nor wash it in the tubs, but place over <pb pagenum="309"/>it on each edge narrow strips, of no great thickness, and fix them to the beams <lb/>with nails. </s> <s>They agitate the metalliferous material with wooden scrubbers <lb/>and wash it in a similar way. </s> <s>As soon as little or no mud remains on the <lb/>canvas, but only concentrates or fine tin-stone, they lift one beam so that <lb/>the whole strake rests on the other, and dash it with water, which has been <lb/>drawn with buckets out of the small tank, and in this way all the sediment <lb/>which clings to the canvas falls into the trough placed underneath. </s> <s>This <lb/>trough is hewn out of a tree and placed in a ditch dug in the ground; the <lb/>interior of the trough is a foot wide at the top, but narrower in the bottom, <lb/>because it is rounded out. </s> <s>In the middle of this trough they put a cross­<lb/>board, in order that the fairly large particles of concentrates or fairly large­<lb/>sized tin-stone may remain in the forepart into which they have fallen, and <lb/>the fine concentrates or fine tin-stone in the lower part, for the water flows <lb/>from one into the other, and at last flows down through an opening into the <lb/>pit. </s> <s>As for the fairly large-sized concentrates or tin-stone which have been <lb/>removed from the trough, they are washed again on the ordinary strake. </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CANVAS STRAKE. B—MAN DASHING WATER ON THE CANVAS. C—BUCKET. <lb/>D—BUCKET OF ANOTHER KIND. E—MAN REMOVING CONCENTRATES OR TIN-STONE <lb/>FROM THE TROUGH.<pb pagenum="310"/>The fine concentrates and fine tin-stone are washed again on this canvas <lb/>strake. </s> <s>By this method, the canvas lasts longer because it remains fixed, <lb/>and nearly double the work is done by one washer as quickly as can be done <lb/>by two washers by the other method.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The jigging sieve has recently come into use by miners. </s> <s>The <lb/>metalliferous material is thrown into it and sifted in a tub nearly full of water. <lb/></s> <s>The sieve is shaken up and down, and by this movement all the material <lb/>below the size of a pea passes through into the tub, and the rest remains on the <lb/>bottom of the sieve. </s> <s>This residue is of two kinds, the metallic particles, <lb/>which occupy the lower place, and the particles of rock and earth, which <lb/>take the higher place, because the heavy substance always settles, and the <lb/>light is borne upward by the force of the water. </s> <s>This light material is taken <lb/>away with a limp, which is a thin tablet of wood almost semicircular in <lb/>shape, three-quarters of a foot long, and half a foot wide. </s> <s>Before the <lb/>lighter portion is taken away the contents of the sieve are generally divided <lb/>crosswise with a limp, to enable the water to penetrate into it more quickly. <lb/></s> <s>Afterward fresh material is again thrown into the sieve and shaken up and <lb/>down, and when a great quantity of metallic particles have settled in the sieve, <lb/>they are taken out and put into a tray close by. </s> <s>But since there fall into <lb/>the tub with the mud, not only particles of gold or silver, but also of sand, <lb/>pyrites, <emph type="italics"/>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"/> galena, quartz, and other substances, and since the <lb/>water cannot separate these from the metallic particles because they are all <lb/>heavy, this muddy mixture is washed a second time, and the part which is <lb/>useless is thrown away. </s> <s>To prevent the sieve passing this sand again too <lb/>quickly, the washer lays small stones or gravel in the bottom of the sieve. <lb/></s> <s>However, if the sieve is not shaken straight up and down, but is tilted to one <lb/>side, the small stones or broken ore move from one part to another, and the <lb/>metallic material again falls into the tub, and the operation is frustrated. <lb/></s> <s>The miners of our country have made an even finer sieve, which does not <lb/>fail even with unskilled washers; in washing with this sieve they have no <lb/>need for the bottom to be strewn with small stones. </s> <s>By this method the mud <lb/>settles in the tub with the very fine metallic particles, and the larger sizes of <lb/>metal remain in the sieve and are covered with the valueless sand, and this <lb/>is taken away with a limp. </s> <s>The concentrates which have been collected <lb/>are smelted together with other things. </s> <s>The mud mixed with the very fine <lb/>metallic particles is washed for a third time and in the finest sieve, whose <lb/>bottom is woven of hair. </s> <s>If the ore is rich in metal, all the material which <lb/>has been removed by the limp is washed on the canvas strakes, or if the ore <lb/>is poor it is thrown away.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I have explained the methods of washing which are used in common for <lb/>the ores of many metals. </s> <s>I now come to another method of crushing ore, <lb/>for I ought to speak of this before describing those methods of washing which <lb/>are peculiar to ores of particular metals.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the year 1512, George, the illustrious Duke of Saxony<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/>, gave the over­</s></p><pb pagenum="311"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FINE SIEVES. B—LIMP. C—FINER SIEVE. D—FINEST SIEVE<pb pagenum="312"/>lordship of all the dumps ejected from the mines in Meissen to the noble <lb/>and wise Sigismund Maltitz, father of John, Bishop of Meissen. </s> <s>Reject­<lb/>ing the dry stamps, the large sieve, and the stone mills of Dippolds­<lb/>walde and Altenberg, in which places are dug the small black stones <lb/>from which tin is smelted, he invented a machine which could crush the ore <lb/>wet under iron-shod stamps. </s> <s>That is called “wet ore” which is softened by <lb/>water which flows into the mortar box, and they are sometimes called “wet <lb/>stamps” because they are drenched by the same water; and on the other hand, the <lb/>other kinds are called “dry stamps” or “dry ore,” because no water is used <lb/>to soften the ore when the stamps are crushing. </s> <s>But to return to our subject. <lb/></s> <s>This machine is not dissimilar to the one which crushes the ore with dry <lb/>iron-shod stamps, but the heads of the wet stamps are larger by half than the <lb/>heads of the others. </s> <s>The mortar-box, which is made of oak or beech timber, is <lb/>set up in the space between the upright posts; it does not open in front, but <lb/>at one end, and it is three feet long, three-quarters of a foot wide, and one foot <lb/>and six digits deep. </s> <s>If it has no bottom, it is set up in the same way over a <lb/>slab of hard, smooth rock placed in the ground, which has been dug down a <lb/>little. </s> <s>The joints are stopped up all round with moss or cloth rags. </s> <s>If <lb/>the mortar has a bottom, then an iron sole-plate, three feet long, three­<lb/>quarters of a foot wide, and a palm thick, is placed in it. </s> <s>In the opening <lb/>in the end of the mortar there is fixed an iron plate full of holes, in such a <lb/>way that there is a space of two digits between it and the shoe of the nearest <lb/>stamp, and the same distance between this screen and the upright post, in <lb/>an opening through which runs a small but fairly long launder. </s> <s>The crushed <lb/>particles of silver ore flow through this launder with the water into a settling­<lb/>pit, while the material which settles in the launder is removed with an iron <lb/>shovel to the nearest planked floor; that material which has settled in the <lb/>pit is removed with an iron shovel on to another floor. </s> <s>Most people make <lb/>two launders, in order that while the workman empties one of them of the <lb/>accumulation which has settled in it, a fresh deposit may be settling in the <lb/>other. </s> <s>The water flows in through a small launder at the other end of the <lb/>mortar that is near the water-wheel which turns the machine. </s> <s>The workman <lb/>throws the ore to be crushed into the mortar in such a way that the pieces, <lb/>when they are thrown in among the stamps, do not impede the work. </s> <s>By <lb/>this method a silver or gold ore is crushed very fine by the stamps.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When tin ore is crushed by this kind of iron-shod stamps, as soon as <lb/>crushing begins, the launder which extends from the screen discharges the <lb/>water carrying the fine tin-stone and fine sand into a transverse trough, <lb/>from which the water flows down through the spouts, which pierce the side of <lb/>the trough, into the one or other of the large buddles set underneath. </s> <s>The <lb/>reason why there are two is that, while the washer empties the one which is <lb/>filled with fine tin-stone and sand, the material may flow into the other. <lb/></s> <s>Each buddle is twelve feet long, one cubit deep, and a foot and a half broad. <lb/></s> <s>The tin-stone which settles in the upper part of the buddles is called the <lb/>large size; these are frequently stirred with a shovel, in order that the <lb/>medium sized particles of tin-stone, and the mud mixed with the very fine </s></p><pb pagenum="313"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—MORTAR. B—OPEN END OF MORTAR. C—SLAB OF ROCK. D—IRON SOLE PLATES. <lb/>E—SCREEN. F—LAUNDER. G—WOODEN SHOVEL. H—SETTLING PIT. I—IRON <lb/>SHOVEL. K—HEAP OF MATERIAL WHICH HAS SETTLED. L—ORE WHICH REQUIRES <lb/>CRUSHING. M—SMALL LAUNDER.<pb pagenum="314"/>particles of the stones may flow away. </s> <s>The particles of medium size generally <lb/>settle in the middle part of the buddle, where they are arrested by interwoven <lb/>fir twigs. </s> <s>The mud which flows down with the water settles between the <lb/>twigs and the board which closes the lower end of the buddle. </s> <s>The tin-stone <lb/>of large size is removed separately from the buddle with a shovel; those <lb/>of medium size are also removed separately, and likewise the mud is removed <lb/>separately, for they are separately washed on the canvas strakes and on <lb/>the ordinary strake, and separately roasted and smelted. </s> <s>The tin-stone <lb/>which has settled in the middle part of the buddle, is also always washed <lb/>separately on the canvas strakes; but if the particles are nearly equal in size <lb/>to those which have settled in the upper part of the buddle, they are washed <lb/>with them in the ordinary strake and are roasted and smelted with them. <lb/></s> <s>However, the mud is never washed with the others, either on the canvas <lb/>strakes or on the ordinary strake, but separately, and the fine tin-stone which <lb/>is obtained from it is roasted and smelted separately. </s> <s>The two large buddles <lb/>discharge into a cross trough, and it again empties through a launder into <lb/>a settling-pit which is outside the building.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LAUNDER REACHING TO THE SCREEN. B—TRANSVERSE TROUGH. C—SPOUTS. <lb/>D—LARGE BUDDLES. E—SHOVEL. F—INTERWOVEN TWIGS. G—BOARDS CLOSING <lb/>THE BUDDLES. H—CROSS TROUGH.</s></p><pb pagenum="315"/><p type="main"> <s>This method of washing has lately undergone a considerable change; for <lb/>the launder which carries the water, mixed with the crushed tin-stone and <lb/>fine sand which flow from the openings of the screen, does not reach to a <lb/>transverse trough which is inside the same room, but runs straight through <lb/>a partition into a small settling-pit. </s> <s>A boy draws a three-toothed rake <lb/>through the material which has settled in the portion of the launder outside <lb/>the room, by which means the larger sized particles of tin-stone settle at the <lb/>bottom, and these the washer takes out with the wooden shovel and carries <lb/>into the room; this material is thrown into an ordinary strake and swept <lb/>with a wooden scrubber and washed. </s> <s>As for those tin-stone particles which <lb/>the water carries off from the strake, after they have been brought back on to <lb/>the strake, he washes them again until they are clean.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The remaining tin-stone, mixed with sand, flows into the small settling-pit <lb/>which is within the building, and this discharges into two large buddles. </s> <s>The <lb/>tin-stone of moderate size, mixed with those of fairly large size, settle in the <lb/>upper part, and the small size in the lower part; but both are impure, and <lb/>for this reason they are taken out separately and the former is washed twice, </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FIRST LAUNDER. B—THREE-TOOTHED RAKE. C—SMALL SETTLING PIT. D—LARGE <lb/>BUDDLE. E—BUDDLE RESEMBLING THE SIMPLE BUDDLE. F—SMALL ROLLER. </s> <s>G— <lb/>BOARDS. H—THEIR HOLES. I—SHOVEL. K—BUILDING. L—STOVE. (THIS PICTURE <lb/>DOES NOT ENTIRELY AGREE WITH THE TEXT).<pb pagenum="316"/>first in a buddle like the simple buddle, and afterward on an ordinary <lb/>strake. </s> <s>Likewise the latter is washed twice, first on a canvas strake and <lb/>afterward on an ordinary strake. </s> <s>This buddle, which is like the simple <lb/>buddle, differs from it in the head, the whole of which in this case is sloping, <lb/>while in the case of the other it is depressed in the centre. </s> <s>In order that the <lb/>boy may be able to rest the shovel with which he cleanses the tin-stone, <lb/>this sluice has a small wooden roller which turns in holes in two thick <lb/>boards fixed to the sides of the buddle; if he did not do this, he would become <lb/>over-exhausted by his task, for he spends whole days standing over these <lb/>labours. </s> <s>The large buddle, the one like the simple buddle, the ordinary <lb/>strake, and the canvas strakes, are erected within a special building. </s> <s>In <lb/>this building there is a stove that gives out heat through the earthen tiles <lb/>or iron plates of which it is composed, in order that the washers can pursue <lb/>their labours even in winter, if the rivers are not completely frozen over.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>On the canvas strakes are washed the very fine tin-stone mixed with <lb/>mud which has settled in the lower end of the large buddle, as well as <lb/>in the lower end of the simple buddle and of the ordinary strake. </s> <s>The canvas <lb/>is cleaned in a trough hewn out of one tree trunk and partitioned off with <lb/>two boards, so that three compartments are made. </s> <s>The first and second pieces <lb/>of canvas are washed in the first compartment, the third and fourth in the <lb/>second compartment, the fifth and sixth in the third compartment. </s> <s>Since <lb/>among the very fine tin-stone there are usually some grains of stone, rock, <lb/>or marble, the master cleanses them on the ordinary strake, lightly brushing <lb/>the top of the material with a broom, the twigs of which do not all run the <lb/>same way, but some straight and some crosswise. </s> <s>In this way the water <lb/>carries off these impurities from the strake into the settling-pit because they <lb/>are lighter, and leaves the tin-stone on the table because it is heavier.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Below all buddles or strakes, both inside and outside the building, there <lb/>are placed either settling-pits or cross-troughs into which they discharge, <lb/>in order that the water may carry on down into the stream but very few <lb/>of the most minute particles of tin-stone. </s> <s>The large settling-pit which is <lb/>outside the building is generally made of joined flooring, and is eight feet in <lb/>length, breadth and depth. </s> <s>When a large quantity of mud, mixed with <lb/>very fine tin-stone, has settled in it, first of all the water is let out by with­<lb/>drawing a plug, then the mud which is taken out is washed outside the house <lb/>on the canvas strakes, and afterward the concentrates are washed on the <lb/>strake which is inside the building. </s> <s>By these methods the very finest tin­<lb/>stone is made clean.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The mud mixed with the very fine tin-stone, which has neither settled <lb/>in the large settling-pit nor in the transverse launder which is outside the <lb/>room and below the canvas strakes, flows away and settles in the bed of the <lb/>stream or river. </s> <s>In order to recover even a portion of the fine tin-stone, <lb/>many miners erect weirs in the bed of the stream or river, very much like <lb/>those that are made above the mills, to deflect the current into the races <lb/>through which it flows to the water-wheels. </s> <s>At one side of each weir there <lb/>is an area dug out to a depth of five or six or seven feet, and if the nature of </s></p><pb pagenum="317"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LAUNDER FROM THE SCREEN OF THE MORTAR-BOX. B—THREE-TOOTHED RAKE. <lb/>C—SMALI. SETTLING-PIT. D—CANVAS. E—STRAKES. F—BROOMS.<pb pagenum="318"/>the place will permit, extending in every direction more than sixty feet. <lb/></s> <s>Thus, when the water of the river or stream in autumn and winter inundates <lb/>the land, the gates of the weir are closed, by which means the current carries <lb/>the mud mixed with fine tin-stone into the area. </s> <s>In spring and summer <lb/>this mud is washed on the canvas strakes or on the ordinary strake, and <lb/>even the finest black-tin is collected. </s> <s>Within a distance of four thousand <lb/>fathoms along the bed of the stream or river below the buildings in which <lb/>the tin-stuff is washed, the miners do not make such weirs, but put inclined <lb/>fences in the meadows, and in front of each fence they dig a ditch of the <lb/>same length, so that the mud mixed with the fine tin-stone, carried along by the <lb/>stream or river when in flood, may settle in the ditch and cling to the fence. <lb/></s> <s>When this mud is collected, it is likewise washed on canvas strakes and on <lb/>the ordinary strake, in order that the fine tin-stone may be separated from <lb/>it. </s> <s>Indeed we may see many such areas and fences collecting mud of this <lb/>kind in Meissen below Altenberg in the river Moglitz,—which is always of a <lb/>reddish colour when the rock containing the black tin is being crushed under <lb/>the stamps.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—RIVER. B—WEIR. C—GATE. D—AREA. E—MEADOW. F—FENCE. G—DITCH.</s></p><pb pagenum="319"/><p type="main"> <s>But to return to the stamping machines. </s> <s>Some usually set up four <lb/>machines of this kind in one place, that is to say, two above and the same <lb/>number below. </s> <s>By this plan it is necessary that the current which has been <lb/>diverted should fall down from a greater height upon the upper water­<lb/>wheels, because these turn axles whose cams raise heavier stamps. </s> <s>The <lb/>stamp-stems of the upper machines should be nearly twice as long as the stems <lb/>of the lower ones, because all the mortar-boxes are placed on the same level. <lb/></s> <s>These stamps have their tappets near their upper ends, not as in the case of <lb/>the lower stamps, which are placed just above the bottom. </s> <s>The water flowing <lb/>down from the two upper water-wheels is caught in two broad races, from <lb/>which it falls on to the two lower water-wheels. </s> <s>Since all these machines <lb/>have the stamps very close together, the stems should be somewhat cut away, <lb/>to prevent the iron shoes from rubbing each other at the point where they are <lb/>set into the stems. </s> <s>Where so many machines cannot be constructed, by <lb/>reason of the narrowness of the valley, the mountain is excavated and <lb/>levelled in two places, one of which is higher than the other, and in this case <lb/>two machines are constructed and generally placed in one building. </s> <s>A <lb/>broad race receives in the same way the water which flows down from the <lb/>upper water-wheel, and similarly lets it fall on the lower water-wheel. </s> <s>The <lb/>mortar-boxes are not then placed on one level, but each on the level which <lb/>is appropriate to its own machine, and for this reason, two workmen are then <lb/>required to throw ore into the mortar-boxes. </s> <s>When no stream can be <lb/>diverted which will fall from a higher place upon the top of the water-wheel, <lb/>one is diverted which will turn the foot of the wheel; a great quantity of <lb/>water from the stream is collected in one pool capable of holding it, and <lb/>from this place, when the gates are raised, the water is discharged against <lb/>the wheel which turns in the race. </s> <s>The buckets of a water-wheel of this <lb/>kind are deeper and bent back, projecting upward; those of the former <lb/>are shallower and bent forward, inclining downward.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Further, in the Julian and Rhaetian Alps<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/> and in the Carpathian <lb/>Mountains, gold or even silver ore is now put under stamps, which are <lb/>sometimes placed more than twenty in a row, and crushed wet in a long mortar­<lb/>box. </s> <s>The mortar has two plates full of holes through which the ore, after <lb/>being crushed, flows out with the water into the transverse launder placed <lb/>underneath, and from there it is carried down by two spouts into the heads of <lb/>the canvas strakes. </s> <s>Each head is made of a thick broad plank, which can be <lb/>raised and set upright, and to which on each side are fixed pieces projecting <lb/>upward. </s> <s>In this plank there are many cup-like depressions equal in size and <lb/>similar in shape, in each of which an egg could be placed. </s> <s>Right down in <lb/>these depressions are small crevices which can retain the concentrates of gold <lb/>or silver, and when the hollows are nearly filled with these materials, the <lb/>plank is raised on one side so that the concentrates will fall into a large bowl. <lb/></s> <s>The cup-like depressions are washed out by dashing them with water. </s> <s>These </s></p><pb pagenum="320"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FIRST MACHINE. B—ITS STAMPS. C—ITS MORTAR-BOX. D—SECOND MACHINE. <lb/>E—ITS STAMPS. F—ITS MORTAR-BOX. G—THIRD MACHINE. H—ITS STAMPS. I—ITS <lb/>MORTAR-BOX. K—FOURTH MACHINE. L—ITS STAMPS. M—ITS MORTAR-BOX.<pb pagenum="321"/>concentrates are washed separately in different bowls from those which have <lb/>settled on the canvas. </s> <s>This bowl is smooth and two digits wide and deep, <lb/>being in shape very similar to a small boat; it is broad in the fore part, <lb/>narrow in the back, and in the middle of it there is a cross groove, in which <lb/>the particles of pure gold or silver settle, while the grains of sand, since they <lb/>are lighter, flow out of it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In some parts of Moravia, gold ore, which consists of quartz mixed with <lb/>gold, is placed under the stamps and crushed wet. </s> <s>When crushed fine it <lb/>flows out through a launder into a trough, is there stirred by a wooden <lb/>scrubber, and the minute particles of gold which settle in the upper end of <lb/>the trough are washed in a black bowl.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—STAMPS. B—MORTAR. C—PLATES FULL OF HOLES. D—TRANSVERSE LAUNDER. <lb/>E—PLANKS FULL OF CUP-LIKE DEPRESSIONS. F—SPOUT. G—BOWL INTO WHICH THE <lb/>CONCENTRATES FALL. H—CANVAS STRAKE. I—BOWLS SHAPED LIKE A SMALL BOAT. <lb/>K—SETTLING-PIT UNDER THE CANVAS STRAKE.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>So far I have spoken of machines which crush wet ore with iron-shod <lb/>stamps. </s> <s>I will now explain the methods of washing which are in a measure <lb/>peculiar to the ore of certain metals, beginning with gold. </s> <s>The ore which <lb/>contains particles of this metal, and the sand of streams and rivers which <pb pagenum="322"/>contains grains of it, are washed in frames or bowls; the sands especially <lb/>are also washed in troughs. </s> <s>More than one method is employed for washing <lb/>on frames, for these frames either pass or retain the particles or concentrates <lb/>of gold; they pass them if they have holes, and retain them if they have <lb/>no holes. </s> <s>But either the frame itself has holes, or a box is substituted for <lb/>it; if the frame itself is perforated it passes the particles or concentrates <lb/>of gold into a trough; if the box has them, it passes the gold material into <lb/>the long sluice. </s> <s>I will first speak of these two methods of washing. </s> <s>The <lb/>frame is made of two planks joined together, and is twelve feet long and <lb/>three feet wide, and is full of holes large enough for a pea to pass. </s> <s>To prevent <lb/>the ore or sand with which the gold is mixed from falling out at the sides, <lb/>small projecting edge-boards are fixed to it. </s> <s>This frame is set upon two <lb/>stools, the first of which is higher than the second, in order that the gravel <lb/>and small stones can roll down it. </s> <s>The washer throws the ore or sand into <lb/>the head of the frame, which is higher, and opening the small launder, lets <lb/>the water into it, and then agitates it with a wooden scrubber. </s> <s>In this way, <lb/>the gravel and small stones roll down the frame on to the ground, while the </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEAD OF FRAME. B—FRAME. C—HOLES. D—EDGE-BOARDS. E—STOOLS <lb/>F—SCRUBBER. G—TROUGH. H—LAUNDER. I—BOWL.<pb pagenum="323"/>particles or concentrates of gold, together with the sand, pass through the <lb/>holes into the trough which is placed under the frame, and after being <lb/>collected are washed in the bowl.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>A box which has a bottom made of a plate full of holes, is placed over <lb/>the upper end of a sluice, which is fairly long but of moderate width. </s> <s>The <lb/>gold material to be washed is thrown into this box, and a great quantity of <lb/>water is let in. </s> <s>The lumps, if ore is being washed, are mashed with an iron <lb/>shovel. </s> <s>The fine portions fall through the bottom of the box into the sluice, <lb/>but the coarse pieces remain in the box, and these are removed with a scraper <lb/>through an opening which is nearly in the middle of one side. </s> <s>Since a large <lb/>amount of water is necessarily let into the box, in order to prevent it from <lb/>sweeping away any particles of gold which have fallen into the sluice, the <lb/>sluice is divided off by ten, or if it is as long again, by fifteen riffles. </s> <s>These <lb/>riffles are placed equidistant from one another, and each is higher than the one <lb/>next toward the lower end of the sluice. </s> <s>The little compartments which are <lb/>thus made are filled with the material and the water which flows through </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SLUICE. B—BOX. C—BOTTOM OF INVERTED BOX. D—OPEN PART OF IT. E—IRON <lb/>HOE. F—RIFFLES. G—SMALL LAUNDER. H—BOWL WITH WHICH SETTLINGS ARE TAKEN <lb/>AWAY. I—BLACK BOWL IN WHICH THEY ARE WASHED.<pb pagenum="324"/>the box; as soon as these compartments are full and the water has begun <lb/>to flow over clear, the little launder through which this water enters into the <lb/>box is closed, and the water is turned in another direction. </s> <s>Then the <lb/>lowest riffle is removed from the sluice, and the sediment which has <lb/>accumulated flows out with the water and is caught in a bowl. </s> <s>The <lb/>riffles are removed one by one and the sediment from each is taken into a <lb/>separate bowl, and each is separately washed and cleansed in a bowl. </s> <s>The <lb/>larger particles of gold concentrates settle in the higher compartments, the <lb/>smaller size, in the lower compartments. </s> <s>This bowl is shallow and smooth, <lb/>and smeared with oil or some other slippery substance, so that the tiny particles <lb/>of gold may not cling to it, and it is painted black, that the gold may be more <lb/>easily discernible; on the exterior, on both sides and in the middle, it is <lb/>slightly hollowed out in order that it may be grasped and held firmly in the <lb/>hands when shaken. </s> <s>By this method the particles or concentrates of gold <lb/>settle in the back part of the bowl; for if the back part of the bowl is <lb/>tapped or shaken with one hand, as is usual, the contents move toward the <lb/>fore part. </s> <s>In this way the Moravians, especially, wash gold ore.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The gold particles are also caught on frames which are either bare or <lb/>covered. </s> <s>If bare, the particles are caught in pockets; if covered, they </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—PLANK. B—SIDE-BOARDS. C—IRON WIRE. D—HANDLES.<pb pagenum="325"/>cling to the coverings. </s> <s>Pockets are made in various ways, either with iron <lb/>wire or small cross-boards fixed to the frame, or by holes which are sunk <lb/>into the sluice itself or into its head, but which do not quite go through. <lb/></s> <s>These holes are round or square, or are grooves running crosswise. </s> <s>The <lb/>frames are either covered with skins, pieces of cloth, or turf, which I will <lb/>deal with one by one in turn.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In order to prevent the sand which contains the particles of gold from <lb/>spilling out, the washer fixes side-boards to the edges of a plank which is six <lb/>feet long and one and a quarter wide. </s> <s>He then lays crosswise many iron <lb/>wires a digit apart, and where they join he fixes them to the bottom plank <lb/>with iron nails. </s> <s>Then he makes the head of the frame higher, and into this <lb/>he throws the sand which needs washing, and taking in his hands the handles <lb/>which are at the head of the frame, he draws it backward and forward <lb/>several times in the river or stream. </s> <s>In this way the small stones and gravel <lb/>flow down along the frame, and the sand mixed with particles of gold remains <lb/>in the pockets between the strips. </s> <s>When the contents of the pockets have <lb/>been shaken out and collected in one place, he washes them in a bowl and <lb/>thus cleans the gold dust.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Other people, among whom are the Lusitanians<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/>, fix to the sides of a <lb/>sluice, which is about six feet long and a foot and a half broad, many cross­<lb/>strips or riffles, which project backward and are a digit apart. </s> <s>The washer <lb/>or his wife lets the water into the head of the sluice, where he throws the sand <lb/>which contains the particles of gold. </s> <s>As it flows down he agitates it with a <lb/>wooden scrubber, which he moves transversely to the riffles. </s> <s>He constantly <lb/>removes with a pointed wooden stick the sediment which settles in the pockets <lb/>between the riffles, and in this way the particles of gold settle in them, <lb/>while the sand and other valueless materials are carried by the water into a <lb/>tub placed below the sluice. </s> <s>He removes the particles of metal with a small <lb/>wooden shovel into a wooden bowl. </s> <s>This bowl does not exceed a foot and a <lb/>quarter in breadth, and by moving it up and down in the stream he cleanses <lb/>the gold dust, for the remaining sand flows out of the dish, and the gold dust <lb/>settles in the middle of it, where there is a cup-like depression. </s> <s>Some make <lb/>use of a bowl which is grooved inside like a shell, but with a smooth lip where <lb/>the water flows out. </s> <s>This smooth place, however, is narrower where the <lb/>grooves run into it, and broader where the water flows out.</s></p><pb pagenum="326"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEAD OF THE SLUICE. B—RIFFLES. C—WOODEN SCRUBBER. D—POINTED STICK. <lb/>E—DISH. F—ITS CUP-LIKE DEPRESSION. G—GROOVED DISH.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The cup-like pockets and grooves are cut or burned at the same time into <lb/>the bottom of the sluice; the bottom is composed of three planks ten feet <lb/>long, and is about four feet wide; but the lower end, through which the water <lb/>is discharged, is narrower. </s> <s>This sluice, which likewise has side-boards fixed <lb/>to its edges, is full of rounded pockets and of grooves which lead to them, <lb/>there being two grooves to one pocket, in order that the water mixed with <lb/>sand may flow into each pocket through the upper groove, and that after the <lb/>sand has partly settled, the water may again flow out through the lower <lb/>groove. </s> <s>The sluice is set in the river or stream or on the bank, and placed <lb/>on two stools, of which the first is higher than the second in order that the <lb/>gravel and small stones may roll down the sluice. </s> <s>The washer throws sand <lb/>into the head with a shovel, and opening the launder, lets in the water, which <lb/>carries the particles of metal with a little sand down into the pockets, while <lb/>the gravel and small stones with the rest of the sand falls into a tub placed <lb/>below the sluice. </s> <s>As soon as the pockets are filled, he brushes out the <lb/>concentrates and washes them in a bowl. </s> <s>He washes again and again <lb/>through this sluice.</s></p><pb pagenum="327"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEAD OF THE SLUICE. B—SIDE-BOARDS. C—LOWER END OF THE SLUICE. <lb/>D—POCKETS. E—GROOVES. F—STOOLS. G—SHOVEL. H—TUB SET BELOW. <lb/>I—LAUNDER.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some people cut a number of cross-grooves, one palm distant from each <lb/>other, in a sluice similarly composed of three planks eight feet long. </s> <s>The <lb/>upper edge of these grooves is sloping, that the particles of gold may slip into <lb/>them when the washer stirs the sand with a wooden shovel; but their lower <lb/>edge is vertical so that the gold particles may thus be unable to slide <lb/>out of them. </s> <s>As soon as these grooves are full of gold particles mixed <lb/>with fine sand, the sluice is removed from the stools and raised up on its <lb/>head. </s> <s>The head in this case is nothing but the upper end of the planks <lb/>of which the sluice is composed. </s> <s>In this way the metallic particles, being <lb/>turned over backward, fall into another tub, for the small stones and gravel <lb/>have rolled down the sluice. </s> <s>Some people place large bowls under the <lb/>sluice instead of tubs, and as in the other cases, the unclean concentrates are <lb/>washed in the small bowl.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The Thuringians cut rounded pockets, a digit in diameter and depth, in <lb/>the head of the sluice, and at the same time they cut grooves reaching from <lb/>one to another. </s> <s>The sluice itself they cover with canvas. </s> <s>The sand which </s></p><pb pagenum="328"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CROSS GROOVES. B—TUB SET UNDER THE SLUICE. C—ANOTHER TUB.<lb/>is to be washed, is thrown into the head and stirred with a wooden scrubber; <lb/>in this way the water carries the light particles of gold on to the canvas, <lb/>and the heavy ones sink in the pockets, and when these hollows are full, the <lb/>head is removed and turned over a tub, and the concentrates are collected <lb/>and washed in a bowl. </s> <s>Some people make use of a sluice which has square <lb/>pockets with short vertical recesses which hold the particles of gold. </s> <s>Other <lb/>workers use a sluice made of planks, which are rough by reason of the very <lb/>small shavings which still cling to them; these sluices are used instead of <lb/>those with coverings, of which this sluice is bare, and when the sand is washed, <lb/>the particles of gold cling no less to these shavings than to canvas, or skins, or <lb/>cloths, or turf. </s> <s>The washer sweeps the sluice upward with a broom, and <lb/>when he has washed as much of the sand as he wishes, he lets a more abundant <lb/>supply of water into the sluice again to wash out the concentrates, which he <lb/>collects in a tub set below the sluice, and then washes again in a bowl. </s> <s>Just <lb/>as Thuringians cover the sluice with canvas, so some people cover it with <lb/>the skins of oxen or horses. </s> <s>They push the auriferous sand upward with a <lb/>wooden scrubber, and by this system the light material flows away with the <lb/>water, while the particles of gold settle among the hairs; the skins are <lb/>afterward washed in a tub; and the concentrates are colleced in a bowl.</s></p><pb pagenum="329"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SLUICE COVERED WITH CANVAS. B—ITS HEAD FULL OF POCKETS AND GROOVES. <lb/>C—HEAD REMOVED AND WASHED IN A TUB. D—SLUICE WHICH HAS SQUARE POCKETS. <lb/>E—SLUICE TO WHOSE PLANKS SMALL SHAVINGS CLING. F—BROOM. G—SKINS OF OXEN. <lb/>H—WOODEN SCRUBBER.</s></p><pb pagenum="330"/><p type="main"> <s>The Colchians<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/> placed the skins of animals in the pools of springs; and <lb/>since many particles of gold had clung to them when they were removed, </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SPRING. B—SKIN. C—ARGONAUTS.<lb/>the poets invented the “golden fleece” of the Colchians. </s> <s>In like manner, <lb/>it can be contrived by the methods of miners that skins should take up, not <lb/>only particles of gold, but also of silver and gems.</s></p><pb pagenum="331"/><p type="main"> <s>Many people cover the frame with a green cloth as long and wide as the <lb/>frame itself, and fasten it with iron nails in such a way that they can easily </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEAD OF FRAME. B—FRAME. C—CLOTH. D—SMALL LAUNDER. E—TUB SET <lb/>BELOW THE FRAME. F—TUB IN WHICH CLOTH IS WASHED.<lb/>draw them out and remove the cloth. </s> <s>When the cloth appears to be golden <lb/>because of the particles which adhere to it, it is washed in a special tub and <lb/>the particles are collected in a bowl. </s> <s>The remainder which has run down into <lb/>the tub is again washed on the frame.</s></p><pb pagenum="332"/><p type="main"> <s>Some people, in place of a green cloth, use a cloth of tightly woven <lb/>horsehair, which has a rough knotty surface. </s> <s>Since these knots stand out </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CLOTH FULL OF SMALL KNOTS, SPREAD OUT. B—SMALL KNOTS MORE CONSPICUOUSLY <lb/>SHOWN. C—TUB IN WHICH CLOTH IS WASHED.<lb/>and the cloth is rough, even the very small particles of gold adhere to it; <lb/>these cloths are likewise washed in a tub with water.</s></p><pb pagenum="333"/><p type="main"> <s>Some people construct a frame not unlike the one covered with canvas, <lb/>but shorter. </s> <s>In place of the canvas they set pieces of turf in rows. </s> <s>They </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEAD OF FRAME. B—SMALL LAUNDER THROUGH WHICH WATER FLOWS INTO HEAD OF <lb/>FRAME. C—PIECES OF TURF. D—TROUGH PLACED UNDER FRAME. E—TUB IN WHICH <lb/>PIECES OF TURF ARE WASHED.<lb/>wash the sand, which has been thrown into the head of the frame, by letting <lb/>in water. </s> <s>In this way the particles of gold settle in the turf, the mud and <lb/>sand, together with the water, are carried down into the settling-pit or trough <lb/>below, which is opened when the work is finished. </s> <s>After all the water has <lb/>passed out of the settling-pit, the sand and mud are carried away and washed <lb/>over again in the same manner. </s> <s>The particles which have clung to the turf <lb/>are afterward washed down into the settling-pit or trough by a stronger <lb/>current of the water, which is let into the frame through a small launder. <lb/></s> <s>The concentrates are finally collected and washed in a bowl. </s> <s>Pliny was not <lb/>ignorant of this method of washing gold. </s> <s>“The ulex,” he says, “after being <lb/>dried, is burnt, and its ashes are washed over a grassy turf, that the gold <lb/>may settle on it.”</s></p><pb pagenum="334"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TRAY. B—BOWL-LIKE DEPRESSION. C—HANDLES.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Sand mixed with particles of gold is also washed in a tray, or in a trough <lb/>or bowl. </s> <s>The tray is open at the further end, is either hewn out of a <lb/>squared trunk of a tree or made out of a thick plank to which side-boards <lb/>are fixed, and is three feet long, a foot and a half wide, and three digits <lb/>deep. </s> <s>The bottom is hollowed out into the shape of an elongated bowl whose <lb/>narrow end is turned toward the head, and it has two long handles, by which <lb/>it is drawn backward and forward in the river. </s> <s>In this way the fine sand <lb/>is washed, whether it contains particles of gold or the little black stones from <lb/>which tin is made.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The Italians who come to the German mountains seeking gold, in order <lb/>to wash the river sand which contains gold-dust and garnets,<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/> use a fairly <lb/>long shallow trough hewn out of a tree, rounded within and without, open <lb/>at one end and closed at the other, which they turn in the bed of the stream <lb/>in such a way that the water does not dash into it, but flows in gently. <lb/></s> <s>They stir the sand, which they throw into it, with a wooden hoe, also <lb/>rounded. </s> <s>To prevent the particles of gold or garnets from running out with <lb/>the light sand, they close the end with a board similarly rounded, but lower <lb/>than the sides of the trough. </s> <s>The concentrates of gold or garnets which, </s></p><pb pagenum="335"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TROUGH. B—ITS OPEN END. C—END THAT MAY BE CLOSED. D—STREAM. <lb/>E—HOE. F—END-BOARD. G—BAG.<lb/>with a small quantity of heavy sand, have settled in the trough, they wash <lb/>in a bowl and collect in bags and carry away with them.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some people wash this kind of sand in a large bowl which can easily be <lb/>shaken, the bowl being suspended by two ropes from a beam in a building. <lb/></s> <s>The sand is thrown into it, water is poured in, then the bowl is shaken, and <lb/>the muddy water is poured out and clear water is again poured in, this being <lb/>done again and again. </s> <s>In this way, the gold particles settle in the back part <lb/>of the bowl because they are heavy, and the sand in the front part because it <lb/>is light; the latter is thrown away, the former kept for smelting. </s> <s>The one <lb/>who does the washing then returns immediately to his task. </s> <s>This method <lb/>of washing is rarely used by miners, but frequently by coiners and goldsmiths <lb/>when they wash gold, silver, or copper. </s> <s>The bowl they employ has only <lb/>three handles, one of which they grasp in their hands when they shake the <lb/>bowl, and in the other two is fastened a rope by which the bowl is hung from <lb/>a beam, or from a cross-piece which is upheld by the forks of two upright <lb/>posts fixed in the ground. </s> <s>Miners frequently wash ore in a small bowl to test </s></p><pb pagenum="336"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LARGE BOWL B—ROPES. C—BEAM. D—OTHER LARGE BOWL WHICH COINERS <lb/>USE. E—SMALL BOWL.<lb/>it. </s> <s>This bowl, when shaken, is held in one hand and thumped with the other <lb/>hand. </s> <s>In other respects this method of washing does not differ from the <lb/>last.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I have spoken of the various methods of washing sand which contains <lb/>grains of gold; I will now speak of the methods of washing the material in <lb/>which are mixed the small black stones from which tin is made<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>Eight <lb/>such methods are in use, and of these two have been invented lately. </s> <s>Such <lb/>metalliferous material is usually found torn away from veins and stringers <lb/>and scattered far and wide by the impetus of water, although sometimes <lb/><emph type="italics"/>venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> are composed of it. </s> <s>The miners dig out the latter material <lb/>with a broad mattock, while they dig the former with a pick. </s> <s>But they dig <lb/>out the little stones, which are not rare in this kind of ore, with an instrument <lb/>like the bill of a duck. </s> <s>In districts which contain this material, if there is <lb/>an abundant supply of water, and if there are valleys or gentle slopes and <lb/>hollows, so that rivers can be diverted into them, the washers in summer­</s></p><pb pagenum="337"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—STREAM. B—DITCH. C—MATTOCK. D—PIECES OF TURF. E—SEVEN-PRONGED FORK. <lb/>F—IRON SHOVEL. G—TROUGH. H—ANOTHER TROUGH BELOW IT. I—SMALL WOODEN TROWEL.<pb pagenum="338"/>time first of all dig a long ditch sloping so that the water will run through <lb/>it rapidly. </s> <s>Into the ditch is thrown the metallic material, together with the <lb/>surface material, which is six feet thick, more or less, and often contains moss, <lb/>roots of plants, shrubs, trees, and earth; they are all thrown in with a broad <lb/>mattock, and the water flows through the ditch. </s> <s>The sand and tin-stone, as <lb/>they are heavy, sink to the bottom of the ditch, while the moss and roots, as <lb/>they are light, are carried away by the water which flows through the ditch. <lb/></s> <s>The bottom of the ditch is obstructed with turf and stones in order to prevent <lb/>the water from carrying away the tin-stone at the same time. </s> <s>The washers, <lb/>whose feet are covered with high boots made of hide, though not of rawhide, <lb/>themselves stand in the ditch and throw out of it the roots of the trees, <lb/>shrubs, and grass with seven-pronged wooden forks, and push back the tin­<lb/>stone toward the head of the ditch. </s> <s>After four weeks, in which they have <lb/>devoted much work and labour, they raise the tin-stone in the following <lb/>way; the sand with which it is mixed is repeatedly lifted from the ditch </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TROUGH. B—WOODEN SHOVEL. C—TUB. D—LAUNDER. E—WOODEN TROWEL. <lb/>F—TRANSVERSE TROUGH. G—PLUG. H—FALLING WATER. I—DITCH. K—BARROW <lb/>CONVEYING MATERIAL TO BE WASHED. L—PICK LIKE THE BEAK OF A DUCK WITH WHICH <lb/>THE MINER DIGS OUT THE MATERIAL FROM WHICH THE SMALL STONES ARE OBTAINED.<pb pagenum="339"/>with an iron shovel and agitated hither and thither in the water, until the <lb/>sand flows away and only the tin-stone remains on the shovel. </s> <s>The tin­<lb/>stone is all collected together and washed again in a trough by pushing it <lb/>up and turning it over with a wooden trowel, in order that the remaining <lb/>sand may separate from it. </s> <s>Afterward they return to their task, which they <lb/>continue until the metalliferous material is exhausted, or until the water can <lb/>no longer be diverted into the ditches.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The trough which I mentioned is hewn out of the trunk of a tree and the <lb/>interior is five feet long, three-quarters of a foot deep, and six digits wide. <lb/></s> <s>It is placed on an incline and under it is put a tub which contains interwoven <lb/>fir twigs, or else another trough is put under it, the interior of which is three <lb/>feet long and one foot wide and deep; the fine tin-stone, which has run out <lb/>with the water, settles in the bottom. </s> <s>Some people, in place of a trough, <lb/>put a square launder underneath, and in like manner they wash the tin­<lb/>stone in this by agitating it up and down and turning it over with a small <lb/>wooden trowel. </s> <s>A transverse trough is put under the launder, which is <lb/>either open on one end and drains off into a tub or settling-pit, or else is <lb/>closed and perforated through the bottom; in this case, it drains into a <lb/>ditch beneath, where the water falls when the plug has been partly removed. <lb/></s> <s>The nature of this ditch I will now describe.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If the locality does not supply an abundance of water, the washers dig a <lb/>ditch thirty or thirty-six feet long, and cover the bottom, the full length, with <lb/>logs joined together and hewn on the side which lies flat on the ground. </s> <s>On <lb/>each side of the ditch, and at its head also, they place four logs, one above <lb/>the other, all hewn smooth on the inside. </s> <s>But since the logs are laid <lb/>obliquely along the sides, the upper end of the ditch is made four feet wide <lb/>and the tail end, two feet. </s> <s>The water has a high drop from a launder and <lb/>first of all it falls into interlaced fir twigs, in order that it shall fall straight <lb/>down for the most part in an unbroken stream and thus break up the lumps <lb/>by its weight. </s> <s>Some do not place these twigs under the end of the launder, <lb/>but put a plug in its mouth, which, since it does not entirely close the launder, <lb/>nor altogether prevent the discharge from it, nor yet allow the water to <lb/>spout far afield, makes it drop straight down. </s> <s>The workman brings in a <lb/>wheelbarrow the material to be washed, and throws it into the ditch. </s> <s>The <lb/>washer standing in the upper end of the ditch breaks the lumps with a seven­<lb/>pronged fork, and throws out the roots of trees, shrubs, and grass with the <lb/>same instrument, and thereby the small black stones settle down. </s> <s>When a <lb/>large quantity of the tin-stone has accumulated, which generally happens <lb/>when the washer has spent a day at this work, to prevent it from being <lb/>washed away he places it upon the bank, and other material having been <lb/>again thrown into the upper end of the ditch, he continues the task of washing. <lb/></s> <s>A boy stands at the lower end of the ditch, and with a thin pointed hoe <lb/>stirs up the sediment which has settled at the lower end, to prevent the <lb/>washed tin-stone from being carried further, which occurs when the sediment <lb/>has accumulated to such an extent that the fir branches at the outlet of the <lb/>ditch are covered.</s></p><pb pagenum="340"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LAUNDER. B—INTERLACING FIR TWIGS. C—LOGS; THREE ON ONE SIDE, FOR THE <lb/>FOURTH CANNOT BE SEEN BECAUSE THE DITCH IS SO FULL WITH MATERIAL NOW BEING <lb/>WASHED. D—LOGS AT THE HEAD OF THE DITCH. E—BARROW. F—SEVEN-PRONGED <lb/>FORK. G—HOE</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The third method of washing materials of this kind follows. </s> <s>Two <lb/>strakes are made, each of which is twelve feet long and a foot and a <lb/>half wide and deep. </s> <s>A tank is set at their head, into which the water flows <lb/>through a little launder. </s> <s>A boy throws the ore into one strake; if it is of <lb/>poor quality he puts in a large amount of it, if it is rich he puts in less. </s> <s>The <lb/>water is let in by removing the plug, the ore is stirred with a wooden shovel, <lb/>and in this way the tin-stone, mixed with the heavier material, settles <lb/>in the bottom of the strake, and the water carries the light material into the <lb/>launder, through which it flows on to a canvas strake. </s> <s>The very fine tin­<lb/>stone, carried by the water, settles on to the canvas and is cleansed. </s> <s>A low <lb/>cross-board is placed in the strake near the head, in order that the largest <lb/>sized tin-stone may settle there. </s> <s>As soon as the strake is filled with the <lb/>material which has been washed, he closes the mouth of the tank and continues <lb/>washing in the other strake, and then the plug is withdrawn and the <lb/>water and tin-stone flow down into a tank below. </s> <s>Then he pounds the sides </s></p><pb pagenum="341"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—STRAKES. B—TANK. C—LAUNDER. D—PLUG. E—WOODEN SHOVEL. <lb/>F—WOODEN MALLET. G—WOODEN SHOVEL WITH SHORT HANDLE. H—THE PLUG <lb/>IN THE STRAKE. I—TANK PLACED UNDER THE PLUG.<lb/>of the loaded strake with a wooden mallet, in order that the tin-stone clinging <lb/>to the sides may fall off; all that has settled in it, he throws out with a <lb/>wooden shovel which has a short handle. </s> <s>Silver slags which have been <lb/>crushed under the stamps, also fragments of silver-lead alloy and of cakes <lb/>melted from pyrites, are washed in a strake of this kind.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Material of this kind is also washed while wet, in a sieve whose bottom <lb/>is made of woven iron wire, and this is the fourth method of washing. </s> <s>The <lb/>sieve is immersed in the water which is contained in a tub, and is violently <lb/>shaken. </s> <s>The bottom of this tub has an opening of such size that as much <lb/>water, together with tailings from the sieve, can flow continuously out of it as <lb/>water flows into it. </s> <s>The material which settles in the strake, a boy either <lb/>digs over with a three-toothed iron rake or sweeps with a wooden scrubber; <lb/>in this way the water carries off a great part of both sand and mud. </s> <s>The <lb/>tin-stone or metalliferous concentrates settle in the strake and are afterward <lb/>washed in another strake.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>These are ancient methods of washing material which contains tin­<lb/>stone; there follow two modern methods. </s> <s>If the tin-stone mixed with </s></p><pb pagenum="342"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SIEVE. B—TUB. C—WATER FLOWING OUT OF THE BOTTOM OF IT. D—STRAKE. <lb/>E—THREE-TOOTHED RAKE. F—WOODEN SCRUBBER.<lb/>earth or sand is found on the slopes of mountains or hills, or in the level fields <lb/>which are either devoid of streams or into which a stream cannot be diverted, <lb/>miners have lately begun to employ the following method of washing, even <lb/>in the winter months. </s> <s>An open box is constructed of planks, about six <lb/>feet long, three feet wide, and two feet and one palm deep. </s> <s>At the upper <lb/>end on the inside, an iron plate three feet long and wide is fixed, at a depth <lb/>of one foot and a half from the top; this plate is very full of holes, through <lb/>which tin-stone about the size of a pea can fall. </s> <s>A trough hewn from a tree <lb/>is placed under the box, and this trough is about twenty-four feet long and <lb/>three-quarters of a foot wide and deep; very often three cross-boards are <lb/>placed in it, dividing it off into compartments, each one of which is lower <lb/>than the next. </s> <s>The turbid waters discharge into a settling-pit.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The metalliferous material is sometimes found not very deep beneath <lb/>the surface of the earth, but sometimes so deep that it is necessary to drive <lb/>tunnels and sink shafts. </s> <s>It is transported to the washing-box in wheel­<lb/>barrows, and when the washers are about to begin they lay a small launder, </s></p><pb pagenum="343"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BOX. B—PERFORATED PLATE. C—TROUGH. D—CROSS-BOARDS. E—POOL. <lb/>F—LAUNDER. G—SHOVEL. H—RAKE.<pb pagenum="344"/>through which there flows on to the iron plate so much water as is necessary <lb/>for this washing. </s> <s>Next, a boy throws the metalliferous material on to the <lb/>iron plate with an iron shovel and breaks the small lumps, stirring them this <lb/>way and that with the same implement. </s> <s>Then the water and sand penetra­<lb/>ting the holes of the plate, fall into the box, while all the coarse gravel remains <lb/>on the plate, and this he throws into a wheelbarrow with the same shovel. <lb/></s> <s>Meantime, a younger boy continually stirs the sand under the plate with a <lb/>wooden scrubber nearly as wide as the box, and drives it to the upper end of <lb/>the box; the lighter material, as well as a small amount of tin-stone, is <lb/>carried by the water down into the underlying trough. </s> <s>The boys carry on <lb/>this labour without intermission until they have filled four wheelbarrows <lb/>with the coarse and worthless residues, which they carry off and throw away, or <lb/>three wheelbarrows if the material is rich in black tin. </s> <s>Then the foreman <lb/>has the plank removed which was in front of the iron plate, and on which the <lb/>boy stood. </s> <s>The sand, mixed with the tin-stone, is frequently pushed backward <lb/>and forward with a scrubber, and the same sand, because it is lighter, takes <lb/>the upper place, and is removed as soon as it appears; that which takes the <lb/>lower place is turned over with a spade, in order that any that is light <lb/>can flow away; when all the tin-stone is heaped together, he shovels it out <lb/>of the box and carries it away. </s> <s>While the foreman does this, one boy with <lb/>an iron hoe stirs the sand mixed with fine tin-stone, which has run out of the <lb/>box and has settled in the trough and pushes it back to the uppermost part <lb/>of the trough, and this material, since it contains a very great amount of tin­<lb/>stone, is thrown on to the plate and washed again. </s> <s>The material which has <lb/>settled in the lowest part of the trough is taken out separately and piled in a <lb/>heap, and is washed on the ordinary strake; that which has settled in the <lb/>pool is washed on the canvas strake. </s> <s>In the summer-time this fruitful <lb/>labour is repeated more often, in fact ten or eleven times. </s> <s>The tin-stone <lb/>which the foreman removes from the box, is afterward washed in a jigging <lb/>sieve, and lastly in a tub, where at length all the sand is separated out. <lb/></s> <s>Finally, any material in which are mixed particles of other metals, can be <lb/>washed by all these methods, whether it has been disintegrated from veins or <lb/>stringers, or whether it originated from <emph type="italics"/>venae dílatatae,<emph.end type="italics"/> or from streams and <lb/>rivers.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The sixth method of washing material of this kind is even more modern <lb/>and more useful than the last. </s> <s>Two boxes are constructed, into each of <lb/>which water flows through spouts from a cross trough into which it has been <lb/>discharged through a pipe or launder. </s> <s>When the material has been agitated <lb/>and broken up with iron shovels by two boys, part of it runs down and falls <lb/>through the iron plates full of holes, or through the iron grating, and flows <lb/>out of the box over a sloping surface into another cross trough, and from <lb/>this into a strake seven feet long and two and a half feet wide. </s> <s>Then <lb/>the foreman again stirs it with a wooden scrubber that it may become <lb/>clean. </s> <s>As for the material which has flowed down with the water and settled <lb/>in the third cross trough, or in the launder which leads from it, a third boy <lb/>rakes it with a two-toothed rake; in this way the fine tin-stone settles down </s></p><pb pagenum="345"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LAUNDER. B—CROSS TROUGH. C—TWO SPOUTS. D—BOXES. E—PLATE. </s> <s>F— <lb/>GRATING. G—SHOVELS. H—SECOND CROSS TROUGH. I—STRAKE. K—WOODEN <lb/>SCRUBBER. L—THIRD CROSS TROUGH. M—LAUNDER. N—THREE-TOOTHED RAKE.<lb/>and the water carries off the valueless sand into the creek. </s> <s>This method <lb/>of washing is most advantageous, for four men can do the work of washing <lb/>in two boxes, while the last method, if doubled, requires six men, for it requires <lb/>two boys to throw the material to be washed on to the plate and to stir it <lb/>with iron shovels; two more are required with wooden scrubbers to keep <lb/>stirring the sand, mixed with the tin-stone, under the plate, and to push it <lb/>toward the upper end of the box; further, two foremen are required <lb/>to clean the tin-stone in the way I have described. </s> <s>In the place of a plate <lb/>full of holes, they now fix in the boxes a grating made of iron wire as <lb/>thick as the stalks of rye; that these may not be depressed by the weight <lb/>and become bent, three iron bars support them, being laid crosswise under­<lb/>neath. </s> <s>To prevent the grating from being broken by the iron shovels with <lb/>which the material is stirred in washing, five or six iron rods are placed on <lb/>top in cross lines, and are fixed to the box so that the shovels may rub them <lb/>instead of the grating; for this reason the grating lasts longer than the <pb pagenum="346"/>plates, because it remains intact, while the rods, when worn by rubbing, can <lb/>easily be replaced by others.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Miners use the seventh method of washing when there is no stream of <lb/>water in the part of the mountain which contains the black tin, or particles of <lb/>gold, or of other metals. </s> <s>In this case they frequently dig more than fifty <lb/>ditches on the slope below, or make the same number of pits, six feet long, <lb/>three feet wide, and three-quarters of a foot deep, not any great distance <lb/>from each other. </s> <s>At the season when a torrent rises from storms of <lb/>great violence or long duration, and rushes down the mountain, some of <lb/>the miners dig the metalliferous material in the woods with broad hoes and </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—PITS. B—TORRENT. C—SEVEN-PRONGED FORK. D—SHOVEL.<lb/>drag it to the torrent. </s> <s>Other miners divert the torrent into the ditches or <lb/>pits, and others throw the roots of trees, shrubs, and grass out of the ditches <lb/>or pits with seven-pronged wooden forks. </s> <s>When the torrent has run down, <lb/>they remove with shovels the uncleansed tin-stone or particles of metal which <lb/>have settled in the ditches or pits, and cleanse it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The eighth method is also employed in the regions which the Lusitanians <lb/>hold in their power and sway, and is not dissimilar to the last. </s> <s>They drive <pb pagenum="347"/>a great number of deep ditches in rows in the gullies, slopes, and hollows of <lb/>the mountains. </s> <s>Into these ditches the water, whether flowing down from <lb/>snow melted by the heat of the sun or from rain, collects and carries together <lb/>with earth and sand, sometimes tin-stone, or, in the case of the Lusitanians, <lb/>the particles of gold loosened from veins and stringers. </s> <s>As soon as the <lb/>waters of the torrent have all run away, the miners throw the material out <lb/>of the ditches with iron shovels, and wash it in a common sluice box.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—GULLY. B—DITCH. C—TORRENT. D—SLUICE BOX EMPLOYED BY THE <lb/>LUSITANIANS.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The Poles wash the impure lead from <emph type="italics"/>venae dílatatae<emph.end type="italics"/> in a trough ten <lb/>feet long, three feet wide, and one and one-quarter feet deep. </s> <s>It is mixed <lb/>with moist earth and is covered by a wet and sandy clay, and so <lb/>first of all the clay, and afterward the ore, is dug out. </s> <s>The ore is carried <lb/>to a stream or river, and thrown into a trough into which water is admitted <lb/>by a little launder, and the washer standing at the lower end of the trough <lb/>drags the ore out with a narrow and nearly pointed hoe, whose wooden handle <lb/>is nearly ten feet long. </s> <s>It is washed over again once or twice in the same <lb/>way and thus made pure. </s> <s>Afterward when it has been dried in the sun <pb pagenum="348"/>they throw it into a copper sieve, and separate the very small pieces which <lb/>pass through the sieve from the larger ones. </s> <s>of these the former are smelted <lb/>in a faggot pile and the latter in the furnace. </s> <s>Of such a number then are <lb/>the methods of washing.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TROUGH. B—LAUNDER. C—HOE. D—SIEVE.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>One method of burning is principally employed, and two of roasting. <lb/></s> <s>The black tin is burned by a hot fire in a furnace similar to an oven<emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/>; it <lb/>is burned if it is a dark-blue colour, or if pyrites and the stone from which <lb/>iron is made are mixed with it, for the dark blue colour if not burnt, consumes <lb/>the tin. </s> <s>If pyrites and the other stone are not volatilised into fumes in a <lb/>furnace of this kind, the tin which is made from the tin-stone is impure. <lb/></s> <s>The tin-stone is thrown either into the back part of the furnace, or into one <lb/>side of it; but in the former case the wood is placed in front, in the latter <lb/>case alongside, in such a manner, however, that neither firebrands nor <lb/>coals may fall upon the tin-stone itself or touch it. </s> <s>The fuel is manipulated <lb/>by a poker made of wood. </s> <s>The tin-stone is now stirred with a rake with two <pb pagenum="349"/>teeth, and now again levelled down with a hoe, both of which are made of iron. <lb/></s> <s>The very fine tin-stone requires to be burned less than that of moderate size, <lb/>and this again less than that of the largest size. </s> <s>While the tin-stone is being <lb/>thus burned, it frequently happens that some of the material runs together. </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE. B—ITS MOUTH. C—POKER. D—RAKE WITH TWO TEETH. E—HOE.<lb/>The burned tin-stone should then be washed again on the strake, for in this <lb/>way the material which has been run together is carried away by the water <lb/>into the cross-trough, where it is gathered up and worked over, and again <lb/>washed on the strake. </s> <s>By this method the metal is separated from that <lb/>which is devoid of metal.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Cakes from pyrites, or <emph type="italics"/>cadmía,<emph.end type="italics"/> or cupriferous stones, are roasted in quad­<lb/>rangular pits, of which the front and top are open, and these pits are generally <lb/>twelve feet long, eight feet wide, and three feet deep. </s> <s>The cakes of melted <lb/>pyrites are usually roasted twice over, and those of <emph type="italics"/>cadmía<emph.end type="italics"/> once. </s> <s>These latter <lb/>are first rolled in mud moistened with vinegar, to prevent the fire from con­<lb/>suming too much of the copper with the bitumen, or sulphur, or orpiment, or <lb/>realgar. </s> <s>The cakes of pyrites are first roasted in a slow fire and afterward in <lb/>a fierce one, and in both cases, during the whole following night, water is let in, <pb pagenum="350"/>in order that, if there is in the cakes any alum or vitriol or saltpetre capable <lb/>of injuring the metals, although it rarely does injure them, the water may <lb/>remove it and make the cakes soft. </s> <s>The solidified juices are nearly all <lb/>harmful to the metal, when cakes or ore of this kind are smelted. </s> <s>The cakes <lb/>which are to be roasted are placed on wood piled up in the form of a crate, <lb/>and this pile is fired<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—PITS. B—WOOD. C—CAKES. D—LAUNDER.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The cakes which are made of copper smelted from schist are first thrown <lb/>upon the ground and broken, and then placed in the furnace on bundles of <lb/>faggots, and these are lighted. </s> <s>These cakes are generally roasted seven <lb/>times and occasionally nine times. </s> <s>While this is being done, if they are <pb pagenum="351"/>bituminous, then the bitumen burns and can be smelled. </s> <s>These furnaces have <lb/>a structure like the structure of the furnaces in which ore is smelted, except <lb/>that they are open in front; they are six feet high and four feet wide. </s> <s>As <lb/>for this kind of furnace, three of them are required for one of those in which <lb/>the cakes are melted. </s> <s>First of all they are roasted in the first furnace, then <lb/>when they are cooled, they are transferred into the second furnace and again <lb/>roasted; later they are carried to the third, and afterward back to the first, <lb/>and this order is preserved until they have been roasted seven or nine times.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CAKES. B—BUNDLES OF FAGGOTS. C—FURNACES.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>END OF BOOK VIII.</s></p><pb/><figure></figure><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>BOOK IX.<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/><emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Since I have written of the varied work of pre­<lb/>paring the ores, I will now write of the various <lb/>methods of smelting them. </s> <s>Although those who <lb/>burn, roast and calcine<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/> the ore, take from it some­<lb/>thing which is mixed or combined with the metals; <lb/>and those who crush it with stamps take away much; <lb/>and those who wash, screen and sort it, take away <lb/>still more; yet they cannot remove all which con­<lb/>ceals the metal from the eye and renders it crude <lb/>and unformed. </s> <s>Wherefore smelting is necessary, for by this means earths, <lb/>solidified juices, and stones are separated from the metals so that they <lb/>obtain their proper colour and become pure, and may be of great use to <lb/>mankind in many ways. </s> <s>When the ore is smelted, those things which <lb/>were mixed with the metal before it was melted are driven forth, because <lb/>the metal is perfected by fire in this manner. </s> <s>Since metalliferous ores <lb/>differ greatly amongst themselves, first as to the metals which they con­<lb/>tain, then as to the quantity of the metal which is in them, and then by <lb/>the fact that some are rapidly melted by fire and others slowly, there are, <lb/>therefore, many methods of smelting. </s> <s>Constant practice has taught the <lb/><pb pagenum="354"/>smelters by which of these methods they can obtain the most metal from <lb/>any one ore. </s> <s>Moreover, while sometimes there are many methods of <lb/>smelting the same ore, by which an equal weight of metal is melted out, yet <lb/>one is done at a greater cost and labour than the others. </s> <s>Ore is either melted <lb/>with a furnace or without one; if smelted with a furnace the tap-hole is either <lb/>temporarily closed or always open, and if smelted without a furnace, it is done <lb/>either in pots or in trenches. </s> <s>But in order to make this matter clearer, I will <lb/>describe each in detail, beginning with the buildings and the furnaces.</s></p><pb pagenum="355"/><p type="main"> <s>A wall which will be called the “second wall” is constructed of brick <lb/>or stone, two feet and as many palms thick, in order that it may be strong <lb/>enough to bear the weight. </s> <s>It is built fifteen feet high, and its length depends <lb/>on the number of furnaces which are put in the works; there are usually <lb/>six furnaces, rarely more, and often less. </s> <s>There are three furnace walls, a <lb/>back one which is against the “second” wall, and two side ones, of which I <lb/>will speak later. </s> <s>These should be made of natural stone, as this is more <lb/>serviceable than burnt bricks, because bricks soon become defective and <lb/>crumble away, when the smelter or his deputy chips off the accretions which <lb/>adhere to the walls when the ore is smelted. </s> <s>Natural stone resists injury <lb/>by the fire and lasts a long time, especially that which is soft and devoid <lb/>of cracks; but, on the contrary, that which is hard and has many cracks <lb/>is burst asunder by the fire and destroyed. </s> <s>For this reason, furnaces which <lb/>are made of the latter are easily weakened by the fire, and when the accretions <lb/>are chipped off they crumble to pieces. </s> <s>The front furnace wall should be <lb/>made of brick, and there should be in the lower part a mouth three palms <lb/>wide and one and a half feet high, when the hearth is completed. </s> <s>A hole <lb/>slanting upward, three palms long, is made through the back furnace wall, at <lb/>the height of a cubit, before the hearth has been prepared; through this <lb/>hole and a hole one foot long in the “second” wall—as the back of this wall <lb/>has an arch—is inserted a pipe of iron or bronze, in which are fixed the nozzles <pb pagenum="356"/>of the bellows. </s> <s>The whole of the front furnace wall is not more than five feet <lb/>high, so that the ore may be conveniently put into the furnace, together with <lb/>those things which the master needs for his work of smelting. </s> <s>Both the side <lb/>walls of the furnace are six feet high, and the back one seven feet, and they <lb/>are three palms thick. </s> <s>The interior of the furnace is five palms wide, six <lb/>palms and a digit long, the width being measured by the space which lies <lb/>between the two side walls, and the length by the space between the front and <lb/>the back walls; however, the upper part of the furnace widens out somewhat.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are two doors in the second wall if there are six furnaces, one <lb/>of the doors being between the second and third furnaces and the other <lb/>between the fourth and fifth furnaces. </s> <s>They are a cubit wide and six feet <lb/>high, in order that the smelters may not have mishaps in coming and going. <lb/></s> <s>It is necessary to have a door to the right of the first furnace, and similarly <lb/>one to the left of the last, whether the wall is longer or not. </s> <s>The second <lb/>wall is carried further when the rooms for the cupellation furnaces, or any <lb/>other building, adjoin the rooms for the blast furnaces, these buildings being <lb/>only divided by a partition. </s> <s>The smelter, and the ones who attend to the <lb/>first and the last furnaces, if they wish to look at the bellows or to do anything <lb/>else, go out through the doors at the end of the wall, and the other people go <lb/>through the other doors, which are the common ones. </s> <s>The furnaces are placed <lb/>at a distance of six feet from one another, in order that the smelters and their <lb/>assistants may more easily sustain the fierceness of the heat. </s> <s>Inasmuch as <lb/>the interior of each furnace is five palms wide and each is six feet distant <lb/>from the other, and inasmuch as there is a space of four feet three palms at <lb/>the right side of the first furnace and as much at the left side of the last <lb/>furnace, and there are to be six furnaces in one building, then it is necessary <lb/>to make the second wall fifty-two feet long; because the total of the widths <lb/>of all of the furnaces is seven and a half feet, the total of the spaces between <lb/>the furnaces is thirty feet, the space on the outer sides of the first and last <lb/>furnaces is nine feet and two palms, and the thickness of the two transverse <lb/>walls is five feet, which make a total measurement of fifty-two feet.<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Outside each furnace hearth there is a small pit full of powder which is <lb/>compressed by ramming, and in this manner is made the forehearth which <lb/>receives the metal flowing from the furnaces. </s> <s>Of this I will speak later.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Buried about a cubit under the forehearth and the hearth of the furnace <lb/>is a transverse water-tank, three feet long, three palms wide and a cubit deep. <lb/></s> <s>It is made of stone or brick, with a stone cover, for if it were not covered, the <lb/>heat would draw the moisture from below and the vapour might be blown <lb/>into the hearth of the furnace as well as into the forehearth, and would <lb/>dampen the blast. </s> <s>The moisture would vitiate the blast, and part of the <lb/>metal would be absorbed and part would be mixed with the slags, and in <lb/>this manner the melting would be greatly damaged. </s> <s>From each water-tank <lb/>is built a walled vent, to the same depth as the tank, but six digits wide; </s></p><pb pagenum="357"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACES. B—FOREHEARTHS.<pb pagenum="358"/>this vent slopes upward, and sooner or later penetrates through to the other <lb/>side of the wall, against which the furnace is built. </s> <s>At the end of this vent <lb/>there is an opening where the steam, into which the water has been converted, <lb/>is exhausted through a copper or iron tube or pipe. </s> <s>This method of making <lb/>the tank and the vent is much the best. </s> <s>Another kind has a similar vent <lb/>but a different tank, for it does not lie transversely under the forehearth, <lb/>but lengthwise; it is two feet and a palm long, and a foot and three palms <lb/>wide, and a foot and a palm deep. </s> <s>This method of making tanks is not <lb/>condemned by us, as is the construction of those tanks without a vent; <lb/>the latter, which have no opening into the air through which the vapour may <lb/>discharge freely, are indeed to be condemned.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACES. B—FOREHEARTH. C—DOOR. D—WATER TANK. E—STONE WHICH <lb/>COVERS IT. F—MATERIAL OF THE VENT WALLS. G—STONE WHICH COVERS IT. H—PIPE <lb/>EXHALING THE VAPOUR.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Fifteen feet behind the second wall is constructed the first wall, thirteen <lb/>feet high. </s> <s>In both of these are fixed roof beams<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>, which are a foot wide and <pb pagenum="359"/><figure id="fig3"></figure><pb pagenum="360"/>thick, and nineteen feet and a palm long; these are placed three feet distant <lb/>from one another. </s> <s>As the second wall is two feet higher than the first wall, <lb/>recesses are cut in the back of it two feet high, one foot wide, and a palm deep, <lb/>and in these recesses, as it were in mortises, are placed one end of each of <lb/>the beams. </s> <s>Into these ends are mortised the bottoms of just as many posts; <lb/>these posts are twenty-four feet high, three palms wide and thick, and from <lb/>the tops of the posts the same number of rafters stretch downward to the <lb/>ends of the beams superimposed on the first wall; the upper ends of the <lb/>rafters are mortised into the posts and the lower ends are mortised into the <lb/>ends of the beams laid on the first wall; the rafters support the roof, <lb/>which consists of burnt tiles. </s> <s>Each separate rafter is propped up by a <lb/>separate timber, which is a cross-beam, and is joined to its post. </s> <s>Planks <lb/>close together are affixed to the posts above the furnaces; these planks are <lb/>about two digits thick and a palm wide, and they, together with the wicker <lb/>work interposed between the timbers, are covered with lute so that there may <lb/>be no risk of fire to the timbers and wicker-work. </s> <s>In this practical manner <lb/>is constructed the back part of the works, which contains the bellows, their <lb/>frames, the mechanism for compressing the bellows, and the instrument for <lb/>distending them, of all of which I will speak hereafter.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In front of the furnaces is constructed the third long wall and likewise <lb/>the fourth. </s> <s>Both are nine feet high, but of the same length and thickness as <lb/>the other two, the fourth being nine feet distant from the third; the <lb/>third is twenty-one and a half feet from the second. </s> <s>At a distance of <lb/>twelve feet from the second wall, four posts seven and a half feet high, a cubit <lb/>wide and thick, are set upon rock laid underneath. </s> <s>Into the tops of the <lb/>posts the roof beam is mortised; this roof beam is two feet and as many <lb/>palms longer than the distance between the second and the fifth transverse <lb/>walls, in order that its ends may rest on the transverse walls. </s> <s>If there should <lb/>not be so long a beam at hand, two are substituted for it. </s> <s>As the length of <lb/>the long beam is as above, and as the posts are equidistant, it is necessary <lb/>that the posts should be a distance of nine feet, one palm, two and two-fifths <lb/>digits from each other, and the end ones this distance from the transverse <lb/>walls. </s> <s>On this longitudinal beam and to the third and fourth walls are fixed <lb/>twelve secondary beams twenty-four feet long, one foot wide, three palms <lb/>thick, and distant from each other three feet, one palm, and two digits. </s> <s>In <lb/>these secondary beams, where they rest on the longitudinal beams, are mortised <lb/>the ends of the same number of rafters as there are posts which stand on the <lb/>second wall. </s> <s>The ends of the rafters do not reach to the tops of the posts, <lb/>but are two feet away from them, that through this opening, which is like <lb/>the open part of a forge, the furnaces can emit their fumes. </s> <s>In order that <lb/>the rafters should not fall down, they are supported partly by iron rods, <lb/>which extend from each rafter to the opposite post, and partly supported <lb/>by a few tie-beams, which in the same manner extend from some rafters to <lb/>the posts opposite, and give them stability. </s> <s>To these tie-beams, as well as <lb/>to the rafters which face the posts, a number of boards, about two digits thick <lb/>and a palm wide, are fixed at a distance of a palm from each other, and are <pb pagenum="361"/>covered with lute so that they do not catch fire. </s> <s>In the secondary beams, <lb/>where they are laid on the fourth wall, are mortised the lower ends of the <lb/>same number of rafters as those in a set of rafters<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> opposite them. </s> <s>From <lb/>the third long wall these rafters are joined and tied to the ends of the opposite <lb/>rafters, so that they may not slip, and besides they are strengthened with <lb/>substructures which are made of cross and oblique timbers. </s> <s>The rafters <lb/>support the roof.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>THE FOUR LONG WALLS: A—FIRST. B—SECOND. C—THIRD. D—FOURTH. THE <lb/>SEVEN TRANSVERSE WALLS: E—FIRST. F—SECOND. G—THIRD. H—FOURTH. <lb/>I—FIFTH. K—SIXTH. L—SEVENTH, OR MIDDLE.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In this manner the front part of the building is made, and is divided into <lb/>three parts; the first part is twelve feet wide and is under the hood, which <lb/>consists of two walls, one vertical and one inclined. </s> <s>The second part is the <lb/>same number of feet wide and is for the reception of the ore to be smelted, <lb/>the fluxes, the charcoal, and other things which are needed by the smelter. <lb/></s> <s>The third part is nine feet wide and contains two separate rooms of equal <lb/>size, in one of which is the assay furnace, while the other contains the metal <lb/>to be melted in the cupellation furnaces. </s> <s>It is thus necessary that in the <pb pagenum="362"/>building there should be, besides the four long walls, seven transverse walls, <lb/>of which the first is constructed from the upper end of the first long wall to <lb/>the upper end of the second long wall; the second proceeds from the end <lb/>of this to the end of the third long wall; the third likewise from this end of <lb/>the last extends to the end of the fourth long wall; the fourth leads from <lb/>the lower end of the first long wall to the lower end of the second long wall; <lb/>the fifth extends from the end of this to the end of the third long wall; the <lb/>sixth extends from this last end to the end of the fourth long wall; the <lb/>seventh divides into two parts the space between the third and fourth long <lb/>walls.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>To return to the back part of the building, in which, as I said, are the <lb/>bellows<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/>, their frames, the machinery for compressing them, and the instru­<lb/>ment for distending them. </s> <s>Each bellows consists of a body and a head. <lb/></s> <s>The body is composed of two “boards,” two bows, and two hides. </s> <s>The <lb/>upper board is a palm thick, five feet and three palms long, and two and a half <lb/>feet wide at the back part, where each of the sides is a little curved, and it is <lb/>a cubit wide at the front part near the head. </s> <s>The whole of the body of the <lb/>bellows tapers toward the head. </s> <s>That which we now call the “board” <lb/>consists of two pieces of pine, joined and glued together, and of two strips of <lb/>linden wood which bind the edges of the board, these being seven digits <lb/>wide at the back, and in front near the head of the bellows one and a half <lb/>digits wide. </s> <s>These strips are glued to the boards, so that there shall be less <lb/>damage from the iron nails driven through the hide. </s> <s>There are some people <lb/>who do not surround the boards with strips, but use boards only, which <lb/>are very thick. </s> <s>The upper board has an aperture and a handle; the <lb/>aperture is in the middle of the board and is one foot three palms distant <lb/>from where the board joins the head of the bellows, and is six digits long and <lb/>four wide. </s> <s>The lid for this aperture is two palms and a digit long and wide, <lb/>and three digits thick; toward the back of the lid is a little notch cut <lb/>into the surface so that it may be caught by the hand; a groove is cut out <lb/>of the top of the front and sides, so that it may engage in mouldings a palm <lb/>wide and three digits thick, which are also cut out in a similar manner under <lb/>the edges. </s> <s>Now, when the lid is drawn forward the hole is closed, and <lb/>when drawn back it is opened; the smelter opens the aperture a little so that <lb/>the air may escape from the bellows through it, if he fears the hides might be <lb/>burst when the bellows are too vigorously and quickly inflated; he, however, <lb/>closes the aperture if the hides are ruptured and the air escapes. </s> <s>Others <lb/>perforate the upper board with two or three round holes in the same place as <lb/>the rectangular one, and they insert plugs in them which they draw out <pb pagenum="363"/>when it is necessary. </s> <s>The wooden handle is seven palms long, or even longer, <lb/>in order that it may extend outside; one-half of this handle, two palms <lb/>wide and one thick, is glued to the end of the board and fastened with pegs <lb/>covered with glue; the other half projects beyond the board, and is rounded <lb/>and seven digits thick. </s> <s>Besides this, to the handle and to the board is fixed <lb/>a cleat two feet long, as many palms wide and one palm thick, and to the under <lb/>side of the same board, at a distance of three palms from the end, is fixed <lb/>another cleat two feet long, in order that the board may sustain the force <lb/>of distension and compression; these two cleats are glued to the board, and <lb/>are fastened to it with pegs covered with glue.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The lower bellows-board, like the upper, is made of two pieces of pine <lb/>and of two strips of linden wood, all glued together; it is of the same width <lb/>and thickness as the upper board, but is a cubit longer, this extension being <lb/>part of the head of which I have more to say a little later. </s> <s>This lower bellows­<lb/>board has an air-hole and an iron ring. </s> <s>The air-hole is about a cubit distant <lb/>from the posterior end, and it is midway between the sides of the bellows­<lb/>board, and is a foot long and three palms wide; it is divided into equal <lb/>parts by a small rib which forms part of the board, and is not cut from it; <lb/>this rib is a palm long and one-third of a digit wide. </s> <s>The flap of the air­<lb/>hole is a foot and three digits long, three palms and as many digits wide; <lb/>it is a thin board covered with goat skin, the hairy part of which is turned <lb/>toward the ground. </s> <s>There is fixed to one end of the flap, with small iron <lb/>nails, one-half of a doubled piece of leather a palm wide and as long as the <lb/>flap is wide; the other half of the leather, which is behind the flap, is twice <lb/>perforated, as is also the bellows-board, and these perforations are seven <lb/>digits apart. </s> <s>Passing through these a string is tied on the under side of the <lb/>board; and thus the flap when tied to the board does not fall away. </s> <s>In this <lb/>manner are made the flap and the air-hole, so when the bellows are distended <lb/>the flap opens, when compressed it closes. </s> <s>At a distance of about a foot <lb/>beyond the air-hole a slightly elliptical iron ring, two palms long and one <lb/>wide, is fastened by means of an iron staple to the under part of the bellows­<lb/>board; it is at a distance of three palms from the back of the bellows. </s> <s>In <lb/>order that the lower bellows-board may remain stationary, a wooden bolt is <lb/>driven into the ring, after it penetrates through the hole in the transverse <lb/>supporting plank which forms part of the frame for the bellows. </s> <s>There are <lb/>some who dispense with the ring and fasten the bellows-board to the frame <lb/>with two iron screws something like nails.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The bows are placed between the two boards and are of the same length <lb/>as the upper board. </s> <s>They are both made of four pieces of linden wood three <lb/>digits thick, of which the two long ones are seven digits wide at the back and <lb/>two and a half at the front; the third piece, which is at the back, is two <lb/>palms wide. </s> <s>The ends of the bows are a little more than a digit thick, and are <lb/>mortised to the long pieces, and both having been bored through, wooden <lb/>pegs covered with glue are fixed in the holes; they are thus joined and glued <lb/>to the long pieces. </s> <s>Each of the ends is bowed (<emph type="italics"/>arcuatur<emph.end type="italics"/>) to meet the end of <lb/>the long part of the bow, whence its name “bow” originated. </s> <s>The fourth <pb pagenum="364"/>piece keeps the ends of the bow distended, and is placed a cubit distant from <lb/>the head of the bellows; the ends of this piece are mortised into the ends <lb/>of the bow and are joined and glued to them; its length without the tenons <lb/>is a foot, and its width a palm and two digits. </s> <s>There are, besides, two other <lb/>very small pieces glued to the head of the bellows and to the lower board, <lb/>and fastened to them by wooden pegs covered with glue, and they are three <lb/>palms and two digits long, one palm high, and a digit thick, one half being <lb/>slightly cut away. </s> <s>These pieces keep the ends of the bow away from the <lb/>hole in the bellows-head, for if they were not there, the ends, forced inward <lb/>by the great and frequent movement, would be broken.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The leather is of ox-hide or horse-hide, but that of the ox is far preferable <lb/>to that of the horse. </s> <s>Each of these hides, for there are two, is three and a <lb/>half feet wide where they are joined at the back part of the bellows. </s> <s>A <lb/>long leathern thong is laid along each of the bellows-boards and each of the <lb/>bows, and fastened by T-shaped iron nails five digits long; each of the <lb/>horns of the nails is two and a half digits long and half a digit wide. </s> <s>The <lb/>hide is attached to the bellows-boards by means of these nails, so that a horn <lb/>of one nail almost touches the horn of the next; but it is different with the <lb/>bows, for the hide is fastened to the back piece of the bow by only two nails, <lb/>and to the two long pieces by four nails. </s> <s>In this practical manner they put <lb/>ten nails in one bow and the same number in the other. </s> <s>Sometimes when the <lb/>smelter is afraid that the vigorous motion of the bellows may pull or tear <lb/>the hide from the bows, he also fastens it with little strips of pine by means of <lb/>another kind of nail, but these strips cannot be fastened to the back pieces of <lb/>the bow, because these are somewhat bent. </s> <s>Some people do not fix the <lb/>hide to the bellows-boards and bows by iron nails, but by iron screws, <lb/>screwed at the same time through strips laid over the hide. </s> <s>This method <lb/>of fastening the hide is less used than the other, although there is no doubt <lb/>that it surpasses it in excellence.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Lastly, the head of the bellows, like the rest of the body, consists of two <lb/>boards, and of a nozzle besides. </s> <s>The upper board is one cubit long, one and a <lb/>half palms thick. </s> <s>The lower board is part of the whole of the lower bellows­<lb/>board; it is of the same length as the upper piece, but a palm and a digit <lb/>thick. </s> <s>From these two glued together is made the head, into which, when it <lb/>has been perforated, the nozzle is fixed. </s> <s>The back part of the head, where <lb/>it is attached to the rest of the bellows-body, is a cubit wide, but three palms <lb/>forward it becomes two digits narrower. </s> <s>Afterward it is somewhat cut <lb/>away so that the front end may be rounded, until it is two palms and as <lb/>many digits in diameter, at which point it is bound with an iron ring three <lb/>digits wide.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The nozzle is a pipe made of a thin plate of iron; the diameter in front is <lb/>three digits, while at the back, where it is encased in the head of the bellows, <lb/>it is a palm high and two palms wide. </s> <s>It thus gradually widens out, especially <lb/>at the back, in order that a copious wind can penetrate into it; the whole <lb/>nozzle is three feet long.</s></p><pb/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—UPPER BELLOWS-BOARD. B—LOWER BELLOWS-BOARD. C—THE TWO PIECES OF WOOD <lb/>OF WHICH EACH CONSISTS. D—POSTERIOR ARCHED PART OF EACH. E—TAPERED FRONT <lb/>PART OF EACH. F—PIECES OF LINDEN WOOD. G—APERTURE IN THE UPPER BOARD. <lb/>H—LID. I—LITTLE MOULDINGS OF WOOD. K—HANDLE. L—CLEAT ON THE OUTSIDE. <lb/>THE CLEAT INSIDE I AM NOT ABLE TO DEPICT. M—INTERIOR OF THE LOWER BELLOWS­<lb/>BOARD. N—PART OF THE HEAD. O—AIR-HOLE. P—SUPPORTING BAR. Q—FLAP. <lb/>R—HIDE. S—THONG. T—EXTERIOR OF THE LOWER BOARD. V—STAPLE. X—RING. <lb/>Y—BOW. Z—ITS LONG PIECES. AA—BACK PIECE OF THE BOW. BB—THE BOWED <lb/>ENDS. CC—CROSSBAR DISTENDING THE BOW. DD—THE TWO LITTLE PIECES. <lb/>EE—HIDE. FF—NAIL. GG—HORN OF THE NAIL. HH—A SCREW. II—LONG THONG. <lb/>KK—HEAD. LL—ITS LOWER BOARD. MM—ITS UPPER BOARD. NN—NOZZLE. <lb/><gap/></s></p><pb pagenum="366"/><p type="main"> <s>The upper bellows-board is joined to the head of the bellows in the <lb/>following way. </s> <s>An iron plate<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/>, a palm wide and one and a half palms long, <lb/>is first fastened to the head at a distance of three digits from the end; from <lb/>this plate there projects a piece three digits long and two wide, curved <lb/>in a small circle. </s> <s>The other side has a similar plate. </s> <s>Then in the same <lb/>part of the upper board are fixed two other iron plates, distant two digits <lb/>from the edge, each of which are six digits wide and seven long; in each <lb/>of these plates the middle part is cut away for a little more than three <lb/>digits in length and for two in depth, so that the curved part of the plates <lb/>on the head corresponding to them may fit into this cut out part. </s> <s>From <lb/>both sides of each plate there project pieces, three digits long and two <lb/>digits wide, similarly curved into small circles. </s> <s>A little iron pin is passed <lb/>through these curved pieces of the plates, like a little axle, so that the upper <lb/>board of the bellows may turn upon it. </s> <s>The little axle is six digits long and a <lb/>little more than a digit thick, and a small groove is cut out of the upper <lb/>board, where the plates are fastened to it, in such a manner that the little axle <lb/>when fixed to the plates may not fall out. </s> <s>Both plates fastened to the <lb/>bellows-board are affixed by four iron nails, of which the heads are on the <lb/>inner part of the board, whereas the points, clinched at the top, are <lb/>transformed into heads, so to speak. </s> <s>Each of the other plates is fastened <lb/>to the head of the bellows by means of a nail with a wide head, and by two <lb/>other nails of which the heads are on the edge of the bellows-head. </s> <s>Midway <lb/>between the two plates on the bellows-board there remains a space two <lb/>palms wide, which is covered by an iron plate fastened to the board by <lb/>little nails; and another plate corresponding to this is fastened to the head <lb/>between the other two plates; they are two palms and the same number <lb/>of digits wide.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The hide is common to the head as to all the other parts of the body; <lb/>the plates are covered with it, as well as the front part of the upper bellows­<lb/>board, and both the bows and the back of the head of the bellows, so that the <lb/>wind may not escape from that part of the bellows. </s> <s>It is three palms and as <lb/>many digits wide, and long enough to extend from one of the sides of the <lb/>lower board over the back of the upper; it is fastened by many T-headed <lb/>nails on one side to the upper board, and on the other side to the head of <lb/>the bellows, and both ends are fastened to the lower bellows-board.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the above manner the bellows is made. </s> <s>As two are required for each <lb/>furnace, it is necessary to have twelve bellows, if there are to be six furnaces <lb/>in one works.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now it is time to describe their framework. </s> <s>First, two sills a little <lb/>shorter than the furnace wall are placed on the ground. </s> <s>The front one of <lb/>these is three palms wide and thick, and the back one three palms and two <lb/>digits. </s> <s>The front one is two feet distant from the back wall of the furnace, and <lb/>the back one is six feet three palms distant from the front one. </s> <s>They are set into <lb/>the earth, that they may remain firm; there are some who accomplish this by <lb/>means of pegs which, through several holes, penetrate deeply into the ground.</s></p><pb pagenum="367"/><p type="main"> <s>Then twelve short posts are erected, whose lower ends are mortised into <lb/>the sill that is near the back of the furnace wall; these posts are two feet <lb/>high, exclusive of the tenons, and are three palms and the same number of <lb/>digits wide, and two palms thick. </s> <s>A slot one and a half palms wide is cut <lb/>through them, beginning two palms from the bottom and extending for a <lb/>height of three palms. </s> <s>All the posts are not placed at the same intervals, the <lb/>first being at a distance of three feet five digits from the second, and likewise <lb/>the third from the fourth, but the second is two feet one palm and three <lb/>digits from the third; the intervals between the other posts are arranged in <lb/>the same manner, equal and unequal, of which each four pertain to two <lb/>furnaces. </s> <s>The upper ends of these posts are mortised into a transverse <lb/>beam which is twelve feet, two palms, and three digits long, and projects <lb/>five digits beyond the first post and to the same distance beyond the fourth; <lb/>it is two palms and the same number of digits wide, and two palms thick. <lb/></s> <s>Since each separate transverse beam supports four bellows, it is necessary to <lb/>have three of them.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Behind the twelve short posts the same number of higher posts are <lb/>erected, of which each has the middle part of the lower end cut out, so that <lb/>its two resulting lower ends are mortised into the back sill; these posts, <lb/>exclusive of the tenons, are twelve feet and two palms high, and are five palms <lb/>wide and two palms thick. </s> <s>They are cut out from the bottom upward, the <lb/>slot being four feet and five digits high and six digits wide. </s> <s>The upper ends of <lb/>these posts are mortised into a long beam imposed upon them; this long <lb/>beam is placed close under the timbers which extend from the wall at the <lb/>back of the furnace to the first long wall; the beam is three palms wide <lb/>and two palms thick, and forty-three feet long. </s> <s>If such a long one is <lb/>not at hand, two or three may be substituted for it, which when joined together <lb/>make up that length. </s> <s>These higher posts are not placed at equal distances, <lb/>but the first is at a distance of two feet three palms one digit from the second, <lb/>and the third is at the same distance from the fourth; while the second is at a <lb/>distance of one foot three palms and the same number of digits from the <lb/>third, and in the same manner the rest of the posts are arranged at equal <lb/>and unequal intervals. </s> <s>Moreover, there is in every post, where it faces the <lb/>shorter post, a mortise at a foot and a digit above the slot; in these mortises <lb/>of the four posts is tenoned a timber which itself has four mortises. </s> <s>Tenons <lb/>are enclosed in mortises in order that they may be better joined, and they <lb/>are transfixed with wooden pins. </s> <s>This timber is thirteen feet three palms <lb/>one digit long, and it projects beyond the first post a distance of two palms <lb/>and two digits, and to the same number of palms and digits beyond the <lb/>fourth post. </s> <s>It is two palms and as many digits wide, and also two palms <lb/>thick. </s> <s>As there are twelve posts it is necessary to have three timbers of this <lb/>kind.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>On each of these timbers, and on each of the cross-beams which are laid <lb/>upon the shorter posts, are placed four planks, each nine feet long, two palms <lb/>three digits wide, and two palms one digit thick. </s> <s>The first plank is five feet <lb/>one palm one digit distant from the second, at the front as well as at the back. <pb pagenum="368"/>for each separate plank is placed outside of the posts. </s> <s>The third is at the <lb/>same distance from the fourth, but the second is one foot and three digits <lb/>distant from the third. </s> <s>In the same manner the rest of the eight planks are <lb/>arranged at intervals, the fifth from the sixth and the seventh from the eighth <lb/>are at the same distances as the first from the second and the third from the <lb/>fourth; the sixth is at the same distance from the seventh as the second <lb/>from the third.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Two planks support one transverse plank six feet long, one foot wide, one <lb/>palm thick, placed at a distance of three feet and two palms from the back <lb/>posts. </s> <s>When there are six of these supporting planks, on each separate one <lb/>are placed two bellows; the lower bellows-boards project a palm beyond <lb/>them. </s> <s>From each of the bellows-boards an iron ring descends through a hole <lb/>in its supporting plank, and a wooden peg is driven into the ring, so that the <lb/>bellows-board may remain stationary, as I stated above.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The two bellows communicate, each by its own plank, to the back of a <lb/>copper pipe in which are set both of the nozzles, and their ends are tightly </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FRONT SILL. B—BACK SILL. C—FRONT POSTS. D—THEIR SLOTS. E—BEAM <lb/>IMPOSED UPON THEM. F—HIGHER POSTS. G—THEIR SLOTS. H—BEAM IMPOSED UPON <lb/>THEM. I—TIMBER JOINED IN THE MORTISES OF THE POSTS. K—PLANKS. L—TRANSVERSE <lb/>SUPPORTING PLANKS. M—THE HOLES IN THEM. N—PIPE. O—ITS FRONT END. P—ITS <lb/>REAR END.<pb pagenum="369"/>fastened in it. </s> <s>The pipe is made of a rolled copper or iron plate, a foot and <lb/>two palms and the same number of digits long; the plate is half a digit <lb/>thick, but a digit thick at the back. </s> <s>The interior of the pipe is three digits <lb/>wide, and two and a half digits high in the front, for it is not absolutely round; <lb/>and at the back it is a foot and two palms and three digits in diameter. </s> <s>The <lb/>plate from which the pipe is made is not entirely joined up, but at the front <lb/>there is left a crack half a digit wide, increasing at the back to three digits. <lb/></s> <s>This pipe is placed in the hole in the furnace, which, as I said, was in the <lb/>middle of the wall and the arch. </s> <s>The nozzles of the bellows, placed in this <lb/>pipe, are a distance of five digits from its front end.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The levers are of the same number as the bellows, and when depressed <lb/>by the cams of the long axle they compress the bellows. </s> <s>These levers <lb/>are eight feet three palms long, one palm wide and thick, and the ends are <lb/>inserted in the slots of the posts; they project beyond the front posts to a <lb/>distance of two palms, and the same distance beyond the back posts in order <lb/>that each may have its end depressed by its two cams on the axle. </s> <s>The <lb/>cams not only penetrate into the slots of the back posts, but project three <lb/>digits beyond them. </s> <s>An iron pin is set in round holes made through both <lb/>sides of the slot of each front post, at three palms and as many digits from the <lb/>bottom; the pin penetrates the lever, which turns about it when depressed <lb/>or raised. </s> <s>The back of the lever for the length of a cubit is a palm and a <lb/>digit wider than the rest, and is perforated; in this hole is engaged a bar <lb/>six feet and two palms long, three digits wide, and about one and one-half <lb/>digits thick; it is somewhat hooked at the upper end, and approaches the <lb/>handle of the bellows. </s> <s>Under the lever there is a nail, which penetrates <lb/>through a hole in the bar, so that the lever and bar may move together. </s> <s>The <lb/>bar is perforated in the upper end at a distance of six digits from the top; <lb/>this hole is two palms long and a digit wide, and in it is engaged the hook of <lb/>an iron implement which is a digit thick. </s> <s>At the upper part this implement <lb/>has either a round or square opening, like a link, and at the lower end is <lb/>hooked; the link is two digits high and wide and the hook is three digits long; <lb/>the middle part between the link and the hook is three palms and two <lb/>digits long. </s> <s>The link of this implement engages either the handle of the <lb/>bellows, or else a large ring which does engage it. </s> <s>This iron ring is a digit thick, <lb/>two palms wide on the inside of the upper part, and two digits in the <lb/>lower part, and this iron ring, not unlike the first one, engages the <lb/>handle of the bellows. </s> <s>The iron ring either has its narrower part turned <lb/>upward, and in it is engaged the ring of another iron implement, similar <lb/>to the first, whose hook, extending upward, grips the rope fastened to the <lb/>iron ring holding the end of the second lever, of which I will speak <lb/>presently; or else the iron ring grips this lever, and then in its hook is <lb/>engaged the ring of the other implement whose ring engages the handle of the <lb/>bellows, and in this case the rope is dispensed with.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Resting on beams fixed in the two walls is a longitudinal beam, at a <lb/>distance of four and a half feet from the back posts; it is two palms wide, </s></p><pb pagenum="370"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LEVER WHICH WHEN DEPRESSED BY MEANS OF A CAM COMPRESSES THE BELLOWS. <lb/>B—SLOTS THROUGH THE POSTS. C—BAR. D—IRON IMPLEMENT WITH A RECTANGULAR <lb/>LINK. E—IRON INSTRUMENT WITH ROUND RING. F—HANDLE OF BELLOWS. G—UPPER <lb/>POST. H—UPPER LEVER. I—BOX WITH EQUAL SIDES. K—BOX NARROW AT THE <lb/>BOTTOM. L—PEGS DRIVEN INTO THE UPPER LEVER.<lb/>one and a half palms thick. </s> <s>There are mortised into this longitudinal beam <lb/>the lower ends of upper posts three palms wide and two thick, which are six <lb/>feet two palms high, exclusive of their tenons. </s> <s>The upper ends of these <lb/>posts are mortised into an upper longitudinal beam, which lies close under <lb/>the rafters of the building; this upper longitudinal beam is two palms <lb/>wide and one thick. </s> <s>The upper posts have a slot cut out upward from a <lb/>point two feet from the bottom, and the slot is two feet high and six digits <lb/>wide. </s> <s>Through these upper posts a round hole is bored from one side to <lb/>the other at a point three feet one palm from the bottom, and a small iron axle <lb/>penetrates through the hole and is fastened there. </s> <s>Around this small iron <lb/>axle turns the second lever when it is depressed and raised. </s> <s>This lever is <lb/>eight feet long, and its other end is three digits wider than the rest of the <lb/>lever; at this widest point is a hole two digits wide and three high, in which <lb/>is fixed an iron ring, to which is tied the rope I have mentioned; it is five <lb/>palms long, its upper loop is two palms and as many digits wide, and the <pb pagenum="371"/>lower one is one palm one digit wide. </s> <s>This half of the second lever, the end <lb/>of which I have just mentioned, is three palms high and one wide; it projects <lb/>three feet beyond the slot of the post on which it turns; the other end, which <lb/>faces the back wall of the furnaces, is one foot and a palm high and a foot wide.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>On this part of the lever stands and is fixed a box three and a half feet <lb/>long, one foot and one palm wide, and half a foot deep; but these measure­<lb/>ments vary; sometimes the bottom of this box is narrower, sometimes <lb/>equal in width to the top. </s> <s>In either case, it is filled with stones and earth <lb/>to make it heavy, but the smelters have to be on their guard and <lb/>make provision against the stones falling out, owing to the constant <lb/>motion; this is prevented by means of an iron band which is placed over <lb/>the top, both ends being wedge-shaped and driven into the lever so that the <lb/>stones can be held in. </s> <s>Some people, in place of the box, drive four or more <lb/>pegs into the lever and put mud between them, the required amount being <lb/>added to the weight or taken away from it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There remains to be considered the method of using this machine. </s> <s>The <lb/>lower lever, being depressed by the cams, compresses the bellows, and the <lb/>compression drives the air through the nozzle. </s> <s>Then the weight of the box <lb/>on the other end of the upper lever raises the upper bellows-board, and the <lb/>air is drawn in, entering through the air-hole.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The machine whose cams depress the lower lever is made as follows. <lb/></s> <s>First there is an axle, on whose end outside the building is a water-wheel; <lb/>at the other end, which is inside the building, is a drum made of rundles. <lb/></s> <s>This drum is composed of two double hubs, a foot apart, which are five digits <lb/>thick, the radius all round being a foot and two digits; but they are double, <lb/>because each hub is composed of two discs, equally thick, fastened together <lb/>with wooden pegs glued in. </s> <s>These hubs are sometimes covered above and <lb/>around by iron plates. </s> <s>The rundles are thirty in number, a foot and two <lb/>palms and the same number of digits long, with each end fastened into a hub; <lb/>they are rounded, three digits in diameter, and the same number of digits <lb/>apart. </s> <s>In this practical manner is made the drum composed of rundles.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There is a toothed wheel, two palms and a digit thick, on the end <lb/>of another axle; this wheel is composed of a double disc<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>The inner disc <lb/>is composed of four segments a palm thick, everywhere two palms and a <lb/>digit wide. </s> <s>The outer disc, like the inner, is made of four segments, and is <lb/>a palm and a digit thick; it is not equally wide, but where the head of the <lb/>spokes are inserted it is a foot and a palm and digit wide, while on each side <lb/>of the spokes it becomes a little narrower, until the narrowest part is only <lb/>two palms and the same number of digits wide. </s> <s>The outer segments are joined <lb/>to the inner ones in such a manner that, on the one hand, an outer segment <lb/>ends in the middle of an inner one, and, on the other hand, the ends of the <lb/>inner segments are joined in the middle of the outer ones; there is no doubt <lb/>that by this kind of joining the wheel is made stronger. </s> <s>The outer segments <lb/>are fastened to the inner by means of a large number of wooden pegs. </s> <s>Each </s></p><pb pagenum="372"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—AXLE. B—WATER-WHEEL. C—DRUM COMPOSED OF RUNDLES. D—OTHER AXLE. <lb/>E—TOOTHED WHEEL. F—ITS SPOKES. G—ITS SEGMENTS. H—ITS TEETH. I—CAMS <lb/>OF THE AXLE.<lb/>segment, measured over its round back, is four feet and three palms long. <lb/></s> <s>There are four spokes, each two palms wide and a palm and a digit thick; their <lb/>length, excluding the tenons, being two feet and three digits. </s> <s>One end of the <lb/>spoke is mortised into the axle, where it is firmly fastened with pegs; the <lb/>wide part of the other end, in the shape of a triangle, is mortised into the <lb/>outer segment opposite it, keeping the shape of the same as far as the segment <lb/>ascends. </s> <s>They also are joined together with wooden pegs glued in, and these <lb/>pegs are driven into the spokes under the inner disc. </s> <s>The parts of the spokes <lb/>in the shape of the triangle are on the inside; the outer part is simple. </s> <s>This <lb/>triangle has two sides equal, the erect ones as is evident, which are a palm <lb/>long; the lower side is not of the same length, but is five digits long, and a <lb/>mortise of the same shape is cut out of the segments. </s> <s>The wheel has sixty <lb/>teeth, since it is necessary that the rundle drum should revolve twice while <lb/>the toothed wheel revolves once. </s> <s>The teeth are a foot long, and project one <lb/>palm from the inner disc of the wheel, and three digits from the outer disc; <pb pagenum="373"/>they are a palm wide and two and a half digits thick, and it is necessary <lb/>that they should be three digits apart, as were the rundles.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The axle should have a thickness in proportion to the spokes and the <lb/>segments. </s> <s>As it has two cams to depress each of the levers, it is necessary that <lb/>it should have twenty-four cams, which project beyond it a foot and a palm and <lb/>a digit. </s> <s>The cams are of almost semicircular shape, of which the widest part is <lb/>three palms and a digit wide, and they are a palm thick; they are <lb/>distributed according to the four sides of the axle, on the upper, the lower <lb/>and the two lateral sides. </s> <s>The axle has twelve holes, of which the first <lb/>penetrates through from the upper side to the lower, the second from one <lb/>lateral side to the other; the first hole is four feet two palms distant from <lb/>the second; each alternate one of these holes is made in the same direc­<lb/>tion, and they are arranged at equal intervals. </s> <s>Each single cam must <lb/>be opposite another; the first is inserted into the upper part of the first <lb/>hole, the second into the lower part of the same hole, and so fixed by <lb/>pegs that they do not fall out; the third cam is inserted into that part <lb/>of the second hole which is on the right side, and the fourth into that <lb/>part on the left. </s> <s>In like manner all the cams are inserted into the consecutive <lb/>holes, for which reason it happens that the cams depress the levers of the </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CHARCOAL. B—MORTAR-BOX. C—STAMPS.<pb pagenum="374"/>bellows in rotation. </s> <s>Finally we must not omit to state that this is only one <lb/>of many such axles having cams and a water-wheel.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I have arrived thus far with many words, and yet it is not unseasonable <lb/>that I have in this place pursued the subject minutely, since the smelting of all <lb/>the metals, to which I am about to proceed, could not be undertaken without <lb/>it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The ores of gold, silver, copper, and lead, are smelted in a furnace by <lb/>four different methods. </s> <s>The first method is for the rich ores of gold or silver, <lb/>the second for the mediocre ores, the third for the poor ores, and the fourth <lb/>method is for those ores which contain copper or lead, whether they contain <lb/>precious metals or are wanting in them. </s> <s>The smelting of the first ores is <lb/>performed in the furnace of which the tap-hole is intermittently closed; the <lb/>other three ores are melted in furnaces of which the tap-holes are always <lb/>open.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>First, I will speak of the manner in which the furnaces are prepared for <lb/>the smelting of the ores, and of the first method of smelting. </s> <s>The powder <lb/>from which the hearth and forehearth should be made is composed of char­<lb/>coal and earth (clay?). The charcoal is crushed by the stamps in a mortar­<lb/>box, the front of which is closed by a board at the top, while the charcoal, </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TUB. B—SIEVE. C—RODS. D—BENCH-FRAME.<pb pagenum="375"/>crushed to powder, is removed through the open part below; the stamps are <lb/>not shod with iron, but are made entirely of wood, although at the lower <lb/>part they are bound round at the wide part by an iron band.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The powder into which the charcoal is crushed is thrown on to a sieve <lb/>whose bottom consists of interwoven withes of wood. </s> <s>The sieve is drawn <lb/>backward and forward over two wooden or iron rods placed in a triangular <lb/>position on a tub, or over a bench-frame set on the floor of the building; <lb/>the powder which falls into the tub or on to the floor is of suitable size, <lb/>but the pieces of small charcoal which remain in the sieve are emptied out <lb/>and thrown back under the stamps.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When the earth is dug up it is first exposed to the sun that it may dry. <lb/></s> <s>Later on it is thrown with a shovel on to a screen—set up obliquely and <lb/>supported by poles,—made of thick, loosely woven hazel withes, and in this <lb/>way the fine earth and its small lumps pass through the holes of the screen, but <lb/>the clods and stones do not pass through, but run down to the ground. </s> <s>The <lb/>earth which passes through the screen is conveyed in a two-wheeled cart to <lb/>the works and there sifted. </s> <s>This sieve, which is not dissimilar to the one </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SCREEN. B—POLES. C—SHOVEL. D—TWO-WHEELED CART. E—HAND-SIEVE. <lb/>F—NARROW BOARDS. G—BOX. H—COVERED PIT.<pb pagenum="376"/>described above, is drawn backward and forward upon narrow boards of <lb/>equal length placed over a long box; the powder which falls through the <lb/>sieve into the box is suitable for the mixture; the lumps that remain in the <lb/>sieve are thrown away by some people, but by others they are placed under <lb/>the stamps. </s> <s>This powdered earth is mixed with powdered charcoal, moist­<lb/>ened, and thrown into a pit, and in order that it may remain good for a long <lb/>time, the pit is covered up with boards so that the mixture may not <lb/>become contaminated.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>They take two parts of pulverised charcoal and one part of powdered <lb/>earth, and mix them well together with a rake; the mixture is moistened by <lb/>pouring water over it so that it may easily be made into shapes resembling <lb/>snowballs; if the powder be light it is moistened with more water, if heavy <lb/>with less. </s> <s>The interior of the new furnace is lined with lute, so that the <lb/>cracks in the walls, if there are any, may be filled up, but especially in order <lb/>to preserve the rock from injury by fire. </s> <s>In old furnaces in which ore has <lb/>been melted, as soon as the rocks have cooled the assistant chips away, with <lb/>a spatula, the accretions which adhere to the walls, and then breaks them <lb/>up with an iron hoe or a rake with five teeth. </s> <s>The cracks of the furnace are <lb/>first filled in with fragments of rock or brick, which he does by passing his <lb/>hand into the furnace through its mouth, or else, having placed a ladder against <lb/>it, he mounts by the rungs to the upper open part of the furnace. </s> <s>To the <lb/>upper part of the ladder a board is fastened that he may lean and recline <lb/>against it. </s> <s>Then standing on the same ladder, with a wooden spatula, he <lb/>smears the furnace walls over with lute; this spatula is four feet long, a digit <lb/>thick, and for a foot upward from the bottom it is a palm wide, or even <lb/>wider, generally two and a half digits. </s> <s>He spreads the lute equally over the <lb/>inner walls of the furnace. </s> <s>The mouth of the copper pipe<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> should not pro­<lb/>trude from the lute, lest sows<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> form round about it and thus impede the <lb/>melting, for the furnace bellows could not force a blast through them. </s> <s>Then <lb/>the same assistant throws a little powdered charcoal into the pit of the fore­<lb/>hearth and sprinkles it with pulverised earth. </s> <s>Afterward, with a bucket <lb/>he pours water into it and sweeps this all over the forehearth pit, and with the <lb/>broom drives the turbid water into the furnace hearth and likewise sweeps <lb/>it out. </s> <s>Next he throws the mixed and moistened powder into the furnace, <lb/>and then a second time mounting the steps of the ladder, he introduces the <lb/>rammer into the furnace and pounds the powder so that the hearth is made <lb/>solid. </s> <s>The rammer is rounded and three palms long; at the bottom it is five <lb/>digits in diameter, at the top three and a half, therefore it is made in the form <lb/>of a truncated cone; the handle of the rammer is round and five feet long and <lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="377"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE. B—LADDER. C—BOARD FIXED TO IT. D—HOE. E—FIVE­<lb/>TOOTHED RAKE. F—WOODEN SPATULA. G—BROOM. H—RAMMER. I—RAMMER, SAME <lb/>DIAMETER. K—TWO WOODEN SPATULAS. L—CURVED BLADE. M—BRONZE RAMMER. <lb/>N—ANOTHER BRONZE RAMMER. O—WIDE SPATULA. P—ROD. Q—WICKER BASKET. <lb/>R—TWO BUCKETS OF LEATHER IN WHICH WATER IS CARRIED FOR PUTTING OUT A CON­<lb/>FLAGRATION, SHOULD THE <emph type="italics"/>officina<emph.end type="italics"/> CATCH FIRE. S—BRASS PUMP WITH WHICH THE WATER <lb/>IS SQUIRTED OUT. T—TWO HOOKS. V—RAKE. X—WORKMAN BEATING THE CLAY WITH <lb/>AN IRON IMPLEMENT.<lb/>two and a half digits thick; the upper part of the rammer, where the handle <lb/>is inserted, is bound with an iron band two digits wide. </s> <s>There are some who, <lb/>instead, use two rounded rammers three and a half digits in diameter, the <lb/>same at the bottom as at the top. </s> <s>Some people prefer two wooden <lb/>spatulas, or a rammer spatula.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In a similar manner, mixed and moistened powder is thrown and pounded <lb/>with a rammer in the forehearth pit, which is outside the furnace. </s> <s>When <lb/>this is nearly completed, powder is again put in, and pushed with the rammer <lb/>up toward the protruding copper pipe, so that from a point a digit under the <lb/>mouth of the copper pipe the hearth slopes down into the crucible of the fore­<lb/>hearth,<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> and the metal can run down. </s> <s>The same is repeated until the <pb pagenum="378"/>forehearth pit is full, then afterward this is hollowed out with a curved <lb/>blade; this blade is of iron, two palms and as many digits long, three digits <lb/>wide, blunt at the top and sharp at the bottom. </s> <s>The crucible of the fore­<lb/>hearth must be round, a foot in diameter and two palms deep if it has to <lb/>contain a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead, or if only seventy <emph type="italics"/>líbrae,<emph.end type="italics"/> then three palms <lb/>in diameter and two palms deep like the other. </s> <s>When the forehearth has <lb/>been hollowed out it is pounded with a round bronze rammer. </s> <s>This is <lb/>five digits high and the same in diameter, having a curved round handle <lb/>one and a half digits thick; or else another bronze rammer is used, which <lb/>is fashioned in the shape of a cone, truncated at the top, on which is <lb/>imposed another cut away at the bottom, so that the middle part of the <lb/>rammer may be grasped by the hand; this is six digits high, and five digits <lb/>in diameter at the lower end and four at the top. </s> <s>Some use in its place a <lb/>wooden spatula two and a half palms wide at the lower end and one palm <lb/>thick.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The assistant, having prepared the forehearth, returns to the furnace and <lb/>besmears both sides as well as the top of the mouth with simple lute. </s> <s>In the <lb/>lower part of the mouth he places lute that has been dipped in charcoal <lb/>dust, to guard against the risk of the lute attracting to itself the powder <lb/>of the hearth and vitiating it. </s> <s>Next he lays in the mouth of the furnace a <lb/>straight round rod three quarters of a foot long and three digits in diameter. <lb/></s> <s>Afterward he places a piece of charcoal on the lute, of the same length and <lb/>width as the mouth, so that it is entirely closed up; if there be not at hand <lb/>one piece of charcoal so large, he takes two instead. </s> <s>When the mouth is thus <lb/>closed up, he throws into the furnace a wicker basket full of charcoal, and in <lb/>order that the piece of charcoal with which the mouth of the furnace is closed <lb/>should not then fall out, the master holds it in with his hand. </s> <s>The pieces <lb/>of charcoal which are thrown into the furnace should be of medium size, for <lb/>if they are large they impede the blast of the bellows and prevent it from <lb/>blowing through the tap-hole of the furnace into the forehearth to heat it. <lb/></s> <s>Then the master covers over the charcoal, placed at the mouth of the furnace, <lb/>with lute and extracts the wooden rod, and thus the furnace is prepared. <lb/></s> <s>Afterward the assistant throws four or five larger baskets full of charcoal <lb/>into the furnace, filling it right up; he also throws a little charcoal <lb/>into the forehearth, and places glowing coals upon it in order that it may <lb/>be kindled, but in order that the flames of this fire should not enter through <lb/>the tap-hole of the furnace and fire the charcoal inside, he covers the tap-hole <lb/>with lute or closes it with fragments of pottery. </s> <s>Some do not warm the <lb/>forehearth the same evening, but place large charcoals round the edge of it, one <lb/>leaning on the other; those who follow the first method sweep out the <lb/>forehearth in the morning, and clean out the little pieces of charcoal and <lb/>cinders, while those who follow the latter method take, early in the morning, <lb/>burning firebrands, which have been prepared by the watchman of the works, <lb/>and place them on the charcoal.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>At the fourth hour the master begins his work. </s> <s>He first inserts a <lb/>small piece of glowing coal into the furnace, through the bronze nozzle-pipe <pb pagenum="379"/>of the bellows, and blows up the fire with the bellows; thus within the space <lb/>of half an hour the forehearth, as well as the hearth, becomes warmed, and <lb/>of course more quickly if on the preceding day ores have been smelted in the <lb/>same furnace, but if not then it warms more slowly. </s> <s>If the hearth and <lb/>forehearth are not warmed before the ore to be smelted is thrown in, the furnace <lb/>is injured and the metals lost; or if the powder from which both are made <lb/>is damp in summer or frozen in winter, they will be cracked, and, giving <lb/>out a sound like thunder, they will blow out the metals and other substances <lb/>with great peril to the workmen. </s> <s>After the furnace has been warmed, the <lb/>master throws in slags, and these, when melted, flow out through the tap­<lb/>hole into the forehearth. </s> <s>Then he closes up the tap-hole at once with <lb/>mixed lute and charcoal dust; this plug he fastens with his hand to a <lb/>round wooden rammer that is five digits thick, two palms high, with a handle <lb/>three feet long. </s> <s>The smelter extracts the slags from the forehearth with a <lb/>hooked bar; if the ore to be smelted is rich in gold or silver he puts into the <lb/>forehearth a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead, or half as much if the ore is poor, <lb/>because the former requires much lead, the latter little; he immediately <lb/>throws burning firebrands on to the lead so that it melts. </s> <s>Afterward he <lb/>performs everything according to the usual manner and order, whereby he <lb/>first throws into the furnace as many cakes melted from pyrites<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/>, as he <lb/>requires to smelt the ore; then he puts in two wicker baskets full of ore <lb/>with litharge and hearth-lead<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/>, and stones which fuse easily by fire of the <lb/>second order, all mixed together; then one wicker basket full of charcoal, <lb/>and lastly the slags. </s> <s>The furnace now being filled with all the things I <lb/>have mentioned, the ore is slowly smelted; he does not put too much of it <lb/>against the back wall of the furnace, lest sows should form around the nozzles <lb/>of the bellows and the blast be impeded and the fire burn less fiercely.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>This, indeed, is the custom of many most excellent smelters, who know <lb/>how to govern the four elements<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>They combine in right proportion the <lb/>ores, which are part earth, placing no more than is suitable in the furnaces; <lb/>they pour in the needful quantity of water; they moderate with skill the air <lb/>from the bellows; they throw the ore into that part of the fire which burns <lb/>fiercely. </s> <s>The master sprinkles water into each part of the furnace to dampen <lb/>the charcoal slightly, so that the minute parts of ore may adhere to it, <lb/>which otherwise the blast of the bellows and the force of the fire would agitate <lb/>and blow away with the fumes. </s> <s>But as the nature of the ores to be smelted <lb/>varies, the smelters have to arrange the hearth now high, now low, and to <lb/>place the pipe in which the nozzles of the bellows are inserted sometimes on a <lb/>great and sometimes at a slight angle, so that the blast of the bellows may <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="380"/>blow into the furnace in either a mild or a vigorous manner. </s> <s>For those ores <lb/>which heat and fuse easily, a low hearth is necessary for the work of the <lb/>smelters, and the pipe must be placed at a gentle angle to produce a mild <lb/>blast from the bellows. </s> <s>On the contrary, those ores that heat and fuse <lb/>slowly must have a high hearth, and the pipe must be placed at a steep incline <lb/>in order to blow a strong blast of the bellows, and it is necessary, for this <lb/>kind of ore, to have a very hot furnace in which slags, or cakes melted from <lb/>pyrites, or stones which melt easily in the fire<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/>, are first melted, so that the <lb/>ore should not settle in the hearth of the furnace and obstruct and choke up <lb/>the tap-hole, as the minute metallic particles that have been washed from <lb/>the ores are wont to do. </s> <s>Large bellows have wide nozzles, for if they were <lb/>narrow the copious and strong blast would be too much compressed and too <lb/>acutely blown into the furnace, and then the melted material would be <lb/>chilled, and would form sows around the nozzle, and thus obstruct the opening <lb/>into the furnace, which would cause great damage to the proprietors' <lb/>property. </s> <s>If the ores agglomerate and do not fuse, the smelter, mounting <lb/>on the ladder placed against the side of the furnace, divides the charge with <lb/>a pointed or hooked bar, which he also pushes down into the pipe in <pb pagenum="381"/>which the nozzle of the bellows is placed, and by a downward movement <lb/>dislodges the ore and the sows from around it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>After a quarter of an hour, when the lead which the assistant has placed <lb/>in the forehearth is melted, the master opens the tap-hole of the furnace <lb/>with a tapping-bar. </s> <s>This bar is made of iron, is three and a half feet long, <lb/>the forward end pointed and a little curved, and the back end hollow so that <lb/>into it may be inserted a wooden handle, which is three feet long and thick <lb/>enough to be well grasped by the hand. </s> <s>The slag first flows from the furnace <lb/>into the forehearth, and in it are stones mixed with metal or with the metal <lb/>adhering to them partly altered, the slag also containing earth and solidified <lb/>juices. </s> <s>After this the material from the melted pyrites flows out, and then the <lb/>molten lead contained in the forehearth absorbs the gold and silver. </s> <s>When <lb/>that which has run out has stood for some time in the forehearth, in order <lb/>to be able to separate one from the other, the master first either skims off <lb/>the slags with the hooked bar or else lifts them off with an iron fork; the <lb/>slags, as they are very light, float on the top. </s> <s>He next draws off the cakes of <lb/>melted pyrites, which as they are of medium weight hold the middle place; <lb/>he leaves in the forehearth the alloy of gold or silver with the lead, for these <lb/>being the heaviest, sink to the bottom. </s> <s>As, however, there is a difference <pb pagenum="382"/>in slags, the uppermost containing little metal, the middle more, and the <lb/>lowest much, he puts these away separately, each in its own place, in <lb/>order that to each heap, when it is re-smelted, he may add the proper <lb/>fluxes, and can put in as much lead as is demanded for the metal in the <lb/>slag; when the slag is re-melted, if it emits much odour, there is some <lb/>metal in it; if it emits no odour, then it contains none. </s> <s>He puts the cakes <lb/>of melted pyrites away separately, as they were nearest in the forehearth to <lb/>the metal, and contain a little more of it than the slags; from all these <lb/>cakes a conical mound is built up, by always placing the widest of them <lb/>at the bottom. </s> <s>The hooked bar has a hook on the end, hence its name; <lb/>otherwise it is similar to other bars.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Afterward the master closes up the tap-hole and fills the furnace with <lb/>the same materials I described above, and again, the ores having been melted, <lb/>he opens the tap-hole, and with a hooked bar extracts the slags and the cakes <lb/>melted from pyrites, which have run down into the forehearth. </s> <s>He repeats <lb/>the same operation until a certain and definite part of the ore has been <lb/>smelted, and the day's work is at an end; if the ore was rich the work is <lb/>finished in eight hours; if poor, it takes a longer time. </s> <s>But if the ore was <lb/>so rich as to be smelted in less than eight hours, another operation is in the <lb/>meanwhile combined with the first, and both are performed in the space of ten <lb/>hours. </s> <s>When all the ore has been smelted, he throws into the furnace a <lb/>basket full of litharge or hearth-lead, so that the metal which has remained <lb/>in the accretions may run out with these when melted. </s> <s>When he has finally <lb/>drawn out of the forehearth the slags and the cakes melted from pyrites, <lb/>he takes out, with a ladle, the lead alloyed with gold or silver and pours it into <lb/>little iron or copper pans, three palms wide and as many digits deep, but <lb/>first lined on the inside with lute and dried by warming, lest the glowing molten <lb/>substances should break through. </s> <s>The iron ladle is two palms wide, and in <lb/>other respects it is similar to the others, all of which have a sufficiently long <lb/>iron shaft, so that the fire should not burn the wooden part of the handle. <lb/></s> <s>When the alloy has been poured out of the forehearth, the smelter foreman <lb/>and the mine captain weigh the cakes.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Then the master breaks out the whole of the mouth of the furnace with a <lb/>crowbar, and with that other hooked bar, the rabble and the five-toothed rake, <lb/>he extracts the accretions and the charcoal. </s> <s>This crowbar is not unlike <lb/>the other hooked one, but larger and wider; the handle of the rabble is six feet <lb/>long and is half of iron and half of wood. </s> <s>The furnace having cooled, the <lb/>master chips off the accretions clinging to the walls with a rectangular <lb/>spatula six digits long, a palm broad, and sharp on the front edge; it has <lb/>a round handle four feet long, half of it being of iron and half of wood. </s> <s>This <lb/>is the first method of smelting ores.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Because they generally consist of unequal constituents, some of which melt <lb/>rapidly and others slowly, the ores rich in gold and silver cannot be smelted as <lb/>rapidly or as easily by the other methods as they can by the first method, for <lb/>three important reasons. </s> <s>The first reason is that, as often as the closed <lb/>tap-hole of the furnace is opened with a tapping-bar, so often can the </s></p><pb pagenum="383"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B, C—THREE FURNACES. AT THE FIRST STANDS THE SMELTER, WHO WITH A LADLE <lb/>POURS THE ALLOY OUT OF THE FOREHEARTH INTO THE MOULDS. D—FOREHEARTH. <lb/>E—LADLE. F—MOULDS. G—ROUND WOODEN RAMMER. H—TAPPING-BAR. AT THE <lb/>SECOND FURNACE STANDS THE SMELTER. WHO OPENS THE TAP-HOLE WITH HIS TAPPING-BAR.<pb pagenum="384"/>smelter observe whether the ore is melting too quickly or too slowly, or <lb/>whether it is flaming in scattered bits, and not uniting in one mass; in the <lb/>first case the ore is smelting too slowly and not without great expense; in <lb/>the second case the metal mixes with the slag which flows out of the <lb/>furnace into the forehearth, wherefore there is the expense of melting it again; <lb/>in the third case, the metal is consumed by the violence of the fire. </s> <s>Each of <lb/>these evils has its remedy; if the ore melts slowly or does not come together, <lb/>it is necessary to add some amount of fluxes which melt the ore; or if they <lb/>melt too readily, to decrease the amount.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The second reason is that each time that the furnace is opened with a <lb/>tapping-bar, it flows out into the forehearth, and the smelter is able to test <lb/>the alloy of gold and lead or of silver with lead, which is called <emph type="italics"/>stannum<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/>. <lb/></s> <s>When the tap-hole is opened the second or third time, this test shows us <lb/>whether the alloy of gold or silver has become richer, or whether the lead is <lb/>too debilitated and wanting in strength to absorb any more gold or silver. </s> <s>If <lb/>it has become richer, some portion of lead added to it should renew its <lb/>strength; if it has not become richer, it is poured out of the forehearth that <lb/>it may be replaced with fresh lead.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The third reason is that if the tap-hole of the furnace is always open <lb/>when the ore and other things are being smelted, the fluxes, which are easily <lb/>melted, run out of the furnace before the rich gold and silver ores, for these <lb/>are sometimes of a kind that oppose and resist melting by the fire for a longer <lb/>period. </s> <s>It follows in this case, that some part of the ore is either con­<lb/>sumed or is mixed with the accretions, and as a result little lumps of ore <lb/>not yet melted are now and then found in the accretions. </s> <s>Therefore when <lb/>these ores are being smelted, the tap-hole of the furnace should be closed <lb/>for a time, as it is necessary to heat and mix the ore and the fluxes at the <lb/>same time; since the fluxes fuse more rapidly than the ore, when the <lb/>molten fluxes are held in the furnace, they thus melt the ore which does not <lb/>readily fuse or mix with the lead. </s> <s>The lead absorbs the gold or silver, just <lb/>as tin or lead when melted in the forehearth absorbs the other unmelted <lb/>metal which has been thrown into it. </s> <s>But if the molten matter is poured <lb/>upon that which is not molten, it runs off on all sides and consequently does <lb/>not melt it. </s> <s>It follows from all this that ores rich in gold or silver, when put <lb/>into a furnace with its tap-hole always open, cannot for that reason be smelted <lb/>so successfully as in one where the tap-hole is closed for a time, so that during <lb/>this time the ore may be melted by the molten fluxes. </s> <s>Afterward, when the <lb/>tap-hole has been opened, they flow into the forehearth and mix there with <lb/>the molten lead. </s> <s>This method of smelting the ores is used by us and by the <lb/>Bohemians.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The three remaining methods of smelting ores are similar to each other <lb/>in that the tap-holes of the furnaces always remain open, so that the molten <lb/>metals may continually run out. </s> <s>They differ greatly from each other, </s></p><pb pagenum="385"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B—TWO FURNACES. C—FOREHEARTHS. D—DIPPING-POT. THE SMELTER STANDING <lb/>BY THE FIRST FURNACE DRAWS OFF THE SLAGS WITH A HOOKED BAR. E—HOOKED BAR. <lb/>F—SLAGS. G—THE ASSISTANT DRAWING A BUCKET OF WATER WHICH HE POURS OVER THE <lb/>GLOWING SLAGS TO QUENCH THEM. H—BASKET MADE OF TWIGS OF WOOD INTERTWINED. <lb/>I—RABBLE. K—ORE TO BE SMELTED. THE MASTER STANDS AT THE OTHER FURNACE <lb/><gap/><pb pagenum="386"/>however, for the tap-hole of the first of this kind is deeper in the furnace and <lb/>narrower than that of the third, and besides it is invisible and concealed. <lb/></s> <s>It easily discharges into the forehearth, which is one and a half feet higher <lb/>than the floor of the building, in order that below it to the left a dipping-pot <lb/>can be made. </s> <s>When the forehearth is nearly full of the slags, which well up <lb/>from the invisible tap-hole of the furnace, they are skimmed off from the top <lb/>with a hooked bar; then the alloy of gold or silver with lead and the melted <lb/>pyrites, being uncovered, flow into the dipping-pot, and the latter are made into <lb/>cakes; these cakes are broken and thrown back into the furnace so that all <lb/>their metal may be smelted out. </s> <s>The alloy is poured into little iron moulds.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The smelter, besides lead and cognate things, uses fluxes which combine <lb/>with the ore, of which I gave a sufficient account in Book VII. </s> <s>The metals <lb/>which are melted from ores that fuse readily in the fire, are profitable because <lb/>they are smelted in a short time, while those which are difficult to fuse are <lb/>not as profitable, because they take a long time. </s> <s>When fluxes remain in the <lb/>furnace and do not melt, they are not suitable; for this reason, accretions and <lb/>slags are the most convenient for smelting, because they melt quickly. </s> <s>It is <lb/>necessary to have an industrious and experienced smelter, who in the first <lb/>place takes care not to put into the furnace more ores mixed with fluxes than <lb/>it can accommodate.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The powder out of which this furnace hearth and the adjoining fore­<lb/>hearth and the dipping-pot are usually made, consists mostly of equal pro­<lb/>portions of charcoal dust and of earth, or of equal parts of the same and of <lb/>ashes. </s> <s>When the hearth of the furnace is prepared, a rod that will reach to the <lb/>forehearth is put into it, higher up if the ore to be smelted readily fuses, and <lb/>lower down if it fuses with difficulty. </s> <s>When the dipping-pot and forehearth <lb/>are finished, the rod is drawn out of the furnace so that the tap-hole is open, <lb/>and through it the molten material flows continuously into the forehearth, <lb/>which should be very near the furnace in order that it may keep very hot and <lb/>the alloy thus be made purer. </s> <s>If the ore to be smelted does not melt easily, the <lb/>hearth of the furnace must not be made too sloping, lest the molten fluxes <lb/>should run down into the forehearth before the ore is smelted, and the metal <lb/>thus remain in the accretions on the sides of the furnace. </s> <s>The smelter must <lb/>not ram the hearth so much that it becomes too hard, nor make the mistake <lb/>of ramming the lower part of the mouth to make it hard, for it could not <lb/>breathe<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>, nor could the molten matter flow freely out of the furnace. <lb/></s> <s>The ore which does not readily melt is thrown as much as possible to the <lb/>back of the furnace, and toward that part where the fire burns very <lb/>fiercely, so that it may be smelted longer. </s> <s>In this way the smelter may direct <lb/>it whither he wills. </s> <s>Only when it glows at the part near the bellows' nozzle <lb/>does it signify that all the ore is smelted which has been thrown to the side of <lb/>the furnace in which the nozzles are placed. </s> <s>If the ore is easily melted, one <lb/>or two wicker baskets full are thrown into the front part of the furnace so that <lb/>the fire, being driven back by it, may also smelt the ore and the sows that </s></p><pb pagenum="387"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B—TWO FURNACES. C—FOREHEARTH. D—DIPPING-POTS. THE MASTER STANDS AT <lb/>THE ONE FURNACE AND DRAWS AWAY THE SLAGS WITH AN IRON FORK. E—IRON FORK. <lb/>F—WOODEN HOE WITH WHICH THE CAKES OF MELTED PYRITES ARE DRAWN OUT. G—THE <lb/>FOREHEARTH CRUCIBLE: ONE-HALF INSIDE IS TO BE SEEN OPEN IN THE OTHER FURNACE. <lb/>H—THE H<gap/> OUTSIDE THE <gap/> J—THE ASSISTANT <gap/> THE FOR<gap/><pb pagenum="388"/>form round about the nozzles of the bellows. </s> <s>This process of smelting is very <lb/>ancient among the Tyrolese<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/>, but not so old among the Bohemians.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The second method of smelting ores stands in a measure midway between <lb/>that one performed in a furnace of which the tap-hole is closed intermittently, <lb/>and the first of the methods performed in a furnace where the tap-hole is <lb/>always open. </s> <s>In this manner are smelted the ores of gold and silver that are <lb/>neither very rich nor very poor, but mediocre, which fuse easily and are <lb/>readily absorbed by the lead. </s> <s>It was found that in this way a large quantity <lb/>of ore could be smelted at one operation without much labour or great expense, <lb/>and could thus be alloyed with lead. </s> <s>This furnace has two crucibles, one of <lb/>which is half inside the furnace and half outside, so that the lead being put <lb/>into this crucible, the part of the lead which is in the furnace absorbs <lb/>the metals of the ores which easily fuse; the other crucible is lower, and <lb/>the alloy and the molten pyrites run into it. </s> <s>Those who make use of this <lb/>method of smelting, tap the alloy of gold or silver with lead from the upper <lb/>crucible once or twice if need be, and throw in other lead or litharge, and <lb/>each absorbs that flux which is nearest. </s> <s>This method of smelting is in use <lb/>in Styria<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The furnace in the third method of smelting ores has the tap-hole like­<lb/>wise open, but the furnace is higher and wider than the others, and its bellows <lb/>are larger; for these reasons a larger charge of the ore can be thrown into <lb/>it. </s> <s>When the mines yield a great abundance of ore for the smelter, they <lb/>smelt in the same furnace continuously for three days and three nights, <lb/>providing there be no defect either in the hearth or in the forehearth. </s> <s>In this <lb/>kind of a furnace almost every kind of accretion will be found. </s> <s>The fore­<lb/>hearth of the furnace is not unlike the forehearth of the first furnace of all, <lb/>except that it has a tap-hole. </s> <s>However, because large charges of ore <lb/>are smelted uninterruptedly, and the melted material runs out and the slags <lb/>are skimmed off, there is need for a second forehearth crucible, into which the <lb/>molten material runs through an opened tap-hole when the first is full. </s> <s>When <lb/>a smelter has spent twelve hours' labour on this work, another always takes his <lb/>place. </s> <s>The ores of copper and lead and the poorest ores of gold and silver <lb/>are smelted by this method, because they cannot be smelted by the other <lb/>three methods on account of the greater expense occasioned. </s> <s>Yet by this <lb/>method a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of ore containing only one or two <emph type="italics"/>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>gold, or only a half to one <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver,<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/> can be smelted; because there <lb/>is a large amount of ore in each charge, smelting is continuous, and without <lb/>expensive fluxes such as lead, litharge, and hearth-lead. </s> <s>In this method <lb/>of smelting we must use only cupriferous pyrites which easily melt in the <lb/>fire, in truth the cakes melted out from this, if they no longer absorb <lb/><lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="389"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A, B—TWO FURNACES. C—TAP-HOLES OF FURNACES. D—FOREHEARTHS. E—THEIR <lb/>TAP-HOLES. F—DIPPING-POTS. G—AT THE ONE FURNACE STANDS THE SMELTER CARRYING <lb/>A WICKER BASKET FULL OF CHARCOAL. AT THE OTHER FURNACE STANDS A SMELTER WHO <lb/>WITH THE THIRD HOOKED BAR BREAKS AWAY THE MATERIAL WHICH HAS FROZEN THE TAP­<lb/>HOLE OF THE FURNACE. H—HOOKED BAR. I—HEAP OF CHARCOAL. K—BARROW ON <lb/><gap/><pb pagenum="390"/>much gold or silver, are replenished again from crude pyrites alone. </s> <s>If <lb/>from this poor ore, with melted pyrites alone, material for cakes cannot <lb/>be made, there are added other fluxes which have not previously been <lb/>melted. </s> <s>These fluxes are, namely, lead ore, stones easily fused by fire <lb/>of the second order and sand made from them, limestone, <emph type="italics"/>tophus,<emph.end type="italics"/> white <lb/>schist, and iron stone<emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Although this method of smelting ores is rough and might not seem to <lb/>be of great use, yet it is clever and useful; for a great weight of ores, in <lb/>which the gold, silver, or copper are in small quantities, may be reduced into <lb/>a few cakes containing all the metal. </s> <s>If on being first melted they are too <lb/>crude to be suitable for the second melting, in which the lead absorbs the <lb/>precious metals that are in the cakes, or in which the copper is melted out of <lb/>them, yet they can be made suitable if they are repeatedly roasted, some­<lb/>times as often as seven or eight times, as I have explained in the last book. <lb/></s> <s>Smelters of this kind are so clever and expert, that in smelting they take out <lb/>all the gold and silver which the assayer in assaying the ores has stated to be <lb/>contained in them, because if during the first operation, when he makes the <lb/>cakes, there is a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold or half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver lost from the ores, <lb/>the smelter obtains it from the slags by the second smelting. </s> <s>This method of <lb/>smelting ores is old and very common to most of those who use other methods.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Although lead ores are usually smelted in the third furnace—whose tap­<lb/>hole is always open,—yet not a few people melt them in special furnaces by a <lb/>method which I will briefly explain. </s> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>Carni<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/> first burn such lead ores, <lb/>and afterward break and crush them with large round mallets. </s> <s>Between <lb/>the two low walls of a hearth, which is inside a furnace made of and vaulted <lb/>with a rock that resists injury by the fire and does not burn into chalk, they <lb/>place green wood with a layer of dry wood on the top of it; then they throw <lb/>the ore on to this, and when the wood is kindled the lead drips down and <lb/>runs on to the underlying sloping hearth<emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>This hearth is made of pulverised <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="391"/>charcoal and earth, as is also a large crucible, one-half of which lies under the <lb/>furnace and the other half outside it, into which runs the lead. </s> <s>The <lb/>smelter, having first skimmed off the slags and other things with a hoc, pours <lb/>the lead with a ladle into moulds, taking out the cakes after they have <lb/>cooled. </s> <s>At the back of the furnace is a rectangular hole, so that the fire <lb/>may be allowed more draught, and so that the smelter can crawl through it <lb/>into the furnace if necessity demands.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The Saxons who inhabit Gittelde, when smelting lead ore in a furnace <lb/>not unlike a baking oven, put the wood in through a hole at the back of the <lb/>furnace, and when it begins to burn vigorously the lead trickles out of the <lb/>ore into a forehearth. </s> <s>When this is full, the smelting being accomplished, <lb/>the tap-hole is opened with a bar, and in this way the lead, together with the <lb/>slags, runs into the dipping-pots below. </s> <s>Afterward the cakes of lead, when <lb/>they are cold, are taken from the moulds.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In Westphalia they heap up ten wagon-loads of charcoal on some hill­<lb/>side which adjoins a level place, and the top of the heap being made flat, <lb/>straw is thrown upon it to the thickness of three or four digits. </s> <s>On the top of <pb pagenum="392"/>this is laid as much pure lead ore as the heap can bear; then the charcoal is <lb/>kindled, and when the wind blows, it fans the fire so that the ore is smelted. <lb/></s> <s>In this wise the lead, trickling down from the heap, flows on to the level and <lb/>forms broad thin slabs. </s> <s>A few hundred pounds of lead ore are kept at hand, <lb/>which, if things go well, are scattered over the heap. </s> <s>These broad slabs are <lb/>impure and are laid upon dry wood which in turn is placed on green wood <lb/>laid over a large crucible, and the former having been kindled, the lead is <lb/>re-melted.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The Poles use a hearth of bricks four feet high, sloping on both sides and <lb/>plastered with lute. </s> <s>On the upper level part of the hearth large pieces of <lb/>wood are piled, and on these is placed small wood with lute put in between; <lb/>over the top are laid wood shavings, and upon these again pure lead ore <lb/>covered with large pieces of wood. </s> <s>When these are kindled, the ore melts and </s></p><pb pagenum="393"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE OF THE CARNI. B—LOW WALL. C—WOOD. D—ORE DRIPPING LEAD. <lb/>E—LARGE CRUCIBLE. F—MOULDS. G—LADLE. H—SLABS OF LEAD. I—RECTANGULAR <lb/>HOLE AT THE BACK OF THE FURNACE. K—SAXON FURNACE. L—OPENING IN THE BACK <lb/>OF THE FURNACE. M—WOOD. N—UPPER CRUCIBLE. O—DIPPING-POT. P—WESTPHALIAN <lb/>METHOD OF MELTING. Q—HEAPS OF CHARCOAL. R—STRAW. S—WIDE SLABS. <lb/><gap/><pb pagenum="394"/>runs down on to the lower layer of wood; and when this is consumed by <lb/>the fire, the metal is collected. </s> <s>If necessity demand, it is melted over and <lb/>over again in the same manner, but it is finally melted by means of wood <lb/>laid over the large crucible, the slabs of lead being placed upon it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The concentrates from washing are smelted together with slags (fluxes?) <lb/>in a third furnace, of which the tap-hole is always open.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It is worth while to build vaulted dust-chambers over the furnaces, <lb/>especially over those in which the precious ores are to be smelted, in order <lb/>that the thicker part of the fumes, in which metals are not wanting, may be <lb/>caught and saved. </s> <s>In this way two or more furnaces are combined under the <lb/>same vaulted ceiling, which is supported by the wall, against which the <lb/>furnaces are built, and by four columns. </s> <s>Under this the smelters of the <lb/>ore perform their work. </s> <s>There are two openings through which the fumes <lb/>rise from the furnaces into the wide vaulted chamber, and the wider this is the <lb/>more fumes it collects; in the middle of this chamber over the arch is an opening <lb/>three palms high and two wide. </s> <s>This catches the fumes of both furnaces, <lb/>which have risen up from both sides of the vaulted chamber to its arch, and <lb/>have fallen again because they could not force their way out; and they thus <lb/>pass out through the opening mentioned, into the chimney which the Greeks <lb/>call <foreign lang="greek">kapnodo/xh,</foreign> the name being taken from the object. </s> <s>The chimney has <lb/>thin iron plates fastened into the walls, to which the thinner metallic sub­<lb/>stances adhere when ascending with the fumes. </s> <s>The thicker metallic <lb/>substances, or <emph type="italics"/>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/> adhere to the vaulted chamber, and often <lb/>harden into stalactites. </s> <s>On one side of the chamber is a window in which <lb/>are set panes of glass, so that the light may be transmitted, but the fumes <lb/>kept in; on the other side is a door, which is kept entirely closed while the <lb/>ores are being smelted in the furnaces, so that none of the fumes may escape. <lb/></s> <s>It is opened in order that the workman, passing through it, may be enabled <lb/>to enter the chamber and remove the soot and <emph type="italics"/>pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/> and chip off <lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="395"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACES. B—VAULTED ROOF. C—COLUMNS. D—DUST-CHAMBER. E—OPENING. <lb/>F—CHIMNEY. G—WINDOW. H—DOOR. I—CHUTE.<pb pagenum="396"/>the <emph type="italics"/>cadmía;<emph.end type="italics"/> this sweeping is done twice a year. </s> <s>The soot mixed with <lb/><emph type="italics"/>pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"/> and the <emph type="italics"/>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"/> being chipped off, is thrown down through <lb/>a long chute made of four boards joined in the shape of a rectangle, <lb/>that they should not fly away. </s> <s>They fall on to the floor, and are sprinkled <lb/>with salt water, and are again smelted with ore and litharge, and become <lb/>an emolument to the proprietors. </s> <s>Such chambers, which catch the metallic <lb/>substances that rise with the fumes, are profitable for all metalliferous <lb/>ores; but especially for the minute metallic particles collected by washing <lb/>crushed ores and rock, because these usually fly out with the fire of the <lb/>furnaces.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I have explained the four general methods of smelting ores; now I <lb/>will state how the ores of each metal are smelted, or how the metal is obtained <lb/>from the ore. </s> <s>I will begin with gold. </s> <s>Its sand, the concentrates from <lb/>washing, or the gold dust collected in any other manner, should very often <lb/>not be smelted, but should be mixed with quicksilver and washed with tepid <lb/>water, so that all the impurities may be eliminated. </s> <s>This method I ex­<lb/>plained in Book VII. </s> <s>Or they are placed in the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> which separates <lb/>gold from silver, for this also separates its impurities. </s> <s>In this method we <lb/>see the gold sink in the glass ampulla, and after all the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> has been drained <lb/>from the particles, it frequently remains as a gold-coloured residue at the <lb/>bottom; this powder, when it has been moistened with oil made from <lb/>argol<emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/>, is then dried and placed in a crucible, where it is melted with borax <lb/>or with saltpetre and salt; or the same very fine dust is thrown into molten <lb/>silver, which absorbs it, and from this it is again parted by <emph type="italics"/>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>28<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It is necessary to smelt gold ore either outside the blast furnace in a <lb/>crucible, or inside the blast furnace; in the former case a small charge of ore <lb/>is used, in the latter a large charge of it. <emph type="italics"/>Rudís<emph.end type="italics"/> gold, of whatever colour <lb/>it is, is crushed with a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> each of sulphur and salt, a third of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper, <lb/><pb pagenum="397"/>and a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of argol; they should be melted in a crucible on a <lb/>slow fire for three hours, then the alloy is put into molten silver that it <lb/>may melt more rapidly. </s> <s>Or a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the same crude gold, crushed up, is <lb/>mixed together with half a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of <emph type="italics"/>stíbium<emph.end type="italics"/> likewise crushed, and put <lb/>into a crucible with half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper filings, and heated until they <lb/>melt, then a sixth part of granulated lead is thrown into the same crucible. <lb/></s> <s>As soon as the mixture emits an odour, iron-filings are added to it, or if these <lb/>are not at hand, iron hammer-scales, for both of these break the strength of <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> When the fire consumes it, not alone with it is some strength <lb/>of the <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"/> consumed, but some particles of gold and also of silver, if it <lb/>be mixed with the gold<emph type="sup"/>29<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>When the button has been taken out of the <lb/>crucible and cooled, it is melted in a cupel, first until the antimony is exhaled, <lb/>and thereafter until the lead is separated from it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Crushed pyrites which contains gold is smelted in the same way; it <lb/>and the <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"/> should be of equal weight and in truth the gold may be <lb/>made from them in a number of different ways<emph type="sup"/>30<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>One part of crushed <lb/>material is mixed with six parts of copper, one part of sulphur, half a part of <lb/>salt, and they are all placed in a pot and over them is poured wine distilled <lb/>by heating liquid argol in an ampulla. </s> <s>The pot is covered and smeared <lb/>over with lute and is put in a hot place, so that the mixture moistened with <lb/>wine may dry for the space of six days, then it is heated for three hours over <lb/>a gentle fire that it may combine more rapidly with the lead. </s> <s>Finally it is put <lb/>into a cupel and the gold is separated from the lead<emph type="sup"/>31<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Or else one <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the concentrates from washing pyrites, or other stones <lb/>to which gold adheres, is mixed with half a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of salt, half a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of argol, <lb/>a third of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of glass-galls, a sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold or silver slags, and a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>sicílícus<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper. </s> <s>The crucible into which these are put, after it has been <lb/>covered with a lid, is sealed with lute and placed in a small furnace that is <lb/>provided with small holes through which the air is drawn in, and then it is <lb/>heated until it turns red and the substances put in have alloyed; this should <lb/>take place within four or five hours. </s> <s>The alloy having cooled, it is again <lb/>crushed to powder and a pound of litharge is added to it; then it is heated <lb/>again in another crucible until it melts. </s> <s>The button is taken out, purged of <lb/>slag, and placed in a cupel, where the gold is separated from the lead.<lb/><lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="398"/><p type="main"> <s>Or to a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the powder prepared from such metalliferous <lb/>concentrates, is added a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> each of salt, of saltpetre, of argol, and of <lb/>glass-galls, and it is heated until it melts. </s> <s>When cooled and crushed, it is washed, <lb/>then to it is added a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, a third of copper filings, a sixth of litharge, <lb/>and it is likewise heated again until it melts. </s> <s>After the button has been <lb/>purged of slag, it is put into the cupel, and the gold and silver are separated <lb/>from the lead; the gold is parted from the silver with <emph type="italics"/>aqua valens.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Or else <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the powder prepared from such metalliferous concentrates, <lb/>a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper filings, and two <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of that second powder<emph type="sup"/>32<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>which fuses ores, are heated until they melt. </s> <s>The mixture when cooled is again <lb/>reduced to powder, roasted and washed, and in this manner a blue powder is <lb/>obtained. </s> <s>Of this, and silver, and that second powder which fuses ores, a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> each are taken, together with three <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead, and a quarter of a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper, and they are heated together until they melt; then the <lb/>button is treated as before. </s> <s>Or else a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the powder prepared from <lb/>such metalliferous concentrates, half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of saltpetre, and a quarter of a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of salt are heated until they melt. </s> <s>The alloy when cooled is again <lb/>crushed to powder, one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of which is absorbed by four pounds of molten <lb/>silver. </s> <s>Or else a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the powder made from that kind of concentrates, <lb/>together with a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of sulphur, a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a half of salt, a third of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>salt made from argol, and a third of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper resolved into powder <lb/>with sulphur, are heated until they melt. </s> <s>Afterward the lead is re-melted, <lb/>and the gold is separated from the other metals. </s> <s>Or else a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the <lb/>powder of this kind of concentrates, together with two <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of salt, half a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of sulphur, and one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of litharge, are heated, and from these the <lb/>gold is melted out. </s> <s>By these and similar methods concentrates containing <lb/>gold, if there be a small quantity of them or if they are very rich, can be <lb/>smelted outside the blast furnace.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If there be much of them and they are poor, then they are smelted in the <lb/>blast furnace, especially the ore which is not crushed to powder, and particularly <lb/>when the gold mines yield an abundance of it<emph type="sup"/>33<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>The gold concentrates mixed <lb/>with litharge and hearth-lead, to which are added iron-scales, are smelted in the <lb/>blast furnace whose tap-hole is intermittently closed, or else in the first or the <lb/>second furnaces in which the tap-hole is always open. </s> <s>In this manner an <lb/><pb pagenum="399"/>alloy of gold and lead is obtained which is put into the cupellation furnace. <lb/></s> <s>Two parts of roasted pyrites or <emph type="italics"/>cadmía<emph.end type="italics"/> which contain gold, are put with <lb/>one part of unroasted, and are smelted together in the third furnace whose <lb/>tap-hole is always open, and are made into cakes. </s> <s>When these cakes have <lb/>been repeatedly roasted, they are re-smelted in the furnace whose tap­<lb/>hole is temporarily closed, or in one of the two others whose tap-holes are <lb/>always open. </s> <s>In this manner the lead absorbs the gold, whether pure or <lb/>argentiferous or cupriferous, and the alloy is taken to the cupellation <lb/>furnace. </s> <s>Pyrites, or other gold ore which is mixed with much material that <lb/>is consumed by fire and flies out of the furnace, is melted with stone from <lb/>which iron is melted, if this is at hand. </s> <s>Six parts of such pyrites, or of gold <lb/>ore reduced to powder and sifted, four of stone from which iron is made, like­<lb/>wise crushed, and three of slaked lime, are mixed together and moistened <lb/>with water; to these are added two and a half parts of the cakes which <lb/>contain some copper, together with one and a half parts of slag. </s> <s>A basket­<lb/>ful of fragments of the cakes is thrown into the furnace, then the mixture <lb/>of other things, and then the slag. </s> <s>Now when the middle part of the <lb/>forehearth is filled with the molten material which runs down from the <lb/>furnace, the slags are first skimmed off, and then the cakes made of pyrites; <lb/>afterward the alloy of copper, gold and silver, which settles at the bottom, <lb/>is taken out. </s> <s>The cakes are gently roasted and re-smelted with lead, and <lb/>made into cakes, which are carried to other works. </s> <s>The alloy of copper, <lb/>gold, and silver is not roasted, but is re-melted again in a crucible with an <lb/>equal portion of lead. </s> <s>Cakes are also made much richer in copper and gold <lb/>than those I spoke of. </s> <s>In order that the alloy of gold and silver may be <pb pagenum="400"/>made richer, to eighteen <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of it are added forty-eight <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of crude <lb/>ore, three <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of the stone from which iron is made, and three-quarters <lb/>of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the cakes made from pyrites, and mixed with lead, all are <lb/>heated together in the crucible until they melt. </s> <s>When the slag and the <lb/>cakes melted from pyrites have been skimmed off, the alloy is carried to <lb/>other furnaces.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There now follows silver, of which the native silver or the lumps of <emph type="italics"/>rudís<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>silver<emph type="sup"/>34<emph.end type="sup"/> obtained from the mines are not smelted in the blast furnaces, but in <lb/>small iron pans, of which I will speak at the proper place; these lumps <lb/>are heated and thrown into molten silver-lead alloy in the cupellation furnace <lb/>when the silver is being separated from the lead, and refined. </s> <s>The tiny flakes <lb/>or tiny lumps of silver adhering to stones or marble or rocks, or again the <lb/>same little lumps mixed with earth, or silver not pure enough, should be <lb/>smelted in the furnace of which the tap-hole is only closed for a short time, <lb/>together with cakes melted from pyrites, with silver slags, and with stones <lb/>which easily fuse in fire of the second order.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In order that particles of silver should not fly away<emph type="sup"/>35<emph.end type="sup"/> from the lumps <lb/>of ore consisting of minute threads of pure silver and twigs of native silver, <lb/>they are enclosed in a pot, and are placed in the same furnace where the rest of <lb/>the silver ores are being smelted. </s> <s>Some people smelt lumps of native silver <lb/>not sufficiently pure, in pots or triangular crucibles, whose lids are sealed with <lb/>lute. </s> <s>They do not place these pots in the blast furnace, but arrange them in <lb/>the assay furnace into which the draught of the air blows through small holes. <lb/></s> <s>To one part of the native silver they add three parts of powdered litharge, as <lb/>many parts of hearth-lead, half a part of galena<emph type="sup"/>36<emph.end type="sup"/>, and a small quantity of <lb/>salt and iron-scales. </s> <s>The alloy which settles at the bottom of the other <lb/>substances in the pot is carried to the cupellation furnace, and the slags are <lb/>re-melted with the other silver slags. </s> <s>They crush under the stamps and <lb/>wash the pots or crucibles to which silver-lead alloy or slags adhere, and <lb/>having collected the concentrates they smelt them together with the slags. <lb/></s> <s>This method of smelting <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> silver, if there is a small quantity of it, is the <lb/>best, because the smallest portion of silver does not fly out of the pot or the <lb/>crucible, and get lost.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If bismuth ore or antimony ore or lead ore<emph type="sup"/>37<emph.end type="sup"/> contains silver, it is <lb/>smelted with the other ores of silver; likewise galena or pyrites, if there is <lb/>a small amount of it. </s> <s>If there be much galena, whether it contain a large <lb/>or a small amount of silver, it is smelted separately from the others; <lb/>which process I will explain a little further on.<lb/><lb/><lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="401"/><p type="main"> <s>Because lead and copper ores and their metals have much in common <lb/>with silver ores, it is fitting that I should say a great deal concerning them, <lb/>both now and later on. </s> <s>Also in the same manner, pyrites are smelted separ­<lb/>ately if there be much of them. </s> <s>To three parts of roasted lead or copper <lb/>ore and one part of crude ore, are added concentrates if they were made by <lb/>washing the same ore, together with slags, and all are put in the third furnace <lb/>whose tap-hole is always open. </s> <s>Cakes are made from this charge, which, <lb/>when they have been quenched with water, are roasted. </s> <s>Of these roasted <lb/>cakes generally four parts are again mixed with one part of crude pyrites <lb/>and re-melted in the same furnace. </s> <s>Cakes are again made from this charge, <lb/>and if there is a large amount of copper in these cakes, copper is made <lb/>immediately after they have been roasted and re-melted; if there is little <lb/>copper in the cakes they are also roasted, but they are re-smelted with a little <lb/>soft slag. </s> <s>In this method the molten lead in the forehearth absorbs the <lb/>silver. </s> <s>From the pyritic material which floats on the top of the forehearth <lb/>are made cakes for the third time, and from them when they have been <lb/>roasted and re-smelted is made copper. </s> <s>Similarly, three parts of roasted <lb/><emph type="italics"/>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>38<emph.end type="sup"/> in which there is silver, are mixed with one part of crude pyrites, <lb/>together with slag, and this charge is smelted and cakes are made from it; <lb/>these cakes having been roasted are re-smelted in the same furnace. </s> <s>By this <lb/>method the lead contained in the forehearth absorbs the silver, and the silver­<lb/>lead is taken to the cupellation furnace. </s> <s>Crude quartz and stones which <lb/>easily fuse in fire of the third order, together with other ores in which there <lb/>is a small amount of silver, ought to be mixed with crude roasted pyrites or <lb/><emph type="italics"/>cadmía,<emph.end type="italics"/> because the roasted cakes of pyrites or <emph type="italics"/>cadmía<emph.end type="italics"/> cannot be <lb/>profitably smelted separately. </s> <s>In a similar manner earths which contain <lb/>little silver are mixed with the same; but if pyrites and <emph type="italics"/>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/> are not <lb/>available to the smelter, he smelts such silver ores and earths with litharge, <lb/>hearth-lead, slags, and stones which easily melt in the fire. </s> <s>The concentrates<emph type="sup"/>39<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>originating from the washing of <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> silver, after first being roasted<emph type="sup"/>40<emph.end type="sup"/> until <lb/>they melt, are smelted with mixed litharge and hearth-lead, or else, after <lb/>being moistened with water, they are smelted with cakes made from pyrites <lb/>and <emph type="italics"/>cadmia.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> By neither of these methods do (the concentrates) fall <lb/>back in the furnace, or fly out of it, driven by the blast of the bellows and the <lb/>agitation of the fire. </s> <s>If the concentrates originated from galena they are <lb/>smelted with it after having been roasted; and if from pyrites, then with <lb/>pyrites.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Pure copper ore, whether it is its own colour or is tinged with chrysocolla <lb/>or azure, and copper glance, or grey or black <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> copper, is smelted in a <lb/>furnace of which the tap-hole is closed for a very short time, or else is always <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="402"/>open<emph type="sup"/>41<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>If there is a large amount of silver in the ore it is run into the fore­<lb/>hearth, and the greater part of the silver is absorbed by the molten lead, and <lb/>the remainder is sold with the copper to the proprietor of the works in which <lb/>silver is parted from copper<emph type="sup"/>42<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>If there is a small amount of silver in the ore, <lb/>no lead is put into the forehearth to absorb the silver, and the above­<lb/><pb pagenum="403"/>mentioned proprietors buy it in with the copper; if there be no silver, copper <lb/>is made direct. </s> <s>If such copper ore contains some minerals which do not <lb/>easily melt, as pyrites or <emph type="italics"/>cadmía metallíca fossilís<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>43<emph.end type="sup"/>, or stone from which iron <lb/>is melted, then crude pyrites which easily fuse are added to it, together <lb/>with slag. </s> <s>From this charge, when smelted, they make cakes; and from <pb pagenum="404"/>these, when they have been roasted as much as is necessary and re-smelted, <lb/>the copper is made. </s> <s>But if there be some silver in the cakes, for which an <lb/>outlay of lead has to be made, then it is first run into the forehearth, and <lb/>the molten lead absorbs the silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Indeed, <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> copper ore of inferior quality, whether ash-coloured or <lb/>purple, blackish and occasionally in parts blue, is smelted in the first <lb/>furnace whose tap-hole is always open. </s> <s>This is the method of the Tyrolese. <lb/></s> <s>To as much <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> copper ore as will fill eighteen vessels, each of which holds <pb pagenum="405"/>almost as much as seven Roman <emph type="italics"/>moduli<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>44<emph.end type="sup"/>, the first smelter—for there are <lb/>three—adds three cartloads of lead slags, one cartload of schist, one fifth of <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of stones which easily fuse in the fire, besides a small <lb/>quantity of concentrates collected from copper slag and accretions, all of <lb/>which he smelts for the space of twelve hours, and from which he makes six <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of primary cakes and one-half of a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of alloy. <lb/></s> <s>One half of the latter consists of copper and silver, and it settles to the bottom <lb/>of the forehearth. </s> <s>In every <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of the cakes there is half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of silver and sometimes half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> besides; in the half of a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/><pb pagenum="406"/>of the alloy there is a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> or three-quarters of silver. </s> <s>In this way every week, <lb/>if the work is for six days, thirty-six <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of cakes are made and <lb/>three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of alloy, in all of which there is often almost twenty-four <lb/><emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>The second smelter separates from the primary cakes the <lb/>greater part of the silver by absorbing it in lead. </s> <s>To eighteen <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of cakes made from crude copper ore, he adds twelve <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of hearth­<lb/>lead and litharge, three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of stones from which lead is smelted, <lb/>five <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of hard cakes rich in silver, and two <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>exhausted liquation cakes<emph type="sup"/>45<emph.end type="sup"/>; he adds besides, some of the slags resulting <lb/>from smelting crude copper, together with a small quantity of concentrates <lb/>made from accretions, all of which he melts for the space of twelve hours, <lb/>and makes eighteen <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of secondary cakes, and twelve <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper-lead-silver alloy; in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of the latter <lb/>there is half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>After he has taken off the cakes with a <lb/>hooked bar, he pours the alloy out into copper or iron moulds; by this <lb/>method they make four cakes of alloy, which are carried to the works in <lb/>which silver is parted from copper. </s> <s>On the following day, the same smelter, <lb/>taking eighteen <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of the secondary cakes, again adds twelve <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of hearth-lead and litharge, three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of stones <lb/>from which lead is smelted, five <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of hard cakes rich in silver, <lb/>together with slags from the smelting of the primary cakes, and with concen­<lb/>trates washed from the accretions which are usually made at that time. <lb/></s> <s>This charge is likewise smelted for the space of twelve hours, and he makes as <lb/>many as thirteen <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of tertiary cakes and eleven <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of copper-lead-silver alloy, each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of which contains one­<lb/>third of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>When he has skimmed off the <lb/>tertiary cakes with a hooked bar, the alloy is poured into copper moulds, and <lb/>by this method four cakes of alloy are made, which, like the preceding four <lb/>cakes of alloy, are carried to the works in which silver is parted from copper. <lb/></s> <s>By this method the second smelter makes primary cakes on alternate days <lb/>and secondary cakes on the intermediate days. </s> <s>The third smelter takes <lb/>eleven cartloads of the tertiary cakes and adds to them three cartloads of <lb/>hard cakes poor in silver, together with the slag from smelting the secondary <lb/>cakes, and the concentrates from the accretions which are usually made <lb/>at that time. </s> <s>From this charge when smelted, he makes twenty <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of quaternary cakes, which are called “hard cakes,” and also <lb/>fifteen <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of those “hard cakes rich in silver,” each <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of which contains a third of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>These latter cakes the <lb/>second smelter, as I said before, adds to the primary and secondary cakes <lb/>when he re-melts them. </s> <s>In the same way, from eleven cartloads of qua­<lb/>ternary cakes thrice roasted, he makes the “final” cakes, of which one <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondinm<emph.end type="italics"/> contains only half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>In this operation he <lb/>also makes fifteen <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of “hard cakes poor in silver,” in each <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of which is a sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>These hard cakes the <pb pagenum="407"/>third smelter, as I have said, adds to the tertiary cakes when he re-smelts <lb/>them, while from the “final” cakes, thrice roasted and re-smelted, is made <lb/>black copper<emph type="sup"/>46<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> copper from which pure copper is made, if it contains little <lb/>silver or if it does not easily melt, is first smelted in the third furnace of which <lb/>the tap-hole is always open; and from this are made cakes, which after <lb/>being seven times roasted are re-smelted, and from these copper is melted <lb/>out; the cakes of copper are carried to a furnace of another kind, in which <lb/>they are melted for the third time, in order that in the copper “bottoms” <lb/>there may be more silver, while in the “tops” there may be less, which <lb/>process is explained in Book XI.</s></p><pb pagenum="408"/><p type="main"> <s>Pyrites, when they contain not only copper, but also silver, are smelted <lb/>in the manner I described when I treated of ores of silver. </s> <s>But if they are <lb/>poor in silver, and if the copper which is melted out of them cannot easily be <lb/>treated, they are smelted according to the method which I last explained.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Finally, the copper schists containing bitumen or sulphur are roasted, <lb/>and then smelted with stones which easily fuse in a fire of the second order, <lb/>and are made into cakes, on the top of which the slags float. </s> <s>From <lb/>these cakes, usually roasted seven times and re-melted, are melted out <lb/>slags and two kinds of cakes; one kind is of copper and occupies the <lb/>bottom of the crucible, and these are sold to the proprietors of the works in <lb/>which silver is parted from copper; the other kind of cakes are usually <lb/>re-melted with primary cakes. </s> <s>If the schist contains but a small amount of <lb/>copper, it is burned, crushed under the stamps, washed and sieved, and <lb/>the concentrates obtained from it are melted down; from this are made <lb/>cakes from which, when roasted, copper is made. </s> <s>If either chrysocolla or azure, <lb/>or yellow or black earth containing copper and silver, adheres to the schist, <lb/>it is not washed, but is crushed and smelted with stones which easily <lb/>fuse in fire of the second order.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Lead ore, whether it be <emph type="italics"/>molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>47<emph.end type="sup"/>, pyrites, (galena?) or stone from <lb/>which it is melted, is often smelted in a special furnace, of which I have <lb/>spoken above, but no less often in the third furnace of which the tap-hole <lb/>is always open. </s> <s>The hearth and forehearth are made from powder containing <lb/>a small portion of iron hammer-scales; iron slag forms the principal flux <lb/>for such ores; both of these the expert smelters consider useful and to <lb/>the owner's advantage, because it is the nature of iron to attract lead. </s> <s>If <lb/>it is <emph type="italics"/>molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"/> or the stone from which lead is smelted, then the lead runs <lb/>down from the furnace into the forehearth, and when the slags have been <lb/>skimmed off, the lead is poured out with a ladle. </s> <s>If pyrites are smelted, <lb/>the first to flow from the furnace into the forehearth, as may be seen at <lb/>Goslar, is a white molten substance, injurious and noxious to silver, for it <lb/>consumes it. </s> <s>For this reason the slags which float on the top having been <lb/>skimmed off, this substance is poured out; or if it hardens, then it is taken <lb/>out with a hooked bar; and the walls of the furnace exude the same substance<emph type="sup"/>48<emph.end type="sup"/>. <lb/><pb pagenum="409"/>Then the <emph type="italics"/>stannum<emph.end type="italics"/> runs out of the furnace into the forehearth; this is an alloy <lb/>of lead and silver. </s> <s>From the silver-lead alloy they first skim off the slags, <lb/>not rarely white, as some pyrites<emph type="sup"/>49<emph.end type="sup"/> are, and afterward they skim off the <lb/>cakes of pyrites, if there are any. </s> <s>In these cakes there is usually some copper; <lb/>but since there is usually but a very small quantity, and as the forest <pb pagenum="410"/>charcoal is not abundant, no copper is made from them. </s> <s>From the silver­<lb/>lead poured into iron moulds they likewise make cakes: when these cakes <lb/>have been melted in the cupellation furnace, the silver is parted from the <lb/>lead, because part of the lead is transformed into litharge and part into <lb/>hearth-lead, from which in the blast furnace on re-melting they make <pb pagenum="411"/>de-silverized lead, for in this lead each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> contains only a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, when before the silver was parted from it each <emph type="italics"/>centumpon­<lb/>dium<emph.end type="italics"/> contained more or less than three <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver<emph type="sup"/>50<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The little black stones<emph type="sup"/>51<emph.end type="sup"/> and others from which tin is made, are smelted <lb/>in their own kind of furnace, which should be narrower than the other <lb/>furnaces, that there may be only the small fire which is necessary for this <lb/>ore. </s> <s>These furnaces are higher, that the height may compensate for the <lb/>narrowness and make them of almost the same capacity as the other furnaces. <lb/></s> <s>At the top, in front, they are closed and on the other side they are open, where <lb/>there are steps, because they cannot have the steps in front on account of the <lb/>forehearth; the smelters ascend by these steps to put the tin-stone into the <lb/>furnace. </s> <s>The hearth of the furnace is not made of powdered earth and char­<lb/>coal, but on the floor of the works are placed sandstones which are not too <lb/>hard; these are set on a slight slope, and are two and three-quarters feet <lb/>long, the same number of feet wide, and two feet thick, for the thicker they are <lb/>the longer they last in the fire. </s> <s>Around them is constructed a rectangular <lb/>furnace eight or nine feet high, of broad sandstones, or of those common <lb/>substances which by nature are composed of diverse materials<emph type="sup"/>52<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>On the <lb/>inside the furnace is everywhere evenly covered with lute. </s> <s>The upper part <lb/>of the interior is two feet long and one foot wide, but below it is not so long <lb/>and wide. </s> <s>Above it are two hood-walls, between which the fumes ascend <lb/>from the furnace into the dust chamber, and through this they escape by a <lb/>narrow opening in the roof. </s> <s>The sandstones are sloped at the bed of the <lb/>furnace, so that the tin melted from the tin-stone may flow through the tap­<lb/>hole of the furnace into the forehearth.<emph type="sup"/>53<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/><lb/><lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="412"/><p type="main"> <s>As there is no need for the smelters to have a fierce fire, it is not necessary <lb/>to place the nozzles of the bellows in bronze or iron pipes, but only through a <lb/>hole in the furnace wall. </s> <s>They place the bellows higher at the back so that <lb/>the blast from the nozzles may blow straight toward the tap-hole of the <lb/>furnace. </s> <s>That it may not be too fierce, the nozzles are wide, for if the fire <lb/>were fiercer, tin could not be melted out from the tin-stone, as it would be <lb/>consumed and turned into ashes. </s> <s>Near the steps is a hollowed stone, <lb/>in which is placed the tin-stone to be smelted; as often as the smelter <lb/>throws into the furnace an iron shovel-ful of this tin-stone, he puts on char­<lb/>coal that was first put into a vat and washed with water to be cleansed from the <lb/>grit and small stones which adhere to it, lest they melt at the same time as the <lb/>tin-stone and obstruct the tap-hole and impede the flow of tin from the <lb/>furnace. </s> <s>The tap-hole of the furnace is always open; in front of it is a fore­<lb/>hearth a little more than half a foot deep, three-quarters of two feet long and <lb/>one foot wide; this is lined with lute, and the tin from the tap-hole flows into it. <lb/></s> <s>On one side of the forehearth is a low wall, three-quarters of a foot wider <lb/>and one foot longer than the forehearth, on which lies charcoal powder. <lb/></s> <s>On the other side the floor of the building slopes, so that the slags may con­<lb/>veniently run down and be carried away. </s> <s>As soon as the tin begins to run <lb/>from the tap-hole of the furnace into the forehearth, the smelter scrapes <pb pagenum="413"/>down some of the powdered charcoal into it from the wall, so that the slags <lb/>may be separated from the hot metal, and so that it may be covered, lest <lb/>any part of it, being very hot, should fly away with the fumes. </s> <s>If after <lb/>the slag has been skimmed off, the powder does not cover up the whole of the <lb/>tin, the smelter draws a little more charcoal off the wall with a scraper. </s> <s>After <lb/>he has opened the tap-hole of the forehearth with a tapping-bar, in order <lb/>that the tin can flow into the tapping-pot, likewise smeared with lute, he <lb/>again closes the tap-hole with pure lute or lute mixed with powdered charcoal. <lb/></s> <s>The smelter, if he be diligent and experienced, has brooms at hand with which <lb/>he sweeps down the walls above the furnace; to these walls and to the <lb/>dust chamber minute tin-stones sometimes adhere with part of the fumes. <lb/></s> <s>If he be not sufficiently experienced in these matters and has melted at the <lb/>same time all of the tin-stone,—which is commonly of three sizes, large, <lb/>medium, and very small,—not a little waste of the proprietor's tin results; <lb/>because, before the large or the medium sizes have melted, the small have either <lb/>been burnt up in the furnace, or else, flying up from it, they not only adhere to <lb/>the walls but also fall in the dust chamber. </s> <s>The owner of the works has <lb/>the sweepings by right from the owner of the ore. </s> <s>For the above reasons <lb/>the most experienced smelter melts them down separately; indeed, he <lb/>melts the very small size in a wider furnace, the medium in a medium-sized <lb/>furnace, and the largest size in the narrowest furnace. </s> <s>When he melts down <lb/>the small size he uses a gentle blast from the bellows, with the medium-sized <lb/>a moderate one, with the large size a violent blast; and when he smelts <lb/>the first size he needs a slow fire, for the second a medium one, and for the <lb/>third a fierce one; yet he uses a much less fierce fire than when he smelts <lb/>the ores of gold, silver, or copper. </s> <s>When the workmen have spent three <lb/>consecutive days and nights in this work, as is usual, they have finished <lb/>their labours; in this time they are able to melt out a large weight of small <pb pagenum="414"/>sized tin-stone which melts quickly, but less of the large ones which melt <lb/>slowly, and a moderate quantity of the medium-sized which holds the middle <lb/>course. </s> <s>Those who do not smelt the tin-stone in furnaces made sometimes <lb/>wide, sometimes medium, or sometimes narrow, in order that great loss <lb/>should not be occasioned, throw in first the smallest size, then the medium, <lb/>then the large size, and finally those which are not quite pure; and the blast <lb/>of the bellows is altered as required. </s> <s>In order that the tin-stone thrown <lb/>into the furnace should not roll off from the large charcoal into the forehearth <lb/>before the tin is melted out of it, the smelter uses small charcoal; first some <lb/>of this moistened with water is placed in the furnace, and then he frequently <lb/>repeats this succession of charcoal and tin-stone.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The tin-stone, collected from material which during the summer was <lb/>washed in a ditch through which a stream was diverted, and during the winter <lb/>was screened on a perforated iron plate, is smelted in a furnace a palm wider <lb/>than that in which the fine tin-stone dug out of the earth is smelted. </s> <s>For <lb/>the smelting of these, a more vigorous blast of the bellows and a fiercer fire <lb/>is needed than for the smelting of the large tin-stone. </s> <s>Whichever kind of <lb/>tin-stone is being smelted, if the tin first flows from the furnace, much of it is <lb/>made, and if slags first flow from the furnace, then only a little. </s> <s>It happens <lb/>that the tin-stone is mixed with the slags when it is either less pure or <lb/>ferruginous—that is, not enough roasted—and is imperfect when put into <lb/>the furnace, or when it has been put in in a larger quantity than was neces­<lb/>sary; then, although it may be pure and melt easily, the ore either runs <lb/>out of the furnace at the same time, mixed with the slags, or else it settles <lb/>so firmly at the bottom of the furnace that the operation of smelting being <lb/>necessarily interrupted, the furnace freezes up.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The tap-hole of the forehearth is opened and the tin is diverted into the <lb/>dipping-pot, and as often as the slags flow down the sloping floor of the build­<lb/>ing they are skimmed off with a rabble; as soon as the tin has run out of <lb/>the forehearth, the tap-hole is again closed up with lute mixed with powdered <lb/>charcoal. </s> <s>Glowing coals are put in the dipping-pot so that the tin, after it <lb/>has run out, should not get chilled. </s> <s>If the metal is so impure that nothing <lb/>can be made from it, the material which has run out is made into cakes to be <lb/>re-smelted in the hearth, of which I shall have something to say later; if the <lb/>metal is pure, it is poured immediately upon thick copper plates, at first in <lb/>straight lines and then transversely over these to make a lattice. </s> <s>Each of <lb/>these lattice bars is impressed with an iron die; if the tin was melted out <lb/>of ore excavated from mines, then one stamp only, namely, that of the <lb/>Magistrate, is usually imprinted, but if it is made from tin-stone collected on <lb/>the ground after washing, then it is impressed with two seals, one the <lb/>Magistrate's and the other a fork which the washers use. </s> <s>Generally, three <lb/>of this kind of lattice bars are beaten and amalgamated into one mass with a <lb/>wooden mallet.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The slags that are skimmed off are afterward thrown with an iron shovel <lb/>into a small trough hollowed from a tree, and are cleansed from charcoal </s></p><pb pagenum="415"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE. B—ITS TAP-HOLE. C—FOREHEARTH. D—ITS TAP-HOLE. E—SLAGS. <lb/>F—SCRAPER. G—DIPPING-POT. H—WALLS OF THE CHIMNEY. I—BROOM. <lb/>K—COPPER PLATE. L—LATTICEWORK BARS. M—IRON SEAL OR DIE. N—HAMMER.<pb pagenum="416"/>by agitation; when taken out they are broken up with a square iron mallet, <lb/>and then they are re-melted with the fine tin-stone next smelted. </s> <s>There <lb/>are some who crush the slags three times under wet stamps and re-melt them <lb/>three times; if a large quantity of this be smelted while still wet, little <lb/>tin is melted from it, because the slag, soon melted again, flows from the <lb/>furnace into the forehearth. </s> <s>Under the wet stamps are also crushed the <lb/>lute and broken rock with which such furnaces are lined, and also the <lb/>accretions, which often contain fine tin-stone, either not melted or half­<lb/>melted, and also prills of tin. </s> <s>The tin-stone not yet melted runs out <lb/>through the screen into a trough, and is washed in the same way as tin­<lb/>stone, while the partly melted and the prills of tin are taken from the mortar­<lb/>box and washed in the sieve on which not very minute particles remain, and <lb/>thence to the canvas strake. </s> <s>The soot which adheres to that part of the <lb/>chimney which emits the smoke, also often contains very fine tin-stone which <lb/>flies from the furnace with the fumes, and this is washed in the strake which <lb/>I have just mentioned, and in other sluices. </s> <s>The prills of tin and the partly <lb/>melted tin-stone that are contained in the lute and broken rock with which <lb/>the furnace is lined, and in the remnants of the tin from the forehearth and <lb/>the dipping-pot, are smelted together with the tin-stone.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When tin-stone has been smelted for three days and as many nights in a <lb/>furnace prepared as I have said above, some little particles of the rock from <lb/>which the furnace is constructed become loosened by the fire and fall down; <lb/>and then the bellows being taken away, the furnace is broken through at the <lb/>back, and the accretions are first chipped off with hammers, and afterward <lb/>the whole of the interior of the furnace is re-fitted with the prepared sand­<lb/>stone, and again evenly lined with lute. </s> <s>The sandstone placed on the bed <lb/>of the furnace, if it has become faulty, is taken out, and another is laid down <lb/>in its place; those rocks which are too large the smelter chips off and fits <lb/>with a sharp pick.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some build two furnaces against the wall just like those I have described, <lb/>and above them build a vaulted ceiling supported by the wall and by four <lb/>pillars. </s> <s>Through holes in the vaulted ceiling the fumes from the furnaces <lb/>ascend into a dust chamber, similar to the one described before, except that <lb/>there is a window on each side and there is no door. </s> <s>The smelters, when <lb/>they have to clear away the flue-dust, mount by the steps at the side of the <lb/>furnaces, and climb by ladders into the dust chamber through the apertures <lb/>in the vaulted ceilings over the furnaces. </s> <s>They then remove the flue-dust <lb/>from everywhere and collect it in baskets, which are passed from one to the <lb/>other and emptied. </s> <s>This dust chamber differs from the other described, in <lb/>the fact that the chimneys, of which it has two, are not dissimilar to those <lb/>of a house; they receive the fumes which, being unable to escape through the <lb/>upper part of the chamber, are turned back and re-ascend and release the <lb/>tin; thus the tin set free by the fire and turned to ash, and the little tin­<lb/>stones which fly up with the fumes, remain in the dust chamber or else adhere <lb/>to copper plates in the chimney.</s></p><pb pagenum="417"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACES. B—FOREHEARTHS. C—THEIR TAP-HOLES. D—DIPPING-POTS. E—PILLARS. <lb/>F—DUST-CHAMBER. G—WINDOW. H—CHIMNEYS. I—TUB IN WHICH THE COALS ARE <lb/>WASHED.</s></p><pb pagenum="418"/><p type="main"> <s>If the tin is so impure that it cracks when struck with the hammer, it <lb/>is not immediately made into lattice-like bars, but into the cakes which I have <lb/>spoken of before, and these are refined by melting again on a hearth. </s> <s>This <lb/>hearth consists of sandstones, which slope toward the centre and a little <lb/>toward a dipping-pot; at their joints they are covered with lute. </s> <s>Dry <lb/>logs are arranged on each side, alternately upright and lengthwise, and more <lb/>closely in the middle; on this wood are placed five or six cakes of tin which <lb/>all together weigh about six <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia;<emph.end type="italics"/> the wood having been kindled, </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEARTHS. B—DIPPING-POTS. C—WOOD. D—CAKES. E—LADLE. F—COPPER <lb/>PLATE. G—LATTICE-SHAPED BARS. H—IRON DIES. I—WOODEN MALLET. K—MASS <lb/>OF TIN BARS. L—SHOVEL.<lb/>the tin drips down and flows continuously into the dipping-pot which <lb/>is on the floor. </s> <s>The impure tin sinks to the bottom of this dipping-pot <lb/>and the pure tin floats on the top; then both are ladled out by the master, <lb/>who first takes out the pure tin, and by pouring it over thick plates of copper <lb/>makes lattice-like bars. </s> <s>Afterward he takes out the impure tin from which <lb/>he makes cakes; he discriminates between them, when he ladles and pours, <lb/>by the ease or difficulty of the flow. </s> <s>One <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of the lattice-like <lb/>bare sells for more than a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of cakes, for the price of the former <pb pagenum="419"/>exceeds the price of the latter by a gold coin<emph type="sup"/>54<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>These lattice-like bars are <lb/>lighter than the others, and when five of them are pounded and amalgamated <lb/>with a wooden mallet, a mass is made which is stamped with an iron die. <lb/></s> <s>There are some who do not make a dipping-pot on the floor for the tin to run <lb/>into, but in the hearth itself; out of this the master, having removed the <lb/>charcoal, ladles the tin and pours it over the copper-plate. </s> <s>The dross which <lb/>adheres to the wood and the charcoal, having been collected, is re-smelted <lb/>in the furnace.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE. B—BELLOWS. C—IRON DISC. D—NOZZLE. E—WOODEN DISC. <lb/>F—BLOW-HOLE. G—HANDLE. H—HAFT. I—HOOPS. K—MASSES OF TIN.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some of the Lusitanians melt tin from tin-stone in small furnaces. </s> <s>They <lb/>use round bellows made of leather, of which the fore end is a round iron disc <lb/>and the rear end a disc of wood; in a hole in the former is fixed the nozzle, <lb/>in the middle of the latter the blow-hole. </s> <s>Above this is the handle or haft, <lb/>which draws open the round bellows and lets in the air, or compresses it and <lb/>drives the air out. </s> <s>Between the discs are several iron hoops to which the <lb/>leather is fastened, making such folds as are to be seen in paper lanterns that <pb pagenum="420"/>are folded together. </s> <s>Since this kind of bellows does not give a vigorous blast, <lb/>because they are drawn apart and compressed slowly, the smelter is not <lb/>able during a whole day to smelt much more than half a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>tin.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Very good iron ore is smelted<emph type="sup"/>55<emph.end type="sup"/> in a furnace almost like the cupellation <lb/>furnace. </s> <s>The hearth is three and a half feet high, and five feet long and <lb/>wide; in the centre of it is a crucible a foot deep and one and a half feet <lb/>wide, but it may be deeper or shallower, wider or narrower, according to whether <lb/>more or less ore is to be made into iron. </s> <s>A certain quantity of iron ore is <lb/>given to the master, out of which he may smelt either much or little iron. <lb/></s> <s>He being about to expend his skill and labour on this matter, first throws <lb/>charcoal into the crucible, and sprinkles over it an iron shovel-ful of crushed <lb/>iron ore mixed with unslaked lime. </s> <s>Then he repeatedly throws on charcoal <lb/>and sprinkles it with ore, and continues this until he has slowly built up a <lb/>heap; it melts when the charcoal has been kindled and the fire violently <lb/>stimulated by the blast of the bellows, which are skilfully fixed in a pipe. <pb pagenum="421"/>He is able to complete this work sometimes in eight hours, sometimes in ten, <lb/>and again sometimes in twelve. </s> <s>In order that the heat of the fire should not <lb/>burn his face, he covers it entirely with a cap, in which, however, there are <lb/>holes through which he may see and breathe. </s> <s>At the side of the hearth is a <lb/>bar which he raises as often as is necessary, when the bellows blow too violent <lb/>a blast, or when he adds more ore and charcoal. </s> <s>He also uses the bar <lb/>to draw off the slags, or to open or close the gates of the sluice, through <lb/>which the waters flow down on to the wheel which turns the axle that com­<lb/>presses the bellows. </s> <s>In this sensible way, iron is melted out and a mass <lb/>weighing two or three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> may be made, providing the iron ore <lb/>was rich. </s> <s>When this is done the master opens the slag-vent with the tapping­<lb/>bar, and when all has run out he allows the iron mass to cool. </s> <s>Afterward <lb/>he and his assistant stir the iron with the bar, and then in order to chip off <lb/>the slags which had until then adhered to it, and to condense and flatten it, <lb/>they take it down from the furnace to the floor, and boat it with large wooden <lb/>mallets having slender handles five feet long. </s> <s>Thereupon it is immediately </s></p><pb pagenum="422"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEARTH. B—HEAP. C—SLAG-VENT. D—IRON MASS. E—WOODEN MALLETS. <lb/>F—HAMMER. G—ANVIL.<pb pagenum="423"/>placed on the anvil, and repeatedly beaten by the large iron hammer that is <lb/>raised by the cams of an axle turned by a water-wheel. </s> <s>Not long afterward <lb/>it is taken up with tongs and placed under the same hammer, and cut up with <lb/>a sharp iron into four, five, or six pieces, according to whether it is large or <lb/>small. </s> <s>These pieces, after they have been re-heated in the blacksmith's forge <lb/>and again placed on the anvil, are shaped by the smith into square bars or into <lb/>ploughshares or tyres, but mainly into bars. </s> <s>Four, six, or eight of these bars <lb/>weigh one-fifth of a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium,<emph.end type="italics"/> and from these they make various imple­<lb/>ments. </s> <s>During the blows from the hammer by which it is shaped by the smith, <lb/>a youth pours water with a ladle on to the glowing iron, and this is why the <lb/>blows make such a loud sound that they may be heard a long distance from <lb/>the works. </s> <s>The masses, if they remain and settle in the crucible of the <lb/>furnace in which the iron is smelted, become hard iron which can only be <lb/>hammered with difficulty, and from these they make the iron-shod heads for <lb/>the stamps, and such-like very hard articles.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>But to iron ore which is cupriferous, or which when heated<emph type="sup"/>56<emph.end type="sup"/> melts <lb/>with difficulty, it is necessary for us to give a fiercer fire and more labour; <lb/>because not only must we separate the parts of it in which there is metal from <lb/>those in which there is no metal, and break it up by dry stamps, but we must <lb/>also roast it, so that the other metals and noxious juices may be exhaled; <lb/>and we must wash it, so that the lighter parts may be separated from it. <lb/></s> <s>Such ores are smelted in a furnace similar to the blast furnace, but much <lb/>wider and higher, so that it may hold a great quantity of ore and much <lb/>charcoal; mounting the stairs at the side of the furnace, the smelters fill <lb/>it partly with fragments of ore not larger than nuts, and partly with <lb/>charcoal; and from this kind of ore once or twice smelted they make iron <lb/>which is suitable for re-heating in the blacksmith's forge, after it is flattened <lb/>out with the large iron hammer and cut into pieces with the sharp iron.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>By skill with fire and fluxes is made that kind of iron from which steel <lb/>is made, which the Greeks call <foreign lang="greek">sto/mwma.</foreign> Iron should be selected which <lb/>is easy to melt, is hard and malleable. </s> <s>Now although iron may be <lb/>smelted from ore which contains other metals, yet it is then either soft <lb/>or brittle; such (iron) must be broken up into small pieces when it is </s></p><pb pagenum="424"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE. B—STAIRS. C—ORE. D—CHARCOAL.</s></p><pb pagenum="425"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FORGE. B—BELLOWS. C—TONGS. D—HAMMER. E—COLD STREAM.<pb pagenum="426"/>hot, and then mixed with crushed stone which melts. </s> <s>Then a crucible <lb/>is made in the hearth of the smith's furnace, from the same moistened <lb/>powder from which are made the forehearths in front of the furnaces in <lb/>which ores of gold or silver are smelted; the width of this crucible is <lb/>about one and a half feet and the depth one foot. </s> <s>The bellows are so <lb/>placed that the blast may be blown through the nozzle into the middle <lb/>of the crucible. </s> <s>Then the whole of the crucible is filled with the best <lb/>charcoal, and it is surrounded by fragments of rock to hold in place the pieces <lb/>of iron and the superimposed charcoal. </s> <s>As soon as all the charcoal <lb/>is kindled and the crucible is glowing, a blast is blown from the bellows <lb/>and the master pours in gradually as much of the mixture of iron and flux <lb/>as he wishes. </s> <s>Into the middle of this, when it is melted, he puts four iron <lb/>masses each weighing thirty pounds, and heats them for five or six hours in a <lb/>fierce fire; he frequently stirs the melted iron with a bar, so that the small <lb/>pores in each mass absorb the minute particles, and these particles by their <lb/>own strength consume and expand the thick particles of the masses, which they <lb/>render soft and similar to dough. </s> <s>Afterward the master, aided by his <lb/>assistant, takes out a mass with the tongs and places it on the anvil, where <lb/>it is pounded by the hammer which is alternately raised and dropped by <lb/>means of the water-wheel; then, without delay, while it is still hot, he <lb/>throws it into water and tempers it; when it is tempered, he places it again <lb/>on the anvil, and breaks it with a blow from the same hammer. </s> <s>Then at <lb/>once examining the fragments, he decides whether the iron in some part or <lb/>other, or as a whole, appears to be dense and changed into steel; if so, he seizes <lb/>one mass after another with the tongs, and taking them out he breaks them <lb/>into pieces. </s> <s>Afterward he heats the mixture up again, and adds a portion <lb/>afresh to take the place of that which has been absorbed by the masses. </s> <s>This <lb/>restores the energy of that which is left, and the pieces of the masses are again <lb/>put back into the crucible and made purer. </s> <s>Each of these, after having <lb/>been heated, is seized with the tongs, put under the hammer and shaped <lb/>into a bar. </s> <s>While they are still glowing, he at once throws them into the very <lb/>coldest nearby running water, and in this manner, being suddenly condensed, <lb/>they are changed into pure steel, which is much harder and whiter than iron.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The ores of the other metals are not smelted in furnaces. </s> <s>Quicksilver <lb/>ores and also antimony are melted in pots, and bismuth in troughs.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I will first speak of quicksilver. </s> <s>This is collected when found in pools <lb/>formed from the outpourings of the veins and stringers; it is cleansed with <lb/>vinegar and salt, and then it is poured into canvas or soft leather, through <lb/>which, when squeezed and compressed, the quicksilver runs out into a pot or <lb/>pan. </s> <s>The ore of quicksilver is reduced in double or single pots. </s> <s>If in double <lb/>pots, then the upper one is of a shape not very dissimilar to the glass ampullas <lb/>used by doctors, but they taper downward toward the bottom, and the <lb/>lower ones are little pots similar to those in which men and women make <lb/>cheese, but both are larger than these; it is necessary to sink the lower <lb/>pots up to the rims in earth, sand, or ashes. </s> <s>The ore, broken up into small <lb/>pieces is put into the upper pots; these having been entirely closed up <pb pagenum="427"/>with moss, are placed upside down in the openings of the lower pots, where they <lb/>are joined with lute, lest the quicksilver which takes refuge in them should <lb/>be exhaled. </s> <s>There are some who, after the pots have been buried, do not fear <lb/>to leave them uncemented, and who boast that they are able to produce no <lb/>less weight of quicksilver than those who do cement them, but nevertheless <lb/>cementing with lute is the greatest protection against exhalation. </s> <s>In this <lb/>manner seven hundred pairs of pots are set together in the ground or on a <lb/>hearth. </s> <s>They must be surrounded on all sides with a mixture consisting of <lb/>crushed earth and charcoal, in such a way that the upper pots protrude to a <lb/>height of a palm above it. </s> <s>On both sides of the hearth rocks are first laid, <lb/>and upon them poles, across which the workmen place other poles transversely; <lb/>these poles do not touch the pots, nevertheless the fire heats the quick­<lb/>silver, which fleeing from the heat is forced to run down through the moss <lb/>into the lower pots. </s> <s>If the ore is being reduced in the upper pots, it flees <lb/>from them, wherever there is an exit, into the lower pots, but if the ore on <lb/>the contrary is put in the lower pots the quicksilver rises into the upper pot <lb/>or into the operculum, which, together with the gourd-shaped vessels, are <lb/>cemented to the upper pots.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEARTH. B—POLES. C—HEARTH WITHOUT FIRE IN WHICH THE POTS ARE PLACED. <lb/>D—ROCKS. E—ROWS OF POTS. F—UPPER POTS. G—LOWER POTS.</s></p><pb pagenum="428"/><p type="main"> <s>The pots, lest they should become defective, are moulded from the best <lb/>potters' clay, for if there are defects the quicksilver flies out in the fumes. <lb/></s> <s>If the fumes give out a very sweet odour it indicates that the quicksilver is <lb/>being lost, and since this loosens the teeth, the smelters and others standing by, <lb/>warned of the evil, turn their backs to the wind, which drives the fumes in <lb/>the opposite direction; for this reason, the building should be open around <lb/>the front and the sides, and exposed to the wind. </s> <s>If these pots are made <lb/>of cast copper they last a long time in the fire. </s> <s>This process for reducing the <lb/>ores of quicksilver is used by most people.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In a similar manner the antimony ore,<emph type="sup"/>57<emph.end type="sup"/> if free from other metals, is reduced <lb/>in upper pots which are twice as large as the lower ones. </s> <s>Their size, however, <lb/>depends on the cakes, which have not the same weight everywhere; for in <lb/>some places they are made to weigh six <emph type="italics"/>librae,<emph.end type="italics"/> in other places ten, and else­<lb/>where twenty. </s> <s>When the smelter has concluded his operation, he extin­<lb/>guishes the fire with water, removes the lids from the pots, throws earth mixed <lb/>with ash around and over them, and when they have cooled, takes out the <lb/>cakes from the pots.</s></p><pb pagenum="429"/><p type="main"> <s>Other methods for reducing quicksilver are given below. </s> <s>Big-bellied <lb/>pots, having been placed in the upper rectangular open part of a furnace, <lb/>are filled with the crushed ore. </s> <s>Each of these pots is covered with a lid <lb/>with a long nozzle—commonly called a <emph type="italics"/>campana<emph.end type="italics"/>—in the shape of a bell, and <lb/>they are cemented. </s> <s>Each of the small earthenware vessels shaped like a <lb/>gourd receives two of these nozzles, and these are likewise cemented. </s> <s>Dried </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—POTS. B—OPERCULA. C—NOZZLES. D—GOURD-SHAPED EARTHENWARE VESSELS.<lb/>wood having been placed in the lower part of the furnace and kindled, the <lb/>ore is heated until all the quicksilver has risen into the operculum which is <lb/>over the pot; it then flows from the nozzle and is caught in the earthenware <lb/>gourd-shaped vessel.</s></p><pb pagenum="430"/><p type="main"> <s>Others build a hollow vaulted chamber, of which the paved floor is made <lb/>concave toward the centre. </s> <s>Inside the thick walls of the chamber are the <lb/>furnaces. </s> <s>The doors through which the wood is put are in the outer part of the <lb/>same wall. </s> <s>They place the pots in the furnaces and fill them with crushed <lb/>ore, then they cement the pots and the furnaces on all sides with lute, so that <lb/>none of the vapour may escape from them, and there is no entrance to the </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—ENCLOSED CHAMBER. B—DOOR. C—LITTLE WINDOWS. D—MOUTHS THROUGH THE <lb/>WALLS. E—FURNACE IN THE ENCLOSED CHAMBER. F—POTS.<lb/>furnaces except through their mouths. </s> <s>Between the dome and the paved <lb/>floor they arrange green trees, then they close the door and the little windows, <lb/>and cover them on all sides with moss and lute, so that none of the quick­<lb/>silver can exhale from the chamber. </s> <s>After the wood has been kindled the <pb pagenum="431"/>ore is heated, and exudes the quicksilver; whereupon, impatient with the <lb/>heat, and liking the cold, it escapes to the leaves of the trees, which <lb/>have a cooling power. </s> <s>When the operation is completed the smelter <lb/>extinguishes the fire, and when all gets cool he opens the door and the <lb/>windows, and collects the quicksilver, most of which, being heavy, falls of <lb/>its own accord from the trees, and flows into the concave part of the floor; <lb/>if all should not have fallen from the trees, they are shaken to make it fall.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The following is the fourth method of reducing ores of quicksilver. </s> <s>A <lb/>larger pot standing on a tripod is filled with crushed ore, and over the ore is <lb/>put sand or ashes to a thickness of two digits, and tamped; then in <lb/>the mouth of this pot is inserted the mouth of another smaller pot and <lb/>cemented with lute, lest the vapours are emitted. </s> <s>The ore heated by the fire <lb/>exhales the quicksilver, which, penetrating through the sand or the ashes, <lb/>takes refuge in the upper pot, where condensing into drops it falls back into <lb/>the sand or the ashes, from which the quicksilver is washed and collected.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LARGER POT. B—SMALLER. C—TRIPOD. D—TUB IN WHICH THE SAND IS WASHED.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The fifth method is not very unlike the fourth. </s> <s>In the place of these <lb/>pots are set other pots, likewise of earthenware, having a narrow bottom <lb/>and a wide mouth. </s> <s>These are nearly filled with crushed ore, which is likewise <lb/>covered with ashes to a depth of two digits and tamped in. </s> <s>The pots are <pb pagenum="432"/>covered with lids a digit thick, and they are smeared over on the inside with <lb/>liquid litharge, and on the lid are placed heavy stones. </s> <s>The pots are set on <lb/>the furnace, and the ore is heated and similarly exhales quicksilver, which <lb/>fleeing from the heat takes refuge in the lid; on congealing there, it falls <lb/>back into the ashes, from which, when washed, the quicksilver is collected.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—POTS. B—LIDS. C—STONES. D—FURNACE.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>By these five methods quicksilver may be made, and of these not one is <lb/>to be despised or repudiated; nevertheless, if the mine supplies a great <lb/>abundance of ore, the first is the most expeditious and practical, because a <lb/>large quantity of ore can be reduced at the same time without great expense.<emph type="sup"/>58<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><pb pagenum="433"/><p type="main"> <s>Bismuth<emph type="sup"/>59<emph.end type="sup"/> ore, free from every kind of silver, is smelted by various <lb/>methods. </s> <s>First a small pit is dug in the dry ground; into this pulverised <lb/>charcoal is thrown and tamped in, and then it is dried with burning charcoal. <lb/></s> <s>Afterward, thick dry pieces of beech wood are placed over the pit, and the <lb/>bismuth ore is thrown on it. </s> <s>As soon as the kindled wood burns, the heated <lb/>ore drips with bismuth, which runs down into the pit, from which when cooled <lb/>the cakes are removed. </s> <s>Because pieces of burnt wood, or often charcoal <lb/>and occasionally slag, drop into the bismuth which collects in the pit, and <lb/>make it impure, it is put back into another kind of crucible to be melted, <lb/>so that pure cakes may be made. </s> <s>There are some who, bearing these things <lb/>in mind, dig a pit on a sloping place and below it put a forehearth, into <lb/>which the bismuth continually flows, and thus remains clean; then they <lb/>take it out with ladles and pour it into iron pans lined inside with lute, and <lb/>make cakes of it. </s> <s>They cover such pits with flat stones, whose joints are <lb/>besmeared with a lute of mixed dust and crushed charcoal, lest the joints <lb/>should absorb the molten bismuth. </s> <s>Another method is to put the ore in <lb/>troughs made of fir-wood and placed on sloping ground; they place small <lb/>firewood over it, kindling it when a gentle wind blows, and thus the ore is <lb/>heated. </s> <s>In this manner the bismuth melts and runs down from the troughs <lb/>into a pit below, while there remains slag, or stones, which are of a yellow <lb/>colour, as is also the wood laid across the pit. </s> <s>These are also sold.</s></p><pb pagenum="434"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—PIT ACROSS WHICH WOOD IS PLACED. B—FOREHEARTH. C—LADLE. D—IRON <lb/>MOULD. E—CAKES. F—EMPTY POT LINED WITH STONES IN LAYERS. G—TROUGHS. <lb/>H—PITS DUG AT THE FOOT OF THE TROUGHS. I—SMALL WOOD LAID OVER THE TROUGHS. <lb/>K—WIND.</s></p><pb pagenum="435"/><p type="main"> <s>Others reduce the ore in iron pans as next described. </s> <s>They lay small <lb/>pieces of dry wood alternately straight and transversely upon bricks, one and <lb/>a half feet apart, and set fire to it. </s> <s>Near it they put small iron pans lined <lb/>on the inside with lute, and full of broken ore; then when the wind <lb/>blows the flame of the fierce fire over the pans, the bismuth drips out of the <lb/>ore; wherefore, in order that it may run, the ore is stirred with the tongs; but <lb/>when they decide that all the bismuth is exuded, they seize the pans with <lb/>the tongs and remove them, and pour out the bismuth into empty pans, and <lb/>by turning many into one they make cakes. </s> <s>Others reduce the ore, when it is <lb/>not mixed with <emph type="italics"/>cadmía,<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>60<emph.end type="sup"/> in a furnace similar to the iron furnace. </s> <s>In this <lb/>case they make a pit and a crucible of crushed earth mixed with pulverised </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WOOD. B—BRICKS. C—PANS. D—FURNACE. E—CRUCIBLE. F—PIPE. <lb/>G—DIPPING-POT.<lb/>charcoal, and into it they put the broken ore, or the concentrates from <lb/>washing, from which they make more bismuth. </s> <s>If they put in ore, <lb/>they reduce it with charcoal and small dried wood mixed, and if concentrates, <lb/>they use charcoal only; they blow both materials with a gentle blast from <pb pagenum="436"/>a bellows. </s> <s>From the crucible is a small pipe through which the molten <lb/>bismuth runs down into a dipping-pot, and from this cakes are made.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>On a dump thrown up from the mines, other people construct a hearth <lb/>exposed to the wind, a foot high, three feet wide, and four and a half feet <lb/>long. </s> <s>It is held together by four boards, and the whole is thickly coated at <lb/>the top with lute. </s> <s>On this hearth they first put small dried sticks of fir wood, <lb/>then over them they throw broken ore; then they lay more wood over it, <lb/>and when the wind blows they kindle it. </s> <s>In this manner the bismuth drips <lb/>out of the ore, and afterward the ashes of the wood consumed by the fire and <lb/>the charcoals are swept away. </s> <s>The drops of bismuth which fall down into <lb/>the hearth are congealed by the cold, and they are taken away with the <lb/>tongs and thrown into a basket. </s> <s>From the melted bismuth they make <lb/>cakes in iron pans.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEARTH IN WHICH ORE IS MELTED. B—HEARTH ON WHICH LIE DROPS OF BISMUTH. <lb/>C—TONGS. D—BASKET. E—WIND.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Others again make a box eight feet long, four feet wide, and two feet high, <lb/>which they fill almost full of sand and cover with bricks, thus making <lb/>the hearth. </s> <s>The box has in the centre a wooden pivot, which turns in a hole <lb/>in two beams laid transversely one upon the other; these beams are hard and <lb/>thick, are sunk into the ground, both ends are perforated, and through <pb pagenum="437"/>these holes wedge-shaped pegs are driven, in order that the beams may remain <lb/>fixed, and that the box may turn round, and may be turned toward the wind <lb/>from whichever quarter of the sky it may blow. </s> <s>In such a hearth they put </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BOX. B—PIVOT. C—TRANSVERSE WOOD BEAMS. D—GRATE. E—ITS FEET. <lb/>F—BURNING WOOD. G—STICK. H—PANS IN WHICH THE BISMUTH IS MELTED. <lb/>I—PANS FOR MOULDS. K—CAKES. L—FORK. M—BRUSH.<lb/>an iron grate, as long and wide as the box and threequarters of a foot high; <lb/>it has six feet, and there are so many transverse bars that they almost touch <lb/>one another. </s> <s>On the grate they lay pine-wood and over it broken ore, and over <lb/>this they again lay pine-wood. </s> <s>When it has been kindled the ore melts, out <lb/>of which the bismuth drips down; since very little wood is burned, this is the <lb/>most profitable method of smelting the bismuth. </s> <s>The bismuth drips through <lb/>the grate on to the hearth, while the other things remain upon the grate with <lb/>the charcoal. </s> <s>When the work is finished, the workman takes a stick from the <lb/>hearth and overturns the grate, and the things which have accumulated on <lb/>it; with a brush he sweeps up the bismuth and collects it in a basket, and <lb/>then he melts it in an iron pan and makes cakes. </s> <s>As soon as possible after <lb/>it is cool, he turns the pans over, so that the cakes may fall out, using for <lb/>this purpose a two-pronged fork of which one prong is again forked. </s> <s>And <lb/>immediately afterward he returns to his labours.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>END OF BOOK IX.</s></p><pb/><figure></figure><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>BOOK X.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Questions as to the methods of smelting ores and <lb/>of obtaining metals I discussed in Book IX. <lb/></s> <s>Following this, I should explain in what manner the <lb/>precious metals are parted from the base metals, or <lb/>on the other hand the base metals from the precious<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/>. <lb/></s> <s>Frequently two metals, occasionally more than <lb/>two, are melted out of one ore, because in <lb/>nature generally there is some amount of gold in <lb/>silver and in copper, and some silver in gold, copper, <lb/>lead, and iron; likewise some copper in gold, silver, lead, and iron, and <lb/>some lead in silver; and lastly, some iron in copper<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>But I will begin with <lb/>gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Gold is parted from silver, or likewise the latter from the former, whether <lb/>it be mixed by nature or by art, by means of <emph type="italics"/>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>, and by powders <lb/>which consist of almost the same things as this <emph type="italics"/>aqua.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> In order to preserve the <lb/>sequence, I will first speak of the ingredients of which this <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is made, then <lb/>of the method of making it, then of the manner in which gold is parted from <lb/>silver or silver from gold. </s> <s>Almost all these ingredients contain vitriol or <lb/>alum, which, by themselves, but much more when joined with saltpetre, are <lb/>powerful to part silver from gold. </s> <s>As to the other things that are added to <lb/>them, they cannot individually by their own strength and nature separate <lb/>those metals, but joined they are very powerful. </s> <s>Since there are many <lb/>combinations, I will set out a few. </s> <s>In the first, the use of which is common <lb/>and general, there is one <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol and as much salt, added to a third of a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of spring water. </s> <s>The second contains two <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol, one of salt­<lb/>petre, and as much spring or river water by weight as will pass away whilst <lb/>the vitriol is being reduced to powder by the fire. </s> <s>The third consists of four <lb/><emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol, two and a half <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of saltpetre, half a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of alum, and one <lb/>and a half <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of spring water. </s> <s>The fourth consists of two <emph type="italics"/>líibrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol, <lb/>as many <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of saltpetre, one quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of alum, and three-quarters <lb/>of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of spring water. </s> <s>The fifth is composed of one <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of saltpetre, <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="440"/>three <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of alum, half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of brick dust, and three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of spring water. </s> <s>The sixth consists of four <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol, three <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>saltpetre, one of alum, one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> likewise of stones which when thrown into a <lb/>fierce furnace are easily liquefied by fire of the third order, and one and a <lb/>half <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of spring water. </s> <s>The seventh is made of two <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol, one <lb/>and a half <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of saltpetre, half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of alum, and one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of stones <lb/>which when thrown into a glowing furnace are easily liquefied by fire of the <lb/>third order, and five-sixths of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of spring water. </s> <s>The eighth is made of <lb/>two <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol, the same number of <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of saltpetre, one and a <lb/>half <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of alum, one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the lees of the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> which parts gold from <lb/>silver; and to each separate <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> a sixth of urine is poured over it. </s> <s>The <lb/>ninth contains two <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of powder of baked bricks, one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol, <lb/>likewise one <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of saltpetre, a handful of salt, and three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of spring water. </s> <s>Only the tenth lacks vitriol and alum, but it contains three <lb/><emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of saltpetre, two <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of stones which when thrown into a hot furnace <lb/>are easily liquefied by fire of the third order, half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> each of verdigris<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/>, <lb/>of <emph type="italics"/>stibium,<emph.end type="italics"/> of iron scales and filings, and of asbestos<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>, and one and one-sixth <lb/><emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of spring water.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>All the vitriol from which the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is usually made is first reduced to <lb/>powder in the following way. </s> <s>It is thrown into an earthen crucible lined on <lb/>the inside with litharge, and heated until it melts; then it is stirred with a <lb/>copper wire, and after it has cooled it is pounded to powder. </s> <s>In the same <lb/>manner saltpetre melted by the fire is pounded to powder when it has cooled. <lb/></s> <s>Some indeed place alum upon an iron plate, roast it, and make it into powder.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Although all these <emph type="italics"/>aquae<emph.end type="italics"/> cleanse gold concentrates or dust from <lb/>impurities, yet there are certain compositions which possess singular power. <lb/><pb pagenum="441"/>The first of these consists of one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of verdigris and three-quarters of <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol. </s> <s>For each <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> there is poured over it one-sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of spring or river water, as to which, since this pertains to all these com­<lb/>pounds, it is sufficient to have mentioned once for all. </s> <s>The second com­<lb/>position is made from one <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of each of the following, artificial orpiment, <lb/>vitriol, lime, alum, ash which the dyers of wool use, one quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of verdigris, and one and a half <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of <emph type="italics"/>stibium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The third consists of three <lb/><emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol, one of saltpetre, half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of asbestos, and half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>baked bricks. </s> <s>The fourth consists of one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of saltpetre, one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of alum, <lb/>and half a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of sal-ammoniac.<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The furnace in which <emph type="italics"/>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"/> is made<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/> is built of bricks, rectangular, <lb/>two feet long and wide, and as many feet high and a half besides. </s> <s>It is <lb/>covered with iron plates supported with iron rods; these plates are smeared <lb/>on the top with lute, and they have in the centre a round hole, large enough to <lb/>hold the earthen vessel in which the glass ampulla is placed, and on each side of <lb/>the centre hole are two small round air-holes. </s> <s>The lower part of the furnace, <lb/>in order to hold the burning charcoal, has iron plates at the height of a palm, <lb/>likewise supported by iron rods. </s> <s>In the middle of the front there is the <lb/>mouth, made for the purpose of putting the fire into the furnace; this mouth <lb/>is half a foot high and wide, and rounded at the top, and under it is the <lb/>draught opening. </s> <s>Into the earthen vessel set over the hole is placed clean <lb/>sand a digit deep, and in it the glass ampulla is set as deeply as it is smeared <lb/>with lute. </s> <s>The lower quarter is smeared eight or ten times with nearly liquid <lb/>lute, each time to the thickness of a blade, and each time it is dried again, <lb/>until it has become as thick as the thumb; this kind of lute is well beaten <lb/>with an iron rod, and is thoroughly mixed with hair or cotton thread, or with <lb/>wool and salt, that it should not crackle. </s> <s>The many things of which the <lb/>compounds are made must not fill the ampulla completely, lest when boiling <lb/>they rise into the operculum. </s> <s>The operculum is likewise made of glass, <lb/>and is closely joined to the ampulla with linen, cemented with wheat flour <lb/>and white of egg moistened with water, and then lute free from salt is spread <lb/>over that part of it. </s> <s>In a similar way the spout of the operculum is joined <lb/>by linen covered with lute to another glass ampulla which receives the distilled <lb/><emph type="italics"/>aqua.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> A kind of thin iron nail or small wooden peg, a little thicker than a <lb/>needle, is fixed in this joint, in order that when air seems necessary to the <lb/>artificer distilling by this process he can pull it out; this is necessary when <lb/>too much of the vapour has been driven into the upper part. </s> <s>The four air­<lb/>holes which, as I have said, are on the top of the furnace beside the large <lb/>hole on which the ampulla is placed, are likewise covered with lute.<lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="442"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE. B—ITS ROUND HOLE. C—AIR-HOLES. D—MOUTH OF THE FURNACE. <lb/>E—DRAUGHT OPENING UNDER IT. F—EARTHENWARE CRUCIBLE. G—AMPULLA. <lb/>H—OPERCULUM. I—ITS SPOUT. K—OTHER AMPULLA. L—BASKET IN WHICH THIS IS <lb/>USUALLY PLACED LEST IT SHOULD BE BROKEN.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>All this preparation having been accomplished in order, and the <lb/>ingredients placed in the ampulla, they are gradually heated over burning <lb/>charcoal until they begin to exhale vapour and the ampulla is seen to trickle <lb/>with moisture. </s> <s>But when this, on account of the rising of the vapour, turns <lb/>red, and the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> distils through the spout of the operculum, then one must <lb/>work with the utmost care, lest the drops should fall at a quicker rate than <lb/>one for every five movements of the clock or the striking of its bell, and <lb/>not slower than one for every ten; for if it falls faster the glasses will be <lb/>broken, and if it drops more slowly the work begun cannot be completed <lb/>within the definite time, that is within the space of twenty-four hours. </s> <s>To <lb/>prevent the first accident, part of the coals are extracted by means of an iron <lb/>implement similar to pincers; and in order to prevent the second happening, <lb/>small dry pieces of oak are placed upon the coals, and the substances in the <lb/>ampulla are heated with a sharper fire, and the air-holes on the furnace <lb/>are re-opened if need arise. </s> <s>As soon as the drops are being distilled, <lb/>the glass ampulla which receives them is covered with a piece of linen <pb pagenum="443"/>moistened with water, in order that the powerful vapour which arises may be <lb/>repelled. </s> <s>When the ingredients have been heated and the ampulla in which <lb/>they were placed is whitened with moisture, it is heated by a fiercer fire until <lb/>all the drops have been distilled<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>After the furnace has cooled, the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is <lb/>filtered and poured into a small glass ampulla, and into the same is put half <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/>, which when dissolved makes the turbid <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> clear. <lb/></s> <s>This is poured into the ampulla containing all the rest of the <emph type="italics"/>aqua,<emph.end type="italics"/> and as <lb/>soon as the lees have sunk to the bottom the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is poured off, removed, and <lb/>reserved for use.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Gold is parted from silver by the following method<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>The alloy, with lead <lb/>added to it, is first heated in a cupel until all the lead is exhaled, and eight <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="444"/>ounces of the alloy contain only five <emph type="italics"/>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper or at most six, for <lb/>if there is more copper in it, the silver separated from the gold soon unites <lb/>with it again. </s> <s>Such molten silver containing gold is formed into granules, <lb/>being stirred by means of a rod split at the lower end, or else is poured into an <lb/>iron mould, and when cooled is made into thin leaves. </s> <s>As the process of <lb/>making granules from argentiferous gold demands greater care and diligence than <lb/>making them from any other metals, I will now explain the method briefly. </s> <s>The <lb/>alloy is first placed in a crucible, which is then covered with a lid and placed <lb/>in another earthen crucible containing a few ashes. </s> <s>Then they are placed <lb/>in the furnace, and after they are surrounded by charcoal, the fire is blown <lb/>by the blast of a bellows, and lest the charcoal fall away it is surrounded <lb/>by stones or bricks. </s> <s>Soon afterward charcoal is thrown over the upper <lb/>crucible and covered with live coals; these again are covered with charcoal, <lb/>so that the crucible is surrounded and covered on all sides with it. </s> <s>It <lb/>is necessary to heat the crucibles with charcoal for the space of half an hour or <lb/>a little longer, and to provide that there is no deficiency of charcoal, lest the <lb/>alloy become chilled; after this the air is blown in through the nozzle of the <lb/>bellows, that the gold may begin to melt. </s> <s>Soon afterward it is turned <lb/>round, and a test is quickly taken to see whether it be melted, and if it is <lb/>melted, fluxes are thrown into it; it is advisable to cover up the crucible <lb/>again closely that the contents may not be exhaled. </s> <s>The contents are heated <lb/>together for as long as it would take to walk fifteen paces, and then the <lb/>crucible is seized with tongs and the gold is emptied into an oblong vessel <lb/>containing very cold water, by pouring it slowly from a height so that the <lb/>granules will not be too big; in proportion as they are lighter, more fine <lb/>and more irregular, the better they are, therefore the water is frequently <lb/>stirred with a rod split into four parts from the lower end to the middle.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The leaves are cut into small pieces, and they or the silver granules are <lb/>put into a glass ampulla, and the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is poured over them to a height of a <lb/>digit above the silver. </s> <s>The ampulla is covered with a bladder or with waxed <lb/>linen, lest the contents exhale. </s> <s>Then it is heated until the silver is dissolved, <lb/>the indication of which is the bubbling of the <emph type="italics"/>aqua.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The gold remains in the <lb/>bottom, of a blackish colour, and the silver mixed with the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> floats above. <lb/></s> <s>Some pour the latter into a copper bowl and pour into it cold water, which <lb/>immediately congeals the silver; this they take out and dry, having poured <lb/>off the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>They heat the dried silver in an earthenware crucible until <lb/>it melts, and when it is melted they pour it into an iron mould.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The gold which remains in the ampulla they wash with warm water, <lb/>filter, dry, and heat in a crucible with a little <emph type="italics"/>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"/> which is called <lb/>borax, and when it is melted they likewise pour it into an iron mould.</s></p><pb pagenum="445"/><p type="main"> <s>Some workers, into an ampulla which contains gold and silver and the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> which separates them, pour two or three times as much of this <emph type="italics"/>aqua <lb/>valens<emph.end type="italics"/> warmed, and into the same ampulla or into a dish into which all is <lb/>poured, throw fine leaves of black lead and copper; by this means the gold <lb/>adheres to the lead and the silver to the copper, and separately the lead <lb/>from the gold, and separately the copper from the silver, are parted in a <lb/>cupel. </s> <s>But no method is approved by us which loses the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> used to part <lb/>gold from silver, for it might be used again<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>A glass ampulla, which bulges up inside at the bottom like a cone, is <lb/>covered on the lower part of the outside with lute in the way explained above, <lb/>and into it is put silver bullion weighing three and a half Roman <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The <lb/><emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> which parts the one from the other is poured into it, and the ampulla is <lb/>placed in sand contained in an earthen vessel, or in a box, that it may be <lb/>warmed with a gentle fire. </s> <s>Lest the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> should be exhaled, the top of the <lb/>ampulla is plastered on all sides with lute, and it is covered with a glass <lb/>operculum, under whose spout is placed another ampulla which receives the <lb/>distilled drops; this receiver is likewise arranged in a box containing sand. <lb/></s> <s>When the contents are heated it reddens, but when the redness no <lb/>longer appears to increase, it is taken out of the vessel or box and shaken; <lb/>by this motion the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> becomes heated again and grows red; if this is <lb/>done two or three times before other <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is added to it, the operation is sooner <lb/>concluded, and much less <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is consumed. </s> <s>When the first charge has all <lb/>been distilled, as much silver as at first is again put into the ampulla, for if <lb/>too much were put in at once, the gold would be parted from it with difficulty. <lb/></s> <s>Then the second <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is poured in, but it is warmed in order that it and the <lb/>ampulla may be of equal temperature, so that the latter may not be cracked <lb/>by the cold; also if a cold wind blows on it, it is apt to crack. </s> <s>Then the third <lb/><emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is poured in, and also if circumstances require it, the fourth, that is to <lb/>say more <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> and again more is poured in until the gold assumes the colour <lb/>of burned brick. </s> <s>The artificer keeps in hand two <emph type="italics"/>aquae,<emph.end type="italics"/> one of which is <lb/>stronger than the other; the stronger is used at first, then the less strong, <lb/>then at the last again the stronger. </s> <s>When the gold becomes of a reddish <lb/>yellow colour, spring water is poured in and heated until it boils. </s> <s>The gold is <lb/>washed four times and then heated in the crucible until it melts. </s> <s>The water <lb/>with which it was washed is put back, for there is a little silver in it; for <lb/>this reason it is poured into an ampulla and heated, and the drops first distilled <lb/>are received by one ampulla, while those which come later, that is to say <lb/>when the operculum begins to get red, fall into another. </s> <s>This latter <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is <lb/>useful for testing the gold, the former for washing it; the former may also <lb/>be poured over the ingredients from which the <emph type="italics"/>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"/> is made.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> that was first distilled, which contains the silver, is poured into <lb/>an ampulla wide at the base, the top of which is also smeared with lute and <lb/>covered by an operculum, and is then boiled as before in order that it may be <lb/>separated from the silver. </s> <s>If there be so much <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> that (when boiled) it </s></p><pb pagenum="446"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—AMPULLAE ARRANGED IN THE VESSELS. B—AN AMPULLA STANDING UPRIGHT BETWEEN <lb/>IRON RODS. C—AMPULLAE PLACED IN THE SAND WHICH IS CONTAINED IN A BOX, THE <lb/>SPOUTS OF WHICH REACH FROM THE OPERCULA INTO AMPULLAE PLACED UNDER THEM. <lb/>D—AMPULLAE LIKEWISE PLACED IN SAND WHICH IS CONTAINED IN A BOX, OF WHICH THE <lb/>SPOUT FROM THE OPERCULA EXTENDS CROSSWISE INTO AMPULLAE PLACED UNDER THEM. <lb/>E—OTHER AMPULLAE RECEIVING THE DISTILLED <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> AND LIKEWISE ARRANGED IN SAND <lb/>CONTAINED IN THE LOWER BOXES. F—IRON TRIPOD, IN WHICH THE AMPULLA IS USUALLY <lb/>PLACED WHEN THERE ARE NOT MANY PARTICLES OF GOLD TO BE PARTED FROM THE SILVER. <lb/>G—VESSEL.<lb/>rises into the operculum, there is put into the ampulla one lozenge or two; <lb/>these are made of soap, cut into small pieces and mixed together with <lb/>powdered argol, and then heated in a pot over a gentle fire; or else the <lb/>contents are stirred with a hazel twig split at the bottom, and in both cases <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> effervesces, and soon after again settles. </s> <s>When the powerful vapour <lb/>appears, the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> gives off a kind of oil, and the operculum becomes red. </s> <s>But, <lb/>lest the vapours should escape from the ampulla and the operculum in that <lb/>part where their mouths communicate, they are entirely sealed all round. <lb/></s> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is boiled continually over a fiercer fire, and enough charcoal must be <lb/>put into the furnace so that the live coals touch the vessel. </s> <s>The ampulla is <lb/>taken out as soon as all the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> has been distilled, and the silver, which is dried <lb/>by the heat of the fire, alone remains in it; the silver is shaken out and put <lb/>in an earthenware crucible, and heated until it melts. </s> <s>The molten glass is <lb/>extracted with an iron rod curved at the lower end, and the silver is made <pb pagenum="447"/>into cakes. </s> <s>The glass extracted from the crucible is ground to powder, and <lb/>to this are added litharge, argol, glass-galls, and saltpetre, and they are <lb/>melted in an earthen crucible. </s> <s>The button that settles is transferred to the <lb/>cupel and re-melted.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If the silver was not sufficiently dried by the heat of the fire, that which <lb/>is contained in the upper part of the ampulla will appear black; this when <lb/>melted will be consumed. </s> <s>When the lute, which was smeared round the <lb/>lower part of the ampulla, has been removed, it is placed in the crucible and <lb/>is re-melted, until at last there is no more appearance of black<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If to the first <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> the other which contains silver is to be added, it <lb/>must be poured in before the powerful vapours appear, and the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> gives off <lb/>the oily substance, and the operculum becomes red; for he who pours in the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> after the vapour appears causes a loss, because the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> generally spurts <lb/>out and the glass breaks. </s> <s>If the ampulla breaks when the gold is being parted <lb/>from the silver or the silver from the <emph type="italics"/>aqua,<emph.end type="italics"/> the <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> will be absorbed by the <lb/>sand or the lute or the bricks, whereupon, without any delay, the red hot coals <lb/>should be taken out of the furnace and the fire extinguished. </s> <s>The sand and <lb/>bricks after being crushed should be thrown into a copper vessel, warm water. <lb/></s> <s>should be poured over them, and they should be put aside for the space of <lb/>twelve hours; afterward the water should be strained through a canvas, and <lb/>the canvas, since it contains silver, should be dried by the heat of the sun or <lb/>the fire, and then placed in an earthen crucible and heated until the silver <lb/>melts, this being poured out into an iron mould. </s> <s>The strained water should <lb/>be poured into an ampulla and separated from the silver, of which it contains <lb/>a minute portion; the sand should be mixed with litharge, glass-galls, <lb/>argol, saltpetre, and salt, and heated in an earthen crucible. </s> <s>The button <lb/>which settles at the bottom should be transferred to a cupel, and should <lb/>be re-melted, in order that the lead may be separated from the silver. </s> <s>The <lb/>lute, with lead added, should be heated in an earthen crucible, then <lb/>re-melted in a cupel.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We also separate silver from gold by the same method when we assay <lb/>them. </s> <s>For this purpose the alloy is first rubbed against a touchstone, in <lb/>order to learn what proportion of silver there is in it; then as much silver <lb/>as is necessary is added to the argentiferous gold, in a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of which there <lb/>must be less than a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> or a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/> of copper. <lb/></s> <s>After lead has been added, it is melted in a cupel until the lead and the <lb/>copper have exhaled, then the alloy of gold with silver is flattened out, and <lb/>little tubes are made of the leaves; these are put into a glass ampulla, <lb/>and strong <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> is poured over them two or three times. </s> <s>The tubes after <lb/>this are absolutely pure, with the exception of only a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>siliqua,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which is silver; for only this much silver remains in eight <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of gold<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/>.<lb/><lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="448"/><p type="main"> <s>As great expense is incurred in parting the metals by the methods that <lb/>I have explained, as night vigils are necessary when <emph type="italics"/>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"/> is made, <lb/>and as generally much labour and great pains have to be expended on this <lb/>matter, other methods for parting have been invented by clever men, which <lb/>are less costly, less laborious, and in which there is less loss if through care­<lb/>lessness an error is made. </s> <s>There are three methods, the first performed with <lb/>sulphur, the second with antimony, the third by means of some compound <lb/>which consists of these or other ingredients.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the first method,<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/> the silver containing some gold is melted in a <lb/>crucible and made into granules. </s> <s>For every <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of granules, there is taken <lb/>a sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>sícilicus<emph.end type="italics"/> of sulphur (not exposed to the fire); this, <lb/>when crushed, is sprinkled over the moistened granules, and then they are put <lb/>into a new carthen pot of the capacity of four <emph type="italics"/>sextarií,<emph.end type="italics"/> or into several of them <lb/>if there is an abundance of granules. </s> <s>The pot, having been filled, is covered <lb/>with an earthen lid and smeared over, and placed within a circle of fire set one <lb/>and a half feet distant from the pot on all sides, in order that the sulphur <lb/>added to the silver should not be distilled when melted. </s> <s>The pot is opened, </s></p><pb pagenum="449"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—POT. B—CIRCULAR FIRE. C—CRUCIBLES. D—THEIR LIDS. E—LID OF THE POT. <lb/>F—FURNACE. G—IRON ROD.<lb/>the black-coloured granules are taken out, and afterward thirty-three <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of these granules are placed in an earthen crucible, if it has such capacity. <lb/></s> <s>For every <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver granules, weighed before they were sprinkled with <pb pagenum="450"/>sulphur, there is weighed out also a sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>sicílícus<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>copper, if each <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> consists either of three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and <lb/>a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper, or of three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>semí-uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and a sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper. </s> <s>If, <lb/>however, the silver contains five-sixths of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and a sixth of a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper, or five-sixths of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and a half of copper, then there are weighed out a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper <lb/>granules. </s> <s>If a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> contains eleven-twelfths of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and one <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of copper, or eleven-twelfths and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>copper, then are weighed out a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>sícílicus<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper granules. </s> <s>Lastly, if there is only pure silver, then as much <lb/>as a third of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper granules are added. </s> <s>Half <lb/>of these copper granules are added soon afterward to the black-coloured <lb/>silver granules. </s> <s>The crucible should be tightly covered and smeared over <lb/>with lute, and placed in a furnace, into which the air is drawn through the <lb/>draught-holes. </s> <s>As soon as the silver is melted, the crucible is opened, and <lb/>there is placed in it a heaped ladleful more of granulated copper, and also <lb/>a heaped ladleful of a powder which consists of equal parts of litharge, of <lb/>granulated lead, of salt, and of glass-galls; then the crucible is again covered <lb/>with the lid. </s> <s>When the copper granules are melted, more are put in, together <lb/>with the powder, until all have been put in.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>A little of the regulus is taken from the crucible, but not from the gold <lb/>lump which has settled at the bottom, and a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of it is put into each of <lb/>the cupels, which contain an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of molten lead; there should be many <lb/>of these cupels. </s> <s>In this way half a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver is made. </s> <s>As soon as <lb/>the lead and copper have been separated from the silver, a third of it is <lb/>thrown into a glass ampulla, and <emph type="italics"/>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"/> is poured over it. </s> <s>By this <lb/>method is shown whether the sulphur has parted all the gold from the silver, <lb/>or not. </s> <s>If one wishes to know the size of the gold lump which has settled <lb/>at the bottom of the crucible, an iron rod moistened with water is covered <lb/>with chalk, and when the rod is dry it is pushed down straight into the <lb/>crucible, and the rod remains bright to the height of the gold lump; the <lb/>remaining part of the rod is coloured black by the regulus, which adheres to <lb/>the rod if it is not quickly removed.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If when the rod has been extracted the gold is observed to be <lb/>satisfactorily parted from the silver, the regulus is poured out, the gold <lb/>button is taken out of the crucible, and in some clean place the regulus is <lb/>chipped off from it, although it usually flies apart. </s> <s>The lump itself is reduced <lb/>to granules, and for every <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of this gold they weigh out a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>each of crushed sulphur and of granular copper, and all are placed together <lb/>in an earthen crucible, not into a pot. </s> <s>When they are melted, in order that <lb/>the gold may more quickly settle at the bottom, the powder which I have <lb/>mentioned is added.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Although minute particles of gold appear to scintillate in the regulus <lb/>of copper and silver, yet if all that are in a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> do not weigh as much as a <lb/>single sesterce, then the sulphur has satisfactorily parted the gold from the <pb pagenum="451"/>silver; but if it should weigh a sesterce or more, then the regulus is thrown <lb/>back again into the earthen crucible, and it is not advantageous to add sulphur, <lb/>but only a little copper and powder, by which method a gold lump is again <lb/>made to settle at the bottom; and this one is added to the other button which <lb/>is not rich in gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When gold is parted from sixty-six <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, the silver, copper, <lb/>and sulphur regulus weighs one hundred and thirty-two <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> To separate <lb/>the copper from the silver we require five hundred <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead, more or <lb/>less, with which the regulus is melted in the second furnace. </s> <s>In this <lb/>manner litharge and hearth-lead are made, which are re-smelted in the first <lb/>furnace. </s> <s>The cakes that are made from these are placed in the third furnace, <lb/>so that the lead may be separated from the copper and used again, for it <lb/>contains very little silver. </s> <s>The crucibles and their covers are crushed, washed, <lb/>and the sediment is melted together with litharge and hearth-lead.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Those who wish to separate all the silver from the gold by this method <lb/>leave one part of gold to three of silver, and then reduce the alloy to <lb/>granules. </s> <s>Then they place it in an ampulla, and by pouring <emph type="italics"/>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"/> over <lb/>it, part the gold from the silver, which process I explained in Book VII.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If sulphur from the lye with which <emph type="italics"/>sal artíficiosus<emph.end type="italics"/> is made, is strong <lb/>enough to float an egg thrown into it, and is boiled until it no longer emits <lb/>fumes, and melts when placed upon glowing coals, then, if such sulphur is <lb/>thrown into the melted silver, it parts the gold from it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Silver is also parted from gold by means of <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>If in a <emph type="italics"/>bes of<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>gold there are seven, or six, or five double <emph type="italics"/>sextulae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, then three parts <lb/>of <emph type="italics"/>stibium<emph.end type="italics"/> are added to one part of gold; but in order that the <emph type="italics"/>stibium<emph.end type="italics"/> should <lb/>not consume the gold, it is melted with copper in a red hot earthern crucible. <lb/></s> <s>If the gold contains some portion of copper, then to eight <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of <emph type="italics"/>stibium<emph.end type="italics"/><pb pagenum="452"/>a <emph type="italics"/>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper is added; and if it contains no copper, then half an <lb/><emph type="italics"/>uncia,<emph.end type="italics"/> because copper must be added to <emph type="italics"/>stibium<emph.end type="italics"/> in order to part gold from <lb/>silver. </s> <s>The gold is first placed in a red hot earthen crucible, and when <lb/>melted it swells, and a little <emph type="italics"/>stibium<emph.end type="italics"/> is added to it lest it run over; in a <lb/>short space of time, when this has melted, it likewise again swells, and <lb/>when this occurs it is advisable to put in all the remainder of the <emph type="italics"/>stibium,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and to cover the crucible with a lid, and then to heat the mixture for the <lb/>time required to walk thirty-five paces. </s> <s>Then it is at once poured out into <lb/>an iron pot, wide at the top and narrow at the bottom, which was first <lb/>heated and smeared over with tallow or wax, and set on an iron or wooden <lb/>block. </s> <s>It is shaken violently, and by this agitation the gold lump settles <lb/>to the bottom, and when the pot has cooled it is tapped loose, and is again <lb/>melted four times in the same way. </s> <s>But each time a less weight of <emph type="italics"/>stibium<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>is added to the gold, until finally only twice as much <emph type="italics"/>stibium<emph.end type="italics"/> is added as <lb/>there is gold, or a little more; then the gold lump is melted in a cupel. </s> <s>The <lb/><emph type="italics"/>stibium<emph.end type="italics"/> is melted again three or four times in an earthen crucible, and each <lb/>time a gold lump settles, so that there are three or four gold lumps, and <lb/>these are all melted together in a cupel.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>To two <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> and a half of such <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"/> are added two <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of argol <lb/>and one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of glass-galls, and they are melted in an earthen crucible, <lb/>where a lump likewise settles at the bottom; this lump is melted in the <lb/>cupel. </s> <s>Finally, the <emph type="italics"/>stibium<emph.end type="italics"/> with a little lead added, is melted in the cupel, <lb/>in which, after all the rest has been consumed by the fire, the silver alone <lb/>remains. </s> <s>If the <emph type="italics"/>stíbium<emph.end type="italics"/> is not first melted in an earthen crucible with argol <lb/>and glass-galls, before it is melted in the cupel, part of the silver is consumed, <lb/>and is absorbed by the ash and powder of which the cupel is made.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The crucible in which the gold and silver alloy are melted with <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and also the cupel, are placed in a furnace, which is usually of the kind </s></p><pb pagenum="453"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE IN WHICH THE AIR IS DRAWN IN THROUGH HOLES. B—GOLDSMITH'S FORGE. <lb/>C—EARTHEN CRUCIBLES. D—IRON POTS. E—BLOCK.<lb/>in which the air is drawn in through holes; or else they are placed in a gold­<lb/>smith's forge.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Just as <emph type="italics"/>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"/> poured over silver, from which the sulphur has <lb/>parted the gold, shows us whether all has been separated or whether <lb/>particles of gold remain in the silver; so do certain ingredients, if placed in <lb/>the pot or crucible “alternately” with the gold, from which the silver has <lb/>been parted by <emph type="italics"/>stibíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> and heated, show us whether all have been <lb/>separated or not.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We use cements<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/> when, without <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> we part silver or copper or both <lb/>so ingeniously and admirably from gold. </s> <s>There are various cements. </s> <s>Some <pb pagenum="454"/>consist of half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of brick dust, a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of salt, an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of salt­<lb/>petre, half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of sal-ammoniac, and half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of rock salt. </s> <s>The bricks <lb/>or tiles from which the dust is made must be composed of fatty clays, free from <lb/>sand, grit, and small stones, and must be moderately burnt and very old.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Another cement is made of a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of brick dust, a third of rock salt, an <lb/><emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of saltpetre, and half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of refined salt. </s> <s>Another cement is made <lb/>of a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of brick dust, a quarter of refined salt, one and a half <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>saltpetre, an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of sal-ammoniac, and half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of rock salt. </s> <s>Another <lb/>has one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of brick dust, and half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of rock salt, to which some add a <lb/>sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol. </s> <s>Another is made of half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>brick dust, a third of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of rock salt, an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and a half of vitriol, and <lb/>one <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of saltpetre. </s> <s>Another consists of a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of brick dust, a third of <lb/>refined salt, a sixth of white vitriol<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/>, half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of verdigris, and likewise <lb/>half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of saltpetre. </s> <s>Another is made of one and a third <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of brick <lb/>dust, a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of rock salt, a sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of sal-ammoniac, <lb/>a sixth and half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol, and a sixth of saltpetre. </s> <s>Another contains <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of brick dust, a third of refined salt, and one and a half <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol.</s></p><pb pagenum="455"/><p type="main"> <s>Those ingredients above are peculiar to each cement, but what follows <lb/>is common to all. </s> <s>Each of the ingredients is first separately crushed to <lb/>powder; the bricks are placed on a hard rock or marble, and crushed with an <lb/>iron implement; the other things are crushed in a mortar with a pestle; <lb/>each is separately passed through a sieve. </s> <s>Then they are all mixed together, <lb/>and are moistened with vinegar in which a little sal-ammoniac has been <lb/>dissolved, if the cement does not contain any. </s> <s>But some workers, however, <lb/>prefer to moisten the gold granules or gold-leaf instead.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The cement should be placed, alternately with the gold, in new and clean <lb/>pots in which no water has ever been poured. </s> <s>In the bottom the cement is <lb/>levelled with an iron implement, and afterward the gold granules or leaves <lb/>are placed one against the other, so that they may touch it on all sides; then, <lb/>again, a handful of the cement, or more if the pots are large, is thrown in and <lb/>levelled with an iron implement; the granules and leaves are laid over this <lb/>in the same manner, and this is repeated until the pot is filled. </s> <s>Then it is <lb/>covered with a lid, and the place where they join is smeared over with <lb/>artificial lute, and when this is dry the pots are placed in the furnace.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The furnace has three chambers, the lowest of which is a foot high; into <lb/>this lowest chamber the air penetrates through an opening, and into it the </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE. B—POT. C—LID. D—AIR-HOLES.<pb pagenum="456"/>ashes fall from the burnt wood, which is supported by iron rods, arranged to <lb/>form a grating. </s> <s>The middle chamber is two feet high, and the wood is pushed <lb/>in through its mouth. </s> <s>The wood ought to be oak, holmoak, or turkey-oak, <lb/>for from these the slow and lasting fire is made which is necessary for this <lb/>operation. </s> <s>The upper chamber is open at the top so that the pots, for which <lb/>it has the depth, may be put into it; the floor of this chamber consists of iron <lb/>rods, so strong that they may bear the weight of the pots and the heat of the <lb/>fire; they are sufficiently far apart that the fire may penetrate well and may <lb/>heat the pots. </s> <s>The pots are narrow at the bottom, so that the fire entering <lb/>into the space between them may heat them; at the top the pots are wide, <lb/>so that they may touch and hold back the heat of the fire. </s> <s>The upper part <lb/>of the furnace is closed in with bricks not very thick, or with tiles and lute, <lb/>and two or three air-holes are left, through which the fumes and flames may <lb/>escape.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The gold granules or leaves and the cement, alternately placed in the pots, <lb/>are heated by a gentle fire, gradually increasing for twenty-four hours, if the <lb/>furnace was heated for two hours before the full pots were stood in it, and if <lb/>this was not done, then for twenty-six hours. </s> <s>The fire should be increased <lb/>in such a manner that the pieces of gold and the cement, in which is the <lb/>potency to separate the silver and copper from the gold, may not melt, for in <lb/>this case the labour and cost will be spent in vain; therefore, it is ample to <lb/>have the fire hot enough that the pots always remain red. </s> <s>After so many <lb/>hours all the burning wood should be drawn out of the furnace. </s> <s>Then the <lb/>refractory bricks or tiles are removed from the top of the furnace, and the <lb/>glowing pots are taken out with the tongs. </s> <s>The lids are removed, and <lb/>if there is time it is well to allow the gold to cool by itself, for then there is <lb/>less loss; but if time cannot be spared for that operation, the pieces of gold <lb/>are immediately placed separately into a wooden or bronze vessel of water <lb/>and gradually quenched, lest the cement which absorbs the silver should <lb/>exhale it. </s> <s>The pieces of gold, and the cement adhering to them, when cooled <lb/>or quenched, are rolled with a little mallet so as to crush the lumps and free <lb/>the gold from the cement. </s> <s>Then they are sifted by a fine sieve, which is <lb/>placed over a bronze vessel; in this manner the cement containing the <lb/>silver or the copper or both, falls from the sieve into the bronze vessel, and the <lb/>gold granules or leaves remain on it. </s> <s>The gold is placed in a vessel and <lb/>again rolled with the little mallet, so that it may be cleansed from the cement <lb/>which absorbs silver and copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The particles of cement, which have dropped through the holes of the <lb/>sieve into the bronze vessel, are washed in a bowl, over a wooden tub, being <lb/>shaken about with the hands, so that the minute particles of gold which have <lb/>fallen through the sieve may be separated. </s> <s>These are again washed in a <lb/>little vessel, with warm water, and scrubbed with a piece of wood or a twig <lb/>broom, that the moistened cement may be detached. </s> <s>Afterward all the gold <lb/>is again washed with warm water, and collected with a bristle brush, and should <lb/>be washed in a copper full of holes, under which is placed a little vessel. <lb/></s> <s>Then it is necessary to put the gold on an iron plate, under which is a vessel, <pb pagenum="457"/>and to wash it with warm water. </s> <s>Finally, it is placed in a bowl, and, when <lb/>dry, the granules or leaves are rubbed against a touchstone at the same time <lb/>as a touch-needle, and considered carefully as to whether they be pure or <lb/>alloyed. </s> <s>If they are not pure enough, the granules or the leaves, together <lb/>with the cement which attracts silver and copper, are arranged alternately <lb/>in layers in the same manner, and again heated; this is done as often as is <lb/>necessary, but the last time it is heated as many hours as are required to <lb/>cleanse the gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some people add another cement to the granules or leaves. </s> <s>This cement <lb/>lacks the ingredients of metalliferous origin, such as verdigris and vitriol, for <lb/>if these are in the cement, the gold usually takes up a little of the base metal; <lb/>or if it does not do this, it is stained by them. </s> <s>For this reason some very <lb/>rightly never make use of cements containing these things, because brick <lb/>dust and salt alone, especially rock salt, are able to extract all the silver and <lb/>copper from the gold and to attract it to themselves.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It is not necessary for coiners to make absolutely pure gold, but to heat <lb/>it only until such a fineness is obtained as is needed for the gold money which <lb/>they are coining.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The gold is heated, and when it shows the necessary golden yellow colour <lb/>and is wholly pure, it is melted and made into bars, in which case they are <lb/>either prepared by the coiners with <emph type="italics"/>chrysocolla,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is called by the Moors <lb/>borax, or are prepared with salt of lye made from the ashes of ivy or of <lb/>other salty herbs.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The cement which has absorbed silver or copper, after water has been <lb/>poured over it, is dried and crushed, and when mixed with hearth-lead and <lb/>de-silverized lead, is smelted in the blast furnace. </s> <s>The alloy of silver and <lb/>lead, or of silver and copper and lead, which flows out, is again melted in the <lb/>cupellation furnace, in order that the lead and copper may be separated from <lb/>the silver. </s> <s>The silver is finally thoroughly purified in the refining furnace, <lb/>and in this practical manner there is no silver lost, or only a minute quantity.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are besides this, certain other cements<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/> which part gold from <lb/>silver, composed of sulphur, <emph type="italics"/>stibium<emph.end type="italics"/> and other ingredients. </s> <s>One of these <lb/>compounds consists of half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of vitriol dried by the heat of the fire <lb/>and reduced to powder, a sixth of refined salt, a third of <emph type="italics"/>stibium,<emph.end type="italics"/> half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/><pb pagenum="458"/>of prepared sulphur (not exposed to the fire), one <emph type="italics"/>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"/> of glass, likewise <lb/>one <emph type="italics"/>sícilicus<emph.end type="italics"/> of saltpetre, and a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of sal-ammoniac.<emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/> The sulphur <lb/>is prepared as follows: it is first crushed to powder, then it is heated <lb/>for six hours in sharp vinegar, and finally poured into a vessel and washed <lb/>with warm water; then that which settles at the bottom of the vessel is <lb/>dried. </s> <s>To refine the salt it is placed in river water and boiled, and again <lb/>evaporated. </s> <s>The second compound contains one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of sulphur (not exposed <lb/>to fire) and two <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of refined salt. </s> <s>The third compound is made from one <pb pagenum="459"/><emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of sulphur (not exposed to the fire), half a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of refined salt, a quarter of <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of sal-ammoniac, and one <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of red-lead. </s> <s>The fourth compound <lb/>consists of one <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> each of refined salt, sulphur (not exposed to the fire) and <lb/>argol, and half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of <emph type="italics"/>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"/> which the Moors call borax. </s> <s>The fifth <lb/>compound has equal proportions of sulphur (not exposed to the fire), sal­<lb/>ammoniac, saltpetre, and verdigris.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The silver which contains some portion of gold is first melted with <lb/>lead in an earthen crucible, and they are heated together until the silver <lb/>exhales the lead. </s> <s>If there was a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, there must be six <emph type="italics"/>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>lead. </s> <s>Then the silver is sprinkled with two <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of that powdered com-<pb pagenum="460"/>pound and is stirred; afterward it is poured into another crucible, first <lb/>warmed and lined with tallow, and then violently shaken. </s> <s>The rest is per­<lb/>formed according to the process I have already explained.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Gold may be parted without injury from silver goblets and from other <lb/>gilt vessels and articles<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/>, by means of a powder, which consists of one part of <lb/>sal-ammoniac and half a part of sulphur. </s> <s>The gilt goblet or other article <lb/>is smeared with oil, and the powder is dusted on; the article is seized in the <lb/>hand, or with tongs, and is carried to the fire and sharply tapped, and by this <lb/>means the gold falls into water in vessels placed underneath, while the <lb/>goblet remains uninjured.</s></p><pb pagenum="461"/><p type="main"> <s>Gold is also parted from silver on gilt articles by means of quicksilver. <lb/></s> <s>This is poured into an earthen crucible, and so warmed by the fire that the <lb/>finger can bear the heat when dipped into it; the silver-gilt objects are <lb/>placed in it, and when the quicksilver adheres to them they are taken out <lb/>and placed on a dish, into which, when cooled, the gold falls, together with the <lb/>quicksilver. </s> <s>Again and frequently the same silver-gilt object is placed in <lb/>heated quicksilver, and the same process is continued until at last no <lb/>more gold is visible on the object; then the object is placed in the fire, and <lb/>the quicksilver which adheres to it is exhaled. </s> <s>Then the artificer takes a hare's <lb/>foot, and brushes up into a dish the quicksilver and the gold which have <pb pagenum="462"/>fallen together from the silver article, and puts them into a cloth made of woven <lb/>cotton or into a soft leather; the quicksilver is squeezed through one or the <lb/>other into another dish.<emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/> The gold remains in the cloth or the leather, and <lb/>when collected is placed in a piece of charcoal hollowed out, and is heated <lb/>until it melts, and a little button is made from it. </s> <s>This button is heated with <lb/>a little <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"/> in an earthen crucible and poured out into another little <lb/>vessel, by which method the gold settles at the bottom, and the <emph type="italics"/>stíbíum<emph.end type="italics"/> is <lb/>seen to be on the top; then the work is completed. </s> <s>Finally, the gold <lb/>button is put in a hollowed-out brick and placed in the fire, and by this <lb/>method the gold is made pure. </s> <s>By means of the above methods gold is parted <lb/>from silver and also silver from gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now I will explain the methods used to separate copper from gold<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/>. <lb/><pb pagenum="463"/>The salt which we call <emph type="italics"/>sal-artíficíosus,<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/> is made from a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> each of vitriol, <lb/>alum, saltpetre, and sulphur not exposed to the fire, and half a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of sal­<lb/>ammoniac; these ingredients when crushed are heated with one part of lye made <lb/>from the ashes used by wool dyers, one part of unslaked lime, and four <lb/>parts of beech ashes. </s> <s>The ingredients are boiled in the lye until the whole <lb/>has been dissolved. </s> <s>Then it is immediately dried and kept in a hot place, <lb/>lest it turn into oil; and afterward when crushed, a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead-ash is mixed <lb/>with it. </s> <s>With each <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of this powdered compound one and a half <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of the copper is gradually sprinkled into a hot crucible, and it is stirred <lb/>rapidly and frequently with an iron rod. </s> <s>When the crucible has cooled and <lb/>been broken up, the button of gold is found.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The second method for parting is the following. </s> <s>Two <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of sulphur <lb/>not exposed to the fire, and four <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of refined salt are crushed and mixed; <lb/>a sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of this powder is added to a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of granules <lb/>made of lead, and twice as much copper containing gold; they are heated <lb/>together in an earthen crucible until they melt. </s> <s>When cooled, the button is <lb/>taken out and purged of slag. </s> <s>From this button they again make granules, <lb/>to a third of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of which is added half a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of that powder of which I <lb/>have spoken, and they are placed in alternate layers in the crucible; it is <lb/>well to cover the crucible and to seal it up, and afterward it is heated over a <lb/>gentle fire until the granules melt. </s> <s>Soon afterward, the crucible is taken off <lb/>the fire, and when it is cool the button is extracted. </s> <s>From this, when purified <lb/>and again melted down, the third granules are made, to which, if they weigh <lb/>a sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra,<emph.end type="italics"/> is added one half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>sícílicus<emph.end type="italics"/> of the powder, <lb/>and they are heated in the same manner, and the button of gold settles at the <lb/>bottom of the crucible.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The third method is as follows. </s> <s>From time to time small pieces of <lb/>sulphur, enveloped in or mixed with wax, are dropped into six <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of the <lb/>molten copper, and consumed; the sulphur weighs half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"/>. </s> <s>Then one and a half <emph type="italics"/>sicílici<emph.end type="italics"/> of powdered saltpetre are dropped <lb/>into the same copper and likewise consumed; then again half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"/> of sulphur enveloped in wax; afterward one and a half <emph type="italics"/>sícílící<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>lead-ash enveloped in wax, or of minium made from red-lead. </s> <s>Then imme­<lb/>diately the copper is taken out, and to the gold button, which is now mixed <lb/>with only a little copper, they add <emph type="italics"/>stibíum<emph.end type="italics"/> to dcuble the amount of the button; <lb/>these are heated together until the <emph type="italics"/>stibíum<emph.end type="italics"/> is driven off; then the button, <lb/>together with lead of half the weight of the button, are heated in a cupel. <pb pagenum="464"/>Finally, the gold is taken out of this and quenched, and if there is a <lb/>blackish colour settled in it, it is melted with a little of the <emph type="italics"/>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which the Moors call borax; if too pale, it is melted with <emph type="italics"/>stibium,<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>acquires its own golden-yellow colour. </s> <s>There are some who take out the <lb/>molten copper with an iron ladle and pour it into another crucible, whose <lb/>aperture is sealed up with lute, and they place it over glowing charcoal, <lb/>and when they have thrown in the powders of which I have spoken, they <lb/>stir the whole mass rapidly with an iron rod, and thus separate the gold <lb/>from the copper; the former settles at the bottom of the crucible, the latter <lb/>floats on the top. </s> <s>Then the aperture of the crucible is opened with the <lb/>red-hot tongs, and the copper runs out. </s> <s>The gold which remains is re-heated <lb/>with <emph type="italics"/>stibium,<emph.end type="italics"/> and when this is exhaled the gold is heated for the third time <lb/>in a cupel with a fourth part of lead, and then quenched.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The fourth method is to melt one and a third <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of the copper <lb/>with a sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead, and to pour it into another crucible smeared on <lb/>the inside with tallow or gypsum; and to this is added a powder consisting of <lb/>half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> each of prepared sulphur, verdigris, and saltpetre, and an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and a half of <emph type="italics"/>sal coctus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The fifth method consists of placing in a crucible <lb/>one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the copper and two <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of granulated lead, with one and a half <lb/><emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/> of <emph type="italics"/>sal-artificíosus;<emph.end type="italics"/> they are at first heated over a gentle fire and then <lb/>over a fiercer one. </s> <s>The sixth method consists in heating together a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>the copper and one-sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> each of sulphur, salt, and <emph type="italics"/>stibium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The <lb/>seventh method consists of heating together a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of the copper and one-sixth <lb/>each of iron scales and filings, salt, <emph type="italics"/>stibium,<emph.end type="italics"/> and glass-galls. </s> <s>The eighth <lb/>method consists of heating together one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the copper, one and a half <lb/><emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of sulphur, half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of verdigris, and a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of refined salt. </s> <s>The <lb/>ninth method consists of placing in one <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the molten copper as <lb/>much pounded sulphur, not exposed to the fire, and of stirring it rapidly <lb/>with an iron rod; the lump is ground to powder, into which quicksilver <lb/>is poured, and this attracts to itself the gold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Gilded copper articles are moistened with water and placed on the fire, <lb/>and when they are glowing they are quenched with cold water, and the gold <lb/>is scraped off with a brass rod. </s> <s>By these practical methods gold is separated <lb/>from copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Either copper or lead is separated from silver by the methods which I <lb/>will now explain.<emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/> This is carried on in a building near by the works, or <lb/>in the works in which the gold or silver ores or alloys are smelted. </s> <s>The <lb/>middle wall of such a building is twenty-one feet long and fifteen feet high, and <lb/>from this a front wall is distant fifteen feet toward the river; the rear wall <pb pagenum="465"/>is nineteen feet distant, and both these walls are thirty-six feet long and <lb/>fourteen feet high; a transverse wall extends from the end of the front wall to <lb/>the end of the rear wall; then fifteen feet back a second transverse wall <lb/>is built out from the front wall to the end of the middle wall. </s> <s>In that space <lb/>which is between those two transverse walls are set up the stamps, by means <lb/>of which the ores and the necessary ingredients for smelting are broken up. <lb/></s> <s>From the further end of the front wall, a third transverse wall leads to the <lb/>other end of the middle wall, and from the same to the end of the rear wall. <lb/></s> <s>The space between the second and third transverse walls, and between the <lb/>rear and middle long walls, contains the cupellation furnace, in which lead <pb pagenum="466"/>is separated from gold or silver. </s> <s>The vertical wall of its chimney is <lb/>erected upon the middle wall, and the sloping chimney-wall rests on the <lb/>beams which extend from the second transverse wall to the third; these are <lb/>so located that they are at a distance of thirteen feet from the middle long <lb/>wall and four from the rear wall, and they are two feet wide and thick. <lb/></s> <s>From the ground up to the roof-beams is twelve feet, and lest the sloping <lb/>chimney-wall should fall down, it is partly supported by means of many <lb/>iron rods, and partly by means of a few tie-beams covered with lute, which <lb/>extend from the small beams of the sloping chimney-wall to the beams of the <lb/>vertical chimney-wall. </s> <s>The rear roof is arranged in the same way as the roof <pb pagenum="467"/>of the works in which ore is smelted. </s> <s>In the space between the middle and <lb/>the front long walls and between the second<emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/> and the third transverse walls are <lb/>the bellows, the machinery for depressing and the instrument for raising them. <lb/></s> <s>A drum on the axle of a water-wheel has rundles which turn the toothed <lb/>drum of an axle, whose long cams depress the levers of the bellows, and also <lb/>another toothed drum on an axle, whose cams raise the tappets of the stamps, <lb/>but in the opposite direction. </s> <s>So that if the cams which depress the levers <lb/>of the bellows turn from north to south, the cams of the stamps turn from <lb/>south to north.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Lead is separated from gold or silver in a cupellation furnace, of <lb/>which the structure consists of rectangular stones, of two interior walls of which <lb/>the one intersects the other transversely, of a round sole, and of a dome. </s> <s>Its <lb/>crucible is made from powder of earth and ash; but I will first speak of the <lb/>structure and also of the rectangular stones. </s> <s>A circular wall is built four <lb/>feet and three palms high, and one foot thick; from the height of two feet <lb/>and three palms from the bottom, the upper part of the interior is cut away <lb/>to the width of one palm, so that the stone sole may rest upon it. </s> <s>There are <lb/>usually as many as fourteen stones; on the outside they are a foot and a <lb/>palm wide, and on the inside narrower, because the inner circle is much <lb/>smaller than the outer; if the stones are wider, fewer are required, if <lb/>narrower more; they are sunk into the earth to a depth of a foot and a palm. <lb/></s> <s>At the top each one is joined to the next by an iron staple, the points of <lb/>which are embedded in holes, and into each hole is poured molten lead. </s> <s>This <lb/>stone structure has six air-holes near the ground, at a height of a foot above <lb/>the ground; they are two feet and a palm from the bottom of the stones; <lb/>each of these air-holes is in two stones, and is two palms high, and a palm and <lb/>three digits wide. </s> <s>One of them is on the right side, between the wall which <lb/>protects the main wall from the fire, and the channel through which the <lb/>litharge flows out of the furnace crucible; the other five air-holes are <lb/>distributed all round at equal distances apart; through these escapes the <lb/>moisture which the earth exhales when heated, and if it were not for these <lb/>openings the crucible would absorb the moisture and be damaged. </s> <s>In such a <lb/>case a lump would be raised, like that which a mole throws up from the earth, <lb/>and the ash would float on the top, and the crucible would absorb the silver-lead <lb/>alloy; there are some who, because of this, make the rear part of the structure <lb/>entirely open. </s> <s>The two inner walls, of which one intersects the other, are <lb/>built of bricks, and are a brick in thickness. </s> <s>There are four air-holes in <lb/>these, one in each part, which are about one digit's breadth higher and wider <lb/>than the others. </s> <s>Into the four compartments is thrown a wheelbarrowful <lb/>of slag, and over this is placed a large wicker basket full of charcoal dust. <lb/></s> <s>These walls extend a cubit above the ground, and on these, and on the ledge <lb/>cut in the rectangular stones, is placed the stone sole; this sole is a palm and <lb/>three digits thick, and on all sides touches the rectangular stones; if there <lb/>are any cracks in it they are filled up with fragments of stone or brick. </s> <s>The <lb/>front part of the sole is sloped so that a channel can be made, through which <pb pagenum="468"/>the litharge flows out. </s> <s>Copper plates are placed on this part of the sole-stone <lb/>so that the silver-lead or other alloy may be more rapidly heated.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>A dome which has the shape of half a sphere covers the crucible. </s> <s>It con­<lb/>sists of iron bands and of bars and of a lid. </s> <s>There are three bands, each about <lb/>a palm wide and a digit thick; the lowest is at a distance of one foot from the <lb/>middle one, and the middle one a distance of two feet from the upper one. <lb/></s> <s>Under them are eighteen iron bars fixed by iron rivets; these bars are of <lb/>the same width and thickness as the bands, and they are of such a length, that <lb/>curving, they reach from the lower band to the upper, that is two feet and <lb/>three palms long, while the dome is only one foot and three palms high. </s> <s>All <lb/>the bars and bands of the dome have iron plates fastened on the underside <lb/>with iron wire. </s> <s>In addition, the dome has four apertures; the rear one, <lb/>which is situated opposite the channel through which the litharge flows out, <lb/>is two feet wide at the bottom; toward the top, since it slopes gently, it is <lb/>narrower, being a foot, three palms, and a digit wide; there is no bar at <lb/>this place, for the aperture extends from the upper band to the middle one, <lb/>but not to the lower one. </s> <s>The second aperture is situated above the </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—RECTANGULAR STONES. B—SOLE-STONE. C—AIR-HOLES. D—INTERNAL WALLS. <lb/>E—DOME. F—CRUCIBLE. G—BANDS. H—BARS. I—APERTURES IN THE DOME. <lb/>K—LID OF THE DOME. L—RINGS. M—PIPES. N—VALVES. O—CHAINS.<pb pagenum="469"/>channel, is two and a half feet wide at the bottom, and two feet and a palm <lb/>at the top; and there is likewise no bar at this point; indeed, not only does <lb/>the bar not extend to the lower band, but the lower band itself does not <lb/>extend over this part, in order that the master can draw the litharge out <lb/>of the crucible. </s> <s>There are besides, in the wall which protects the principal <lb/>wall against the heat, near where the nozzles of the bellows are situated, <lb/>two apertures, three palms wide and about a foot high, in the middle <lb/>of which two rods descend, fastened on the inside with plates. <lb/></s> <s>Near these apertures are placed the nozzles of the bellows, and through <lb/>the apertures extend the pipes in which the nozzles of the bellows are <lb/>set. </s> <s>These pipes are made of iron plates rolled up; they are two <lb/>palms three digits long, and their inside diameter is three and a half <lb/>digits; into these two pipes the nozzles of the bellows penetrate a distance of <lb/>three digits from their valves. </s> <s>The lid of the dome consists of an iron band <lb/>at the bottom, two digits wide, and of three curved iron bars, which extend <lb/>from one point on the band to the point opposite; they cross each other at <lb/>the top, where they are fixed by means of iron rivets. </s> <s>On the under side of <lb/>the bars there are likewise plates fastened by rivets; each of the plates has <lb/>small holes the size of a finger, so that the lute will adhere when the interior <lb/>is lined. </s> <s>The dome has three iron rings engaged in wide holes in the heads of <lb/>iron claves, which fasten the bars to the middle band at these points. </s> <s>Into <lb/>these rings are fastened the hooks of the chains with which the dome is <lb/>raised, when the master is preparing the crucible.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>On the sole and the copper plates and the rock of the furnace, lute mixed <lb/>with straw is placed to a depth of three digits, and it is pounded with a wooden <lb/>rammer until it is compressed to a depth of one digit only. </s> <s>The rammer-head <lb/>is round and three palms high, two palms wide at the bottom, and tapering <lb/>upward; its handle is three feet long, and where it is set into the rammer­<lb/>head it is bound around with an iron band. </s> <s>The top of the stonework in <lb/>which the dome rests is also covered with lute, likewise mixed with straw, <lb/>to the thickness of a palm. </s> <s>All this, as soon as it becomes loosened, must <lb/>be repaired.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The artificer who undertakes the work of parting the metals, distributes <lb/>the operation into two shifts of two days. </s> <s>On the one morning he sprinkles <lb/>a little ash into the lute, and when he has poured some water over it he brushes <lb/>it over with a broom. </s> <s>Then he throws in sifted ashes and dampens them <lb/>with water, so that they could be moulded into balls like snow. </s> <s>The ashes <lb/>are those from which lye has been made by letting water percolate <lb/>through them, for other ashes which are fatty would have to be burnt <lb/>again in order to make them less fat. </s> <s>When he has made the ashes <lb/>smooth by pressing them with his hands, he makes the crucible slope down <lb/>toward the middle; then he tamps it, as I have described, with a rammer. <lb/></s> <s>He afterward, with two small wooden rammers, one held in each hand, <lb/>forms the channel through which the litharge flows out. </s> <s>The heads of these <lb/>small rammers are each a palm wide, two digits thick, and one foot high; <lb/>the handle of each is somewhat rounded, is a digit and a half less in </s></p><pb/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—AN ARTIFICER TAMPING THE CRUCIBLE WITH A RAMMER. B—LARGE RAMMER. <lb/>C—BROOM. D—TWO SMALLER RAMMERS. E—CURVED IRON PLATES. F—PART OF <lb/>A WOODEN STRIP. G—SIEVE. H—ASHES. I—IRON SHOVEL. K—IRON PLATE. <lb/>L—BLOCK OF WOOD. M—ROCK. N—BASKET MADE OF WOVEN TWIGS. O—HOOKED <lb/>BAR. P—SECOND HOOKED BAR. Q—OLD LINEN RAG. R—BUCKET. S—DOESKIN. <lb/>T—BUNDLES OF STRAW. V—WOOD. X—CAKES OF LEAD ALLOY. Y—FORK. <lb/>Z—ANOTHER WORKMAN COVERS THE OUTSIDE OF THE FURNACE WITH LUTE WHERE THE <lb/>DOME FITS ON IT. AA—BASKET FULL OF ASHES. BB—LID OF THE DOME. CC—THE <lb/>ASSISTANT STANDING ON THE STEPS POURS CHARCOAL INTO THE CRUCIBLE THROUGH THE <lb/>HO<gap/> AT THE TOP OF THE DOME. DD—IRON IMPLEMENT WITH WHICH THE LUTE IS <lb/><gap/><pb pagenum="471"/>diameter than the rammer-head, and is three feet in length; the rammer­<lb/>head as well as the handle is made of one piece of wood. </s> <s>Then with shoes on, <lb/>he descends into the crucible and stamps it in every direction with his feet, <lb/>in which manner it is packed and made sloping. </s> <s>Then he again tamps it <lb/>with a large rammer, and removing his shoe from his right foot he draws a circle <lb/>around the crucible with it, and cuts out the circle thus drawn with an iron <lb/>plate. </s> <s>This plate is curved at both ends, is three palms long, as many digits <lb/>wide, and has wooden handles a palm and two digits long, and two digits <lb/>thick; the iron plate is curved back at the top and ends, which penetrate <lb/>into handles. </s> <s>There are some who use in the place of the plate a strip of <lb/>wood, like the rim of a sieve; this is three digits wide, and is cut out at both <lb/>ends that it may be held in the hands. </s> <s>Afterward he tamps the channel <lb/>through which the litharge discharges. </s> <s>Lest the ashes should fall out, he <lb/>blocks up the aperture with a stone shaped to fit it, against which he places <lb/>a board, and lest this fall, he props it with a stick. </s> <s>Then he pours in <lb/>a basketful of ashes and tamps them with the large rammer; then again and <lb/>again he pours in ashes and tamps them with the rammer. </s> <s>When the <lb/>channel has been made, he throws dry ashes all over the crucible with a sieve, <lb/>and smooths and rubs it with his hands. </s> <s>Then he throws three basketsful <lb/>of damp ashes on the margin all round the edge of the crucible, and lets down <lb/>the dome. </s> <s>Soon after, climbing upon the crucible, he builds up ashes all <lb/>around it, lest the molten alloy should flow out. </s> <s>Then, having raised the lid of <lb/>the dome, he throws a basketful of charcoal into the crucible, together with <lb/>an iron shovelful of glowing coals, and he also throws some of the latter <lb/>through the apertures in the sides of the dome, and he spreads them with the <lb/>same shovel. </s> <s>This work and labour is finished in the space of two hours.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>An iron plate is set in the ground under the channel, and upon this is <lb/>placed a wooden block, three feet and a palm long, a foot and two palms and <lb/>as many digits wide at the back, and two palms and as many digits wide in <lb/>front; on the block of wood is placed a stone, and over it an iron plate similar <lb/>to the bottom one, and upon this he puts a basketful of charcoal, and also <lb/>an iron shovelful of burning charcoals. </s> <s>The crucible is heated in an <lb/>hour, and then, with the hooked bar with which the litharge is drawn off, he <lb/>stirs the remainder of the charcoal about. </s> <s>This hook is a palm long and three <lb/>digits wide, has the form of a double triangle, and has an iron handle four <lb/>feet long, into which is set a wooden one six feet long. </s> <s>There are some who <lb/>use instead a simple hooked bar. </s> <s>After about an hour's time, he stirs the <lb/>charcoal again with the bar, and with the shovel throws into the crucible <lb/>the burning charcoals lying in the channel; then again, after the space of an <lb/>hour, he stirs the burning charcoals with the same bar. </s> <s>If he did not thus <lb/>stir them about, some blackness would remain in the crucible and that part <lb/>would be damaged, because it would not be sufficiently dried. </s> <s>Therefore <lb/>the assistant stirs and turns the burning charcoal that it may be entirely <lb/>burnt up, and so that the crucible may be well heated, which takes three <lb/>hours; then the crucible is left quiet for the remaining two hours.</s></p><pb pagenum="472"/><p type="main"> <s>When the hour of eleven has struck, he sweeps up the charcoal ashes with <lb/>a broom and throws them out of the crucible. </s> <s>Then he climbs on to the <lb/>dome, and passing his hand in through its opening, and dipping an old linen <lb/>rag in a bucket of water mixed with ashes, he moistens the whole of the <lb/>crucible and sweeps it. </s> <s>In this way he uses two bucketsful of the mixture, <lb/>each holding five Roman <emph type="italics"/>sextaríi,<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>28<emph.end type="sup"/> and he does this lest the crucible, <lb/>when the metals are being parted, should break open; after this he rubs the <lb/>crucible with a doe skin, and fills in the cracks. </s> <s>Then he places at the left side <lb/>of the channel, two fragments of hearth-lead, laid one on the top of the other, <lb/>so that when partly melted they remain fixed and form an obstacle, that the <lb/>litharge will not be blown about by the wind from the bellows, but remain in <lb/>its place. </s> <s>It is expedient, however, to use a brick in the place of the hearth­<lb/>lead, for as this gets much hotter, therefore it causes the litharge to form <lb/>more rapidly. </s> <s>The crucible in its middle part is made two palms and as <lb/>many digits deeper.<emph type="sup"/>29<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are some who having thus prepared the crucible, smear it over <lb/>with incense<emph type="sup"/>30<emph.end type="sup"/>, ground to powder and dissolved in white of egg, soaking <lb/>it up in a sponge and then squeezing it out again; there are others who <lb/>smear over it a liquid consisting of white of egg and double the amount of <lb/>bullock's blood or marrow. </s> <s>Some throw lime into the crucible through a <lb/>sieve.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Afterward the master of the works weighs the lead with which the gold <lb/>or silver or both are mixed, and he sometimes puts a hundred <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>31<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>into the crucible, but frequently only sixty, or fifty, or much less. </s> <s>After it <lb/>has been weighed, he strews about in the crucible three small bundles of <lb/>straw, lest the lead by its weight should break the surface. </s> <s>Then he places <lb/>in the channel several cakes of lead alloy, and through the aperture at the rear <lb/>of the dome he places some along the sides; then, ascending to the opening at <lb/>the top of the dome, he arranges in the crucible round about the dome the <lb/>cakes which his assistant hands to him, and after ascending again and passing <lb/>his hands through the same aperture, he likewise places other cakes inside the <lb/>crucible. </s> <s>On the second day those which remain he, with an iron fork, <lb/>places on the wood through the rear aperture of the dome.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When the cakes have been thus arranged through the hole at the top of <lb/>the dome, he throws in charcoal with a basket woven of wooden twigs. </s> <s>Then <lb/>he places the lid over the dome, and the assistant covers over the joints with <lb/>lute. </s> <s>The master himself throws half a basketful of charcoal into the crucible <lb/>through the aperture next to the nozzle pipe, and prepares the bellows, in <lb/>order to be able to begin the second operation on the morning of the following <lb/>day. </s> <s>It takes the space of one hour to carry out such a piece of work, and <lb/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="473"/>at twelve all is prepared. </s> <s>These hours all reckoned up make a sum of eight <lb/>hours.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now it is time that we should come to the second operation. </s> <s>In the <lb/>morning the workman takes up two shovelsful of live charcoals and throws <lb/>them into the crucible through the aperture next to the pipes of the nozzles; <lb/>then through the same hole he lays upon them small pieces of fir-wood or of <lb/>pitch pine, such as are generally used to cook fish. </s> <s>After this the water-gates <lb/>are opened, in order that the machine may be turned which depresses the levers <lb/>of the bellows. </s> <s>In the space of one hour the lead alloy is melted; and when this <lb/>has been done, he places four sticks of wood, twelve feet long, through the <lb/>hole in the back of the dome, and as many through the channel; these <lb/>sticks, lest they should damage the crucible, are both weighted on the ends <lb/>and supported by trestles; these trestles are made of a beam, three feet <lb/>long, two palms and as many digits wide, two palms thick, and have two <lb/>spreading legs at each end. </s> <s>Against the trestle, in front of the channel, there <lb/>is placed an iron plate, lest the litharge, when it is extracted from the furnace, <lb/>should splash the smelter's shoes and injure his feet and legs. </s> <s>With an iron <lb/>shovel or a fork he places the remainder of the cakes through the aperture at <lb/>the back of the dome on to the sticks of wood already mentioned.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The native silver, or silver glance, or grey silver, or ruby silver, or any <lb/>other sort, when it has been flattened out<emph type="sup"/>32<emph.end type="sup"/>, and cut up, and heated in an <lb/>iron crucible, is poured into the molten lead mixed with silver, in order that <lb/>impurities may be separated. </s> <s>As I have often said, this molten lead mixed <lb/>with silver is called <emph type="italics"/>stannum<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>33<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When the long sticks of wood are burned up at the fore end, the <lb/>master, with a hammer, drives into them pointed iron bars, four feet long and <lb/>two digits wide at the front end, and beyond that one and a half digits wide <lb/><pb pagenum="474"/>and thick<gap/> with these he pushes the sticks of wood forward and the bars <lb/>then rest on the trestles. </s> <s>There are others who, when they separate metals, <lb/>put two such sticks of wood into the crucible through the aperture which is <lb/>between the bellows, as many through the holes at the back, and one through <lb/>the channel; but in this case a larger number of long sticks of wood is <lb/>necessary, that is, sixty; in the former case, forty long sticks of wood suffice <lb/>to carry out the operation. </s> <s>When the lead has been heated for two hours, <lb/>it is stirred with a hooked bar, that the heat may be increased.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If it be difficult to separate the lead from the silver, he throws copper <lb/>and charcoal dust into the molten silver-lead alloy. </s> <s>If the alloy of argen­<lb/>tiferous gold and lead, or the silver-lead alloy, contains impurities from the <lb/>ore, then he throws in either equal portions of argol and Venetian glass or of <lb/>sal-ammoniac, or of Venetian glass and of Venetian soap; or else unequal <lb/>portions, that is, two of argol and one of iron rust; there are some who <lb/>mix a little saltpetre with each compound. </s> <s>To one <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of the <lb/>alloy is added a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> or a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a third of the powder, according <lb/>to whether it is more or less impure. </s> <s>The powder certainly separates the <lb/>impurities from the alloy. </s> <s>Then, with a kind of rabble he draws out through </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE. B—STICKS OF WOOD. C—LITHARGE. D—PLATE. E—THE FOREMAN <lb/>WHEN HUNGRY EATS BUTTER, THAT THE POISON WHICH THE CRUCIBLE EXHALES MAY NOT <lb/>HARM HIM, FOR THIS IS A SPECIAL REMEDY AGAINST THAT POISON.<pb pagenum="475"/>the channel, mixed with charcoal, the scum, as one might say, of the lead; <lb/>the lead makes this scum when it becomes hot, but that less of it may be <lb/>made it must be stirred frequently with the bar.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Within the space of a quarter of an hour the crucible absorbs the lead; <lb/>at the time when it penetrates into the crucible it leaps and bubbles. </s> <s>Then <lb/>the master takes out a little lead with an iron ladle, which he assays, in order <lb/>to find what proportion of silver there is in the whole of the alloy; the <lb/>ladle is five digits wide, the iron part of its handle is three feet long and the <lb/>wooden part the same. </s> <s>Afterward, when they are heated, he extracts with <lb/>a bar the litharge which comes from the lead and the copper, if there be any <lb/>of it in the alloy. </s> <s>Wherefore, it might more rightly be called <emph type="italics"/>spuma<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead <lb/>than of silver<emph type="sup"/>34<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>There is no injury to the silver, when the lead and copper <lb/>are separated from it. </s> <s>In truth the lead becomes much purer in the crucible <lb/>of the other furnace, in which silver is refined. </s> <s>In ancient times, as the <lb/>author Pliny<emph type="sup"/>35<emph.end type="sup"/> relates, there was under the channel of the crucible another <lb/>crucible, and the litharge flowed down from the upper one into the lower <lb/>one, out of which it was lifted up and rolled round with a stick in order that <lb/>it might be of moderate weight. </s> <s>For which reason, they formerly made it <lb/>into small tubes or pipes, but now, since it is not rolled round a stick, they <lb/>make it into bars.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If there be any danger that the alloy might flow out with the litharge, the <lb/>foreman keeps on hand a piece of lute, shaped like a cylinder and pointed at <lb/>both ends; fastening this to a hooked bar he opposes it to the alloy so that <lb/>it will not flow out.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now when the colour begins to show in the silver, bright spots appear, <lb/>some of them being almost white, and a moment afterward it becomes <lb/>absolutely white. </s> <s>Then the assistant lets down the water-gates, so that, the <lb/>race being closed, the water-wheel ceases to turn and the bellows are still. <lb/></s> <s>Then the master pours several buckets of water on to the silver to cool it; <lb/>others pour beer over it to make it whiter, but this is of no importance since <lb/>the silver has yet to be refined. </s> <s>Afterward, the cake of silver is raised with <lb/>the pointed iron bar, which is three feet long and two digits wide, and has a <lb/>wooden handle four feet long fixed in its socket. </s> <s>When the cake of silver has <lb/>been taken from the crucible, it is laid upon a stone, and from part of it the <lb/>hearth-lead, and from the other part the litharge, is chipped away with a <lb/>hammer; then it is cleansed with a bundle of brass wire dipped in water. <lb/></s> <s>When the lead is separated from the silver, more silver is frequently found <lb/>than when it was assayed; for instance, if before there were three <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>as many <emph type="italics"/>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"/> in a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> they now sometimes find three <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and a half<emph type="sup"/>36<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>Often the hearth-lead remaining in the crucible is a palm <lb/>deep; it is taken out with the rest of the ashes and is sifted, and that which <lb/>remains in the sieve, since it is hearth-lead, is added to the hearth-lead<emph type="sup"/>37<emph.end type="sup"/>.<lb/><lb/><lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="476"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CAKE. B—STONE. C—HAMMER. D—BRASS WIRE. E—BUCKET CONTAINING WATER. <lb/>F—FURNACE FROM WHICH THE CAKE HAS BEEN TAKEN, WHICH IS STILL SMOKING. <lb/>G—LABOURER CARRYING A CAKE OUT OF THE WORKS.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The ashes which pass through the sieve are of the same use as they were <lb/>at first, for, indeed, from these and pulverised bones they make the cupels. <lb/></s> <s>Finally, when much of it has accumulated, the yellow <emph type="italics"/>pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"/> adhering to <lb/>the walls of the furnace, and likewise to those rings of the dome near the <lb/>apertures, is cleared away.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I must also describe the crane with which the dome is raised. </s> <s>When <lb/>it is made, there is first set up a rectangular upright post twelve feet <lb/>long, each side of which measures a foot in width. </s> <s>Its lower pinion turns <lb/>in a bronze socket set in an oak sill; there are two sills placed crosswise so <pb pagenum="477"/>that the one fits in a mortise in the middle of the other, and the other likewise <lb/>fits in the mortise of the first, thus making a kind of a cross; these sills are <lb/>three feet long and one foot wide and thick. </s> <s>The crane-post is round at its <lb/>upper end and is cut down to a depth of three palms, and turns in a band <lb/>fastened at each end to a roof-beam, from which springs the inclined chimney <lb/>wall. </s> <s>To the crane-post is affixed a frame, which is made in this way: first, at a <lb/>height of a cubit from the bottom, is mortised into the crane-post a small <lb/>cross-beam, a cubit and three digits long, except its tenons, and two palms in <lb/>width and thickness. </s> <s>Then again, at a height of five feet above it, is another <lb/>small cross-beam of equal length, width, and thickness, mortised into the <lb/>crane-post. </s> <s>The other ends of these two small cross-beams are mortised <lb/>into an upright timber, six feet three palms long, and three-quarters wide <lb/>and thick; the mortise is transfixed by wooden pegs. </s> <s>Above, at a height of <lb/>three palms from the lower small cross-beam, are two bars, one foot one palm <lb/>long, not including the tenons, a palm three digits wide, and a palm thick, <lb/>which are mortised in the other sides of the crane-post. </s> <s>In the same manner, <lb/>under the upper small cross-beam are two bars of the same size. </s> <s>Also in the <lb/>upright timber there are mortised the same number of bars, of the same length <lb/>as the preceding, but three digits thick, a palm two digits wide, the two <lb/>lower ones being above the lower small cross-beam. </s> <s>From the upright <lb/>timber near the upper small cross-beam, which at its other end is mortised <lb/>into the crane-post, are two mortised bars. </s> <s>On the outside of this frame, <lb/>boards are fixed to the small cross-beams, but the front and back parts of the <lb/>frame have doors, whose hinges are fastened to the boards which are fixed <lb/>to the bars that are mortised to the sides of the crane-post.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Then boards are laid upon the lower small cross-beam, and at a height <lb/>of two palms above these there is a small square iron axle, the sides of which <lb/>are two digits wide; both ends of it are round and turn in bronze or iron <lb/>bearings, one of these bearings being fastened in the crane-post, the other in <lb/>the upright timber. </s> <s>About each end of the small axle is a wooden disc, of three <lb/>palms and a digit radius and one palm thick, covered on the rim with an iron <lb/>band; these two discs are distant two palms and as many digits from each <pb pagenum="478"/>other, and are joined with five rundles; these rundles are two and a half <lb/>digits thick and are placed three digits apart. </s> <s>Thus a drum is made, which <lb/>is a palm and a digit distant from the upright timber, but further from the <lb/>crane-post, namely, a palm and three digits. </s> <s>At a height of a foot and a <lb/>palm above this little axle is a second small square iron axle, the thickness of <lb/>which is three digits; this one, like the first one, turns in bronze or iron <lb/>bearings. </s> <s>Around it is a toothed wheel, composed of two discs a foot three <lb/>palms in diameter, a palm and two digits thick: on the rim of this there <lb/>are twenty-three teeth, a palm wide and two digits thick; they protrude <lb/>a palm from the wheel and are three digits apart. </s> <s>And around this same <lb/>axle, at a distance of two palms and as many digits toward the upright <lb/>timber, is another disc of the same diameter as the wheel and a palm thick; <lb/>this turns in a hollowed-out place in the upright timber. </s> <s>Between this disc <lb/>and the disc of the toothed wheel another drum is made, having likewise five <lb/>rundles. </s> <s>There is, in addition to this second axle, at a height of a cubit <lb/>above it, a small wooden axle, the journals of which are of iron; the ends <lb/>are bound round with iron rings so that the journals may remain firmly fixed, <lb/>and the journals, like the little iron axles, turn in bronze or iron bearings. <lb/></s> <s>This third axle is at a distance of about a cubit from the upper small cross­<lb/>beam; it has, near the upright timber, a toothed wheel two and a half feet <lb/>in diameter, on the rim of which are twenty-seven teeth; the other part of <lb/>this axle, near the crane-post, is covered with iron plates, lest it should be worn <lb/>away by the chain which winds around it. </s> <s>The end link of the chain is fixed <lb/>in an iron pin driven into the little axle; this chain passes out of the frame <lb/>and turns over a little pulley set between the beams of the crane-arm.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Above the frame, at a height of a foot and a palm, is the crane-arm. </s> <s>This <lb/>consists of two beams fifteen feet long, three palms wide, and two thick, <lb/>mortised into the crane-post, and they protrude a cubit from the back of the <lb/>crane-post and are fastened together. </s> <s>Moreover, they are fastened by means <lb/>of a wooden pin which penetrates through them and the crane-post; this <lb/>pin has at the one end a broad head, and at the other a hole, through which <lb/>is driven an iron bolt, so that the beams may be tightly bound into the crane­<lb/>post. </s> <s>The beams of the crane-arm are supported and stayed by means of <lb/>two oblique beams, six feet and two palms long, and likewise two palms wide <lb/>and thick; these are mortised into the crane-post at their lower ends, and <lb/>their upper ends are mortised into the beams of the crane-arm at a point <lb/>about four feet from the crane-post, and they are fastened with iron nails. <lb/></s> <s>At the back of the upper end of these oblique beams, toward the crane-post, <lb/>is an iron staple, fastened into the lower sides of the beams of the crane-arm, in <lb/>order that it may hold them fast and bind them. </s> <s>The outer end of each <lb/>beam of the crane-arm is set in a rectangular iron plate, and between these <lb/>are three rectangular iron plates, fixed in such a manner that the beams of the <lb/>crane-arm can neither move away from, nor toward, each other. </s> <s>The upper <lb/>sides of these crane-arm beams are covered with iron plates for a length of <lb/>six feet, so that a trolley can move on it.</s></p><pb pagenum="479"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CRANE-POST. B—SOCKET. C—OAK CROSS-SILLS. D—BAND. E—ROOF-BEAM. <lb/>F—FRAME. G—LOWER SMALL CROSS-BEAM. H—UPRIGHT TIMBER. I—BARS WHICH <lb/>COME FROM THE SIDES OF THE CRANE-POST. K—BARS WHICH COME FROM THE SIDES OF <lb/>THE UPRIGHT TIMBER. L—RUNDLE DRUMS. M—TOOTHED WHEELS. N—CHAIN. <lb/>O—PULLEY. P—BEAMS OF THE CRANE-ARM. Q—OBLIQUE BEAMS SUPPORTING THE BEAMS <lb/>OF THE CRANE-ARM. R—RECTANGULAR IRON PLATES. S—TROLLEY. T—DOME OF THE <lb/><gap/></s></p><pb pagenum="480"/><p type="main"> <s>The body of the trolley is made of wood from the Ostrya or any other <lb/>hard tree, and is a cubit long, a foot wide, and three palms thick; on both <lb/>edges of it the lower side is cut out to a height and width of a palm, so that <lb/>the remainder may move backward and forward between the two beams of <lb/>the crane-arm; at the front, in the middle part, it is cut out to a width of <lb/>two palms and as many digits, that a bronze pulley, around a small iron <lb/>axle, may turn in it. </s> <s>Near the corners of the trolley are four holes, in which <lb/>as many small wheels travel on the beams of the crane-arm. </s> <s>Since this <lb/>trolley, when it travels backward and forward, gives out a sound somewhat <lb/>similar to the barking of a dog, we have given it this name<emph type="sup"/>38<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>It is propelled <lb/>forward by means of a crank, and is drawn back by means of a chain. </s> <s>There <lb/>is an iron hook whose ring turns round an iron pin fastened to the right side <lb/>of the trolley, which hook is held by a sort of clavis, which is fixed in the <lb/>right beam of the crane-arm.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>At the end of the crane-post is a bronze pulley, the iron axle of which is <lb/>fastened in the beams of the crane-arm, and over which the chain passes <lb/>as it comes from the frame, and then, penetrating through the hollow in the <lb/>top of the trolley, it reaches to the little bronze pulley of the trolley, and passing <lb/>over this it hangs down. </s> <s>A hook on its end engages a ring, in which are <lb/>fixed the top links of three chains, each six feet long, which pass through <lb/>the three iron rings fastened in the holes of the claves which are fixed into <lb/>the middle iron band of the dome, of which I have spoken.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Therefore when the master wishes to lift the dome by means of the <lb/>crane, the assistant fits over the lower small iron axle an iron crank, which <lb/>projects from the upright beam a palm and two digits; the end of the little <lb/>axle is rectangular, and one and a half digits wide and one digit thick; it is <lb/>set into a similar rectangular hole in the crank, which is two digits long and a <lb/>little more than a digit wide. </s> <s>The crank is semi-circular, and one foot three <lb/>palms and two digits long, as many digits wide, and one digit thick. </s> <s>Its <lb/>handle is straight and round, and three palms long, and one and a half digits <lb/>thick. </s> <s>There is a hole in the end of the little axle, through which an iron <lb/>pin is driven so that the crank may not come off. </s> <s>The crane having four <lb/>drums, two of which are rundle-drums and two toothed-wheels, is more easily <lb/>moved than another having two drums, one of which has rundles and the <lb/>other teeth.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Many, however, use only a simple contrivance, the pivots of whose <lb/>crane-post turn in the same manner, the one in an iron socket, the other in a <lb/>ring. </s> <s>There is a crane-arm on the crane-post, which is supported by an <lb/>oblique beam; to the head of the crane-arm a strong iron ring is fixed, <lb/>which engages a second iron ring. </s> <s>In this iron ring a strong wooden lever-bar <lb/>is fastened firmly, the head of which is bound by a third iron ring, from which <lb/>hangs an iron hook, which engages the rings at the ends of the chains from <lb/>the dome. </s> <s>At the other end of the lever-bar is another chain, which, when <lb/>it is pulled down, raises the opposite end of the bar and thus the dome; and <lb/>when it is relaxed the dome is lowered.</s></p><pb pagenum="481"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CHAMBER OF THE FURNACE. B—ITS BED. C—PASSAGES. D—RAMMER. <lb/>E—MALLET. F—ARTIFICER MAKING TUBES FROM LITHARGE ACCORDING TO THE ROMAN <lb/>METHOD. G—CHANNEL. H—LITHARGE. I—LOWER CRUCIBLE OR HEARTH. K—STICK. <lb/>L—TUBES.</s></p><pb pagenum="482"/><p type="main"> <s>In certain places, as at Freiberg in Meissen, the upper part of the <lb/>cupellation furnace is vaulted almost like an oven. </s> <s>This chamber is four <lb/>feet high and has either two or three apertures, of which the first, in <lb/>front, is one and a half feet high and a foot wide, and out of this flows <lb/>the litharge; the second aperture and likewise the third, if there be three, <lb/>are at the sides, and are a foot and a half high and two and a half feet wide, <lb/>in order that he who prepares the crucible may be able to creep into the <lb/>furnace. </s> <s>Its circular bed is made of cement, it has two passages two feet high <lb/>and one foot wide, for letting out the vapour, and these lead directly through <lb/>from one side to the other, so that the one passage crosses the other at right <lb/>angles, and thus four openings are to be seen; these are covered at the top <lb/>by rocks, wide, but only a palm thick. </s> <s>On these and on the other parts <lb/>of the interior of the bed made of cement, is placed lute mixed with straw, <lb/>to a depth of three digits, as it was placed over the sole and the plates of <lb/>copper and the rocks of that other furnace. </s> <s>This, together with the ashes which <lb/>are thrown in, the master or the assistant, who, upon his knees, prepares <lb/>the crucible, tamps down with short wooden rammers and with mallets <lb/>likewise made of wood.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE SIMILAR TO AN OVEN. B—PASSAGE C—IRON BARS. D—HOLE THROUGH <lb/>WHICH THE LITHARGE IS DRAWN OUT. E—CRUCIBLE WHICH LACKS A DOME. F—THICK <lb/>STICKS. G—BELLOWS</s></p><pb pagenum="483"/><p type="main"> <s>The cupellation furnace in Poland and Hungary is likewise vaulted at the <lb/>top, and is almost similar to an oven, but in the lower part the bed is solid, <lb/>and there is no opening for the vapours, while on one side of the crucible is a <lb/>wall, between which and the bed of the crucible is a passage in place of the <lb/>opening for vapours; this passage is covered by iron bars or rods extending <lb/>from the wall to the crucible, and placed a distance of two digits from each <lb/>other. </s> <s>In the crucible, when it is prepared, they first scatter straw, and then <lb/>they lay in it cakes of silver-lead alloy, and on the iron bars they lay wood, <lb/>which when kindled heats the crucible. </s> <s>They melt cakes to the weight of some­<lb/>times eighty <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> and sometimes a hundred <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>39<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>They <lb/>stimulate a mild fire by means of a blast from the bellows, and throw on to the <lb/>bars as much wood as is required to make a flame which will reach into the <lb/>crucible, and separate the lead from the silver. </s> <s>The litharge is drawn out <lb/>on the other side through an aperture that is just wide enough for the master <lb/>to creep through into the crucible. </s> <s>The Moravians and Carni, who very <lb/>rarely make more than a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> or five-sixths of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, separate <lb/>the lead from it, neither in a furnace resembling an oven, nor in the crucible <lb/>covered by a dome, but on a crucible which is without a cover and exposed to <lb/>the wind; on this crucible they lay cakes of silver-lead alloy, and over them <lb/>they place dry wood, and over these again thick green wood. </s> <s>The wood <lb/>having been kindled, they stimulate the fire by means of a bellows.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I have explained the method of separating lead from gold or silver. </s> <s>Now <lb/>I will speak of the method of refining silver, for I have already explained <lb/>the process for refining gold. </s> <s>Silver is refined in a refining furnace, <lb/>over whose hearth is an arched chamber built of bricks; this chamber <lb/>in the front part is three feet high. </s> <s>The hearth itself is five feet long <lb/>an four wide. </s> <s>The walls are unbroken along the sides and back, but <lb/>in front one chamber is placed over the other, and above these and the <lb/>wall is the upright chimney. </s> <s>The hearth has a round pit, a cubit wide and two <lb/>palms deep, into which are thrown sifted ashes, and in this is placed a prepared <lb/>earthenware “test,” in such a manner that it is surrounded on all sides <lb/>by ashes to a height equal to its own. </s> <s>The earthenware test is filled <lb/>with a powder consisting of equal portions of bones ground to powder, and of <lb/>ashes taken from the crucible in which lead is separated from gold or silver; <lb/>others mix crushed brick with the ashes, for by this method the powder <lb/>attracts no silver to itself. </s> <s>When the powder has been made up and <lb/>moistened with water, a little is thrown into the earthenware test and tamped <lb/>with a wooden pestle. </s> <s>This pestle is round, a foot long, and a palm and a <lb/>digit wide, out of which extend six teeth, each a digit thick, and a digit and a <lb/>third long and wide, and almost a digit apart; these six teeth form a circle, <lb/>and in the centre of them is the seventh tooth, which is round and of the <lb/>same length as the others, but a digit and a half thick; this pestle tapers a <lb/>little from the bottom up, that the upper part of the handle may be round <lb/>and three digits thick. </s> <s>Some use a round pestle without teeth. </s> <s>Then a </s></p><pb pagenum="484"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—PESTLE WITH TEETH. B—PESTLE WITHOUT TEETH. C—DISH OR TRAY FULL OF ASHES. <lb/>D—PREPARED TESTS PLACED ON BOARDS OR SHELVES. E—EMPTY TESTS. F—WOOD. <lb/>G—SAW.<lb/>little powder is again moistened, and thrown into the test, and tamped; this <lb/>work is repeated until the test is entirely full of the powder, which the <lb/>master then cuts out with a knife, sharp on both sides, and turned upward at <lb/>both ends so that the central part is a palm and a digit long; therefore it is <lb/>partly straight and partly curved. </s> <s>The blade is one and a half digits wide, <lb/>and at each end it turns upward two palms, which ends to the depth of a <lb/>palm are either not sharpened or they are enclosed in wooden handles. </s> <s>The <lb/>master holds the knife with one hand and cuts out the powder from the test, <lb/>so that it is left three digits thick all round; then he sifts the powder of dried <lb/>bones over it through a sieve, the bottom of which is made of closely-woven <lb/>bristles. </s> <s>Afterward a ball made of very hard wood, six digits in diameter, <lb/>is placed in the test and rolled about with both hands, in order to make the <lb/>inside even and smooth; for that matter he may move the ball about with only <lb/>one hand. </s> <s>The tests<emph type="sup"/>40<emph.end type="sup"/> are of various capacities, for some of them when prepared </s></p><pb pagenum="485"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—STRAIGHT KNIFE HAVING WOODEN HANDLES. B—CURVED KNIFE LIKEWISE HAVING <lb/>WOODEN HANDLES. C—CURVED KNIFE WITHOUT WOODEN HANDLES. D—SIEVE. <lb/>E—BALLS. F—IRON DOOR WHICH THE MASTER LETS DOWN WHEN HE REFINES SILVER, LEST <lb/>THE HEAT OF THE FIRE SHOULD INJURE HIS EYES. G—IRON IMPLEMENT ON WHICH THE <lb/>WOOD IS PLACED WHEN THE LIQUID SILVER IS TO BE REFINED. H—ITS OTHER PART <lb/>PASSING THROUGH THE RING OF ANOTHER IRON IMPLEMENT ENCLOSED IN THE WALL OF THE <lb/>FURNACE. I—TESTS IN WHICH BURNING CHARCOAL HAS BEEN THROWN.<lb/>hold much less than fifteen <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, others twenty, some thirty, others <lb/>forty, and others fifty. </s> <s>All these tests thus prepared are dried in the sun, or <lb/>set in a warm and covered place; the more dry and old they are the better. <lb/></s> <s>All of them, when used for refining silver, are heated by means of burning <lb/>charcoal placed in them. </s> <s>Others use instead of these tests an iron ring; but <lb/>the test is more useful, for if the powder deteriorates the silver remains in <lb/>it, while there being no bottom to the ring, it falls out; besides, it is easier to <lb/>place in the hearth the test than the iron ring, and furthermore it requires <lb/>much less powder. </s> <s>In order that the test should not break and damage the <lb/>silver, some bind it round with an iron band.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In order that they may be more easily broken, the silver cakes are placed <lb/>upon an iron grate by the refiner, and are heated by burning charcoal <lb/>placed under them. </s> <s>He has a brass block two palms and two digits long and <lb/>wide, with a channel in the middle, which he places upon a block of hard <lb/>wood. </s> <s>Then with a double-headed hammer, he beats the hot cakes of silver <pb pagenum="486"/>placed on the brass block, and breaks them in pieces. </s> <s>The head of this <lb/>hammer is a foot and two digits long, and a palm wide. </s> <s>Others use for this <lb/>purpose merely a block of wood channelled in the top. </s> <s>While the fragments <lb/>of the cake are still hot, he seizes them with the tongs and throws them into <lb/>a bowl with holes in the bottom, and pours water over them. </s> <s>When the <lb/>fragments are cooled, he puts them nicely into the test by placing them so <lb/>that they stand upright and project from the test to a height of two palms, and <lb/>lest one should fall against the other, he places little pieces of charcoal between <lb/>them; then he places live charcoal in the test, and soon two twig basketsful <lb/>of charcoal. </s> <s>Then he blows in air with the bellows. </s> <s>This bellows is double, <lb/>and four feet two palms long, and two feet and as many palms wide at the <lb/>back; the other parts are similar to those described in Book VII. </s> <s>The <lb/>nozzle of the bellows is placed in a bronze pipe a foot long, the aperture in <lb/>this pipe being a digit in diameter in front and quite round, and at the back <lb/>two palms wide. </s> <s>The master, because he needs for the operation of refining </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—GRATE. B—BRASS BLOCK. C—BLOCK OF WOOD. D—CAKES OF SILVER. E—HAMMER. <lb/>F—BLOCK OF WOOD CHANNELLED IN THE MIDDLE. G—BOWL FULL OF HOLES. <lb/>H—BLOCK OF WOOD FASTENED TO AN IRON IMPLEMENT. I—FIR-WOOD. K—IRON BAR. <lb/>L—IMPLEMENT WITH A HOLLOW END. THE IMPLEMENT WHICH HAS A CIRCULAR END IS <lb/>SHOWN IN THE NEXT PICTURE. M—IMPLEMENT, THE EXTREMITY OF WHICH IS BENT <lb/>UPWARDS. N—IMPLEMENT IN THE SHAPE OF TONGS.<pb pagenum="487"/>silver a fierce fire, and requires on that account a vigorous blast, places the <lb/>bellows very much inclined, in order that, when the silver has melted, it <lb/>may blow into the centre of the test. </s> <s>When the silver bubbles, he presses the <lb/>nozzle down by means of a small block of wood moistened with water and <lb/>fastened to an iron rod, the outer end of which bends upward. </s> <s>The silver <lb/>melts when it has been heated in the test for about an hour; when it is <lb/>melted, he removes the live coals from the test and places over it two billets <lb/>of fir-wood, a foot and three palms long, a palm two digits wide, one palm <lb/>thick at the upper part, and three digits at the lower. </s> <s>He joins them <lb/>together at the lower edges, and into the billets he again throws the coals, <lb/>for a fierce fire is always necessary in refining silver. </s> <s>It is refined in two or <lb/>three hours, according to whether it was pure or impure, and if it is impure it <lb/>is made purer by dropping granulated copper or lead into the test at the <lb/>same time. </s> <s>In order that the refiner may sustain the great heat from the fire <lb/>while the silver is being refined, he lets down an iron door, which is three feet <lb/>long and a foot and three palms high; this door is held on both ends in iron <lb/>plates, and when the operation is concluded, he raises it again with an iron <lb/>shovel, so that its edge holds against the iron hook in the arch, and thus the <lb/>door is held open. </s> <s>When the silver is nearly refined, which may be judged <lb/>by the space of time, he dips into it an iron bar, three and a half feet <lb/>long and a digit thick, having a round steel point. </s> <s>The small drops of silver <lb/>that adhere to the bar he places on the brass block and flattens with <lb/>a hammer, and from their colour he decides whether the silver is sufficiently <lb/>refined or not. </s> <s>If it is thoroughly purified it is very white, and in a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> there <lb/>is only a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of impurities. </s> <s>Some ladle up the silver with a hollow iron <lb/>implement. </s> <s>Of each <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver one <emph type="italics"/>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"/> is consumed, or occasionally <lb/>when very impure, three <emph type="italics"/>drachmae<emph.end type="italics"/> or half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>41<emph.end type="sup"/>.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The refiner governs the fire and stirs the molten silver with an iron <lb/>implement, nine feet long, a digit thick, and at the end first curved toward <lb/>the right, then curved back in order to form a circle, the interior of which is a <lb/>palm in diameter; others use an iron implement, the end of which is bent <lb/>directly upward. </s> <s>Another iron implement has the shape of tongs, with <lb/>which, by compressing it with his hands, he seizes the coals and puts them on <lb/>or takes them off; this is two feet long, one and a half digits wide, and the <lb/>third of a digit thick.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When the silver is seen to be thoroughly refined, the artificer removes <lb/>the coals from the test with a shovel. </s> <s>Soon afterward he draws water in <lb/>a copper ladle, which has a wooden handle four feet long; it has a small <lb/>hole at a point half-way between the middle of the bowl and the edge, through <lb/>which a hemp seed just passes. </s> <s>He fills this ladle three times with water, <lb/>and three times it all flows out through the hole on to the silver, and slowly <lb/>quenches it; if he suddenly poured much water on it, it would burst asunder <lb/>and injure those standing near. </s> <s>The artificer has a pointed iron bar, three </s></p><pb pagenum="488"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—IMPLEMENT WITH A RING. B—LADLE. C—ITS HOLE. D—POINTED BAR. E—FORKS. <lb/>F—CAKE OF SILVER LAID UPON THE IMPLEMENT SHAPED LIKE TONGS. G—TUB OF WATER. <lb/>H—BLOCK OF WOOD, WITH A CAKE LAID UPON IT. I—HAMMER. K—SILVER AGAIN <lb/>PLACED UPON THE IMPLEMENT RESEMBLING TONGS. L—ANOTHER TUB FULL OF WATER. <lb/>M—BRASS WIRES. N—TRIPOD. O—ANOTHER BLOCK. P—CHISEL. Q—CRUCIBLE OF <lb/>THE FURNACE. R—TEST STILL SMOKING.<lb/>feet long, which has a wooden handle as many feet long, and he puts the end of <lb/>this bar into the test in order to stir it. </s> <s>He also stirs it with a hooked iron <lb/>bar, of which the hook is two digits wide and a palm deep, and the iron part <lb/>of its handle is three feet long and the wooden part the same. </s> <s>Then he <lb/>removes the test from the hearth with a shovel or a fork, and turns it over, <lb/>and by this means the silver falls to the ground in the shape of half a sphere; <lb/>then lifting the cake with a shovel he throws it into a tub of water, where <lb/>it gives out a great sound. </s> <s>Or else, having lifted the cake of silver with a <lb/>fork, he lays it upon the iron implement similar to tongs, which are placed <lb/>across a tub full of water; afterward, when cooled, he takes it from the <lb/>tub again and lays it on the block made of hard wood and beats it with a <lb/>hammer, in order to break off any of the powder from the test which <lb/>adheres to it. </s> <s>The cake is then placed on the implement similar to <lb/>tongs, laid over the tub full of water, and cleaned with a bundle of brass wire <pb pagenum="489"/>dipped into the water; this operation of beating and cleansing is repeated <lb/>until it is all clean. </s> <s>Afterward he places it on an iron grate or tripod; the <lb/>tripod is a palm and two digits high, one and a half digits wide, and its span <lb/>is two palms wide; then he puts burning charcoal under the tripod or grate, <lb/>in order again to dry the silver that was moistened by the water. </s> <s>Finally, <lb/>the Royal Inspector<emph type="sup"/>42<emph.end type="sup"/> in the employment of the King or Prince, or the owner, <lb/>lays the silver on a block of wood, and with an engraver's chisel he cuts out two </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—MUFFLE. B—ITS LITTLE WINDOWS. C—ITS LITTLE BRIDGE. D—BRICKS. E—IRON <lb/>DOOR. F—ITS LITTLE WINDOW. G—BELLOWS. H—HAMMER-CHISEL. I—IRON RING <lb/>WHICH SOME USE INSTEAD OF THE TEST. K—PESTLE WITH WHICH THE ASHES PLACED IN <lb/>THE RING ARE POUNDED.<lb/>small pieces, one from the under and the other from the upper side. </s> <s>These <lb/>are tested by fire, in order to ascertain whether the silver is thoroughly refined <lb/>or not, and at what price it should be sold to the merchants. </s> <s>Finally he <lb/>impresses upon it the seal of the King or the Prince or the owner, and, near <lb/>the same, the amount of the weight.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are some who refine silver in tests placed under iron or earthen­<lb/>ware muffles. </s> <s>They use a furnace, on the hearth of which they place the test <lb/>containing the fragments of silver, and they place the muffle over it; the <pb pagenum="490"/>muffle has small windows at the sides, and in front a little bridge. </s> <s>In order <lb/>to melt the silver, at the sides of the muffle are laid bricks, upon which the <lb/>charcoal is placed, and burning firebrands are put on the bridge. </s> <s>The <lb/>furnace has an iron door, which is covered on the side next to the fire with lute <lb/>in order that it may not be injured. </s> <s>When the door is closed it retains the <lb/>heat of the fire, but it has a small window, so that the artificers may look <lb/>into the test and may at times stimulate the fire with the bellows. </s> <s>Although <lb/>by this method silver is refined more slowly than by the other, nevertheless it is <lb/>more useful, because less loss is caused, for a gentle fire consumes fewer particles <lb/>than a fierce fire continually excited by the blast of the bellows. </s> <s>If, on <lb/>account of its great size, the cake of silver can be carried only with difficulty <lb/>when it is taken out of the muffle, they cut it up into two or three <lb/>pieces while it is still hot, with a wedge or a hammer-chisel; for if they cut <lb/>it up after it has cooled, little pieces of it frequently fly off and are lost.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>END OF BOOK X.</s></p><figure></figure><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>BOOK XI.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Different methods of parting gold from silver, <lb/>and, on the other hand, silver from gold, were dis­<lb/>cussed in the last book; also the separation of copper <lb/>from the latter, and further, of lead from gold as <lb/>well as from silver; and, lastly, the methods for <lb/>refining the two precious metals. </s> <s>Now I will speak <lb/>of the methods by which silver must be separated <lb/>from copper, and likewise from iron.<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>officina,<emph.end type="italics"/> or the building necessary for the <lb/>purposes and use of those who separate silver from copper, is constructed <lb/>in this manner. </s> <s>First, four long walls are built, of which the first, which <lb/>is parallel with the bank of a stream, and the second, are both two hundred and <lb/>sixty-four feet long. </s> <s>The second, however, stops at one hundred and fifty-one <lb/>feet, and after, as it were, a break for a length of twenty-four feet, it continues <lb/>again until it is of a length equal to the first wall. </s> <s>The third wall is one <lb/>hundred and twenty feet long, starting at a point opposite the sixty-seventh <lb/>foot of the other walls, and reaching to their one hundred and eighty-sixth foot. <pb pagenum="492"/>The fourth wall is one hundred and fifty-one feet long. </s> <s>The height of each of <lb/>these walls, and likewise of the other two and of the transverse walls, of <lb/>which I will speak later on, is ten feet, and the thickness two feet and as <lb/>many palms. </s> <s>The second long wall only is built fifteen feet high, because <lb/>of the furnaces which must be built against it. </s> <s>The first long wall is distant <lb/>fifteen feet from the second, and the third is distant the same number of feet <lb/>from the fourth, but the second is distant thirty-nine feet from the third. <lb/></s> <s>Then transverse walls are built, the first of which leads from the beginning <lb/>of the first long wall to the beginning of the second long wall; and the second <lb/>transverse wall from the beginning of the second long wall to the beginning of <lb/>the fourth long wall, for the third long wall does not reach so far. </s> <s>Then from <lb/>the beginning of the third long wall are built two walls—the one to the <lb/>sixty-seventh foot of the second long wall, the other to the same point in <lb/>the fourth long wall. </s> <s>The fifth transverse wall is built at a distance of ten <lb/>feet from the fourth transverse wall toward the second transverse wall; </s></p><pb pagenum="493"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>SIX LONG WALLS: A—THE FIRST. B—THE FIRST PART OF THE SECOND. C—THE <lb/>FURTHER PART OF THE SECOND. D—THE THIRD. E—THE FOURTH. F—THE FIFTH. <lb/>G—THE SIXTH. FOURTEEN TRANSVERSE WALLS: H—THE FIRST. I—THE SECOND. <lb/>K—THE THIRD. L—THE FOURTH. M—THE FIFTH. N—THE SIXTH. O—THE SEVENTH. <lb/>P—THE EIGHTH. O—THE NINTH. R—THE TENTH. S—THE ELEVENTH. T—THE <lb/><gap/><pb pagenum="494"/>it is twenty feet long, and starts from the fourth long wall. </s> <s>The sixth <lb/>transverse wall is built also from the fourth long wall, at a point distant <lb/>thirty feet from the fourth transverse wall, and it extends as far as the back <lb/>of the third long wall. </s> <s>The seventh transverse wall is constructed from <lb/>the second long wall, where this first leaves off, to the third long wall; and <lb/>from the back of the third long wall the eighth transverse wall is built, <lb/>extending to the end of the fourth long wall. </s> <s>Then the fifth long wall is built <lb/>from the seventh transverse wall, starting at a point nineteen feet from the <lb/>second long wall; it is one hundred and nine feet in length; and at a point <lb/>twenty-four feet along it, the ninth transverse wall is carried to the third end <lb/>of the second long wall, where that begins again. </s> <s>The tenth transverse wall is <lb/>built from the end of the fifth long wall, and leads to the further end of the <lb/>second long wall; and from there the eleventh transverse wall leads to the <lb/>further end of the first long wall. </s> <s>Behind the fifth long wall, and five feet <lb/>toward the third long wall, the sixth long wall is built, leading from the <lb/>seventh transverse wall; its length is thirty-five feet, and from its further <lb/>end the twelfth transverse wall is built to the third long wall, and from it the <lb/>thirteenth transverse wall is built to the fifth long wall. </s> <s>The fourteenth <lb/>transverse wall divides into equal parts the space which lies between the <lb/>seventh transverse wall and the twelfth.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The length, height, breadth, and position of the walls are as above. <lb/></s> <s>Their archways, doors, and openings are made at the same time that the walls <lb/>are built. </s> <s>The size of these and the way they are made will be much better <lb/>understood hereafter. </s> <s>I will now speak of the furnace hoods and of the roofs. <lb/></s> <s>The first side<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/> of the hood stands on the second long wall, and is similar in <lb/>every respect to those whose structure I explained in Book IX, when I <lb/>described the works in whose furnaces are smelted the ores of gold, silver, <lb/>and copper. </s> <s>From this side of the hood a roof, which consists of burnt tiles, <lb/>extends to the first long wall; and this part of the building contains the <lb/>bellows, the machinery for compressing them, and the instruments for <lb/>inflating them. </s> <s>In the middle space, which is situated between the second <lb/>and third transverse walls, an upright post eight feet high and two feet thick <pb pagenum="495"/>and wide, is erected on a rock foundation, and is distant thirteen feet from <lb/>the second long wall. </s> <s>On that upright post, and in the second transverse <lb/>wall, which has at that point a square hole two feet high and wide, is placed <lb/>a beam thirty-four feet and a palm long. </s> <s>Another beam, of the same length, <lb/>width, and thickness, is fixed on the same upright post and in the third <lb/>transverse wall. </s> <s>The heads of those two beams, where they meet, are joined <lb/>together with iron staples. </s> <s>In a similar manner another post is erected, at a <lb/>distance of ten feet from the first upright post in the direction of the fourth <lb/>wall, and two beams are laid upon it and into the same walls in a similar <lb/>way to those I have just now described. </s> <s>On these two beams and on the <lb/>fourth long wall are fixed seventeen cross-beams, forty-three feet and three <lb/>palms long, a foot wide, and three palms thick; the first of these is laid upon <lb/>the second transverse wall, the last lies along the third and fourth transverse <lb/>walls; the rest are set in the space between them. </s> <s>These cross-beams are <lb/>three feet apart one from the other.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the ends of these cross-beams, facing the second long wall, are mortised <lb/>the ends of the same number of rafters reaching to those timbers which <lb/>stand upright on the second long wall, and in this manner is made the inclined <lb/>side of the hood in a similar way to the one described in Book IX. </s> <s>To prevent <lb/>this from falling toward the vertical wall of the hood, there are iron rods <lb/>securing it, but only a few, because the four brick chimneys which have <lb/>to be built in that space partly support it. </s> <s>Twelve feet back are likewise <lb/>mortised into the cross-beams, which lie upon the two longitudinal beams <lb/>and the fourth long wall, the lower ends of as many rafters, whose upper ends <lb/>are mortised into the upper ends of an equal number of similar rafters, whose <lb/>lower ends are mortised to the ends of the beams at the fourth long wall. <lb/></s> <s>From the first set of rafters<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/> to the second set of rafters is a distance of twelve <lb/>feet, in order that a gutter may be well placed in the middle space. </s> <s>Between <lb/>these two are again erected two sets of rafters, the lower ends of which are like­<lb/>wise mortised into the beams, which lie on the two longitudinal beams and the <lb/>fourth long wall, and are interdistant a cubit. </s> <s>The upper ends of the ones <lb/>fifteen feet long rest on the backs of the rafters of the first set; the ends of the <lb/>others, which are eighteen feet long, rest on the backs of the rafters of the <lb/>second set, which are longer; in this manner, in the middle of the rafters, is <lb/>a sub-structure. </s> <s>Upon each alternate cross-beam which is placed upon the <lb/>two longitudinal beams and the fourth long wall is erected an upright post, <lb/>and that it may be sufficiently firm it is strengthened by means of a slanting <lb/>timber. </s> <s>Upon these posts is laid a long beam, upon which rests one set of <lb/>middle rafters. </s> <s>In a similar manner the other set of middle rafters rests on a <lb/>long beam which is placed upon other posts. </s> <s>Besides this, two feet above <lb/>every cross-beam, which is placed on the two longitudinal beams and the <pb pagenum="496"/>fourth long wall, is placed a tie-beam which reaches from the first set of <lb/>middle rafters to the second set of middle rafters; upon the tie-beams is <lb/>placed a gutter hollowed out from a tree. </s> <s>Then from the back of each of <lb/>the first set of middle rafters a beam six feet long reaches almost to the gutter; <lb/>to the lower end of this beam is attached a piece of wood two feet long; <lb/>this is repeated with each rafter of the first set of middle rafters. </s> <s>Similarly <lb/>from the back of each rafter of the second set of middle rafters a little beam, <lb/>seven feet long, reaches almost to the gutter; to the lower end of it <lb/>is likewise attached a short piece of wood; this is repeated on each rafter <lb/>of the second set of middle rafters. </s> <s>Then in the upper part, to the first and <lb/>second sets of principal rafters are fastened long boards, upon which are <lb/>fixed the burnt tiles; and in the same manner, in the middle part, they are <lb/>fastened to the first and second sets of middle rafters, and at the lower part to <lb/>the little beams which reach from each rafter of the first and second set of <lb/>middle rafters almost to the gutter; and, finally, to the little boards fastened <lb/>to the short pieces of wood are fixed shingles of pinewood extending into the <lb/>gutter, so that the violent rain or melted snow may not penetrate into the <lb/>building. </s> <s>The substructures in the interior which support the second set of <lb/>rafters, and those on the opposite side which support the third, being not <lb/>unusual, I need not explain.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In that part of the building against the second long wall are the <lb/>furnaces, in which exhausted liquation cakes which have already been <lb/>“dried” are smelted, that they may recover once again the appearance <lb/>and colour of copper, inasmuch as they really are copper. </s> <s>The remainder <lb/>of the room is occupied by the passage which leads from the door to the <lb/>furnaces, together with two other furnaces, in one of which the whole cakes <lb/>of copper are heated, and in the other the exhausted liquation cakes are <lb/>“dried” by the heat of the fire.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Likewise, in the room between the third and seventh<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> transverse walls, <lb/>two posts are erected on rock foundation; both of them are eight feet high <lb/>and two feet wide and thick. </s> <s>The one is at a distance of thirteen feet from <lb/>the second long wall; the other at the same distance from the third long wall; <lb/>there is a distance of thirteen feet between them. </s> <s>Upon these two posts and <lb/>upon the third transverse wall are laid two longitudinal beams, forty-one feet <lb/>and one palm long, and two feet wide and thick. </s> <s>Two other beams of the <lb/>same length, width, and thickness are laid upon the upright posts and upon <lb/>the seventh transverse wall, and the heads of the two long beams, where they <lb/>meet, are joined with iron staples. </s> <s>On these longitudinal beams are again <lb/>placed twenty-one transverse beams, thirteen feet long, a foot wide, and three <lb/>palms thick, of which the first is set on the third transverse wall, and the last <lb/>on the seventh transverse wall; the rest are laid in the space between these <lb/>two, and they are distant from one another three feet. </s> <s>Into the ends of <lb/>the transverse beams which face the second long wall, are mortised the <lb/>ends of the same number of rafters erected toward the upright posts <lb/>which are placed upon the second long wall, and in this manner is made <pb pagenum="497"/>the second inclined side wall of the hood. </s> <s>Into the ends of the transverse <lb/>beams facing the third long wall, are mortised the ends of the same <lb/>number of rafters rising toward the rafters of the first inclined side of <lb/>the second hood, and in this manner is made the other inclined side of <lb/>the second hood. </s> <s>But to prevent this from falling in upon the opposite <lb/>inclined side of the hood, and that again upon the opposite vertical one, <lb/>there are many iron rods reaching from some of the rafters to those <lb/>opposite them; and this is also prevented in part by means of a few tie-beams, <lb/>extending from the back of the rafters to the back of those which are behind <lb/>them. </s> <s>These tie-beams are two palms thick and wide, and have holes made <lb/>through them at each end; each of the rafters is bound round with iron <lb/>bands three digits wide and half a digit thick, which hold together the ends <lb/>of the tie-beams of which I have spoken; and so that the joints may be firm, <lb/>an iron nail, passing through the plate on both sides, is driven through the <lb/>holes in the ends of the beams. </s> <s>Since one weight counter-balances another, the <lb/>rafters on the opposite hoods cannot fall. </s> <s>The tie-beams and middle posts <lb/>which have to support the gutters and the roof, are made in every particular <lb/>as I stated above, except only that the second set of middle rafters are not <lb/>longer than the first set of middle rafters, and that the little beams which <lb/>reach from the back of each rafter of the second set of middle rafters nearly <lb/>to the gutter are not longer than the little beams which reach from the back <lb/>of each rafter of the first set of middle rafters almost to the gutter. </s> <s>In this <lb/>part of the building, against the second long wall, are the furnaces in which <lb/>copper is alloyed with lead, and in which “slags” are re-smelted. </s> <s>Against <lb/>the third long wall are the furnaces in which silver and lead are liquated from <lb/>copper. </s> <s>The interior is also occupied by two cranes, of which one deposits <lb/>on the ground the cakes of copper lifted out of the moulding pans; the other <lb/>lifts them from the ground into the second furnace.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>On the third and the fourth long walls are set twenty-one beams eighteen <lb/>feet and three palms long. </s> <s>In mortises in them, two feet behind the third long <lb/>wall, are set the ends of the same number of rafters erected opposite to the <lb/>rafters of the other inclined wall of the second furnace hood, and in this <lb/>manner is made the third inclined wall, exactly similar to the others. </s> <s>The <lb/>ends of as many rafters are mortised into these beams where they are fixed in <lb/>the fourth long wall; these rafters are erected obliquely, and rest against the <lb/>backs of the preceding ones and support the roof, which consists entirely of <lb/>burnt tiles and has the usual substructures. </s> <s>In this part of the building <lb/>there are two rooms, in the first of which the cakes of copper, and in the other <lb/>the cakes of lead, are stored.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In the space enclosed between the ninth and tenth transverse walls and <lb/>the second and fifth long walls, a post twelve feet high and two feet wide and <lb/>thick is erected on a rock foundation; it is distant thirteen feet from the <lb/>second long wall, and six from the fifth long wall. </s> <s>Upon this post and upon <lb/>the ninth transverse wall is laid a beam thirty-three feet and three palms <lb/>long, and two palms wide and thick. </s> <s>Another beam, also of the same length, <lb/>width and thickness, is laid upon the same post and upon the tenth transverse <pb pagenum="498"/>wall, and the ends of these two beams where they meet are joined by means <lb/>of iron staples. </s> <s>On these beams and on the fifth long wall are placed ten <lb/>cross-beams, eight feet and three palms long, the first of which is placed on <lb/>the ninth transverse wall, the last on the tenth, the remainder in the space <lb/>between them; they are distant from one another three feet. </s> <s>Into the <lb/>ends of the cross-beams facing the second long wall, are mortised the ends of <lb/>the same number of rafters inclined toward the posts which stand vertically <lb/>upon the second long wall. </s> <s>This, again, is the manner in which the inclined <lb/>side of the furnace hood is made, just as with the others; at the top <lb/>where the fumes are emitted it is two feet distant from the vertical side. <lb/></s> <s>The ends of the same number of rafters are mortised into the cross-beams, <lb/>where they are set in the fifth long wall; each of them is set up obliquely and <lb/>rests against the back of one of the preceding set; they support the roof, <lb/>made of burnt tiles. </s> <s>In this part of the building, against the second long <lb/>wall, are four furnaces in which lead is separated from silver, together with <lb/>the cranes by means of which the domes are lifted from the crucibles.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In that part of the building which lies between the first long wall and <lb/>the break in the second long wall, is the stamp with which the copper cakes <lb/>are crushed, and the four stamps with which the accretions that are chipped <lb/>off the walls of the furnace are broken up and crushed to powder, and likewise <lb/>the bricks on which the exhausted liquation cakes of copper are stood to <lb/>be “dried.” This room has the usual roof, as also has the space between <lb/>the seventh transverse wall and the twelfth and thirteenth transverse walls.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>At the sides of these rooms are the fifth, the sixth, and the third long <lb/>walls. </s> <s>This part of the building is divided into two parts, in the first of <lb/>which stand the little furnaces in which the artificer assays metals; and the <lb/>bone ash, together with the other powders, are kept here. </s> <s>In the other room <lb/>is prepared the powder from which the hearths and the crucibles of the fur­<lb/>naces are made. </s> <s>Outside the building, at the back of the fourth long wall, <lb/>near the door to the left as you enter, is a hearth in which smaller <lb/>masses of lead are melted from large ones, that they may be the more easily <lb/>weighed; because the masses of lead, just as much as the cakes of copper, <lb/>ought to be first prepared so that they can be weighed, and a definite weight <lb/>can be melted and alloyed in the furnaces. </s> <s>To begin with, the hearth in <lb/>which the masses of lead are liquefied is six feet long and five wide; it is <lb/>protected on both sides by rocks partly sunk into the earth, but a palm higher <lb/>than the hearth, and it is lined in the inside with lute. </s> <s>It slopes toward the <lb/>middle and toward the front, in order that the molten lead may run down <lb/>and flow out into the dipping-pot. </s> <s>There is a wall at the back of the hearth <lb/>which protects the fourth long wall from damage by the heat; this wall, <lb/>which is made of bricks and lute, is four feet high, three palms thick, and five <lb/>feet long at the bottom, and at the top three feet and two palms long; there­<lb/>fore it narrows gradually, and in the upper part are laid seven bricks, the <lb/>middle ones of which are set upright, and the end ones inclined; they are all <lb/>thickly coated with lute. </s> <s>In front of the hearth is a dipping-pot, whose pit is <lb/>a foot deep, and a foot and three palms wide at the top, and gradually narrows. </s></p><pb pagenum="499"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEARTH. B—ROCKS SUNK INTO THE GROUND. C—WALLS WHICH PROTECT THE <lb/>FOURTH LONG WALL FROM DAMAGE BY FIRE. D—DIPPING-POT. E—MASSES OF LEAD. <lb/>F—TROLLEY. G—ITS WHEELS. H—CRANE. I—TONGS. K—WOOD. L—MOULDS. <lb/>M—LADLE. N—PICK. O—CAKES.<pb pagenum="500"/>When the masses of lead are to be melted, the workman first places the wood <lb/>in the hearth so that one end of each billet faces the wall, and the other end <lb/>the dipping-pot. </s> <s>Then, assisted by other workmen, he pushes the mass <lb/>of lead forward with crowbars on to a low trolley, and draws it to the <lb/>crane. </s> <s>The trolley consists of planks fastened together, is two and one-half <lb/>feet wide and five feet long, and has two small iron axles, around which at <lb/>each end revolve small iron wheels, two palms in diameter and as many digits <lb/>wide. </s> <s>The trolley has a tongue, and attached to this is a rope, by which it is <lb/>drawn to the crane. </s> <s>The crane is exactly similar to those in the second part <lb/>of the works, except that the crane-arm is not so long. </s> <s>The tongs in whose <lb/>jaws<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> the masses of lead are seized, are two feet a palm and two digits long; <lb/>both of the jaws, when struck with a hammer, impinge upon the mass and are <lb/>driven into it. </s> <s>The upper part of both handles of the tongs are curved back, <lb/>the one to the right, the other to the left, and each handle is engaged in one <lb/>of the lowest links of two short chains, which are three links long. </s> <s>The upper <lb/>links are engaged in a large round ring, in which is fixed the hook of a chain <lb/>let down from the pulley of the crane-arm. </s> <s>When the crank of the crane <lb/>is turned, the mass is lifted and is carried by the crane-arm to the hearth and <lb/>placed on the wood. </s> <s>The workmen wheel up one mass after another and <lb/>place them in a similar manner on the wood of the hearth; masses which <lb/>weigh a total of about a hundred and sixty <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/> are usually placed <lb/>upon the wood and melted at one time. </s> <s>Then a workman throws charcoal <lb/>on the masses, and all are made ready in the evening. </s> <s>If he fears that it may <lb/>rain, he covers it up with a cover, which may be moved here and there; at the <lb/>back this cover has two legs, so that the rain which it collects may flow down <lb/>the slope on to the open ground. </s> <s>Early in the morning of the following day, <lb/>he throws live coals on the charcoal with a shovel, and by this method the <lb/>masses of lead melt, and from time to time charcoal is added. </s> <s>The lead, as <lb/>soon as it begins to run into the dipping-pot, is ladled out with an iron ladle <lb/>into copper moulds such as the refiners generally use. </s> <s>If it does not cool <lb/>immediately he pours water over it, and then sticks the pointed pick into <lb/>it and pulls it out. </s> <s>The pointed end of the pick is three palms long and <lb/>the round end is two digits long. </s> <s>It is necessary to smear the moulds with a <lb/>wash of lute, in order that, when they have been turned upside down and <lb/>struck with the broad round end of the pick, the cakes of lead may fall out <lb/>easily. </s> <s>If the moulds are not washed over with the lute, there is a risk that <lb/>they may be melted by the lead and let it through. </s> <s>Others take hold of a <lb/>billet of wood with their left hand, and with the heavy lower end of it they <lb/>pound the mould, and with the right hand they stick the point of the pick <lb/>into the cake of lead, and thus pull it out. </s> <s>Then immediately the workman <lb/>pours other lead into the empty moulds, and this he does until the work of <lb/>melting the lead is finished. </s> <s>When the lead is melted, something similar to <lb/>litharge is produced; but it is no wonder that it should be possible to make <lb/><pb pagenum="501"/>it in this case, when it used formerly to be produced at Puteoli from lead <lb/>alone when melted by a fierce fire in the cupellation furnace.<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> Afterward <lb/>these cakes of lead are carried into the lead store-room.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The cakes of copper, put into wheelbarrows, are carried into the third <lb/>part of the building, where each is laid upon a saddle, and is broken up by <lb/>the impact of successive blows from the iron-shod stamp. </s> <s>This machine <lb/>is made by placing upon the ground a block of oak, five feet long and three feet </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BLOCK OF WOOD. B—UPRIGHT POSTS. C—TRANSVERSE BEAMS. D—HEAD OF THE <lb/>STAMP. E—ITS TOOTH. F—THE HOLE IN THE STAMP-STEM. G—IRON BAR. H—MASSES <lb/>OF LEAD. I—THE BRONZE SADDLE. K—AXLE. L—ITS ARMS. M—LITTLE IRON AXLE. <lb/>N—BRONZE PIPE.<lb/>wide and thick; it is cut out in the middle for a length of two feet and two <lb/>palms, a width of two feet, and a depth of three palms and two digits, and is <lb/>open in front; the higher part of it is at the back, and the wide part lies flat <lb/>in the block. </s> <s>In the middle of it is placed a bronze saddle. </s> <s>Its base <lb/>is a palm and two digits wide, and is planted between two masses of <lb/>lead, and extends under them to a depth of a palm on both sides. <lb/></s> <s>The whole saddle is three palms and two digits wide, a foot long, and <pb pagenum="502"/>two palms thick. </s> <s>Upon each end of the block stands a post, a cubit wide <lb/>and thick, the upper end of which is somewhat cut away and is mortised into <lb/>the beams of the building. </s> <s>At a height of four feet and two digits above the <lb/>block there are joined to the posts two transverse beams, each of which is <lb/>three palms wide and thick; their ends are mortised into the upright posts, <lb/>and holes are bored through them; in the holes are driven iron claves, <lb/>horned in front and so driven into the post that one of the horns of each <lb/>points upward and the other downward; the other end of each clavis is <lb/>perforated, and a wide iron wedge is inserted and driven into the holes, and <lb/>thus holds the transverse beams in place. </s> <s>These transverse beams have in the <lb/>middle a square opening three palms and half a digit wide in each <lb/>direction, through which the iron-shod stamp passes. </s> <s>At a height of three <lb/>feet and two palms above these transverse beams there are again two beams <lb/>of the same kind, having also a square opening and holding the same stamp. <lb/></s> <s>This stamp is square, eleven feet long, three palms wide and thick; its iron <lb/>shoe is a foot and a palm long; its head is two palms long and wide, a palm <lb/>two digits thick at the top, and at the bottom the same number of digits, for <lb/>it gradually narrows. </s> <s>But the tail is three palms long; where the head <lb/>begins is two palms wide and thick, and the further it departs from the same <lb/>the narrower it becomes. </s> <s>The upper part is enclosed in the stamp-stem, and <lb/>it is perforated so that an iron bolt may be driven into it; it is bound by three <lb/>rectangular iron bands, the lowest of which, a palm wide, is between the iron <lb/>shoe and the head of the stamp; the middle band, three digits wide, follows <lb/>next and binds round the head of the stamp, and two digits above is the <lb/>upper one, which is the same number of digits wide. </s> <s>At a distance of two <lb/>feet and as many digits above the lowest part of the iron shoe, is a rectangular <lb/>tooth, projecting from the stamp for a distance of a foot and a palm; it is <lb/>two palms thick, and when it has extended to a distance of six digits from the <lb/>stamp it is made two digits narrower. </s> <s>At a height of three palms upward <lb/>from the tooth there is a round hole in the middle of the stamp-stem, into <lb/>which can be thrust a round iron bar two feet long and a digit and a half in <lb/>diameter; in its hollow end is fixed a wooden handle two palms and the same <lb/>number of digits long. </s> <s>The bar rests on the lower transverse beam, and holds <lb/>up the stamp when it is not in use. </s> <s>The axle which raises the stamp <lb/>has on each side two arms, which are two palms and three digits distant <lb/>from each other, and which project from the axle a foot, a palm and two <lb/>digits; penetrating through them are bolts, driven in firmly; the arms are <lb/>each a palm and two digits wide and thick, and their round heads, for a foot <lb/>downward on either side, are covered with iron plates of the same width as <lb/>the arms and fastened by iron nails. </s> <s>The head of each arm has a round <lb/>hole, into which is inserted an iron pin, passing through a bronze pipe; this <lb/>little axle has at the one end a wide head, and at the other end a perforation <lb/>through which is driven an iron nail, lest this little axle should fall out of the <lb/>arms. </s> <s>The bronze pipe is two palms long and one in diameter; the little <lb/>iron axle penetrates through its round interior, which is two digits in diameter. <lb/></s> <s>The bronze pipe not only revolves round the little iron axle, but it also <pb pagenum="503"/>rotates with it; therefore, when the axle revolves, the little axle and <lb/>the bronze tube in their turn raise the tooth and the stamp. </s> <s>When the <lb/>little iron axle and the bronze pipe have been taken out of the arms, the tooth <lb/>of the stamps is not raised, and other stamps may be raised without this one. <lb/></s> <s>Further on, a drum with spindles fixed around the axle of a water-wheel <lb/>moves the axle of a toothed drum, which depresses the sweeps of the bellows <lb/>in the adjacent fourth part of the building; but it turns in the contrary <lb/>direction; for the axis of the drum which raises the stamps turns toward <lb/>the north, while that one which depresses the sweeps of the bellows turns <lb/>toward the south.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Those cakes which are too thick to be rapidly broken by blows from <lb/>the iron-shod stamp, such as are generally those which have settled in the <lb/>bottom of the crucible,<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> are carried into the first part of the building. </s> <s>They <lb/>are there heated in a furnace, which is twenty-eight feet distant from the <lb/>second long wall and twelve feet from the second transverse wall. </s> <s>The three <lb/>sides of this furnace are built of rectangular rocks, upon which bricks are laid; <lb/>the back furnace wall is three feet and a palm high, and the rear of the side <lb/>walls is the same; the side walls are sloping, and where the furnace is open in <lb/>front they are only two feet and three palms high; all the walls are a foot and <lb/>a palm thick. </s> <s>Upon these walls stand upright posts not less thick, in order <lb/>that they may bear the heavy weight placed upon them, and they are covered <lb/>with lute; these posts support the sloping chimney and penetrate through <lb/>the roof. </s> <s>Moreover, not only the ribs of the chimney, but also the rafters, <lb/>are covered thickly with lute. </s> <s>The hearth of the furnace is six feet <lb/>long on each side, is sloping, and is paved with bricks. </s> <s>The cakes of copper <lb/>are placed in the furnace and heated in the following way. </s> <s>They are first of <lb/>all placed in the furnace in rows, with as many small stones the size of an egg <lb/>between, so that the heat of the fire can penetrate through the spaces between <lb/>them; indeed, those cakes which are placed at the bottom of the crucible are <lb/>each raised upon half a brick for the same reason. </s> <s>But lest the last row, <lb/>which lies against the mouth of the furnace, should fall out, against the mouth <lb/>are placed iron plates, or the copper cakes which are the first taken from the <lb/>crucible when copper is made, and against them are laid exhausted liquation <lb/>cakes or rocks. </s> <s>Then charcoal is thrown on the cakes, and then live coals; <lb/>at first the cakes are heated by a gentle fire, and afterward more charcoal is <lb/>added to them until it is at times three-quarters of a foot deep. </s> <s>A fiercer fire <lb/>is certainly required to heat the hard cakes of copper than the fragile ones. <lb/></s> <s>When the cakes have been sufficiently heated, which usually occurs within <lb/>the space of about two hours, the exhausted liquation cakes or the rocks <lb/>and the iron plate are removed from the mouth of the furnace. </s> <s>Then the <lb/>hot cakes are taken out row after row with a two-pronged rabble, such as the <lb/>one which is used by those who “dry” the exhausted liquation cakes. <lb/></s> <s>Then the first cake is laid upon the exhausted liquation cakes, and beaten by <lb/>two workmen with hammers until it breaks; the hotter the cakes are, the <pb pagenum="504"/>sooner they are broken up; the less hot, the longer it takes, for now and <lb/>then they bend into the shape of copper basins. </s> <s>When the first cake has <lb/>been broken, the second is put on to the other fragments and beaten until it <lb/>breaks into pieces, and the rest of the cakes are broken up in the same manner <lb/>in due order. </s> <s>The head of the hammer is three palms long and one wide, <lb/>and sharpened at both ends, and its handle is of wood three feet long. <lb/></s> <s>When they have been broken by the stamp, if cold, or with hammers if hot, <lb/>the fragments of copper or the cakes are carried into the store-room for <lb/>copper.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BACK WALL. B—WALLS AT THE SIDES. C—UPRIGHT POSTS. D—CHIMNEY. <lb/>E—THE CAKES ARRANGED. F—IRON PLATES. G—ROCKS. H—RABBLE WITH TWO <lb/>PRONGS. I—HAMMERS.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The foreman of the works, according to the different proportions of <lb/>silver in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper, alloys it with lead, without which <lb/>he could not separate the silver from the copper.<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> If there be a moderate <pb pagenum="505"/>amount of silver in the copper, he alloys it fourfold; for instance, if in three­<lb/>quarters of a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper there is less than the following pro­<lb/>portions, <emph type="italics"/>í.e.:<emph.end type="italics"/> half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, or half a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>sícílícus,<emph.end type="italics"/> or half a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía,<emph.end type="italics"/> or half a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>sícílícus,<emph.end type="italics"/> then rich <lb/>lead—that is, that from which the silver has not yet been separated—is <lb/>added, to the amount of half a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> or a whole <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> or <lb/>a whole and a half, in such a way that there may be in the copper-lead alloy <lb/>some one of the proportions of silver which I have just mentioned, which is <lb/>the first alloy. </s> <s>To this “first” alloy is added such a weight of de-silverized <lb/>lead or litharge as is required to make out of all of these a single liquation cake <lb/>that will contain approximately two <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead; but as usually <lb/>from one hundred and thirty <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of litharge only one hundred <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead <lb/>are made, a greater proportion of litharge than of de-silverized lead is added <lb/>as a supplement. </s> <s>Since four cakes of this kind are placed at the same time <lb/>into the furnace in which the silver and lead is liquated from copper, there <lb/>will be in all the cakes three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper and eight <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of lead. </s> <s>When the lead has been liquated from the copper, it weighs six <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"/> in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of which there is a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and almost a <emph type="italics"/>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>Only seven <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of the silver remain in the <lb/>exhausted liquation cakes and in that copper-lead alloy which we call <lb/>“liquation thorns”; they are not called by this name so much because they <lb/>have sharp points as because they are base. </s> <s>If in three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper there are less than seven <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> or a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of silver, then so much rich lead must be added as to make in the copper and <lb/>lead alloy one of the proportions of silver which I have already mentioned. <lb/></s> <s>This is the “second” alloy. </s> <s>To this is again to be added as great a weight <pb pagenum="506"/>of de-silverized lead, or of litharge, as will make it possible to obtain from that <lb/>alloy a liquation cake containing two and a quarter <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead, <lb/>in which manner in four of these cakes there will be three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>copper and nine <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead. </s> <s>The lead which liquates from these <lb/>cakes weighs seven <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia,<emph.end type="italics"/> in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of which there is <lb/>a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver and a little more than a <emph type="italics"/>sícílícus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> About seven <lb/><emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver remain in the exhausted liquation cakes and in the liquation <lb/>thorns, if we may be allowed to make common the old name (<emph type="italics"/>spínae<emph.end type="italics"/>=thorns) <lb/>and bestow it upon a new substance. </s> <s>If in three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of copper there is less than three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, or three-quarters <lb/>and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía,<emph.end type="italics"/> then as much rich lead must be added as will produce one <lb/>of the proportions of silver in the copper-lead alloy above mentioned; this <lb/>is the “third” alloy. </s> <s>To this is added such an amount of de-silverized lead <lb/>or of litharge, that a liquation cake made from it contains in all two and <lb/>three-quarters <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead. </s> <s>In this manner four such cakes will <lb/>contain three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper and eleven <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead. <lb/></s> <s>The lead which these cakes liquate, when they are melted in the furnace, <lb/>weighs about nine <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"/> in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of which there is <lb/>a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and more than a <emph type="italics"/>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver; and seven <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>silver remain in the exhausted liquation cakes and in the liquation thorns. <lb/></s> <s>If, however, in three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper there is less than <lb/>ten-twelfths of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> or ten-twelfths of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, <lb/>then such a proportion of rich lead is added as will produce in the copper-lead <lb/>alloy one of the proportions of silver which I mentioned above; this is the <lb/>“fourth” alloy. </s> <s>To this is added such a weight of de-silverized lead or of <lb/>litharge, that a liquation cake made from it contains three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of <pb pagenum="507"/>lead, and in four cakes of this kind there are three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper and <lb/>twelve <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead. </s> <s>The lead which is liquated therefrom weighs <lb/>about ten <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"/> in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of which there is a quarter <lb/>of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and more than a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, or seven <emph type="italics"/>uncíae;<emph.end type="italics"/> a <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/> or <lb/>seven <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía,<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver remain in the exhausted liquation <lb/>cakes and in the liquation thorns.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Against the second long wall in the second part of the building, whose <lb/>area is eighty feet long by thirty-nine feet wide, are four furnaces in which <lb/>the copper is alloyed with lead, and six furnaces in which “slags” are re­<lb/>smelted. </s> <s>The interior of the first kind of furnace is a foot and three palms wide, <lb/>two feet three digits long; and of the second is a foot and a palm wide and a foot <lb/>three palms and a digit long. </s> <s>The side walls of these furnaces are the same <lb/>height as the furnaces in which gold or silver ores are smelted. </s> <s>As the whole <lb/>room is divided into two parts by upright posts, the front part must have, <lb/>first, two furnaces in which “slags” are re-melted; second, two furnaces in <lb/>which copper is alloyed with lead; and third, one furnace in which “slags” are <lb/>re-melted. </s> <s>The back part of the room has first, one furnace in which “slags” <lb/>are re-melted; next, two furnaces in which copper is alloyed with lead; and <lb/>third, two furnaces in which “slags” are re-melted. </s> <s>Each of these is six feet <lb/>distant from the next; on the right side of the first is a space of three feet <lb/>and two palms, and on the left side of the last one of seven feet. </s> <s>Each pair of <lb/>furnaces has a common door, six feet high and a cubit wide, but the first and <lb/>the tenth furnace each has one of its own. </s> <s>Each of the furnaces is set in an arch <lb/>of its own in the back wall, and in front has a forehearth pit; this is filled with <lb/>a powder compound rammed down and compressed in order to make a crucible. <lb/></s> <s>Under each furnace is a hidden receptacle for the moisture,<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> from which a <lb/>vent is made through the back wall toward the right, which allows the <lb/>vapour to escape. </s> <s>Finally, to the right, in front, is the copper mould into <lb/>which the copper-lead alloy is poured from the forehearth, in order that <lb/>liquation cakes of equal weight may be made. </s> <s>This copper mould is a digit <lb/>thick, its interior is two feet in diameter and six digits deep. </s> <s>Behind the <lb/>second long wall are ten pairs of bellows, two machines for compressing them, <lb/>and twenty instruments for inflating them. </s> <s>The way in which these should <lb/>be made may be understood from Book IX.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The smelter, when he alloys copper with lead, with his hand throws into <lb/>the heated furnace, first the large fragments of copper, then a basketful of <lb/>charcoal, then the smaller fragments of copper. </s> <s>When the copper is melted <lb/>and begins to run out of the tap-hole into the forehearth, he throws litharge <lb/>into the furnace, and, lest part of it should fly away, he first throws <lb/>charcoal over it, and lastly lead. </s> <s>As soon as he has thrown into the furnace <lb/>the copper and the lead, from which alloy the first liquation cake is made, he <lb/>again throws in a basket of charcoal, and then fragments of copper are thrown <lb/>over them, from which the second cake may be made. </s> <s>Afterward with a <lb/>rabble he skims the “slag” from the copper and lead as they flow into the <lb/>forehearth. </s> <s>Such a rabble is a board into which an iron bar is fixed; the <pb pagenum="508"/>board is made of elder-wood or willow, and is ten digits long, six wide, and one <lb/>and a half digits thick; the iron bar is three feet long, and the wooden <lb/>handle inserted into it is two and a half feet long. </s> <s>While he purges the <lb/>alloy and pours it out with a ladle into the copper mould, the fragments of <lb/>copper from which he is to make the second cake are melting. </s> <s>As soon as <lb/>this begins to run down he again throws in litharge, and when he has put on <lb/>more charcoal he adds the lead. </s> <s>This operation he repeats until thirty <lb/>liquation cakes have been made, on which work he expends nine hours, or at <lb/>most ten; if more than thirty cakes must be made, then he is paid for <lb/>another shift when he has made an extra thirty.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>At the same time that he pours the copper-lead alloy into the copper <lb/>mould, he also pours water slowly into the top of the mould. </s> <s>Then, with a <lb/>cleft stick, he takes a hook and puts its straight stem into the molten cake. <lb/></s> <s>The hook itself is a digit and a half thick; its straight stem is two palms <lb/>long and two digits wide and thick. </s> <s>Afterward he pours more water over the <lb/>cakes. </s> <s>When they are cold he places an iron ring in the hook of the chain </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE IN WHICH “SLAGS” ARE RE-SMELTED. B—FURNACE IN WHICH COPPER IS <lb/>ALLOYED WITH LEAD. C—DOOR. D—FORE-HEARTHS ON THE GROUND. E—COPPER <lb/>MOULDS. F—RABBLE. G—HOOK. H—CLEFT STICK. I—ARM OF THE CRANE. <lb/>K—THE HOOK OF ITS CHAIN.<pb pagenum="509"/>let down from the pulley of the crane arm; the inside diameter of this ring <lb/>is six digits, and it is about a digit and a half thick; the ring is then engaged <lb/>in the hook whose straight stem is in the cake, and thus the cake is raised from <lb/>the mould and put into its place.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The copper and lead, when thus melted, yield a small amount of “slag”<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>and much litharge. </s> <s>The litharge does not cohere, but falls to pieces like the <lb/>residues from malt from which beer is made. <emph type="italics"/>Pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"/> adheres to the walls <lb/>in white ashes, and to the sides of the furnace adheres <emph type="italics"/>spodos.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>In this practical manner lead is alloyed with copper in which there is but <lb/>a moderate portion of silver. </s> <s>If, however, there is much silver in it, as, for <lb/>instance, two <emph type="italics"/>líbrae,<emph.end type="italics"/> or two <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/> to the <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium,<emph.end type="italics"/>—which <lb/>weighs one hundred and thirty-three and a third <emph type="italics"/>líbrae,<emph.end type="italics"/> or one hundred and <lb/>forty-six <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>bes,<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/>—then the foreman of the works adds to a <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of such copper three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead, in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of which there is a third of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, or a third of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí­<lb/>uncía.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> In this manner three liquation cakes are made, which contain <lb/>altogether three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper and nine <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead.<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/> The <lb/>lead, when it has been liquated from the copper, weighs seven <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia;<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/>—if the <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper contain two <lb/><emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, and the lead contain a third of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/>—there will be a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and a sixth and more than a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver; while in the exhausted <lb/>liquation cakes, and in the liquation thorns, there remains a third of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="510"/>If a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper contains two <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>bes<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, and <lb/>the lead a third of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía,<emph.end type="italics"/> there will be in each liquation <lb/>cake one and a half <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncia,<emph.end type="italics"/> and a little more than a <emph type="italics"/>sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of silver. </s> <s>In the exhausted liquation cakes there remain a third of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and a <emph type="italics"/>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If there be in the copper only a minute proportion of silver, it cannot be <lb/>separated easily until it has been re-melted in other furnaces, so that in <lb/>the “bottoms” there remains more silver and in the “tops” less.<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/> This </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE. B—FOREHEARTH. C—DIPPING-POT. D—CAKES.<lb/>furnace, vaulted with unbaked bricks, is similar to an oven, and also to the <lb/>cupellation furnace, in which the lead is separated from silver, which I described <lb/>in the last book. </s> <s>The crucible is made of ashes, in the same manner as <pb pagenum="511"/>in the latter, and in the front of the furnace, three feet above the floor of <lb/>the building, is the mouth out of which the re-melted copper flows into a <lb/>forehearth and a dipping-pot. </s> <s>On the left side of the mouth is an aperture, <lb/>through which beech-wood may be put into the furnace to feed the fire. </s> <s>If <lb/>in a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper there were a sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>silver, or a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>libra,<emph.end type="italics"/> or a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"/>—there is <lb/>re-melted at the same time thirty-eight <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of it in this furnace, until <lb/>there remain in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of the copper “bottoms” a third of a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>For example, if in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>copper not yet re-melted, there is a quarter of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, <lb/>then the thirty-eight <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> that are smelted together must contain a <lb/>total of eleven <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> and an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>Since from fifteen <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of re-melted copper there was a total of four and a third <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semi-uncia<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of silver, there remain only two and a third <emph type="italics"/>librae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Thus there is left in the <lb/>“bottoms,” weighing twenty-three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"/> a total of eight and three­<lb/>quarter <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>Therefore, each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of this contains a <lb/>third of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía,<emph.end type="italics"/> a <emph type="italics"/>drachma,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the twenty-third part of a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver; from such copper it is profitable to separate the silver. <lb/></s> <s>In order that the master may be more certain of the number of <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of copper in the “bottoms,” he weighs the “tops” that have been drawn <lb/>off from it; the “tops” were first drawn off into the dipping-pot, and cakes <lb/>were made from them. </s> <s>Fourteen hours are expended on the work of thus <lb/>dividing the copper. </s> <s>The “bottoms,” when a certain weight of lead has <lb/>been added to them, of which alloy I shall soon speak, are melted in <lb/>the blast furnace; liquation cakes are then made, and the silver is afterward <lb/>separated from the copper. </s> <s>The “tops” are subsequently melted <lb/>in the blast furnace, and re-melted in the refining furnace, in order that <lb/>red copper shall be made<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/>; and the “tops” from this are again smelted in <lb/>the blast furnace, and then again in the refining furnace, that therefrom <pb pagenum="512"/>shall be made <emph type="italics"/>caldaríum<emph.end type="italics"/> copper. </s> <s>But when the copper, yellow or red or <emph type="italics"/>caldar­<lb/>íum<emph.end type="italics"/> is re-smelted in the refining furnace, forty <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> are placed in <lb/>it, and from it they make at least twenty, and at most thirty-five, <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondía.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> About twenty-two <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of exhausted liquation cakes and <lb/>ten of yellow copper and eight of red, are simultaneously placed in this latter <lb/>furnace and smelted, in order that they may be made into refined copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The copper “bottoms” are alloyed in three different ways with lead.<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>First, five-eights of a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper and two and three­<lb/>quarters <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead are taken; and since one liquation cake is made <lb/>from this, therefore two and a half <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper and eleven <emph type="italics"/>cen­<lb/>tumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead make four liquation cakes. </s> <s>Inasmuch as in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpon­<lb/>dium<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper there is a third of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, there would be in the whole <lb/>of the copper ten-twelfths of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver; to these are added four <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead re-melted from “slags,” each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of which contains <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>sícilícus<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, which weights make up a total of an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and a half of silver. </s> <s>There is also added seven <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of de-silverized <lb/>lead, in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of which there is a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver; therefore <lb/>in the four cakes of copper-lead alloy there is a total of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra,<emph.end type="italics"/> a <emph type="italics"/>sicílícus<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>In each single <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead, after it has been <lb/>liquated from the copper, there is an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, which alloy <lb/>we call “poor” argentiferous lead, because it contains but little silver. </s> <s>But <lb/>as five cakes of that kind are placed together in the furnace, they liquate <lb/>from them usually as much as nine and three-quarters <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of poor <pb pagenum="513"/>argentiferous lead, in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of which there is an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, or a total of ten <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> less four <emph type="italics"/>drachmae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Of the liquation <lb/>thorns there remain three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"/> in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of which <lb/>there are three <emph type="italics"/>sícilící<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver; and there remain four <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>exhausted liquation cakes, each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of which contains a <emph type="italics"/>semí­<lb/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> or four and a half <emph type="italics"/>drachmae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Inasmuch as in a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper <lb/>“bottoms” there is a third of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, in five of those <lb/>cakes there must be more than one and a half <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> and half a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>silver.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Then, again, from another two and a half <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper <lb/>“bottoms,” together with eleven <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead, four liquation cakes <lb/>are made. </s> <s>If in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper there was a third of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>silver, there would be in the whole of the <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of base metal five­<lb/>sixths of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the precious metal. </s> <s>To this copper is added eight <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of poor argentiferous lead, each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of which contains an <lb/><emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, or a total of three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. <lb/></s> <s>There is also added three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of de-silverized lead, in each <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of which there is a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>Therefore, four liquation <lb/>cakes contain a total of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra,<emph.end type="italics"/> seven <emph type="italics"/>uncíae,<emph.end type="italics"/> a <emph type="italics"/>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver; <lb/>thus each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead, when it has been liquated from the copper, <lb/>contains an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and a half and a <emph type="italics"/>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, which alloy we call <lb/>“medium” silver-lead.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Then, again, from another two and a half <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper <lb/>“bottoms,” together with eleven <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead, they make four <lb/>liquation cakes. </s> <s>If in each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper there were likewise a <lb/>third of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, there will be in all the weight of the base metal five­<lb/>sixths of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> of the precious metal. </s> <s>To this is added nine <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of medium silver-lead, each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of which contains an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>a half and a <emph type="italics"/>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver; or a total of a <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a quarter and a <emph type="italics"/>semí­<lb/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>sícílícus<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>And likewise they add two <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>poor silver-lead, in each of which there is an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. <lb/></s> <s>Therefore the four liquation cakes contain two and a third <emph type="italics"/>líbrae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. <lb/></s> <s>Each <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead, when it has been liquated from the copper, <lb/>contains a sixth of a <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>semí-uncía<emph.end type="italics"/> and a <emph type="italics"/>drachma<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>This <lb/>alloy we call “rich” silver-lead; it is carried to the cupellation furnace, <lb/>in which lead is separated from silver. </s> <s>I have now mentioned in how many <lb/>ways copper containing various proportions of silver is alloyed with lead, <lb/>and how they are melted together in the furnace and run into the casting pan.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Now I will speak of the method by which lead is liquated from copper <lb/>simultaneously with the silver. </s> <s>The liquation cakes are raised from the <lb/>ground with the crane, and placed on the copper plates of the furnaces. </s> <s>The <lb/>hook of the chain let down from the arm of the crane, is inserted in a <lb/>ring of the tongs, one jaw of which has a tooth; a ring is engaged in each <lb/>of the handles of the tongs, and these two rings are engaged in a third, in <lb/>which the hook of the chain is inserted. </s> <s>The tooth on the one jaw of the <lb/>tongs is struck by a hammer, and driven into the hole in the cake, at the point <pb pagenum="514"/>where the straight end of the hook was driven into it when it was lifted out <lb/>of the copper mould; the other jaw of the tongs, which has no tooth, <lb/>squeezes the cake, lest the tooth should fall out of it; the tongs are one and <lb/>a half feet long, each ring is a digit and a half thick, and the inside is a palm <lb/>and two digits in diameter. </s> <s>Those cranes by which the cakes are lifted out <lb/>of the copper pans and placed on the ground, and lifted up again from there <lb/>and placed in the furnaces, are two in number—one in the middle space <lb/>between the third transverse wall and the two upright posts, and the other in </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CRANE. B—DRUM CONSISTING OF RUNDLES. C—TOOTHED DRUM. D—TROLLEY <lb/>AND ITS WHEELS. E—TRIANGULAR BOARD. F—CAKES. G—CHAIN OF THE CRANE. <lb/>H—ITS HOOK. I—RING. K—THE TONGS.<lb/>the middle space between the same posts and the seventh transverse wall. <lb/></s> <s>The rectangular crane-post of both of these is two feet wide and thick, and <lb/>is eighteen feet from the third long wall, and nineteen from the second long <lb/>wall. </s> <s>There are two drums in the framework of each—one drum consisting <lb/>of rundles, the other being toothed. </s> <s>The crane-arm of each extends seventeen <lb/>feet, three palms and as many digits from the post. </s> <s>The trolley of each <lb/>crane is two feet and as many palms long, a foot and two digits wide, and a <lb/>palm and two digits thick; but where it runs between the beams of the <lb/>crane-arm it is three digits wide and a palm thick; it has five notches, in <pb pagenum="515"/>which turn five brass wheels, four of which are small, and the fifth much <lb/>larger than the rest. </s> <s>The notches in which the small wheels turn are two <lb/>palms long and as much as a palm wide; those wheels are a palm wide and <lb/>a palm and two digits in diameter; four of the notches are near the four <lb/>corners of the trolley; the fifth notch is between the two front ones, and <lb/>it is two palms back from the front. </s> <s>Its pulley is larger than the rest, and <lb/>turns in its own notch; it is three palms in diameter and one palm wide, <lb/>and grooved on the circumference, so that the iron chain may run in the <lb/>groove. </s> <s>The trolley has two small axles, to the one in front are fastened <lb/>three, and to the one at the back, the two wheels; two wheels run on the <lb/>one beam of the crane-arm, and two on the other; the fifth wheel, which is <lb/>larger than the others, runs between those two beams. </s> <s>Those people who <lb/>have no cranes place the cakes on a triangular board, to which iron cleats <lb/>are affixed, so that it will last longer; the board has three iron chains, <lb/>which are fixed in an iron ring at the top; two workmen pass a pole through <lb/>the ring and carry it on their shoulders, and thus take the cake to the furnace <lb/>in which silver is separated from copper.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>From the vicinity of the furnaces in which copper is mixed with lead and <lb/>the “slags” are re-melted, to the third long wall, are likewise ten furnaces, <lb/>in which silver mixed with lead is separated from copper. </s> <s>If this space is <lb/>eighty feet and two palms long, and the third long wall has in the centre a <lb/>door three feet and two palms wide, then the spaces remaining at either side <lb/>of the door will be thirty-eight feet and two palms; and if each of the furnaces <lb/>occupies four feet and a palm, then the interval between each furnace and <lb/>the next one must be a foot and three palms; thus the width of the five <lb/>furnaces and four interspaces will be twenty-eight feet and a palm. </s> <s>There­<lb/>fore, there remain ten feet and a palm, which measurement is so divided <lb/>that there are five feet and two digits between the first furnace and <lb/>the transverse wall, and as many feet and digits between the fifth furnace <lb/>and the door; similarly in the other part of the space from the door to the <lb/>sixth furnace, there must be five feet and two digits, and from the tenth <lb/>furnace to the seventh transverse wall, likewise, five feet and two digits. <lb/></s> <s>The door is six feet and two palms high; through it the foreman of the <emph type="italics"/>officína<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and the workmen enter the store-room in which the silver-lead alloy is kept.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Each furnace has a bed, a hearth, a rear wall, two sides and a front, <lb/>and a receiving-pit. </s> <s>The bed consists of two sole-stones, four rectangular <lb/>stones, and two copper plates; the sole-stones are five feet and a palm <lb/>long, a cubit wide, a foot and a palm thick, and they are sunk into the ground, <lb/>so that they emerge a palm and two digits; they are distant from each other <lb/>about three palms, yet the distance is narrower at the back than the front. <lb/></s> <s>Each of the rectangular stones is two feet and as many palms long, a cubit <lb/>wide, and a cubit thick at the outer edge, and a foot and a palm thick on the <lb/>inner edge which faces the hearth, thus they form an incline, so that there is a <lb/>slope to the copper plates which are laid upon them. </s> <s>Two of these rectang­<lb/>ular stones are placed on one sole-stone; a hole is cut in the upper edge of <lb/>each, and into the holes are placed iron clamps, and lead is poured in; they <pb pagenum="516"/>are so placed on the sole-stones that they project a palm at the sides, and at the <lb/>front the sole-stones project to the same extent; if rectangular stones are <lb/>not available, bricks are laid in their place. </s> <s>The copper plates are four feet <lb/>two palms and as many digits long, a cubit wide, and a palm thick; each <lb/>edge has a protuberance, one at the front end, the other at the back; these <lb/>are a palm and three digits long, and a palm wide and thick. </s> <s>The plates are <lb/>so laid upon the rectangular stones that their rear ends are three digits from <lb/>the third long wall; the stones project beyond the plate the same number <lb/>of digits in front, and a palm and three digits at the sides. </s> <s>When the plates <lb/>have been joined, the groove which is between the protuberances is a palm <lb/>and three digits wide, and four feet long, and through it flows the silver-lead <lb/>which liquates from the cakes. </s> <s>When the plates are corroded either by the <lb/>fire or by the silver-lead, which often adheres to them in the form of stalac­<lb/>tites, and is chipped off, they are exchanged, the right one being placed to the <lb/>left, and the left one, on the contrary, to the right; but the left side of the <lb/>plates, which, when the fusion of the copper took place, came into contact <lb/>with the copper, must lie flat; so that when the exchange of the plates has <lb/>been carried out, the protuberances, which are thus on the underside, raise <lb/>the plate from the stones, and they have to be partially chipped off, lest they <lb/>should prove an impediment to the work; and in each of their places is <lb/>laid a piece of iron, three palms long, a digit thick at both ends, and a palm <lb/>thick in the centre for the length of a palm and three digits.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The passage under the plates between the rectangular stones is a foot <lb/>wide at the back, and a foot and a palm wide at the front, for it gradually <lb/>widens out. </s> <s>The hearth, which is between the sole-stones, is covered with a <lb/>bed of hearth-lead, taken from the crucible in which lead is separated from <lb/>silver. </s> <s>The rear end is the highest, and should be so high that it reaches to <lb/>within six digits of the plates, from which point it slopes down evenly to the <lb/>front end, so that the argentiferous lead alloy which liquates from the cakes <lb/>can flow into the receiving-pit. </s> <s>The wall built against the third long wall <lb/>in order to protect it from injury by fire, is constructed of bricks joined <lb/>together with lute, and stands on the copper plates; this wall is two feet, a <lb/>palm and two digits high, two palms thick, and three feet, a palm and three <lb/>digits wide at the bottom, for it reaches across both of them; at the top it is <lb/>three feet wide, for it rises up obliquely on each side. </s> <s>At each side of this wall, <lb/>at a height of a palm and two digits above the top of it, there is inserted in a <lb/>hole in the third long wall a hooked iron rod, fastened in with molten lead; <lb/>the rod projects two palms from the wall, and is two digits wide and one <lb/>digit thick; it has two hooks, the one at the side, the other at the end. <lb/></s> <s>Both of these hooks open toward the wall, and both are a digit thick, and <lb/>both are inserted in the last, or the adjacent, links of a short iron chain. </s> <s>This <lb/>chain consists of four links, each of which is a palm and a digit long and half <lb/>a digit thick; the first link is engaged in the first hole in a long iron rod, and <lb/>one or other of the remaining three links engages the hook of the hooked rod. <lb/></s> <s>The two long rods are three feet and as many palms and digits long, two <lb/>digits wide, and one digit thick; both ends of both of these rods have holes, </s></p><pb pagenum="517"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SOLE-STONES. B—RECTANGULAR STONES. C—COPPER PLATES. D—FRONT PANEL. <lb/>E—SIDE PANELS. F—BAR. G—FRONT END OF THE LONG IRON RODS. H—SHORT CHAIN. <lb/>I—HOOKED ROD. K—WALL WHICH PROTECTS THE THIRD LONG WALL FROM INJURY BY <lb/>FIRE. L—THIRD LONG WALL. M—FEET OF THE PANELS. N—IRON BLOCKS. O—CAKES. <lb/>P—HEARTH. Q—RECEIVING-PIT.<pb pagenum="518"/>the back one of which is round and a digit in diameter, and in this is engaged <lb/>the first link of the chain as I have stated; the hole at the front end is two <lb/>digits and a half long and a digit and a half wide. </s> <s>This end of each rod <lb/>is made three digits wide, while for the rest of its length it is only two digits, <lb/>and at the back it is two and a half digits. </s> <s>Into the front hole of each rod is <lb/>driven an iron bar, which is three feet and two palms long, two digits wide <lb/>and one thick; in the end of this bar are five small square holes, two-thirds <lb/>of a digit square; each hole is distant from the other half a digit, the first <lb/>being at a distance of about a digit from the end. </s> <s>Into one of these holes the <lb/>refiner drives an iron pin; if he should desire to make the furnace narrower, <lb/>then he drives it into the last hole; if he should desire to widen it, then into <lb/>the first hole; if he should desire to contract it moderately, then into one <lb/>of the middle holes. </s> <s>For the same reason, therefore, the hook is sometimes <lb/>inserted into the last link of the chain, and sometimes into the third or the <lb/>second. </s> <s>The furnace is widened when many cakes are put into it, and con­<lb/>tracted when there are but few, but to put in more than five is neither usual <lb/>nor possible; indeed, it is because of thin cakes that the walls are contracted. <lb/></s> <s>The bar has a hump, which projects a digit on each side at the back, of the <lb/>same width and thickness as itself. </s> <s>These humps project, lest the bar should <lb/>slip through the hole of the right-hand rod, in which it remains fixed when <lb/>it, together with the rods, is not pressing upon the furnace walls.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are three panels to the furnace—two at the sides, one in front <lb/>and another at the back. </s> <s>Those which are at the sides are three feet <lb/>and as many palms and two digits long, and two feet high; the front one is <lb/>two feet and a palm and three digits long, and, like the side ones, two feet <lb/>high. </s> <s>Each consists of iron bars, of feet, and of iron plates. </s> <s>Those which are <lb/>at the side have seven bars, the lower and upper of which are of the same <lb/>length as the panels; the former holds up the upright bars; the latter is <lb/>placed upon them; the uprights are five in number, and have the same height <lb/>as the panels; the middle ones are inserted into holes in the upper and lower <lb/>bars; the outer ones are made of one and the same bar as the lower and <lb/>upper ones. </s> <s>They are two digits wide and one thick. </s> <s>The front panel has <lb/>five bars; the lower one holds similar uprights, but there are three of them <lb/>only; the upper bar is placed on them. </s> <s>Each of these panels has two feet <lb/>fixed at each end of the lower bar, and these are two palms long, one wide, <lb/>and a digit thick. </s> <s>The iron plates are fastened to the inner side of the bars <lb/>with iron wire, and they are covered with lute, so that they may last longer <lb/>and may be uninjured by the fire. </s> <s>There are, besides, iron blocks three palms <lb/>long, one wide, and a digit and a half thick; the upper surface of these is <lb/>somewhat hollowed out, so that the cakes may stand in them; these iron <lb/>blocks are dipped into a vessel in which there is clay mixed with water, and <lb/>they are used only for placing under the cakes of copper and lead alloy made <lb/>in the furnaces. </s> <s>There is more silver in these than in those which are <lb/>made of liquation thorns, or furnace accretions, or re-melted “slags.” Two <lb/>iron blocks are placed under each cake, in order that, by raising it up, the fire <lb/>may bring more force to bear upon it; the one is put on the right bed-plate, </s></p><pb pagenum="519"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE IN WHICH THE OPERATION OF LIQUATION IS BEING PERFORMED. <lb/>B—FURNACE IN WHICH IT IS NOT BEING PERFORMED. C—RECEIVING-PIT. D—MOULDS. <lb/>E—CAKES. F—LIQUATION THORNS.<pb pagenum="520"/>the other on the left. </s> <s>Finally, outside the hearth is the receiving-pit, which <lb/>is a foot wide and three palms deep; when this is worn away it is restored <lb/>with lute alone, which easily retains the lead alloy.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If four liquation cakes are placed on the plates of each furnace, then the <lb/>iron blocks are laid under them; but if the cakes are made from copper <lb/>“bottoms,” or from liquation thorns, or from the accretions or “slags,” of <lb/>which I have partly written above and will further describe a little later, <lb/>there are five of them, and because they are not so large and heavy, no blocks <lb/>are placed under them. </s> <s>Pieces of charcoal six digits long are laid between the <lb/>cakes, lest they should fall one against the other, or lest the last one should <lb/>fall against the wall which protects the third long wall from injury by fire. </s> <s>In <lb/>the middle empty spaces, long and large pieces of charcoal are likewise laid. <lb/></s> <s>Then when the panels have been set up, and the bar has been closed, the <lb/>furnace is filled with small charcoal, and a wicker basket full of charcoal is <lb/>thrown into the receiving-pit, and over that are thrown live coals; soon <lb/>afterward the burning coal, lifted up in a shovel, is spread over all parts of <lb/>the furnace, so that the charcoal in it may be kindled; any charcoal which <lb/>remains in the receiving-pit is thrown into the passage, so that it may likewise <lb/>be heated. </s> <s>If this has not been done, the silver-lead alloy liquated from the <lb/>cakes is frozen by the coldness of the passage, and does not run down into the <lb/>receiving-pit.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>After a quarter of an hour the cakes begin to drip silver-lead alloy,<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>which runs down through the openings between the copper plates into the <lb/>passage. </s> <s>When the long pieces of charcoal have burned up, if the cakes <lb/>lean toward the wall, they are placed upright again with a hooked bar, but <lb/>if they lean toward the front bar they are propped up by charcoal; more­<lb/>over, if some cakes shrink more than the rest, charcoal is added to the former <lb/>and not to the others. </s> <s>The silver drips together with the lead, for both melt <lb/>more rapidly than copper. </s> <s>The liquation thorns do not flow away, but remain <lb/>in the passage, and should be turned over frequently with a hooked bar, in <lb/>order that the silver-lead may liquate away from them and flow down into <lb/>the receiving pit; that which remains is again melted in the blast furnace, <lb/>while that which flows into the receiving pit is at once carried with the remain­<pb pagenum="521"/>ing products to the cupellation furnace, where the lead is separated from the <lb/>silver. </s> <s>The hooked bar has an iron handle two feet long, in which is set a <lb/>wooden one four feet long. </s> <s>The silver-lead which runs out into the receiving­<lb/>pit is poured out by the refiner with a bronze ladle into eight copper moulds, <lb/>which are two palms and three digits in diameter; these are first smeared <lb/>with a lute wash so that the cakes of silver-lead may more easily fall out <lb/>when they are turned over. </s> <s>If the supply of moulds fails because the silver­<lb/>lead flows down too rapidly into the receiving-pit, then water is poured on them, <lb/>in order that the cakes may cool and be taken out of them more rapidly; <lb/>thus the same moulds may be used again immediately; if no such necessity <lb/>urges the refiner, he washes over the empty moulds with a lute wash. </s> <s>The <lb/>ladle is exactly similar to that which is used in pouring out the metals that <lb/>are melted in the blast furnace. </s> <s>When all the silver-lead has run down from <lb/>the passage into the receiving-pit, and has been poured out into copper <lb/>moulds, the thorns are drawn out of the passage into the receiving-pit <lb/>with a rabble; afterward they are raked on to the ground from the receiving­<lb/>pit, thrown with a shovel into a wheelbarrow, and, having been conveyed <lb/>away to a heap, are melted once again. </s> <s>The blade of the rabble is two palms <lb/>and as many digits long, two palms and a digit wide, and joined to its <lb/>back is an iron handle three feet long; into the iron handle is inserted a <lb/>wooden one as many feet in length.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The residue cakes, after the silver-lead has been liquated from the <lb/>copper, are called “exhausted liquation cakes” (<emph type="italics"/>fathíscentes<emph.end type="italics"/>), because when <lb/>thus smelted they appear to be dried up. </s> <s>By placing a crowbar under the <lb/>cakes they are raised up, seized with tongs, and placed in the wheelbarrow; <lb/>they are then conveyed away to the furnace in which they are “dried.” <lb/>The crowbar is somewhat similar to those generally used to chip off the <lb/>accretions that adhere to the walls of the blast furnace. </s> <s>The tongs are two <lb/>and a half feet long. </s> <s>With the same crowbar the stalactites are chipped off <lb/>from the copper plates from which they hang, and with the same instrument <lb/>the iron blocks are struck off the exhausted liquation cakes to which they <lb/>adhere. </s> <s>The refiner has performed his day's task when he has liquated the <lb/>silver-lead from sixteen of the large cakes and twenty of the smaller ones; <lb/>if he liquates more than this, he is paid separately for it at the price for <lb/>extraordinary work.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Silver, or lead mixed with silver, which we call <emph type="italics"/>stannum,<emph.end type="italics"/> is separated by <lb/>the above method from copper. </s> <s>This silver-lead is carried to the cupellation <lb/>furnace, in which lead is separated from silver; of these methods I will <lb/>mention only one, because in the previous book I have explained them in <lb/>detail. </s> <s>Amongst us some years ago only forty-four <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver­<lb/>lead and one of copper were melted together in the cupellation furnaces, <lb/>but now they melt forty-six <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver-lead and one and a half <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of copper; in other places, usually a hundred and twenty <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver-lead alloy and six of copper are melted, in which <lb/>manner they make about one hundred and ten <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> more or less of <lb/>litharge and thirty of hearth-lead. </s> <s>But in all these methods the silver which <pb pagenum="522"/>is in the copper is mixed with the remainder of silver; the copper itself, <lb/>equally with the lead, will be changed partly into litharge and partly into <lb/>hearth-lead.<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/> The silver-lead alloy which does not melt is taken from the <lb/>margin of the crucible with a hooked bar.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The work of “drying” is distributed into four operations, which are <lb/>performed in four days. </s> <s>On the first—as likewise on the other three days—the <lb/>master begins at the fourth hour of the morning, and with his assistant chips </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CAKES. B—HAMMER.<lb/>off the stalactites from the exhausted liquation cakes. </s> <s>They then carry the <lb/>cakes to the furnace, and put the stalactites upon the heap of liquation <lb/>thorns. </s> <s>The head of the chipping hammer is three palms and as many digits <pb pagenum="523"/>long; its sharp edge is a palm wide; the round end is three digits thick; the <lb/>wooden handle is four feet long.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The master throws pulverised earth into a small vessel, sprinkles water <lb/>over it, and mixes it; this he pours over the whole hearth, and sprinkles <lb/>charcoal dust over it to the thickness of a digit. </s> <s>If he should neglect this, <lb/>the copper, settling in the passages, would adhere to the copper bed-plates, <lb/>from which it can be chipped off only with difficulty; or else it would adhere <lb/>to the bricks, if the hearth was covered with them, and when the copper is <lb/>chipped off these they are easily broken. </s> <s>On the second day, at the same <lb/>time, the master arranges bricks in ten rows; in this manner twelve <lb/>passages are made. </s> <s>The first two rows of bricks are between the first and <lb/>the second openings on the right of the furnace; the next three rows are <lb/>between the second and third openings, the following three rows are <lb/>between the third and the fourth openings, and the last two rows between <lb/>the fourth and fifth openings. </s> <s>These bricks are a foot and a palm long, two <lb/>palms and a digit wide, and a palm and two digits thick; there are seven of <lb/>these thick bricks in a row, so there are seventy all together. </s> <s>Then on the <lb/>first three rows of bricks they lay exhausted liquation cakes and a layer five <lb/>digits thick of large charcoal; then in a similar way more exhausted <lb/>liquation cakes are laid upon the other bricks, and charcoal is thrown upon <lb/>them; in this manner seventy <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of cakes are put on the <lb/>hearth of the furnace. </s> <s>But if half of this weight, or a little more, is to be <lb/>“dried,” then four rows of bricks will suffice. </s> <s>Those who dry exhausted <lb/>liquation cakes<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/> made from copper “bottoms” place ninety or a hundred <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/> into the furnace at the same time. </s> <s>A place is left in the front <lb/>part of the furnace for the topmost cakes removed from the forehearth in <lb/>which copper is made, these being more suitable for supporting the exhausted <lb/>liquation cakes than are iron plates; indeed, if the former cakes drip copper <lb/>from the heat, this can be taken back with the liquation thorns to the first <lb/>furnace, but melted iron is of no use to us in these matters. </s> <s>When the cakes <lb/>of this kind have been placed in front of the exhausted liquation cakes, the <lb/>workman inserts the iron bar into the holes on the inside of the wall, which <lb/>are at a height of three palms and two digits above the hearth; the hole to <lb/>the left penetrates through into the wall, so that the bar may be pushed back <lb/><pb pagenum="524"/>and forth. </s> <s>This bar is round, eight feet long and two digits in diameter; <lb/>on the right side it has a haft made of iron, which is about a foot from the <lb/>right end; the aperture in this haft is a palm wide, two digits high, and a <lb/>digit thick. </s> <s>The bar holds the exhausted liquation cakes opposite, lest they <lb/>should fall down. </s> <s>When the operation of “drying” is completed, a work­<lb/>man draws out this bar with a crook which he inserts into the haft, as I will <lb/>explain hereafter.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In order that one should understand those things of which I have spoken, <lb/>and concerning which I am about to speak, it is necessary for me to give some <lb/>information beforehand about the furnace and how it is to be made. </s> <s>It stands <lb/>nine feet from the fourth long wall, and as far from the wall which is between <lb/>the second and fourth transverse walls. </s> <s>It consists of walls, an arch, a chimney, <lb/>an interior wall, and a hearth; the two walls are at the sides; and they are <lb/>eleven feet three palms and two digits long, and where they support the <lb/>chimney they are eight feet and a palm high. </s> <s>At the front of the arch they <lb/>are only seven feet high; they are two feet three palms and two digits <lb/>thick, and are made either of rock or of bricks; the distance between them <lb/>is eight feet, a palm and two digits. </s> <s>There are two of the arches, for the <lb/>space at the rear between the walls is also arched from the ground, in order <lb/>that it may be able to support the chimney; the foundations of these <lb/>arches are the walls of the furnace; the span of the arch has the same <lb/>length as the space between the walls; the top of the arch is five feet, a palm <lb/>and two digits high. </s> <s>In the rear arch there is a wall made of bricks joined <lb/>with lime; this wall at a height of a foot and three palms from the ground <lb/>has five vent-holes, which are two palms and a digit high, a palm and a digit <lb/>wide, of which the first is near the right interior wall, and the last near the <lb/>left interior wall, the remaining three in the intervening space; these vent­<lb/>holes penetrate through the interior of the wall which is in the arch. <lb/></s> <s>Half-bricks can be placed over the vent-holes, lest too much air should be <lb/>drawn into the furnace, and they can be taken out at times, in order that he <lb/>who is “drying” the exhausted liquation cakes may inspect the passages, <lb/>as they are called, to see whether the cakes are being properly “dried.” <lb/>The front arch is three feet two palms distant from the rear one; this arch <lb/>is the same thickness as that of the rear arch, but the span is six feet wide; </s></p><pb pagenum="525"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SIDE WALLS. B—FRONT ARCH. C—REAR ARCH. D—WALL IN THE REAR ARCH. <lb/>E—INNER WALL. F—VENT HOLES. G—CHIMNEY. H—HEARTH. I—TANK. K—PIPE. <lb/>L—PLUG. M—IRON DOOR. N—TRANSVERSE BARS. O—UPRIGHT BARS. P—PLATES. <lb/>Q—RINGS OF THE BARS. R—CHAINS. S—ROWS OF BRICKS. T—BAR. V—ITS HAFT. <lb/>X—COPPER BED-PLATES.<pb pagenum="526"/>the interior of the a<gap/>oh itself is of the same height as the walls. </s> <s>A chimney <lb/>is built upon the arches and the walls, and is made of bricks joined <lb/>together with lime; it is thirty-six feet high and penetrates through the <lb/>roof. </s> <s>The interior wall is built against the rear arch and both the side <lb/>walls, from which it juts out a foot; it is three feet and the same number <lb/>of palms high, three palms thick, and is made of bricks joined together <lb/>with lute and smeared thickly with lute, sloping up to the height of <lb/>a foot above it. </s> <s>This wall is a kind of shield, for it protects the exterior <lb/>walls from the heat of the fire, which is apt to injure them; the latter can­<lb/>not be easily re-made, while the former can be repaired with little work.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The hearth is made of lute, and is covered either with copper plates, <lb/>such as those of the furnaces in which silver is liquated from copper, although <lb/>they have no protuberances, or it may be covered with bricks, if the owners <lb/>are unwilling to incur the expense of copper plates. </s> <s>The wider part of the <lb/>hearth is made sloping in such a manner that the rear end reaches as high as <lb/>the five vent-holes, and the front end of the hearth is so low that the back <lb/>of the front arch is four feet, three palms and as many digits above it, <lb/>and the front five feet, three palms and as many digits. </s> <s>The hearth beyond <lb/>the furnaces is paved with bricks for a distance of six feet. </s> <s>Near the <lb/>furnace, against the fourth long wall, is a tank thirteen feet and a palm <lb/>long, four feet wide, and a foot and three palms deep. </s> <s>It is lined on all sides <lb/>with planks, lest the earth should fall into it; on one side the water flows <lb/>in through pipes, and on the other, if the plug be pulled out, it soaks into the <lb/>earth; into this tank of water are thrown the cakes of copper from which <lb/>the silver and lead have been separated. </s> <s>The fore part of the front furnace <lb/>arch should be partly closed with an iron door; the bottom of this door is <lb/>six feet and two digits wide; the upper part is somewhat rounded, and at <lb/>the highest point, which is in the middle, it is three feet and two palms high. <lb/></s> <s>It is made of iron bars, with plates fastened to them with iron wire, there <lb/>being seven bars—three transverse and four upright—each of which is two <lb/>digits wide and half a digit thick. </s> <s>The lowest transverse bar is six feet and <lb/>two palms long; the middle one has the same length; the upper one is <lb/>curved and higher at the centre, and thus longer than the other two. </s> <s>The <lb/>upright bars are two feet distant from one another; both the outer ones are <lb/>two feet and as many palms high; but the centre ones are three feet and two <lb/>palms. </s> <s>They project from the upper curved transverse bar and have holes, <lb/>in which are inserted the hooks of small chains two feet long; the topmost <lb/>links of these chains are engaged in the ring of a third chain, which, when <lb/>extended, reaches to one end of a beam which is somewhat cut out. </s> <s>The chain <lb/>then turns around the beam, and again hanging down, the hook in the other end <lb/>is fastened in one of the links. </s> <s>This beam is eleven feet long, a palm and two <lb/>digits wide, a palm thick, and turns on an iron axle fixed in a near-by timber; <lb/>the rear end of the beam has an iron pin, which is three palms and a digit long, <lb/>and which penetrates through it where it lies under a timber, and projects <lb/>from it a palm and two digits on one side, and three digits on the other side. <lb/></s> <s>At this point the pin is perforated, in order that a ring may be fixed in it <pb pagenum="527"/>and hold it, lest it should fall out of the beam; that end is hardly a digit <lb/>thick, while the other round end is thicker than a digit. </s> <s>When the door is <lb/>to be shut, this pin lies under the timber and holds the door so that it cannot <lb/>fall; the pin likewise prevents the rectangular iron band which encircles the <lb/>end of the beam, and into which is inserted the ring of a long hook, from <lb/>falling from the end. </s> <s>The lowest link of an iron chain, which is six feet long, <lb/>is inserted in the ring of a staple driven into the right wall of the furnace, <lb/>and fixed firmly by filling in with molten lead. </s> <s>The hook suspended at the <lb/>top from the ring should be inserted in one of these lower links, when the <lb/>door is to be raised; when the door is to be let down, the hook is taken out <lb/>of that link and put into one of the upper links.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>On the third day the master sets about the principal operation. </s> <s>First <lb/>he throws a basketful of charcoals on to the ground in front of the hearth, <lb/>and kindles them by adding live coals, and having thrown live coals on to the <lb/>cakes placed within, he spreads them equally all over with an iron shovel. <lb/></s> <s>The blade of the shovel is three palms and a digit long, and three palms wide; <lb/>its iron handle is two palms long, and the wooden one ten feet long, so that <lb/>it can reach to the rear wall of the furnace. </s> <s>The exhausted liquation cakes <lb/>become incandescent in an hour and a half, if the copper was good and hard, </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—THE DOOR LET DOWN. B—BAR. C—EXHAUSTED LIQUATION CAKES. D—BRICKS. <lb/>E—TONGS.<pb pagenum="528"/>or after two hours, if it was soft and fragile. </s> <s>The workman adds charcoal to <lb/>them where he sees it is needed, throwing it into the furnace through the <lb/>openings on both sides between the side walls and the closed door. </s> <s>This open­<lb/>ing is a foot and a palm wide. </s> <s>He lets down the door, and when the “slags” <lb/>begin to flow he opens the passages with a bar; this should take place after <lb/>five hours; the door is let down over the upper open part of the arch for <lb/>two feet and as many digits, so that the master can bear the violence of the <lb/>heat. </s> <s>When the cakes shrink, charcoal should not be added to them lest <lb/>they should melt. </s> <s>If the cakes made from poor and fragile copper are <lb/>“dried” with cakes made from good hard copper, very often the copper <lb/>so settles into the passages that a bar thrust into them cannot penetrate <lb/>them. </s> <s>This bar is of iron, six feet and two palms long, into which a wooden <lb/>handle five feet long is inserted. </s> <s>The refiner draws off the “slags” with a <lb/>rabble from the right side of the hearth. </s> <s>The blade of the rabble is made <lb/>of an iron plate a foot and a palm wide, gradually narrowing toward the <lb/>handle; the blade is two palms high, its iron handle is two feet long, and <lb/>the wooden handle set into it is ten feet long.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>When the exhausted liquation cakes have been “dried,” the master </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—THE DOOR RAISED. B—HOOKED BAR. C—TWO-PRONGED RAKE. D—TONGS. <lb/>E—TANK.<pb pagenum="529"/>raises the door in the manner I have described, and with a long iron hook <lb/>inserted into the haft of the bar he draws it through the hole in the left wall <lb/>from the hole in the right wall; afterward he pushes it back and replaces it. <lb/></s> <s>The master then takes out the exhausted liquation cakes nearest to him with <lb/>the iron hook; then he pulls out the cakes from the bricks. </s> <s>This hook is <lb/>two palms high, as many digits wide, and one thick; its iron handle is two <lb/>feet long, and the wooden handle eleven feet long. </s> <s>There is also a two­<lb/>pronged rake with which the “dried” cakes are drawn over to the left side so <lb/>that they may be seized with tongs; the prongs of the rake are pointed, <lb/>and are two palms long, as many digits wide, and one digit thick; the iron <lb/>part of the handle is a foot long, the wooden part nine feet long. </s> <s>The <lb/>“dried” cakes, taken out of the hearth by the master and his assistants, <lb/>are seized with other tongs and thrown into the rectangular tank, which is <lb/>almost filled with water. </s> <s>These tongs are two feet and three palms long, <lb/>both the handles are round and more than a digit thick, and the ends are <lb/>bent for a palm and two digits; both the jaws are a digit and a half wide <lb/>in front and sharpened; at the back they are a digit thick, and then gradually <lb/>taper, and when closed, the interior is two palms and as many digits wide.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The “dried” cakes which are dripping copper are not immediately dipped <lb/>into the tank, because, if so, they burst in fragments and give out a sound <lb/>like thunder. </s> <s>The cakes are afterward taken out of the tank with the <lb/>tongs, and laid upon the two transverse planks on which the workmen stand; <lb/>the sooner they are taken out the easier it is to chip off the copper that <lb/>has become ash-coloured. </s> <s>Finally, the master, with a spade, raises up the <lb/>bricks a little from the hearth, while they are still warm. </s> <s>The blade of the <lb/>spade is a palm and two digits long, the lower edge is sharp, and is a palm <lb/>and a digit wide, the upper end a palm wide; its handle is round, the iron <lb/>part being two feet long, and the wooden part seven and a half feet long.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>On the fourth day the master draws out the liquation thorns which <lb/>have settled in the passages; they are much richer in silver than those <lb/>that are made when the silver-lead is liquated from copper in the liquation <lb/>furnace. </s> <s>The “dried” cakes drip but little copper, but nearly all their <lb/>remaining silver-lead and the thorns consist of it, for, indeed, in one <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of “dried” copper there should remain only half an <emph type="italics"/>uncía<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of silver, and there sometimes remain only three <emph type="italics"/>drachmae.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/> Some smelters <lb/>chip off the metal adhering to the bricks with a hammer, in order that it <lb/>may be melted again; others, however, crush the bricks under the stamps <lb/>and wash them, and the copper and lead thus collected is melted again. </s> <s>The <lb/>master, when he has taken these things away and put them in their places, <lb/>has finished his day's work.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The assistants take the “dried” cakes out of the tank on the <lb/>next day, place them on an oak block, and first pound them with rounded <lb/>hammers in order that the ash-coloured copper may fall away from them, <pb pagenum="530"/>and then they dig out with pointed picks the holes in the cakes, which contain <lb/>the same kind of copper. </s> <s>The head of the round hammer is three palms and <lb/>a digit long; one end of the head is round and two digits long and thick; <lb/>the other end is chisel-shaped, and is two digits and a half long. </s> <s>The sharp <lb/>pointed hammer is the same length as the round hammer, but one end is <lb/>pointed, the other end is square, and gradually tapers to a point.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TANK. B—BOARD. C—TONGS. D—“DRIED” CAKES TAKEN OUT OF THE TANKS. <lb/>E—BLOCK. F—ROUNDED HAMMER. G—POINTED HAMMER.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The nature of copper is such that when it is “dried” it becomes ash <lb/>coloured, and since this copper contains silver, it is smelted again in the <lb/>blast furnaces.<emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>I have described sufficiently the method by which exhausted liquation <lb/>cakes are “dried”; now I will speak of the method by which they are made <lb/>into copper after they have been “dried.” These cakes, in order that <lb/>they may recover the appearance of copper which they have to some extent <lb/>lost, are melted in four furnaces, which are placed against the second long <lb/>wall in the part of the building between the second and third transverse <lb/>walls. </s> <s>This space is sixty-three feet and two palms long, and since each of <pb pagenum="531"/>these furnaces occupies thirteen feet, the space which is on the right <lb/>side of the first furnace, and on the left of the fourth, are each three feet and <lb/>three palms wide, and the distance between the second and third furnace is <lb/>six feet. </s> <s>In the middle of each of these three spaces is a door, a foot and <lb/>a half wide and six feet high, and the middle one is common to the master <lb/>of each of the furnaces. </s> <s>Each furnace has its own chimney, which rises <lb/>between the two long walls mentioned above, and is supported by two arches <lb/>and a partition wall. </s> <s>The partition wall is between the two furnaces, and <lb/>is five feet long, ten feet high, and two feet thick; in front of it is a pillar <lb/>belonging in common to the front arches of the furnace on either side, which <lb/>is two feet and as many palms thick, three feet and a half wide. </s> <s>The front <lb/>arch reaches from this common pillar to another pillar that is common to the <lb/>side arch of the same furnace; this arch on the right spans from the second <lb/>long wall to the same pillar, which is two feet and as many palms wide and <lb/>thick at the bottom. </s> <s>The interior of the front arch is nine feet and a palm <lb/>wide, and eight feet high at its highest point; the interior of the arch which <lb/>is on the right side, is five feet and a palm wide, and of equal height to the <lb/>other, and both the arches are built of the same height as the partition wall. <lb/></s> <s>Imposed upon these arches and the partition wall are the walls of the chimney; <lb/>these slope upward, and thus contract, so that at the upper part, where the <lb/>fumes are emitted, the opening is eight feet in length, one foot and three <lb/>palms in width. </s> <s>The fourth wall of the chimney is built vertically upon the <lb/>second long wall. </s> <s>As the partition wall is common to the two furnaces, so its <lb/>superstructure is common to the two chimneys. </s> <s>In this sensible manner <lb/>the chimney is built. </s> <s>At the front each furnace is six feet two palms long, <lb/>and three feet two palms wide, and a cubit high; the back of each furnace <lb/>is against the second long wall, the front being open. </s> <s>The first furnace is open <lb/>and sloping at the right side, so that the slags may be drawn out; the left <lb/>side is against the partition wall, and has a little wall built of bricks cemented <lb/>together with lute; this little wall protects the partition wall from injury by <lb/>the fire. </s> <s>On the contrary, the second furnace has the left side open and <lb/>the right side is against the partition wall, where also it has its own little wall <lb/>which protects the partition wall from the fire. </s> <s>The front of each furnace is <lb/>built of rectangular rocks; the interior of it is filled up with earth. </s> <s>Then in <lb/>each of the furnaces at the rear, against the second long wall, is an aperture <lb/>through an arch at the back, and in these are fixed the copper pipes. </s> <s>Each <lb/>furnace has a round pit, two feet and as many palms wide, built three feet <lb/>away from the partition wall. </s> <s>Finally, under the pit of the furnace, at a <lb/>depth of a cubit, is the hidden receptacle for moisture, similar to the others, <lb/>whose vent penetrates through the second long wall and slopes upward to <lb/>the right from the first furnace, and to the left from the second. </s> <s>If copper <lb/>is to be made the next day, then the master cuts out the crucible with a <lb/>spatula, the blade of which is three digits wide and as many palms long, the <lb/>iron handle being two feet long and one and a half digits in diameter; the <lb/>wooden handle inserted into it is round, five feet long and two digits <lb/>in diameter. </s> <s>Then, with another cutting spatula, he makes the crucible <pb pagenum="532"/>smooth; the blade of this spatula is a palm wide and two palms long; its <lb/>handle, partly of iron, partly of wood, is similar in every respect to the first <lb/>one. </s> <s>Afterward he throws pulverised clay and charcoal into the crucible, pours <lb/>water over it, and sweeps it over with a broom into which a stick is fixed. <lb/></s> <s>Then immediately he throws into the crucible a powder, made of two <lb/>wheelbarrowsful of sifted charcoal dust, as many wheelbarrowsful of </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—HEARTH OF THE FURNACE. B—CHIMNEY. C—COMMON PILLAR. D—OTHER PILLARS. <lb/>THE PARTITION WALL IS BEHIND THE COMMON PILLAR AND NOT TO BE SEEN. E—ARCHES. <lb/>F—LITTLE WALLS WHICH PROTECT THE PARTITION WALL FROM INJURY BY THE FIRE. <lb/>G—CRUCIBLES. H—SECOND LONG WALL. I—DOOR. K—SPATULA. L—THE OTHER <lb/>SPATULA. M—THE BROOM IN WHICH IS INSERTED A STICK. N—PESTLES. O—WOODEN <lb/>MALLET. P—PLATE. Q—STONES. R—IRON ROD.<lb/>pulverised clay likewise sifted, and six basketsful of river sand which has <lb/>passed through a very fine sieve. </s> <s>This powder, like that used by smelters, <lb/>is sprinkled with water and moistened before it is put into the crucible, so <lb/>that it may be fashioned by the hands into shapes similar to snowballs. <lb/></s> <s>When it has been put in, the master first kneads it and makes it smooth with <lb/>his hands, and then pounds it with two wooden pestles, each of which is a <lb/>cubit long; each pestle has a round head at each end, but one of these is <lb/>a palm in diameter, the other three digits; both are thinner in the middle, <lb/>so that they may be held in the hand. </s> <s>Then he again throws moistened <pb pagenum="533"/>powder into the crucible, and again makes it smooth with his hands, and <lb/>kneads it with his fists and with the pestles; then, pushing upward and <lb/>pressing with his fingers, he makes the edge of the crucible smooth. </s> <s>After the <lb/>crucible has been made smooth, he sprinkles in dry charcoal dust, and again <lb/>pounds it with the same pestles, at first with the narrow heads, and afterward <lb/>with the wider ones. </s> <s>Then he pounds the crucible with a wooden mallet <lb/>two feet long, both heads of which are round and three digits in diameter; <lb/>its wooden handle is two palms long, and one and a half digits in diameter. <lb/></s> <s>Finally, he throws into the crucible as much pure sifted ashes as both hands <lb/>can hold, and pours water into it, and, taking an old linen rag, he smears <lb/>the crucible over with the wet ashes. </s> <s>The crucible is round and sloping. </s> <s>If <lb/>copper is to be made from the best quality of “dried” cakes, it is made two <lb/>feet wide and one deep, but if from other cakes, it is made a cubit wide and <lb/>two palms deep. </s> <s>The master also has an iron band curved at both ends, <lb/>two palms long and as many digits wide, and with this he cuts off the edges <lb/>of the crucible if they are higher than is necessary. </s> <s>The copper pipe is <lb/>inclined, and projects three digits from the wall, and has its upper end and <lb/>both sides smeared thick with lute, that it may not be burned; but the under­<lb/>side of the pipe is smeared thinly with lute, for this side reaches almost to the <lb/>edge of the crucible, and when the crucible is full the molten copper touches <lb/>it. </s> <s>The wall above the pipe is smeared over with lute, lest that should be <lb/>damaged. </s> <s>He does the same to the other side of an iron plate, which is a <lb/>foot and three palms long and a foot high; this stands on stones near the <lb/>crucible at the side where the hearth slopes, in order that the slag may run <lb/>out under it. </s> <s>Others do not place the plates upon stones, but cut out <lb/>of the plate underneath a small piece, three digits long and three digits <lb/>wide; lest the plate should fall, it is supported by an iron rod fixed in the <lb/>wall at a height of two palms and the same number of digits, and it projects <lb/>from the wall three palms.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Then with an iron shovel, whose wooden handle is six feet long, he <lb/>throws live charcoal into the crucible; or else charcoal, kindled by means <lb/>of a few live coals, is added to them. </s> <s>Over the live charcoal he lays “dried” <lb/>cakes, which, if they were of copper of the first quality, weigh all together <lb/>three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia,<emph.end type="italics"/> or three and a half <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía;<emph.end type="italics"/> but if they were <lb/>of copper of the second quality, then two and a half <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía;<emph.end type="italics"/> if they <lb/>were of the third quality, then two <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> only; but if they were <lb/>of copper of very superior quality, then they place upon it six <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and in this case they make the crucible wider and deeper.<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/> The lowest <lb/>“dried” cake is placed at a distance of two palms from the pipe, the rest at <lb/>a greater distance, and when the lower ones are melted the upper ones fall <lb/>down and get nearer to the pipe; if they do not fall down they must <lb/>be pushed with a shovel. </s> <s>The blade of the shovel is a foot long, three palms <lb/>and two digits wide, the iron part of the handle is two palms long, the <pb pagenum="534"/>wooden part nine feet. </s> <s>Round about the “dried” cakes are placed large <lb/>long pieces of charcoal, and in the pipe are placed medium-sized pieces. <lb/></s> <s>When all these things have been arranged in this manner, the fire must be <lb/>more violently excited by the blast from the bellows. </s> <s>When the copper is <lb/>melting and the coals blaze, the master pushes an iron bar into the middle <lb/>of them in order that they may receive the air, and that the flame can force <lb/>its way out. </s> <s>This pointed bar is two and a half feet long, and its wooden <lb/>handle four feet long. </s> <s>When the cakes are partly melted, the master, passing <lb/>out through the door, inspects the crucible through the bronze pipe, and if he <lb/>should find that too much of the “slag” is adhering to the mouth of the pipe, <lb/>and thus impeding the blast of the bellows, he inserts the hooked iron bar <lb/>into the pipe through the nozzle of the bellows, and, turning this about the <lb/>mouth of the pipe, he removes the “slags” from it. </s> <s>The hook on this bar <lb/>is two digits high; the iron part of the handle is three feet long; the wooden <lb/>part is the same number of palms long. </s> <s>Now it is time to insert the bar <lb/>under the iron plate, in order that the “slags” may flow out. </s> <s>When the <lb/>cakes, being all melted, have run into the crucible, he takes out a sample of <lb/>copper with the third round bar, which is made wholly of iron, and is three feet <lb/>long, a digit thick, and has a steel point lest its pores should absorb the copper. </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—POINTED BAR. B—THIN COPPER LAYER. C—ANVIL. D—HAMMER.<pb pagenum="535"/>When he has compressed the bellows, he introduces this bar as quickly as <lb/>possible into the crucible through the pipe between the two nozzles, and <lb/>takes out samples two, three, or four times, until he finds that the copper is <lb/>perfectly refined. </s> <s>If the copper is good it adheres easily to the bar, and <lb/>two samples suffice; if it is not good, then many are required. </s> <s>It is <lb/>necessary to smelt it in the crucible until the copper adhering to the bar is <lb/>seen to be of a brassy colour, and if the upper as well as the lower part of <lb/>the thin layer of copper may be easily broken, it signifies that the copper <lb/>is perfectly melted; he places the point of the bar on a small iron anvil, <lb/>and chips off the thin layer of copper from it with a hammer.<emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>If the copper is not good, the master draws off the “slags” twice, or <lb/>three times if necessary—the first time when some of the cakes have been <lb/>melted, the second when all have melted, the third time when the copper has <lb/>been heated for some time. </s> <s>If the copper was of good quality, the “slags” <lb/>are not drawn off before the operation is finished, but at the time they are to be <lb/>drawn off, he depresses the bar over both bellows, and places over both a <lb/>stick, a cubit long and a palm wide, half cut away at the upper part, so that it <lb/>may pass under the iron pin fixed at the back in the perforated wood. </s> <s>This <lb/>he does likewise when the copper has been completely melted. </s> <s>Then the <lb/>assistant removes the iron plate with the tongs; these tongs are four feet <lb/>three palms long, their jaws are about a foot in length, and their straight part <lb/>measures two palms and three digits, and the curved a palm and a digit. <lb/></s> <s>The same assistant, with the iron shovel, throws and heaps up the larger <lb/>pieces of charcoal into that part of the hearth which is against the little wall <lb/>which protects the other wall from injury by fire, and partly extinguishes <lb/>them by pouring water over them. </s> <s>The master, with a hazel stick inserted <pb pagenum="536"/>into the crucible, stirs it twice. </s> <s>Afterward he draws off the slags with a <lb/>rabble, which consists of an iron blade, wide and sharp, and of alder-wood; <lb/>the blade is a digit and a half in width and three feet long; the wooden handle <lb/>inserted in its hollow part is the same number of feet long, and the alder-wood <lb/>in which the blade is fixed must have the figure of a rhombus; it must be <lb/>three palms and a digit long, a palm and two digits wide, and a palm thick. <lb/></s> <s>Subsequently he takes a broom and sweeps the charcoal dust and small coal <lb/>over the whole of the crucible, lest the copper should cool before it flows <lb/>together; then, with a third rabble, he cuts off the slags which may adhere <lb/>to the edge of the crucible. </s> <s>The blade of this rabble is two palms long and <lb/>a palm and one digit wide, the iron part of the handle is a foot and three palms <lb/>long, the wooden part six feet. </s> <s>Afterward he again draws off the slags <lb/>from the crucible, which the assistant does not quench by pouring water <lb/>upon them, as the other slags are usually quenched, but he sprinkles over <lb/>them a little water and allows them to cool. </s> <s>If the copper should bubble, <lb/>he presses down the bubbles with the rabble. </s> <s>Then he pours water on the wall <lb/>and the pipes, that it may flow down warm into the crucible, for, the <lb/>copper, if cold water were to be poured over it while still hot, would spatter <lb/>about. </s> <s>If a stone, or a piece of lute or wood, or a damp coal should then fall <lb/>into it, the crucible would vomit out all the copper with a loud noise like <lb/>thunder, and whatever it touches it injures and sets on fire. </s> <s>Subsequently he <lb/>lays a curved board with a notch in it over the front part of the crucible; it <lb/>is two feet long, a palm and two digits wide, and a digit thick. </s> <s>Then <lb/>the copper in the crucible should be divided into cakes with an iron wedge­<lb/>shaped bar; this is three feet long, two digits wide, and steeled on the end <lb/>for the distance of two digits, and its wooden handle is three feet long. </s> <s>He <lb/>places this bar on the notched board, and, driving it into the copper, moves </s></p><pb pagenum="537"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CRUCIBLE. B—BOARD. C—WEDGE-SHAPED BAR. D—CAKES OF COPPER MADE BY <lb/>SEPARATING THEM WITH THE WEDGE-SHAPED BAR. E—TONGS. F—TUB.<pb pagenum="538"/>it forward and back, and by this means the water flows into the vacant <lb/>space in the copper, and he separates the cake from the rest of the mass. <lb/></s> <s>If the copper is not perfectly smelted the cakes will be too thick, and can­<lb/>not be taken out of the crucible easily. </s> <s>Each cake is afterward seized by <lb/>the assistant with the tongs and plunged into the water in the tub; the first <lb/>one is placed aside so that the master may re-melt it again immediately, for, <lb/>since some “slags” adhere to it, it is not as perfect as the subsequent ones; <lb/>indeed, if the copper is not of good quality, he places the first two cakes aside. <lb/></s> <s>Then, again pouring water over the wall and the pipes, he separates out the <lb/>second cake, which the assistant likewise immerses in water and places on <lb/>the ground together with the others separated out in the same way, which <lb/>he piles upon them. </s> <s>These, if the copper was of good quality, should be <lb/>thirteen or more in number; if it was not of good quality, then fewer. </s> <s>If the <lb/>copper was of good quality, this part of the operation, which indeed is dis­<lb/>tributed into four parts, is accomplished by the master in two hours; if of <lb/>mediocre quality, in two and a half hours; if of bad quality, in three. </s> <s>The <lb/>“dried” cakes are re-melted, first in the first crucible and then in the <lb/>second. </s> <s>The assistant must, as quickly as possible, quench all the cakes <lb/>with water, after they have been cut out of the second crucible. </s> <s>Afterward <lb/>with the tongs he replaces in its proper place the iron plate which was in front <lb/>of the furnace, and throws the charcoal back into the crucible with a shovel. <lb/></s> <s>Meanwhile the master, continuing his work, removes the wooden stick from <lb/>the bars of the bellows, so that in re-melting the other cakes he may accom­<lb/>plish the third part of his process; this must be carefully done, for if a particle <lb/>from any iron implement should by chance fall into the crucible, or should <lb/>be thrown in by any malevolent person, the copper could not be made until <lb/>the iron had been consumed, and therefore double labour would have to be <lb/>expended upon it. </s> <s>Finally, the assistant extinguishes all the glowing coals, <lb/>and chips off the dry lute from the mouth of the copper pipe with a hammer; <lb/>one end of this hammer is pointed, the other round, and it has a wooden handle <lb/>five feet long. </s> <s>Because there is danger that the copper would be scattered if <lb/>the <emph type="italics"/>pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>spodos,<emph.end type="italics"/> which adhere to the walls and the hood erected <lb/>upon them, should fall into the crucible, he cleans them off in the meantime. <lb/></s> <s>Every week he takes the copper flowers out of the tub, after having poured off <lb/>the water, for these fall into it from the cakes when they are quenched.<emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><pb pagenum="539"/><p type="main"> <s>The bellows which this master uses differ in size from the others, for the <lb/>boards are seven and a half feet long; the back part is three feet wide; <lb/>the front, where the head is joined on is a foot, two palms and as many digits. <lb/></s> <s>The head is a cubit and a digit long; the back part of it is a cubit and a <lb/>palm wide, and then becomes gradually narrower. </s> <s>The nozzles of the bellows <lb/>are bound together by means of an iron chain, controlled by a thick <lb/>bar, one end of which penetrates into the ground against the back of the long <lb/>wall, and the other end passes under the beam which is laid upon the <lb/>foremost perforated beams. </s> <s>These nozzles are so placed in a copper pipe <lb/>that they are at a distance of a palm from the mouth; the mouth should be <lb/>made three digits in diameter, that the air may be violently expelled through <lb/>this narrow aperture.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There now remain the liquation thorns, the ash-coloured copper, the <lb/>“slags,” and the <emph type="italics"/>cadmía.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/> Liquation cakes are made from thorns in the <lb/>following manner.<emph type="sup"/>28<emph.end type="sup"/> There are taken three-quarters of a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>thorns, which have their origin from the cakes of copper-lead alloy when <lb/>lead-silver is liquated, and as many parts of a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of the thorns <lb/>derived from cakes made from once re-melted thorns by the same method, <lb/>and to them are added a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of de-silverized lead and half a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of hearth-lead. </s> <s>If there is in the works plenty of litharge, it <lb/>is substituted for the de-silverized lead. </s> <s>One and a half <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>litharge and hearth-lead is added to the same weight of primary thorns, <lb/>and half a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of thorns which have their origin from liquation <lb/>cakes composed of thorns twice re-melted by the same method (tertiary <lb/>thorns), and a fourth part of a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of thorns which are pro­<lb/><pb pagenum="540"/>duced when the exhausted liquation cakes are “dried.” By both methods <lb/>one single liquation cake is made from three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> In this manner <lb/>the smelter makes every day fifteen liquation cakes, more or less; he takes <lb/>great care that the metallic substances, from which the first liquation cake is <lb/>made, flow down properly and in due order into the fore-hearth, before the <lb/>material of which the subsequent cake is to be made. </s> <s>Five of these liquation <lb/>cakes are put simultaneously into the furnace in which silver-lead is liquated <lb/>from copper, they weigh almost fourteen <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the “slags” <lb/>made therefrom usually weigh quite a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> In all the liquation <lb/>cakes together there is usually one <emph type="italics"/>líbra<emph.end type="italics"/> and nearly two <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, and <lb/>in the silver-lead which drips from those cakes, and weighs seven and a half <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondía,<emph.end type="italics"/> there is in each an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> and a half of silver. </s> <s>In each of the <lb/>three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of liquation thorns there is almost an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, and <lb/>in the two <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> and a quarter of exhausted liquation cakes there <lb/>is altogether one and a half <emph type="italics"/>unciae;<emph.end type="italics"/> yet this varies greatly for each variety of <lb/>thorns, for in the thorns produced from primary liquation cakes made of <lb/>copper and lead when silver-lead is liquated from the copper, and those <lb/>produced in “drying” the exhausted liquation cakes, there are almost two <lb/><emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver; in the others not quite an <emph type="italics"/>uncía.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> There are other thorns <lb/>besides, of which I will speak a little further on.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Those in the Carpathian Mountains who make liquation cakes from the <lb/>copper “bottoms” which remain after the upper part of the copper is <lb/>divided from the lower, in the furnace similar to an oven, produce thorns when <lb/>the poor or mediocre silver-lead is liquated from the copper. </s> <s>These, together <lb/>with those made of cakes of re-melted thorns, or made with re-melted litharge, <lb/>are placed in a heap by themselves; but those that are made from cakes <lb/>melted from hearth-lead are placed in a heap separate from the first, and <lb/>likewise those produced from “drying” the exhausted liquation cakes are <lb/>placed separately; from these thorns liquation cakes are made. </s> <s>From the <lb/>first heap they take the fourth part of a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> from the second <lb/>the same amount, from the third a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum,<emph.end type="italics"/>—to which thorns are <lb/>added one and a half <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of litharge and half a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondíum<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>hearth-lead, and from these, melted in the blast furnace, a liquation cake is <lb/>made; each workman makes twenty such cakes every day. </s> <s>But of theirs <lb/>enough has been said for the present; I will return to ours.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The ash-coloured copper<emph type="sup"/>29<emph.end type="sup"/> which is chipped off, as I have stated, from <lb/>the “dried” cakes, used some years ago to be mixed with the thorns produced <lb/>from liquation of the copper-lead alloy, and contained in themselves, equally <lb/>with the first, two <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver; but now it is mixed with the concentrates <lb/>washed from the accretions and the other material. </s> <s>The inhabitants of the <lb/>Carpathian Mountains melt this kind of copper in furnaces in which are re­<lb/>melted the “slags” which flow out when the copper is refined; but as this <lb/>soon melts and flows down out of the furnace, two workmen are required for <pb pagenum="541"/>the work of smelting, one of whom smelts, while the other takes out the <lb/>thick cakes from the forehearth. </s> <s>These cakes are only “dried,” and from <lb/>the “dried” cakes copper is again made.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The “slags”<emph type="sup"/>30<emph.end type="sup"/> are melted continually day and night, whether they have <lb/>been drawn off from the alloyed metals with a rabble, or whether they adhered <lb/>to the forehearth to the thickness of a digit and made it smaller and <lb/>were taken off with spatulas. </s> <s>In this manner two or three liquation cakes <lb/>are made, and afterward much or little of the “slag,” skimmed from the <lb/>molten alloy of copper and lead, is re-melted. </s> <s>Such liquation cakes should <lb/>weigh up to three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia,<emph.end type="italics"/> in each of which there is half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>silver. </s> <s>Five cakes are placed at the same time in the furnace in which <lb/>argentiferous lead is liquated from copper, and from these are made lead <lb/>which contains half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver to the <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The exhausted <lb/>liquation cakes are laid upon the other baser exhausted liquation cakes, from <lb/>both of which yellow copper is made. </s> <s>The base thorns thus obtained are <lb/>re-melted with a few baser “slags,” after having been sprinkled with con­<lb/>centrates from furnace accretions and other material, and in this manner six <lb/>or seven liquation cakes are made, each of which weighs some two <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondia.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Five of these are placed at the same time in the furnace in which <lb/>silver-lead is liquated from copper; these drip three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>lead, each of which contains half an <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>The basest thorns <lb/>thus produced should be re-melted with only a little “slag.” The copper <lb/>alloyed with lead, which flows down from the furnace into the fore­<lb/>hearth, is poured out with a ladle into oblong copper moulds; these cakes <lb/>are “dried” with base exhausted liquation cakes. </s> <s>The thorns they produce <lb/>are added to the base thorns, and they are made into cakes according to the <lb/>method I have described. </s> <s>From the “dried” cakes they make copper, of <lb/>which some add a small portion to the best “dried” cakes when copper is <lb/>made from them, in order that by mixing the base copper with the good it <lb/>may be sold without loss. </s> <s>The “slags,” if they are utilisable, are re-melted <lb/>a second and a third time, the cakes made from them are “dried,” and from <lb/>the “dried” cakes is made copper, which is mixed with the good copper. </s> <s>The <lb/>“slags,” drawn off by the master who makes copper out of “dried” cakes, <lb/>are sifted, and those which fall through the sieve into a vessel placed under­<lb/>neath are washed; those which remain in it are emptied into a wheelbarrow <lb/>and wheeled away to the blast furnaces, and they are re-melted together <lb/>with other “slags,” over which are sprinkled the concentrates from washing <lb/>the slags or furnace accretions made at this time. </s> <s>The copper which flows out <pb pagenum="542"/>of the furnace into the forehearth, is likewise dipped out with a ladle into <lb/>oblong copper moulds; in this way nine or ten cakes are made, which are <lb/>“dried,” together with bad exhausted liquation cakes, and from these <lb/>“dried” cakes yellow<emph type="sup"/>31<emph.end type="sup"/> copper is made.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>32<emph.end type="sup"/> as it is called by us, is made from the “slags” which the <lb/>master, who makes copper from “dried” cakes, draws off together with other <lb/>re-melted base “slags”; for, indeed, if the copper cakes made from such <lb/>“slags” are broken, the fragments are called <emph type="italics"/>cadmia;<emph.end type="italics"/> from this and yellow <lb/>copper is made <emph type="italics"/>caldarium<emph.end type="italics"/> copper in two ways. </s> <s>For either two parts of <emph type="italics"/>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>are mixed with one of yellow copper in the blast furnaces, and melted; or, on <lb/>the contrary, two parts of yellow copper with one of <emph type="italics"/>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"/> so that the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>cadmía<emph.end type="italics"/> and yellow copper may be well mixed; and the copper which flows down <lb/>from the furnace into the forehearth is poured out with a ladle into oblong <lb/>copper moulds heated beforehand. </s> <s>These moulds are sprinkled over with char­<lb/>coal dust before the <emph type="italics"/>caldarium<emph.end type="italics"/> copper is to be poured into them, and the same <lb/>dust is sprinkled over the copper when it is poured in, lest the <emph type="italics"/>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/>yellow copper should freeze before they have become well mixed. </s> <s>With a <lb/>piece of wood the assistant cleanses each cake from the dust, when it is <lb/>turned out of the mould. </s> <s>Then he throws it into the tub containing hot water, <lb/>for the <emph type="italics"/>caldarium<emph.end type="italics"/> copper is finer if quenched in hot water. </s> <s>But as I have <lb/>so often made mention of the oblong copper moulds, I must now speak of <lb/>them a little; they are a foot and a palm long, the inside is three palms and a <lb/>digit wide at the top, and they are rounded at the bottom.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The concentrates are of two kinds—precious and base.<emph type="sup"/>33<emph.end type="sup"/> The first are <lb/>obtained from the accretions of the blast furnace, when liquation cakes are <lb/>made from copper and lead, or from precious liquation thorns, or from the <lb/>better quality “slags,” or from the best grade of concentrates, or from the <lb/>sweepings and bricks of the furnaces in which exhausted liquation cakes are <lb/>“dried”; all of these things are crushed and washed, as I explained in Book <lb/>VIII. </s> <s>The base concentrates are made from accretions formed when cakes <lb/>are cast from base thorns or from the worst quality of slags. </s> <s>The smelter <lb/>who makes liquation cakes from the precious concentrates, adds to them <lb/>three wheelbarrowsful of litharge and four barrowsful of hearth-lead and <lb/>one of ash-coloured copper, from all of which nine or ten liquation cakes <lb/>are melted out, of which five at a time are placed in the furnace in which <lb/>silver-lead is liquated from copper; a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of the lead which drips <lb/>from these cakes contains one <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver. </s> <s>The liquation thorns are <lb/><lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="543"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE. B—FOREHEARTH. C—OBLONG MOULDS.<lb/>placed apart by themselves, of which one basketful is mixed with the precious <lb/>thorns to be re-melted. </s> <s>The exhausted liquation cakes are “dried” at the <lb/>same time as other good exhausted liquation cakes.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The thorns which are drawn off from the lead, when it is separated from <lb/>silver in the cupellation furnace<emph type="sup"/>34<emph.end type="sup"/>, and the hearth-lead which remains in the <lb/>crucible in the middle part of the furnaces, together with the hearth material <lb/>which has become defective and has absorbed silver-lead, are all melted <lb/>together with a little slag in the blast furnaces. </s> <s>The lead, or rather the <lb/>silver-lead, which flows from the furnace into the fore-hearth, is poured out <lb/>into copper moulds such as are used by the refiners; a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>such lead contains four <emph type="italics"/>uncíae<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver, or, if the hearth was defective, it <lb/>contains more. </s> <s>A small portion of this material is added to the copper and <lb/>lead when liquation cakes are made from them, if more were to be added <lb/>the alloy would be much richer than it should be, for which reason the wise <pb pagenum="544"/>foreman of the works mixes these thorns with other precious thorns. </s> <s>The <lb/>hearth-lead which remains in the middle of the crucible, and the hearth <lb/>material which absorbs silver-lead, is mixed with other hearth-lead which <lb/>remains in the cupellation furnace crucible; and yet some cakes, made rich <lb/>in this manner, may be placed again in the cupellation furnaces, together <lb/>with the rest of the silver-lead cakes which the refiner has made.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The inhabitants of the Carpathian Mountains, if they have an abundance <lb/>of finely crushed copper<emph type="sup"/>35<emph.end type="sup"/> or lead either made from “slags,” or collected <lb/>from the furnace in which the exhausted liquation cakes are dried, or <lb/>litharge, alloy them in various ways. </s> <s>The “first” alloy consists of two <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead melted out of thorns, litharge, and thorns made <lb/>from hearth-lead, and of half a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> each of lead collected in <lb/>the furnace in which exhausted liquation cakes are “dried,” and of copper <lb/><emph type="italics"/>mínutum,<emph.end type="italics"/> and from these are made liquation cakes; the task of the smelter is <lb/>finished when he has made forty liquation cakes of this kind. </s> <s>The <lb/>“second” alloy consists of two <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of litharge, of one and a <lb/>quarter <emph type="italics"/>centumpondia<emph.end type="italics"/> of de-silverized lead or lead from “slags,” and of half <lb/>a <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead made from thorns, and of as much copper <emph type="italics"/>minutum.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>The “third” alloy consists of three <emph type="italics"/>centumpondía<emph.end type="italics"/> of litharge and of half a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> each of de-silverized lead, of lead made from thorns, and of <lb/>copper <emph type="italics"/>mínutum contusum.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Liquation cakes are made from all these alloys; the <lb/>task of the smelters is finished when they have made thirty cakes.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The process by which cakes are made among the Tyrolese, from which <lb/>they separate the silver-lead, I have explained in Book IX.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Silver is separated from iron in the following manner. </s> <s>Equal portions of <lb/>iron scales and filings and of <emph type="italics"/>stibium<emph.end type="italics"/> are thrown into an earthenware crucible <lb/>which, when covered with a lid and sealed, is placed in a furnace, into <lb/>which air is blown. </s> <s>When this has melted and again cooled, the crucible <lb/>is broken; the button that settles in the bottom of it, when taken out, <lb/>is pounded to powder, and the same weight of lead being added, is mixed <lb/>and melted in a second crucible; at last this button is placed in a cupel <lb/>and the lead is separated from the silver.<emph type="sup"/>36<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are a great variety of methods by which one metal is separated <lb/>from other metals, and the manner in which the same are alloyed I have <lb/>explained partly in the eighth book of <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossilium,<emph.end type="italics"/> and partly I will <lb/>explain elsewhere. </s> <s>Now I will proceed to the remainder of my subject.<lb/><lb/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>END OF BOOK XI.</s></p><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>BOOK XII.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Previously I have dealt with the methods of <lb/>separating silver from copper. </s> <s>There now remains <lb/>the portion which treats of solidified juices; and <lb/>whereas they might be considered as alien to things <lb/>metallic, nevertheless, the reasons why they should <lb/>not be separated from it I have explained in the <lb/>second book.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Solidified juices are either prepared from waters <lb/>in which nature or art has infused them, or they are <lb/>produced from the liquid juices themselves, or from stony minerals. </s> <s>Sagacious <lb/>people, at first observing the waters of some lakes to be naturally full of juices <lb/>which thickened on being dried up by the heat of the sun and thus became <lb/>solidified juices, drew such waters into other places, or diverted them <lb/>into low-lying places adjoining hills, so that the heat of the sun should <lb/>likewise cause them to condense. </s> <s>Subsequently, because they observed that <lb/>in this wise the solidified juices could be made only in summer, and then <lb/>not in all countries, but only in hot and temperate regions in which it seldom <lb/>rains in summer, they boiled them in vessels over a fire until they began to <lb/>thicken. </s> <s>In this manner, at all times of the year, in all regions, even the <lb/>coldest, solidified juices could be obtained from solutions of such juices, <lb/>whether made by nature or by art. </s> <s>Afterward, when they saw juices <lb/>drip from some roasted stones, they cooked these in pots in order to obtain <lb/>solidified juices in this wise also. </s> <s>It is worth the trouble to learn the pro­<lb/>portions and the methods by which these are made.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>I will therefore begin with salt, which is made from water either salty <lb/>by nature, or by the labour of man, or else from a solution of salt, or <lb/>from lye, likewise salty. </s> <s>Water which is salty by nature, is condensed and <lb/>converted into salt in salt-pits by the heat of the sun, or else by the heat <lb/>of a fire in pans or pots or trenches. </s> <s>That which is made salty by <lb/>art, is also condensed by fire and changed into salt. </s> <s>There should be as <lb/>many salt-pits dug as the circumstance of the place permits, but there should <lb/>not be more made than can be used, although we ought to make as much <lb/>salt as we can sell. </s> <s>The depth of salt-pits should be moderate, and the <lb/>bottom should be level, so that all the water is evaporated from the salt by <lb/>the heat of the sun. </s> <s>The salt-pits should first be encrusted with salt, so <lb/>that they may not suck up the water. </s> <s>The method of pouring or leading <lb/>sea-water into salt-pits is very old, and is still in use in many places. </s> <s>The <lb/>method is not less old, but less common, to pour well-water into salt-pits, as <lb/>was done in Babylon, for which Pliny is the authority, and in Cappadocia, <lb/>where they used not only well-water, but also spring-water. </s> <s>In all hot <lb/>countries salt-water and lake-water are conducted, poured or carried into <lb/>salt-pits, and, being dried by the heat of the sun, are converted into <pb pagenum="546"/>salt.<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/> While the salt-water contained in the salt-pits is being heated by the sun, <lb/>if they be flooded with great and frequent showers of rain the evaporation is <lb/>hindered. </s> <s>If this happens rarely, the salt acquires a disagreeable<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/> flavour, and <lb/>in this case the salt-pits have to be filled with other sweet water.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Salt from sea-water is made in the following manner. </s> <s>Near that part <lb/>of the seashore where there is a quiet pool, and there are wide, level plains <lb/>which the inundations of the sea do not overflow, three, four, five, or six <lb/>trenches are dug six feet wide, twelve feet deep, and six hundred feet long, <lb/>or longer if the level place extends for a longer distance; they are two hundred <lb/>feet distant from one another; between these are three transverse trenches. <lb/></s> <s>Then are dug the principal pits, so that when the water has been raised from <lb/>the pool it can flow into the trenches, and from thence into the salt-pits, <lb/>of which there are numbers on the level ground between the trenches. </s> <s>The <lb/>salt-pits are basins dug to a moderate depth; these are banked round with <lb/>the earth which was dug in sinking them or in cleansing them, so that between <lb/>the basins, earth walls are made a foot high, which retain the water let into <lb/>them. </s> <s>The trenches have openings, through which the first basins receive <lb/>the water; these basins also have openings, through which the water flows <lb/>again from one into the other. </s> <s>There should be a slight fall, so that the <lb/>water may flow from one basin into the other, and can thus be replenished. <lb/></s> <s>All these things having been done rightly and in order, the gate is raised that <lb/>opens the mouth of the pool which contains sea-water mixed with rain-water <lb/>or river-water; and thus all of the trenches are filled. </s> <s>Then the gates of the <lb/>first basins are opened, and thus the remaining basins are filled with the <lb/>water from the first; when this salt-water condenses, all these basins are <lb/>incrusted, and thus made clean from earthy matter. </s> <s>Then again the first <lb/>basins are filled up from the nearest trench with the same kind of water, <lb/>and left until much of the thin liquid is converted into vapour by the heat <lb/>of the sun and dissipated, and the remainder is considerably thickened. </s> <s>Then <lb/>their gates being opened, the water passes into the second basins; and <lb/>when it has remained there for a certain space of time the gates are opened, <lb/>so that it flows into the third basins, where it is all condensed into salt. <lb/></s> <s>After the salt has been taken out, the basins are filled again and again with <lb/>sea-water. </s> <s>The salt is raked up with wooden rakes and thrown out with <lb/>shovels.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Salt-water is also boiled in pans, placed in sheds near the wells from <lb/>which it is drawn. </s> <s>Each shed is usually named from some animal or other <lb/>thing which is pictured on a tablet nailed to it. </s> <s>The walls of these sheds <lb/>are made either from baked earth or from wicker work covered with thick <lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="547"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SEA. B—POOL. C—GATE. D—TRENCHES. E—SALT BASINS. F—RAKE. <lb/>G—SHOVEL.<pb pagenum="548"/>mud, although some may be made of stones or bricks. </s> <s>When of brick they <lb/>are often sixteen feet high, and if the roof rises twenty-four feet high, then <lb/>the walls which are at the ends must be made forty feet high, as likewise <lb/>the interior partition walls. </s> <s>The roof consists of large shingles four feet long, <lb/>one foot wide, and two digits thick; these are fixed on long narrow planks <lb/>placed on the rafters, which are joined at the upper end and slope in opposite <lb/>directions. </s> <s>The whole of the under side is plastered one digit thick with <lb/>straw mixed with lute; likewise the roof on the outside is plastered one <lb/>and a half feet thick with straw mixed with lute, in order that the shed <lb/>should not run any risk of fire, and that it should be proof against rain, and <lb/>be able to retain the heat necessary for drying the lumps of salt. </s> <s>Each shed <lb/>is divided into three parts, in the first of which the firewood and straw are <lb/>placed; in the middle room, separated from the first room by a partition, is <lb/>the fireplace on which is placed the caldron. </s> <s>To the right of the caldron is <lb/>a tub, into which is emptied the brine brought into the shed by the porters; <lb/>to the left is a bench, on which there is room to lay thirty pieces of salt. <lb/></s> <s>In the third room, which is in the back part of the house, there is made a pile <lb/>of clay or ashes eight feet higher than the floor, being the same height as the <lb/>bench. </s> <s>The master and his assistants, when they carry away the lumps of <lb/>salt from the caldrons, go from the former to the latter. </s> <s>They ascend from <lb/>the right side of the caldron, not by steps, but by a slope of earth. </s> <s>At the <lb/>top of the end wall are two small windows, and a third is in the roof, through <lb/>which the smoke escapes. </s> <s>This smoke, emitted from both the back and the <lb/>front of the furnace, finds outlet through a hood through which it makes <lb/>its way up to the windows; this hood consists of boards projecting one <lb/>beyond the other, which are supported by two small beams of the roof. <lb/></s> <s>Opposite the fireplace the middle partition has an open door eight feet high <lb/>and four feet wide, through which there is a gentle draught which drives the <lb/>smoke into the last room; the front wall also has a door of the same height <lb/>and width. </s> <s>Both of these doors are large enough to permit the firewood or <lb/>straw or the brine to be carried in, and the lumps of salt to be carried out; <lb/>these doors must be closed when the wind blows, so that the boiling will <lb/>not be hindered. </s> <s>Indeed, glass panes which exclude the wind but transmit the <lb/>light, should be inserted in the windows in the walls.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>They construct the greater part of the fireplace of rock-salt and of clay <lb/>mixed with salt and moistened with brine, for such walls are greatly <lb/>hardened by the fire. </s> <s>These fireplaces are made eight and a half feet long, <lb/>seven and three quarters feet wide, and, if wood is burned in them, nearly <lb/>four feet high; but if straw is burned in them, they are six feet high. </s> <s>An <lb/>iron rod, about four feet long, is engaged in a hole in an iron foot, which <lb/>stands on the base of the middle of the furnace mouth. </s> <s>This mouth is three <lb/>feet in width, and has a door which opens inward; through it they throw <lb/>in the straw.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The caldrons are rectangular, eight feet long, seven feet wide, and half a <lb/>foot high, and are made of sheets of iron or lead, three feet long and of the <lb/>same width, all but two digits. </s> <s>These plates are not very thick, so that the </s></p><pb pagenum="549"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—SHED. B—PAINTED SIGNS. C—FIRST ROOM. D—MIDDLE ROOM. E—THIRD <lb/>ROOM. F—TWO LITTLE WINDOWS IN THE END WALL. G—THIRD LITTLE WINDOW IN THE <lb/>ROOF. H—WELL. I—WELL OF ANOTHER KIND. K—CASK. L—POLE. M—FORKED <lb/>STICKS IN WHICH THE PORTERS REST THE POLE WHEN THEY ARE TIRED.<pb pagenum="550"/>water is heated more quickly by the fire, and is boiled away rapidly. </s> <s>The <lb/>more salty the water is, the sooner it is condensed into salt. </s> <s>To prevent <lb/>the brine from leaking out at the points where the metal plates are fastened <lb/>with rivets, the caldrons are smeared over with a cement made of ox-liver <lb/>and ox-blood mixed with ashes. </s> <s>On each side of the middle of the furnace <lb/>two rectangular posts, three feet long, and half a foot thick and wide are <lb/>set into the ground, so that they are distant from each other only one and <lb/>a half feet. </s> <s>Each of them rises one and a half feet above the caldron. </s> <s>After <lb/>the caldron has been placed on the walls of the furnace, two beams of the <lb/>same width and thickness as the posts, but four feet long, are laid on these <lb/>posts, and are mortised in so that they shall not fall. </s> <s>There rest trans­<lb/>versely upon these beams three bars, three feet long, three digits wide, and <lb/>two digits thick, distant from one another one foot. </s> <s>On each of these hang <lb/>three iron hooks, two beyond the beams and one in the middle; these are a <lb/>foot long, and are hooked at both ends, one hook turning to the right, the other <lb/>to the left. </s> <s>The bottom hook catches in the eye of a staple, whose ends are <lb/>fixed in the bottom of the caldron, and the eye projects from it. </s> <s>There are <lb/>besides, two longer bars six feet long, one palm wide, and three digits thick, <lb/>which pass under the front beam and rest upon the rear beam. </s> <s>At the rear end <lb/>of each of the bars there is an iron hook two feet and three digits long, the <lb/>lower end of which is bent so as to support the caldron. </s> <s>The rear end of the <lb/>caldron does not rest on the two rear corners of the fireplace, but is distant <lb/>from the fireplace two thirds of a foot, so that the flame and smoke can escape; <lb/>this rear end of the fireplace is half a foot thick and half a foot higher than <lb/>the caldron. </s> <s>This is also the thickness and height of the wall between the <lb/>caldron and the third room of the shed, to which it is adjacent. </s> <s>This back <lb/>wall is made of clay and ashes, unlike the others which are made of rock-salt. <lb/></s> <s>The caldron rests on the two front corners and sides of the fireplace, and is <lb/>cemented with ashes, so that the flames shall not escape. </s> <s>If a dipperful <lb/>of brine poured into the caldron should flow into all the corners, the caldron <lb/>is rightly set upon the fireplace.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The wooden dipper holds ten Roman <emph type="italics"/>sextarii,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the cask holds eight <lb/>dippers full<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/>. </s> <s>The brine drawn up from the well is poured into such casks <lb/>and carried by porters, as I have said before, into the shed and poured into a <lb/>tub, and in those places where the brine is very strong it is at once trans­<lb/>ferred with the dippers into the caldron. </s> <s>That brine which is less strong is <lb/>thrown into a small tub with a deep ladle, the spoon and handle of which <lb/>are hewn out of one piece of wood. </s> <s>In this tub rock-salt is placed in order </s></p><pb pagenum="551"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FIREPLACE. B—MOUTH OF FIREPLACE. C—CALDRON. D—POSTS SUNK INTO THE <lb/>GROUND. E—CROSS-BEAMS. F—SHORTER BARS. G—IRON HOOKS. H—STAPLES. <lb/>I—LONGER BARS. K—IRON ROD BENT TO SUPPORT THE CALDRON.<pb pagenum="552"/>that the water should be made more salty, and it is then run off through a <lb/>launder which leads into the caldron. </s> <s>From thirty-seven dippersful of brine <lb/>the master or his deputy, at Halle in Saxony,<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/> makes two cone-shaped pieces <lb/>of salt. </s> <s>Each master has a helper, or in the place of a helper his wife assists <lb/>him in his work, and, in addition, a youth who throws wood or straw under <lb/>the caldron. </s> <s>He, on account of the great heat of the workshop, wears <lb/>a straw cap on his head and a breech cloth, being otherwise quite naked. <lb/></s> <s>As soon as the master has poured the first dipperful of brine into the caldron <lb/>the youth sets fire to the wood and straw laid under it. </s> <s>If the firewood is <lb/>bundles of faggots or brushwood, the salt will be white, but if straw is burned, <lb/>then it is not infrequently blackish, for the sparks, which are drawn up with <lb/>the smoke into the hood, fall down again into the water and colour it black.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In order to accelerate the condensation of the brine, when the master <lb/>has poured in two casks and as many dippersful of brine, he adds about a <lb/>Roman <emph type="italics"/>cyathus<emph.end type="italics"/> and a half of bullock's blood, or of calf's blood, or buck's <lb/>blood, or else he mixes it into the nineteenth dipperful of brine, in order that <lb/>it may be dissolved and distributed into all the corners of the caldron; in other <lb/>places the blood is dissolved in beer. </s> <s>When the boiling water seems to be <lb/>mixed with scum, he skims it with a ladle; this scum, if he be working with <lb/>rock-salt, he throws into the opening in the furnace through which the smoke <lb/>escapes, and it is dried into rock-salt; if it be not from rock-salt, he pours <lb/>it on to the floor of the workshop. </s> <s>From the beginning to the boiling and <lb/>skimming is the work of half-an-hour; after this it boils down for another <lb/>quarter-of-an-hour, after which time it begins to condense into salt. </s> <s>When <lb/>it begins to thicken with the heat, he and his helper stir it assiduously with a <lb/>wooden spatula, and then he allows it to boil for an hour. </s> <s>After this he pours <lb/>in a <emph type="italics"/>cyathus<emph.end type="italics"/> and a half of beer. </s> <s>In order that the wind should not blow <lb/>into the caldron, the helper covers the front with a board seven and a half <lb/>feet long and one foot high, and covers each of the sides with boards three and <lb/>three quarters feet long. </s> <s>In order that the front board may hold more <lb/>firmly, it is fitted into the caldron itself, and the sideboards are fixed on the <lb/>front board and upon the transverse beam. </s> <s>Afterward, when the boards <lb/>have been lifted off, the helper places two baskets, two feet high and as many <lb/>wide at the top, and a palm wide at the bottom, on the transverse beams, <lb/>and into them the master throws the salt with a shovel, taking half-an-hour <lb/>to fill them. </s> <s>Then, replacing the boards on the caldron, he allows the brine <lb/>to boil for three quarters of an hour. </s> <s>Afterward the salt has again to be <lb/>removed with a shovel, and when the baskets are full, they pile up the salt in <lb/>heaps.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In different localities the salt is moulded into different shapes. </s> <s>In the <lb/>baskets the salt assumes the form of a cone; it is not moulded in baskets <lb/>alone, but also in moulds into which they throw the salt, which are made in </s></p><pb pagenum="553"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WOODEN DIPPER. B—CASK. C—TUB. D—MASTER. E—YOUTH. F—WIFE. <lb/>G—WOODEN SPADE. H—BOARDS. I—BASKETS. K—HOE. L—RAKE. M—STRAW. <lb/>N—BOWL. O—BUCKET CONTAINING THE BLOOD. P—TANKARD WHICH CONTAINS BEER.<pb pagenum="554"/>the likeness of many objects, as for instance tablets. </s> <s>These tablets and <lb/>cones are kept in the higher part of the third room of the house, or else on <lb/>the flat bench of the same height, in order that they may dry better in the <lb/>warm air. </s> <s>In the manner I have described, a master and his helper continue <lb/>one after the other, alternately boiling the brine and moulding the salt, <lb/>day and night, with the exception only of the annual feast days. </s> <s>No caldron <lb/>is able to stand the fire for more than half a year. </s> <s>The master pours in water <lb/>and washes it out every week; when it is washed out he puts straw under <lb/>it and pounds it; new caldrons he washes three times in the first two <lb/>weeks, and afterward twice. </s> <s>In this manner the incrustations fall from <lb/>the bottom; if they are not cleared off, the salt would have to be made <lb/>more slowly over a fiercer fire, which requires more brine and burns the <lb/>plates of the caldron. </s> <s>If any cracks make their appearance in the caldron <lb/>they are filled up with cement. </s> <s>The salt made during the first two weeks is <lb/>not so good, being usually stained by the rust at the bottom where incrusta­<lb/>tions have not yet adhered.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Although salt made in this manner is prepared only from the brine of </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—POOL. B—POTS. C—LADLE. D—PANS. E—TONGS.<pb pagenum="555"/>springs and wells, yet it is also possible to use this method in the case of <lb/>river-, lake-, and sea-water, and also of those waters which are artificially <lb/>salted. </s> <s>For in places where rock-salt is dug, the impure and the broken pieces <lb/>are thrown into fresh water, which, when boiled, condenses into salt. </s> <s>Some, <lb/>indeed, boil sea-salt in fresh water again, and mould the salt into the little <lb/>cones and other shapes.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some people make salt by another method, from salt water which <lb/>flows from hot springs that issue boiling from the earth. </s> <s>They set earthen­<lb/>ware pots in a pool of the spring-water, and into them they pour water scooped <lb/>up with ladles from the hot spring until they are half full. </s> <s>The perpetual <lb/>heat of the waters of the pool evaporates the salt water just as the heat of <lb/>the fire does in the caldrons. </s> <s>As soon as it begins to thicken, which happens <lb/>when it has been reduced by boiling to a third or more, they seize the pots <lb/>with tongs and pour the contents into small rectangular iron pans, which have <lb/>also been placed in the pool. </s> <s>The interior of these pans is usually three feet <lb/>long, two feet wide, and three digits deep, and they stand on four heavy legs, <lb/>so that the water flows freely all round, but not into them. </s> <s>Since the water <lb/>flows continuously from the pool through the little canals, and the spring </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—POTS. B—TRIPOD. C—DEEP LADLE.<pb pagenum="556"/>always provides a new and copious supply, always boiling hot, it condenses <lb/>the thickened water poured into the pans into salt; this is at once taken <lb/>out with shovels, and then the work begins all over again. </s> <s>If the salty water <lb/>contains other juices, as is usually the case with hot springs, no salt should <lb/>be made from them.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Others boil salt water, and especially sea-water, in large iron pots; <lb/>this salt is blackish, for in most cases they burn straw under them. </s> <s>Some <lb/>people boil in these pots the brine in which fish is pickled. </s> <s>The salt which <lb/>they make tastes and smells of fish.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TRENCH. B—VAT INTO WHICH THE SALT WATER FLOWS. C—LADLE. D—SMALL <lb/>BUCKET WITH POLE FASTENED INTO IT.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Those who make salt by pouring brine over firewood, lay the wood in <lb/>trenches which are twelve feet long, seven feet wide, and two and one half <lb/>feet deep, so that the water poured in should not flow out. </s> <s>These trenches <lb/>are constructed of rock-salt wherever it is to be had, in order that they should <lb/>not soak up the water, and so that the earth should not fall in on the front, <lb/>back and sides. </s> <s>As the charcoal is turned into salt at the same time as the </s></p><pb pagenum="557"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LARGE VAT. B—PLUG. C—SMALL TUB. D—DEEP LADLE. E—SMALL VAT. <lb/>F—CALDRON.<pb pagenum="558"/>salt liquor, the Spaniards think, as Pliny writes<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/>, that the wood itself turns <lb/>into salt. </s> <s>Oak is the best wood, as its pure ash yields salt; elsewhere hazel­<lb/>wood is lauded. </s> <s>But with whatever wood it be made, this salt is not <lb/>greatly appreciated, being black and not quite pure; on that account this <lb/>method of salt-making is disdained by the Germans and Spaniards.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The solutions from which salt is made are prepared from salty earth or <lb/>from earth rich in salt and saltpetre. </s> <s>Lye is made from the ashes of reeds <lb/>and rushes. </s> <s>The solution obtained from salty earth by boiling, makes salt <lb/>only; from the other, of which I will speak more a little later, salt and salt­<lb/>petre are made; and from ashes is derived lye, from which its own salt is <lb/>obtained. </s> <s>The ashes, as well as the earth, should first be put into a large <lb/>vat; then fresh water should be poured over the ashes or earth, and it should <lb/>be stirred for about twelve hours with a stick, so that it may dissolve the <lb/>salt. </s> <s>Then the plug is pulled out of the large vat; the solution of salt or the <lb/>lye is drained into a small tub and emptied with ladles into small vats; <lb/>finally, such a solution is transferred into iron or lead caldrons and boiled, <lb/>until the water having evaporated, the juices are condensed into salt. </s> <s>The <lb/>above are the various methods for making salt. (Illustration p. </s> <s>557.)</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Nítrum<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> is usually made from <emph type="italics"/>nitrous<emph.end type="italics"/> waters, or from solutions or from <lb/>lye. </s> <s>In the same manner as sea-water or salt-water is poured into salt-pits <lb/>and evaporated by the heat of the sun and changed into salt, so the <emph type="italics"/>nítrous<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>Nile is led into <emph type="italics"/>nítrum<emph.end type="italics"/> pits and evaporated by the heat of the sun and con­<lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="559"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—NILE. B—NITRUM-PITS, SUCH AS I CONJECTURE THEM TO BE.<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>verted into <emph type="italics"/>nítrum.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Just as the sea, in flowing of its own will over the soil <lb/>of this same Egypt, is changed into salt, so also the Nile, when it overflows <lb/>in the dog days, is converted into <emph type="italics"/>nitrum<emph.end type="italics"/> when it flows into the <emph type="italics"/>nítrum<emph.end type="italics"/> pits. <lb/></s> <s>The solution from which <emph type="italics"/>nitrum<emph.end type="italics"/> is produced is obtained from fresh water <lb/>percolating through <emph type="italics"/>nitrous<emph.end type="italics"/> earth, in the same manner as lye is made from <lb/>fresh water percolating through ashes of oak or hard oak. </s> <s>Both solutions <lb/>are taken out of vats and poured into rectangular copper caldrons, and are <lb/>boiled until at last they condense into <emph type="italics"/>nitrum.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><pb pagenum="560"/><p type="main"> <s>Native as well as manufactured <emph type="italics"/>nítrum<emph.end type="italics"/> is mixed in vats with urine <lb/>and boiled in the same caldrons; the decoction is poured into vats in which <lb/>are copper wires, and, adhering to them, it hardens and becomes <emph type="italics"/>chrysocolla,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>which the Moors call <emph type="italics"/>borax.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Formerly <emph type="italics"/>nitrum<emph.end type="italics"/> was compounded with <lb/>Cyprian verdigris, and ground with Cyprian copper in Cyprian mortars, as <lb/>Pliny writes. </s> <s>Some <emph type="italics"/>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"/> is made of rock-alum and sal-ammoniac.<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><pb pagenum="561"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—VAT IN WHICH THE SODA IS MIXED. B—CALDRON. C—TUB IN WHICH <emph type="italics"/>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"/> IS <lb/>CONDENSED. D—COPPER WIRES. E—MORTAR.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Saltpetre<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> is made from a dry, slightly fatty earth, which, if it be re­<lb/>tained for a while in the mouth, has an acrid and salty taste. </s> <s>This earth, <lb/>together with a powder, are alternately put into a vat in layers a palm deep. <lb/></s> <s>The powder consists of two parts of unslaked lime and three parts of ashes of <lb/>oak, or holmoak, or Italian oak, or Turkey oak, or of some similar kind. </s> <s>Each <lb/>vat is filled with alternate layers of these to within three-quarters of a foot <lb/>of the top, and then water is poured in until it is full. </s> <s>As the water percolates <lb/>through the material it dissolves the saltpetre; then, the plug being pulled <lb/>out from the vat, the solution is drained into a tub and ladled out into small <pb pagenum="562"/>vats. </s> <s>If when tested it tastes very salty, and at the same time acrid, it is <lb/>good; but, if not, then it is condemned, and it must be made to percolate <lb/>again through the same material or through a fresh lot. </s> <s>Even two or three <lb/>waters may be made to percolate through the same earth and become full <lb/>of saltpetre, but the solutions thus obtained must not be mixed together <lb/>unless all have the same taste, which rarely or never happens. </s> <s>The first of <lb/>these solutions is poured into the first vat, the next into the second, the third <lb/>into the third vat; the second and third solutions are used instead of plain <lb/>water to percolate through fresh material; the first solution is made in <lb/>this manner from both the second and third. </s> <s>As soon as there is an abun­<lb/>dance of this solution it is poured into the rectangular copper caldron and <lb/>evaporated to one half by boiling; then it is transferred into a vat covered <lb/>with a lid, in which the earthy matter settles to the bottom. </s> <s>When the <lb/>solution is clear it is poured back into the same pan, or into another, and <lb/>re-boiled. </s> <s>When it bubbles and forms a scum, in order that it should <lb/>not run over and that it may be greatly purified, there is poured into it three <lb/>or four pounds of lye, made from three parts of oak or similar ash and one of <lb/>unslaked lime. </s> <s>But in the water, prior to its being poured in, is dissolved rock­<lb/>alum, in the proportion of one hundred and twenty <emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of the former to five <pb pagenum="563"/><emph type="italics"/>librae<emph.end type="italics"/> of the latter. </s> <s>Shortly afterward the solution will be found to be clear <lb/>and blue. </s> <s>It is boiled until the waters, which are easily volatile (<emph type="italics"/>subtiles<emph.end type="italics"/>), are <lb/>evaporated, and then the greater part of the salt, after it has settled at the <lb/>bottom of the pan, is taken out with iron ladles. </s> <s>Then the concentrated <lb/>solution is transferred to the vat in which rods are placed horizontally and <lb/>vertically, to which it adheres when cold, and if there be much, it is condensed <lb/>in three or four days into saltpetre. </s> <s>Then the solution which has not con­<lb/>gealed, is poured out and put on one side or re-boiled. </s> <s>The saltpetre being <lb/>cut out and washed with its own solution, is thrown on to boards that it may <lb/>drain and dry. </s> <s>The yield of saltpetre will be much or little in proportion <lb/>to whether the solution has absorbed much or little; when the saltpetre <lb/>has been obtained from lye, which purifies itself, it is somewhat clear and <lb/>pure.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The purest and most transparent, because free from salt, is made if it is <lb/>drawn off at the thickening stage, according to the following method. </s> <s>There </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CALDRON. B—LARGE VAT INTO WHICH SAND IS THROWN. C—PLUG. D—TUB. <lb/>E—VAT CONTAINING THE RODS.<pb pagenum="564"/>are poured into the caldron the same number of <emph type="italics"/>amphorae<emph.end type="italics"/> of the solution as of <lb/><emph type="italics"/>congíi<emph.end type="italics"/> of the lye of which I have already spoken, and into the same caldron <lb/>is thrown as much of the already made saltpetre as the solution and lye will <lb/>dissolve. </s> <s>As soon as the mixture effervesces and forms scum, it is trans­<lb/>ferred to a vat, into which on a cloth has been thrown washed sand obtained <lb/>from a river. </s> <s>Soon afterward the plug is drawn out of the hole at the <lb/>bottom, and the mixture, having percolated through the sand, escapes into <lb/>a tub. </s> <s>It is then reduced by boiling in one or another of the caldrons, until <lb/>the greater part of the solution has evaporated; but as soon as it is well <lb/>boiled and forms scum, a little lye is poured into it. </s> <s>Then it is transferred to <lb/>another vat in which there are small rods, to which it adheres and congeals in <lb/>two days if there is but little of it, or if there is much in three days, or <lb/>at the most in four days; if it does not condense, it is poured back into the <lb/>caldron and re-boiled down to half; then it is transferred to the vat to cool. <lb/></s> <s>The process must be repeated as often as is necessary.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Others refine saltpetre by another method, for with it they fill a pot <lb/>made of copper, and, covering it with a copper lid, set it over live coals, where <lb/>it is heated until it melts. </s> <s>They do not cement down the lid, but it has <lb/>a handle, and can be lifted for them to see whether or not the melting has taken <lb/>place. </s> <s>When it has melted, powdered sulphur is sprinkled in, and if the pot <lb/>set on the fire does not light it, the sulphur kindles, whereby the thick, greasy <lb/>matter floating on the saltpetre burns up, and when it is consumed the salt­<lb/>petre is pure. </s> <s>Soon afterward the pot is removed from the fire, and later, when <lb/>cold, the purest saltpetre is taken out, which has the appearance of white <lb/>marble, the earthy residue then remains at the bottom. </s> <s>The earths from <lb/>which the solution was made, together with branches of oak or similar trees, <lb/>are exposed under the open sky and sprinkled with water containing saltpetre. <lb/></s> <s>After remaining thus for five or six years, they are again ready to be made <lb/>into a solution.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Pure saltpetre which has rested many years in the earth, and that which <lb/>exudes from the stone walls of wine cellars and dark places, is mixed with the <lb/>first solution and evaporated by boiling.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Thus far I have described the methods of making <emph type="italics"/>nítrum,<emph.end type="italics"/> which are not <lb/>less varied or multifarious than those for making salt. </s> <s>Now I propose to <lb/>describe the methods of making alum,<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> which are likewise neither all alike, <lb/>nor simple, because it is made from boiling aluminous water until it con­<lb/>denses to alum, or else from boiling a solution of alum which is obtained <lb/>from a kind of earth, or from rocks, or from pyrites, or other minerals.</s></p><pb pagenum="565"/><p type="main"> <s>This kind of earth having first been dug up in such quantity as would <lb/>make three hundred wheelbarrow loads, is thrown into two tanks; then the <lb/>water is turned into them, and if it (the earth) contains vitriol it must be <lb/>diluted with urine. </s> <s>The workmen must many times a day stir the <lb/>ore with long, thick sticks in order that the water and urine may be <lb/>mixed with it; then the plugs having been taken out of both tanks, the <lb/>solution is drawn off into a trough, which is carved out of one or two trees. <lb/></s> <s>If the locality is supplied with an abundance of such ore, it should not <lb/>immediately be thrown into the tanks, but first conveyed into open spaces <lb/>and heaped up, for the longer it is exposed to the air and the rain, the better it <lb/>is; after some months, during which the ore has been heaped up in open <lb/>spaces into mounds, there are generated veinlets of far better quality than <lb/>the ore. </s> <s>Then it is conveyed into six or more tanks, nine feet in length <lb/>and breadth and five in depth, and afterward water is drawn into them <lb/>of similar solution. </s> <s>After this, when the water has absorbed the alum, the <lb/>plugs are pulled out, and the solution escapes into a round reservoir forty <lb/>feet wide and three feet deep. </s> <s>Then the ore is thrown out of the tanks <lb/>into other tanks, and water again being run into the latter and the urine <lb/>added and stirred by means of poles, the plugs are withdrawn and <lb/>the solution is run off into the same reservoir. </s> <s>A few days afterward, <lb/>the reservoirs containing the solution are emptied through a small launder, <lb/>and run into rectangular lead caldrons; it is boiled in them until the <pb pagenum="566"/>greater part of the water has evaporated. </s> <s>The earthy sediment deposited <lb/>at the bottom of the caldron is composed of fatty and aluminous matter, which <lb/>usually consists of small incrustations, in which there is not infrequently found <lb/>a very white and very light powder of asbestos or gypsum. </s> <s>The solution now <lb/>seems to be full of meal. </s> <s>Some people instead pour the partly evaporated <lb/>solution into a vat, so that it may become pure and clear; then pouring it <lb/>back into the caldron, they boil it again until it becomes mealy. </s> <s>By which­<lb/>ever process it has been condensed, it is then poured into a wooden tub <lb/>sunk into the earth in order to cool it. </s> <s>When it becomes cold it is poured <lb/>into vats, in which are arranged horizontal and vertical twigs, to which the <lb/>alum clings when it condenses; and thus are made the small white trans­<lb/>parent cubes, which are laid to dry in hot rooms.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>If vitriol forms part of the aluminous ore, the material is dissolved in <lb/>water without being mixed with urine, but it is necessary to pour that into <lb/>the clear and pure solution when it is to be re-boiled. </s> <s>This separates the <lb/>vitriol from the alum, for by this method the latter sinks to the bottom of the <lb/>caldron, while the former floats on the top; both must be poured separately <lb/>into smaller vessels, and from these into vats to condense. </s> <s>If, however, when <lb/>the solution was re-boiled they did not separate, then they must be poured <lb/>from the smaller vessels into larger vessels and covered over; then the vitriol <lb/>separating from the alum, it condenses. </s> <s>Both are cut out and put to dry in <lb/>the hot room, and are ready to be sold; the solution which did not congeal in </s></p><pb pagenum="567"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TANKS. B—STIRRING POLES. C—PLUG. D—TROUGH. E—RESERVOIR. F—LAUNDER. <lb/>G—LEAD CALDRON. H—WOODEN TUBS SUNK INTO THE EARTH. I—VATS IN WHICH <lb/>TWIGS ARE FIXED.<pb pagenum="568"/>the vessels and vats is again poured back into the caldron to be re-boiled. <lb/></s> <s>The earth which settled at the bottom of the caldron is carried back to the <lb/>tanks, and, together with the ore, is again dissolved with water and urine. <lb/></s> <s>The earth which remains in the tanks after the solution has been drawn off <lb/>is emptied in a heap, and daily becomes more and more aluminous in the <lb/>same way as the earth from which saltpetre was made, but fuller of its juices, <lb/>wherefore it is again thrown into the tanks and percolated by water.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Aluminous rock is first roasted in a furnace similar to a lime kiln. </s> <s>At <lb/>the bottom of the kiln a vaulted fireplace is made of the same kind of rock; <lb/>the remainder of the empty part of the kiln is then entirely filled with the <lb/>same aluminous rocks. </s> <s>Then they are heated with fire until they are red <lb/>hot and have exhaled their sulphurous fumes, which occurs, according to their <lb/>divers nature, within the space of ten, eleven, twelve, or more hours. </s> <s>One <lb/>thing the master must guard against most of all is not to roast the rock <lb/>either too much or too little, for on the one hand they would not soften when <lb/>sprinkled with water, and on the other they either would be too hard or <lb/>would crumble into ashes; from neither would much alum be obtained, for <lb/>the strength which they have would be decreased. </s> <s>When the rocks are cooled <lb/>they are drawn out and conveyed into an open space, where they are piled one <lb/>upon the other in heaps fifty feet long, eight feet wide, and four feet high, <lb/>which are sprinkled for forty days with water carried in deep ladles. </s> <s>In <lb/>spring the sprinkling is done both morning and evening, and in summer at <pb pagenum="569"/>noon besides. </s> <s>After being moistened for this length of time the rocks begin <lb/>to fall to pieces like slaked lime, and there originates a certain new material <lb/>of the future alum, which is soft and similar to the <emph type="italics"/>liquidae medullae<emph.end type="italics"/> found <lb/>in the rocks. </s> <s>It is white if the stone was white before it was roasted, and <lb/>rose-coloured if red was mixed with the white; from the former, white <lb/>alum is obtained, and from the latter, rose-coloured. </s> <s>A round furnace is <lb/>made, the lower part of which, in order to be able to endure the force of <lb/>the heat, is made of rock that neither melts nor crumbles to powder by the <lb/>fire. </s> <s>It is constructed in the form of a basket, the walls of which are two <lb/>feet high, made of the same rock. </s> <s>On these walls rests a large round caldron <lb/>made of copper plates, which is concave at the bottom, where it is eight feet <lb/>in diameter. </s> <s>In the empty space under the bottom they place the wood to be <lb/>kindled with fire. </s> <s>Around the edge of the bottom of the caldron, rock <lb/>is built in cone-shaped, and the diameter of the bottom of the rock structure <lb/>is seven feet, and of the top ten feet; it is eight feet deep. </s> <s>The inside, <lb/>after being rubbed over with oil, is covered with cement, so that it may be <lb/>able to hold boiling water; the cement is composed of fresh lime, of <lb/>which the lumps are slaked with wine, of iron-scales, and of sea-snails, <lb/>ground and mixed with the white of eggs and oil. </s> <s>The edges of the caldron <lb/>are surmounted with a circle of wood a foot thick and half a foot high, <lb/>on which the workmen rest the wooden shovels with which they cleanse <lb/>the water of earth and of the undissolved lumps of rock that remain at <pb pagenum="570"/>the bottom of the caldron. </s> <s>The caldron, being thus prepared, is entirely <lb/>filled through a launder with water, and this is boiled with a fierce fire <lb/>until it bubbles. </s> <s>Then little by little eight wheelbarrow loads of the <lb/>material, composed of roasted rock moistened with water, are gradually <lb/>emptied into the caldron by four workmen, who, with their shovels which <lb/>reach to the bottom, keep the material stirred and mixed with water, and <lb/>by the same means they lift the lumps of undissolved rock out of the <lb/>caldron. </s> <s>In this manner the material is thrown in, in three or four lots, at <lb/>intervals of two or three hours more or less; during these intervals, the <lb/>water, which has been cooled by the rock and material, again begins to boil. <lb/></s> <s>The water, when sufficiently purified and ready to congeal, is ladled out and <lb/>run off with launders into thirty troughs. </s> <s>These troughs are made of oak, <lb/>holm oak, or Turkey oak; their interior is six feet long, five feet deep, and <lb/>four feet wide. </s> <s>In these the water congeals and condenses into alum, in the <lb/>spring in the space of four days, and in summer in six days. </s> <s>Afterward the <lb/>holes at the bottom of the oak troughs being opened, the water which has <lb/>not congealed is drawn off into buckets and poured back into the caldron; <lb/>or it may be preserved in empty troughs, so that the master of the workmen, <lb/>having seen it, may order his helpers to pour it into the caldron, for the water <lb/>which is not altogether wanting in alum, is considered better than that which <lb/>has none at all. </s> <s>Then the alum is hewn out with a knife or a chisel. </s> <s>It is <lb/>thick and excellent according to the strength of the rock, either white or <lb/>pink according to the colour of the rock. </s> <s>The earthy powder, which remains <lb/>three to four digits thick as the residue of the alum at the bottom of the <lb/>trough is again thrown into the caldron and boiled with fresh aluminous <lb/>material. </s> <s>Lastly, the alum cut out is washed, and dried, and sold.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Alum is also made from crude pyrites and other aluminous mixtures. <lb/></s> <s>It is first roasted in an enclosed area: then, after being exposed for some </s></p><pb pagenum="571"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—FURNACE. B—ENCLOSED SPACE. C—ALUMINOUS ROCK. D—DEEP LADLE. <lb/>E—CALDRON. F—LAUNDER. G—TROUGHS.<pb pagenum="572"/>months to the air in order to soften it, it is thrown into vats and dissolved. <lb/></s> <s>After this the solution is poured into the leaden rectangular pans and boiled <lb/>until it condenses into alum. </s> <s>The pyrites and other stones which are not <lb/>mixed with alum alone, but which also contain vitriol, as is most usually the <lb/>case, are both treated in the manner which I have already described. </s> <s>Finally, <lb/>if metal is contained in the pyrites and other rock, this material must be dried, <lb/>and from it either gold, silver, or copper is made in a furnace.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Vitriol<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> can be made by four different methods; by two of these methods <pb pagenum="573"/>from water containing vitriol; by one method from a solution of <emph type="italics"/>melantería, <lb/>sory<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>chalcítís;<emph.end type="italics"/> and by another method from earth or stones mixed with <lb/>vitriol.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The vitriol water is collected into pools, and if it cannot be drained into <lb/>them, it must be drawn up and carried to them in buckets by a workman. </s></p><pb pagenum="574"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—TUNNEL. B—BUCKET. C—PIT.<lb/>In hot regions or in summer, it is poured into out-of-door pits which have <lb/>been dug to a certain depth, or else it is extracted from shafts by pumps <lb/>and poured into launders, through which it flows into the pits, where it is <lb/>condensed by the heat of the sun. </s> <s>In cold regions and in winter these vitriol <lb/>waters are boiled down with equal parts of fresh water in rectangular leaden <lb/>caldrons; then, when cold, the mixture is poured into vats or into tanks, <lb/>which Pliny calls wooden fish-tanks. </s> <s>In these tanks light cross-beams are <lb/>fixed to the upper part, so that they may be stationary, and from them hang <lb/>ropes stretched with little stones; to these the contents of the thickened <lb/>solutions congeal and adhere in transparent cubes or seeds of vitriol, like <lb/>bunches of grapes.</s></p><pb pagenum="575"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CALDRON. B—TANK. C—CROSS-BARS. D—ROPES. E—LITTLE STONES.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>By the third method vitriol is made out of <emph type="italics"/>melanteria<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>sory.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> If <lb/>the mines give an abundant supply of <emph type="italics"/>melanteria<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>sory,<emph.end type="italics"/> it is better to <lb/>reject the <emph type="italics"/>chalcítís,<emph.end type="italics"/> and especially the <emph type="italics"/>mísy,<emph.end type="italics"/> for from these the vitriol is impure, <lb/>particularly from the <emph type="italics"/>misy.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> These materials having been dug and thrown <lb/>into the tanks, they are first dissolved with water; then, in order to recover <lb/>the pyrites from which copper is not rarely smelted and which forms a sedi­<lb/>ment at the bottom of the tanks, the solution is transferred to other vats, <lb/>which are nine feet wide and three feet deep. </s> <s>Twigs and wood which float <lb/>on the surface are lifted out with a broom made of twigs, and afterward all the <lb/>sediment settles at the bottom of this vat. </s> <s>The solution is poured into a <lb/>rectangular leaden caldron eight feet long, three feet wide, and the same in <lb/>depth. </s> <s>In this caldron it is boiled until it becomes thick and viscous, when <lb/>it is poured into a launder, through which it runs into another leaden caldron <lb/>of the same size as the one described before. </s> <s>When cold, the solution is <lb/>drawn off through twelve little launders, out of which it flows into as many <lb/>wooden tubs four and a half feet deep and three feet wide. </s> <s>Upon these tubs <lb/>are placed perforated crossbars distant from each other from four to six <lb/>digits, and from the holes hang thin laths, which reach to the bottom, with <pb pagenum="576"/>pegs or wedges driven into them. </s> <s>The vitriol adheres to these laths, and <lb/>within the space of a few days congeals into cubes, which are taken away <lb/>and put into a chamber having a sloping board floor, so that the moisture <lb/>which drips from the vitriol may flow into a tub beneath. </s> <s>This solution is <lb/>re-boiled, as is also that solution which was left in the twelve tubs, for, by <lb/>reason of its having become too thin and liquid, it did not congeal, and was <lb/>thus not converted into vitriol.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—WOODEN TUB. B—CROSS-BARS. C—LATHS. D—SLOPING FLOOR OF THE CHAMBER. <lb/>E—TUB PLACED UNDER IT.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The fourth method of making vitriol is from vitriolous earth or stones. <lb/></s> <s>Such ore is at first carried and heaped up, and is then left for five or six months <lb/>exposed to the rain of spring and autumn, to the heat of summer, and to the <lb/>rime and frost of winter. </s> <s>It must be turned over several times with shovels, <lb/>so that the part at the bottom may be brought to the top, and it is thus <lb/>ventilated and cooled; by this means the earth crumbles up and loosens, <lb/>and the stone changes from hard to soft. </s> <s>Then the ore is covered with a roof, <lb/>or else it is taken away and placed under a roof, and remains in that place <lb/>six, seven, or eight months. </s> <s>Afterward as large a portion as is required is <lb/>thrown into a vat, which is half-filled with water; this vat is one hundred <pb pagenum="577"/>feet long, twenty-four feet wide, eight feet deep. </s> <s>It has an opening at the <lb/>bottom, so that when it is opened the dregs of the ore from which the vitriol <lb/>comes may be drawn off, and it has, at the height of one foot from the bottom, <lb/>three or four little holes, so that, when closed, the water may be retained, <lb/>and when opened the solution flows out. </s> <s>Thus the ore is mixed with water, <lb/>stirred with poles and left in the tank until the earthy portions sink to the <lb/>bottom and the water absorbs the juices. </s> <s>Then the little holes are opened, <lb/>the solution flows out of the vat, and is caught in a vat below it; this vat is <lb/>of the same length as the other, but twelve feet wide and four feet deep. </s> <s>If <lb/>the solution is not sufficiently vitriolous it is mixed with fresh ore; but if it <lb/>contains enough vitriol, and yet has not exhausted all of the ore rich in vitriol, <lb/>it is well to dissolve the ore again with fresh water. </s> <s>As soon as the solution <lb/>becomes clear, it is poured into the rectangular leaden caldron through <lb/>launders, and is boiled until the water is evaporated. </s> <s>Afterward as many thin <lb/>strips of iron as the nature of the solution requires, are thrown in, and then <lb/>it is boiled again until it is thick enough, when cold, to congeal into vitriol. <lb/></s> <s>Then it is poured into tanks or vats, or any other receptacle, in which all of it <lb/>that is apt to congeal does so within two or three days. </s> <s>The solution which <lb/>does not congeal is either poured back into the caldron to be boiled again, or </s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—CALDRON. B—MOULDS. C—CAKES<pb pagenum="578"/>it is put aside for dissolving the new ore, for it is far preferable to fresh water. <lb/></s> <s>The solidified vitriol is hewn out, and having once more been thrown into the <lb/>caldron, is re-heated until it liquefies; when liquid, it is poured into <lb/>moulds that it may be made into cakes. </s> <s>If the solution first poured out is <lb/>not satisfactorily thickened, it is condensed two or three times, and each <lb/>time liquefied in the caldron and re-poured into the moulds, in which <lb/>manner pure cakes, beautiful to look at, are made from it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The vitriolous pyrites, which are to be numbered among the mixtures <lb/>(<emph type="italics"/>mistura<emph.end type="italics"/>), are roasted as in the case of alum, and dissolved with water, and <lb/>the solution is boiled in leaden caldrons until it condenses into vitriol. </s> <s>Both <lb/>alum and vitriol are often made out of these, and it is no wonder, for these <lb/>juices are cognate, and only differ in the one point,—that the former is less, the <lb/>latter more, earthy. </s> <s>That pyrites which contains metal must be smelted in the <lb/>furnace. </s> <s>In the same manner, from other mixtures of vitriolic and metallifer­<lb/>ous material are made vitriol and metal. </s> <s>Indeed, if ores of vitriolous pyrites <lb/>abound, the miners split small logs down the centre and cut them off in lengths <lb/>as long as the drifts and tunnels are wide, in which they lay them down trans­<lb/>versely; but, that they may be stable, they are laid on the ground with the wide <lb/>side down and the round side up, and they touch each other at the bottom, <lb/>but not at the top. </s> <s>The intermediate space is filled with pyrites, and the same <lb/>crushed are scattered over the wood, so that, coming in or going out, the <lb/>road is flat and even. </s> <s>Since the drifts or tunnels drip with water, these <lb/>pyrites are soaked, and from them are freed the vitriol and cognate things. </s> <s>If <lb/>the water ceases to drip, these dry and harden, and then they are raised <lb/>from the shafts, together with the pyrites not yet dissolved in the water, or <lb/>they are carried out from the tunnels; then they are thrown into vats or <lb/>tanks, and boiling water having been poured over them, the vitriol is freed <lb/>and the pyrites are dissolved. </s> <s>This green solution is transferred to other vats <lb/>or tanks, that it may be made clear and pure; it is then boiled in the lead <lb/>caldrons until it thickens; afterward it is poured into wooden tubs, where <lb/>it condenses on rods, or reeds, or twigs, into green vitriol.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Sulphur is made from sulphurous waters, from sulphurous ores, and <lb/>from sulphurous mixtures. </s> <s>These waters are poured into the leaden caldrons <lb/>and boiled until they condense into sulphur. </s> <s>From this latter, heated <lb/>together with iron-scales, and transferred into pots, which are afterward <lb/>covered with lute and refined sulphur, another sulphur is made, which we <lb/>call <emph type="italics"/>caballinum.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The ores<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/> which consist mostly of sulphur and of earth, and rarely of <lb/>other minerals, are melted in big-bellied earthenware pots. </s> <s>The furnaces, <lb/></s></p><pb pagenum="579"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—POTS HAVING SPOUTS. B—POTS WITHOUT SPOUTS. C—LIDS.<lb/>which hold two of these pots, are divided into three parts; the lowest part is a <lb/>foot high, and has an opening at the front for the draught; the top of this is <lb/>covered with iron plates, which are perforated near the edges, and these <lb/>support iron rods, upon which the firewood is placed. </s> <s>The middle part of the <lb/>furnace is one and a half feet high, and has a mouth in front, so that the wood <lb/>may be inserted; the top of this has rods, upon which the bottom of the pots <lb/>stand. </s> <s>The upper part is about two feet high, and the pots are also two feet <lb/>high and one digit thick; these have below their mouths a long, slender spout. <lb/></s> <s>In order that the mouth of the pot may be covered, an earthenware lid is <lb/>made which fits into it. </s> <s>For every two of these pots there must be one pot <pb pagenum="580"/>of the same size and shape, and without a spout, but having three holes, two of <lb/>which are below the mouth and receive the spouts of the two first pots; the <lb/>third hole is on the opposite side at the bottom, and through it the sulphur <lb/>flows out. </s> <s>In each furnace are placed two pots with spouts, and the furnace <lb/>must be covered by plates of iron smeared over with lute two digits thick; it is <lb/>thus entirely closed in, but for two or three ventholes through which the mouths <lb/>of the pots project. </s> <s>Outside of the furnace, against one side, is placed the pot <lb/>without a spout, into the two holes of which the two spouts of the other pots <lb/>penetrate, and this pot should be built in at both sides to keep it steady. </s> <s>When <lb/>the sulphur ore has been placed in the pots, and these placed in the furnace, <lb/>they are closely covered, and it is desirable to smear the joint over with lute, <lb/>so that the sulphur will not exhale, and for the same reason the pot below is <lb/>covered with a lid, which is also smeared with lute. </s> <s>The wood having been <lb/>kindled, the ores are heated until the sulphur is exhaled, and the vapour, <lb/>arising through the spout, penetrates into the lower pot and thickens into <lb/>sulphur, which falls to the bottom like melted wax. </s> <s>It then flows out <lb/>through the hole, which, as I said, is at the bottom of this pot; and the work­<lb/>man makes it into cakes, or thin sticks or thin pieces of wood are dipped in it. <lb/></s> <s>Then he takes the burning wood and glowing charcoal from the furnace, and <lb/>when it has cooled, he opens the two pots, empties the residues, which, if the <lb/>ores were composed of sulphur and earth, resemble naturally extinguished <lb/>ashes; but if the ores consisted of sulphur and earth and stone, or sulphur <lb/>and stone only, they resemble earth completely dried or stones well roasted. <lb/></s> <s>Afterward the pots are re-filled with ore, and the whole work is repeated.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The sulphurous mixture, whether it consists of stone and sulphur only, <lb/>or of stone and sulphur and metal, may be heated in similar pots, but with <lb/>perforated bottoms. </s> <s>Before the furnace is constructed, against the “second” <lb/>wall of the works two lateral partitions are built seven feet high, three feet <lb/>long, one and a half feet thick, and these are distant from each other twenty­<lb/>seven feet. </s> <s>Between them are seven low brick walls, that measure but <lb/>two feet and the same number of digits in height, and, like the other walls, <lb/>are three feet long and one foot thick; these little walls are at equal <lb/>distances from one another, consequently they will be two and one half feet <lb/>apart. </s> <s>At the top, iron bars are fixed into them, which sustain iron plates <lb/>three feet long and wide and one digit thick, so that they can bear not only <lb/>the weight of the pots, but also the fierceness of the fire. </s> <s>These plates have <lb/>in the middle a round hole one and a half digits wide; there must not be <lb/>more than eight of these, and upon them as many pots are placed. </s> <s>These <lb/>pots are perforated at the bottom, and the same number of whole pots are <lb/>placed underneath them; the former contain the mixture, and are covered <lb/>with lids; the latter contain water, and their mouths are under the holes <lb/>in the plates. </s> <s>After wood has been arranged round the upper pots and <lb/>ignited, the mixture being heated, red, yellow, or green sulphur drips <lb/>from it and flows down through the hole, and is caught by the pots placed <lb/>underneath the plates, and is at once cooled by the water. </s> <s>If the mixture <lb/>contains metal, it is reserved for smelting, and, if not, it is thrown away. </s></p><pb pagenum="581"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LONG WALL. B—HIGH WALLS. C—LOW WALLS. D—PLATES. E—UPPER POTS. <lb/>F—LOWER POTS.<lb/>The sulphur from such a mixture can best be extracted if the upper pots are <lb/>placed in a vaulted furnace, like those which I described among other <lb/>metallurgical subjects in Book VIII., which has no floor, but a grate inside; <lb/>under this the lower pots are placed in the same manner, but the plates <lb/>must have larger holes.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Others bury a pot in the ground, and place over it another pot with a <lb/>hole at the bottom, in which pyrites or <emph type="italics"/>cadmia,<emph.end type="italics"/> or other sulphurous stones <lb/>are so enclosed that the sulphur cannot exhale. </s> <s>A fierce fire heats the <lb/>sulphur, and it drips away and flows down into the lower pot, which contains <lb/>water. (Illustration p. </s> <s>582).</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Bitumen<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/> is made from bituminous waters, from liquid bitumen, and <lb/>from mixtures of bituminous substances. </s> <s>The water, bituminous as well as </s></p><pb pagenum="582"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LOWER POT. B—UPPER POT. C—LID.<lb/>salty, at Babylon, as Pliny writes, was taken from the wells to the salt works <lb/>and heated by the great heat of the sun, and condensed partly into liquid <lb/>bitumen and partly into salt. </s> <s>The bitumen being lighter, floats on the top, <lb/>while the salt being heavier, sinks to the bottom. </s> <s>Liquid bitumen, if there <lb/>is much floating on springs, streams and rivers, is drawn up in buckets or <lb/>other vessels; but, if there is little, it is collected with goose wings, pieces </s></p><pb pagenum="583"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BITUMINOUS SPRING. B—BUCKET. C—POT. D—LID.<lb/>of linen, <emph type="italics"/>ralla,<emph.end type="italics"/> shreds of reeds, and other things to which it easily adheres, <lb/>and it is boiled in large brass or iron pots by fire and condensed. </s> <s>As this <lb/>bitumen is put to divers uses, some mix pitch with the liquid, others old <lb/>cart-grease, in order to temper its viscosity; these, however long they are <pb pagenum="584"/>boiled in the pots, cannot be made hard. </s> <s>The mixtures containing bitumen <lb/>are also treated in the same manner as those containing sulphur, in pots <lb/>having a hole in the bottom, and it is rare that such bitumen is not highly <lb/>esteemed.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Since all solidified juices and earths, if abundantly and copiously mixed <lb/>with the water, are deposited in the beds of springs, streams or rivers, and the <lb/>stones therein are coated by them, they do not require the heat of the sun or <lb/>fire to harden them. </s> <s>This having been pondered over by wise men, they dis­<lb/>covered methods by which the remainder of these solidified juices and unusual <lb/>earths can be collected. </s> <s>Such waters, whether flowing from springs or <lb/>tunnels, are collected in many wooden tubs or tanks arranged in consecutive <lb/>order, and deposit in them such juices or earths; these being scraped off <lb/>every year, are collected, as <emph type="italics"/>chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/> in the Carpathians and as ochre in <lb/>the Harz.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There remains glass, the preparation of which belongs here, for the <lb/>reason that it is obtained by the power of fire and subtle art from certain <lb/>solidified juices and from coarse or fine sand. </s> <s>It is transparent, as are certain <lb/>solidified juices, gems, and stones; and can be melted like fusible stones and <lb/>metals. </s> <s>First I must speak of the materials from which glass is made; <lb/>then of the furnaces in which it is melted; then of the methods by which it <lb/>is produced.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>It is made from fusible stones and from solidified juices, or from other <lb/>juicy substances which are connected by a natural relationship. </s> <s>Stones <lb/>which are fusible, if they are white and translucent, are more excellent than </s></p><pb pagenum="585"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—MOUTH OF THE TUNNEL. B—TROUGH. C—TANKS. D—LITTLE TROUGH.<lb/>the others, for which reason crystals take the first place. </s> <s>From these, when <lb/>pounded, the most excellent transparent glass was made in India, with which <lb/>no other could be compared, as Pliny relates. </s> <s>The second place is accorded <lb/>to stones which, although not so hard as crystal, are yet just as white and <lb/>transparent. </s> <s>The third is given to white stones, which are not transparent. <lb/></s> <s>It is necessary, however, first of all to heat all these, and afterward they are <lb/>subjected to the pestle in order to break and crush them into coarse sand, <lb/>and then they are passed through a sieve. </s> <s>If this kind of coarse or fine sand <lb/>is found by the glass-makers near the mouth of a river, it saves them much <lb/>labour in burning and crushing. </s> <s>As regards the solidified juices, the first <lb/>place is given to soda; the second to white and translucent rock-salt; the third <lb/>to salts which are made from lye, from the ashes of the musk ivy, or from <lb/>other salty herbs. </s> <s>Yet there are some who give to this latter, and not to the <lb/>former, the second place. </s> <s>One part of coarse or fine sand made from fusible <lb/>stones should be mixed with two parts of soda or of rock-salt or of herb <lb/>salts, to which are added minute particles of <emph type="italics"/>magnes.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/> It is true that in our <pb pagenum="586"/>day, as much as in ancient times, there exists the belief in the singular <lb/>power of the latter to attract to itself the vitreous liquid just as it does iron, <lb/>and by attracting it to purify and transform green or yellow into white; and <lb/>afterward fire consumes the <emph type="italics"/>magnes.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> When the said juices are not to be had, <lb/>two parts of the ashes of oak or holmoak, or of hard oak or Turkey oak, <lb/>or if these be not available, of beech or pine, are mixed with one part <lb/>of coarse or fine sand, and a small quantity of salt is added, made from salt <lb/>water or sea-water, and a small particle of <emph type="italics"/>magnes;<emph.end type="italics"/> but these make a less <lb/>white and translucent glass. </s> <s>The ashes should be made from old trees, of <lb/>which the trunk at a height of six feet is hollowed out and fire is put in, and <lb/>thus the whole tree is consumed and converted into ashes. </s> <s>This is done in <lb/>winter when the snow lies long, or in summer when it does not rain, for the <lb/>showers at other times of the year, by mixing the ashes with earth, render <lb/>them impure; for this reason, at such times, these same trees are cut up <lb/>into many pieces and burned under cover, and are thus converted into ashes.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Some glass-makers use three furnaces, others two, others only one. <lb/></s> <s>Those who use three, melt the material in the first, re-melt it in the second, </s></p><pb pagenum="587"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LOWER CHAMBER OF THE FIRST FURNACE. B—UPPER CHAMBER. C—VITREOUS MASS.<lb/>and in the third they cool the glowing glass vessels and other articles. </s> <s>Of <lb/>these the first furnace must be vaulted and similar to an oven. </s> <s>In the upper <lb/>chamber, which is six feet long, four feet wide, and two feet high, the <lb/>mixed materials are heated by a fierce fire of dry wood until they melt <lb/>and are converted into a vitreous mass. </s> <s>And if they are not satisfactorily <lb/>purified from dross, they are taken out and cooled and broken into pieces; <lb/>and the vitreous pieces are heated in pots in the same furnace.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The second furnace is round, ten feet in diameter and eight feet high, <lb/>and on the outside, so that it may be stronger, it is encompassed by five <lb/>arches, one and one half feet thick; it consists in like manner of two <lb/>chambers, of which the lower one is vaulted and is one and one half feet thick. <lb/></s> <s>In front this chamber has a narrow mouth, through which the wood <lb/>can be put into the hearth, which is on the ground. </s> <s>At the top and in the <lb/>middle of its vault, there is a large round hole which opens to the upper <lb/>chamber, so that the flames can penetrate into it. </s> <s>Between the arches in <lb/>the walls of the upper chamber are eight windows, so large that the big­<lb/>bellied pots may be placed through them on to the floor of the chamber, <lb/>around the large hole. </s> <s>The thickness of these pots is about two digits, their <lb/>height the same number of feet, and the diameter of the belly one and a half <pb pagenum="588"/>feet, and of the mouth and bottom one foot. </s> <s>In the back part of the furnace <lb/>is a rectangular hole, measuring in height and width a palm, through which <lb/>the heat penetrates into a third furnace which adjoins it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>This third furnace is rectangular, eight feet long and six feet wide; it <lb/>also consists of two chambers, of which the lower has a mouth in front, so that <lb/>firewood may be placed on the hearth which is on the ground. </s> <s>On each side of <lb/>this opening in the wall of the lower chamber is a recess for oblong earthen­<lb/>ware receptacles, which are about four feet long, two feet high, and one and <lb/>a half feet wide. </s> <s>The upper chamber has two holes, one on the right side, <lb/>the other on the left, of such height and width that earthenware receptacles <lb/>may be conveniently placed in them. </s> <s>These latter receptacles are three <lb/>feet long, one and a half feet high, the lower part one foot wide, and the <lb/>upper part rounded. </s> <s>In these receptacles the glass articles, which have been <lb/>blown, are placed so that they may cool in a milder temperature; if they were <lb/>not cooled slowly they would burst asunder. </s> <s>When the vessels are taken <lb/>from the upper chamber, they are immediately placed in the receptacles <lb/>to cool.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—ARCHES OF THE SECOND FURNACE. B—MOUTH OF THE LOWER CHAMBER. <lb/>C—WINDOWS OF THE UPPER CHAMBER. D—BIG-BELLIED POTS. E—MOUTH OF THE <lb/>THIRD FURNACE. F—RECESSES FOR THE RECEPTACLES. G—OPENINGS IN THE UPPER <lb/>CHAMBER. H—OBLONG RECEPTACLES.</s></p><pb pagenum="589"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—LOWER CHAMBER OF THE OTHER SECOND FURNACE. B—MIDDLE ONE. C—UPPER ONE. <lb/>D—ITS OPENING. E—ROUND OPENING. F—RECTANGULAR OPENING.</s></p><pb pagenum="590"/><p type="main"> <s>Some who use two furnaces partly melt the mixture in the first, and <lb/>not only re-melt it in the second, but also replace the glass articles there. <lb/></s> <s>Others partly melt and re-melt the material in different chambers of the <lb/>second furnace. </s> <s>Thus the former lack the third furnace, and the latter, <lb/>the first. </s> <s>But this kind of second furnace differs from the other second <lb/>furnace, for it is, indeed, round, but the interior is eight feet in diameter <lb/>and twelve feet high, and it consists of three chambers, of which the lowest is <lb/>not unlike the lowest of the other second furnace. </s> <s>In the middle chamber <lb/>wall there are six arched openings, in which are placed the pots to be heated, <lb/>and the remainder of the small windows are blocked up with lute. </s> <s>In the <lb/>middle top of the middle chamber is a square opening a palm in length <lb/>and width. </s> <s>Through this the heat penetrates into the upper chamber, <lb/>of which the rear part has an opening to receive the oblong earthenware <lb/>receptacles, in which are placed the glass articles to be slowly cooled. </s> <s>On <lb/>this side, the ground of the workshop is higher, or else a bench is placed there, <lb/>so that the glass-makers may stand upon it to stow away their products <lb/>more conveniently.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Those who lack the first furnace in the evening, when they have accom­<lb/>plished their day's work, place the material in the pots, so that the heat during <lb/>the night may melt it and turn it into glass. </s> <s>Two boys alternately, during <lb/>night and day, keep up the fire by throwing dry wood on to the hearth. </s> <s>Those <lb/>who have but one furnace use the second sort, made with three chambers. <lb/></s> <s>Then in the evening they pour the material into the pots, and in the morning, <lb/>having extracted the fused material, they make the glass objects, which they <lb/>place in the upper chamber, as do the others.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The second furnace consists either of two or three chambers, the first of <lb/>which is made of unburnt bricks dried in the sun. </s> <s>These bricks are made of a <lb/>kind of clay that cannot be easily melted by fire nor resolved into powder; <lb/>this clay is cleaned of small stones and beaten with rods. </s> <s>The bricks are <lb/>laid with the same kind of clay instead of lime. </s> <s>From the same clay the <lb/>potters also make their vessels and pots, which they dry in the shade. </s> <s>These <lb/>two parts having been completed, there remains the third.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The vitreous mass having been made in the first furnace in the manner <lb/>I described, is broken up, and the assistant heats the second furnace, in order <lb/>that the fragments may be re-melted. </s> <s>In the meantime, while they are doing <lb/>this, the pots are first warmed by a slow fire in the first furnace, so that the <lb/>vapours may evaporate, and then by a fiercer fire, so that they become red <lb/>in drying. </s> <s>Afterward the glass-makers open the mouth of the furnace, and, <lb/>seizing the pots with tongs, if they have not cracked and fallen to pieces, <lb/>quickly place them in the second furnace, and they fill them up with the <lb/>fragments of the heated vitreous mass or with glass. </s> <s>Afterward they close <lb/>up all the windows with lute and bricks, with the exception that in each <lb/>there are two little windows left free; through one of these they inspect the <lb/>glass contained in the pot, and take it up by means of a blow-pipe; in the <lb/>other they rest another blow-pipe, so that it may get warm. </s> <s>Whether it <lb/>is made of brass, bronze, or iron, the blow-pipe must be three feet long. </s></p><pb pagenum="591"/><figure></figure><p type="caption"> <s>A—BLOW-PIPE. B—LITTLE WINDOW. C—MARBLE. D—FORCEPS. E—MOULDS BY <lb/>MEANS OF WHICH THE SHAPES ARE PRODUCED.<pb pagenum="592"/>In front of the window is inserted a lip of marble, on which rests the <lb/>heaped-up clay and the iron shield. </s> <s>The clay holds the blow-pipe when it <lb/>is put into the furnace, whereas the shield preserves the eyes of the glass-maker <lb/>from the fire. </s> <s>All this having been carried out in order, the glass-makers <lb/>bring the work to completion. </s> <s>The broken pieces they re-melt with dry wood, <lb/>which emits no smoke, but only a flame. </s> <s>The longer they re-melt it, the purer <lb/>and more transparent it becomes, the fewer spots and blisters there are, and <lb/>therefore the glass-makers can carry out their work more easily. </s> <s>For this <lb/>reason those who only melt the material from which glass is made for one <lb/>night, and then immediately make it up into glass articles, make them less <lb/>pure and transparent than those who first produce a vitreous mass and then <lb/>re-melt the broken pieces again for a day and a night. </s> <s>And, again, these make <lb/>a less pure and transparent glass than do those who melt it again for two days <lb/>and two nights, for the excellence of the glass does not consist solely in the <lb/>material from which it is made, but also in the melting. </s> <s>The glass-makers <lb/>often test the glass by drawing it up with the blowpipes; as soon as they <lb/>observe that the fragments have been re-melted and purified satisfactorily, <lb/>each of them with another blow-pipe which is in the pot, slowly stirs and takes <lb/>up the glass which sticks to it in the shape of a ball like a glutinous, coagulated <lb/>gum. </s> <s>He takes up just as much as he needs to complete the article he wishes <lb/>to make; then he presses it against the lip of marble and kneads it round and <lb/>round until it consolidates. </s> <s>When he blows through the pipe he blows as <lb/>he would if inflating a bubble; he blows into the blow-pipe as often as it is <lb/>necessary, removing it from his mouth to re-fill his cheeks, so that his breath <lb/>does not draw the flames into his mouth. </s> <s>Then, twisting the lifted blow-pipe <lb/>round his head in a circle, he makes a long glass, or moulds the same in a <lb/>hollow copper mould, turning it round and round, then warming it again, <lb/>blowing it and pressing it, he widens it into the shape of a cup or vessel, or of <lb/>any other object he has in mind. </s> <s>Then he again presses this against the <lb/>marble to flatten the bottom, which he moulds in the interior with his other <lb/>blow-pipe. </s> <s>Afterward he cuts out the lip with shears, and, if necessary, adds <lb/>feet and handles. </s> <s>If it so please him, he gilds it and paints it with various <lb/>colours. </s> <s>Finally, he lays it in the oblong earthenware receptacle, which is <lb/>placed in the third furnace, or in the upper chamber of the second furnace, <lb/>that it may cool. </s> <s>When this receptacle is full of other slowly-cooled articles, <lb/>he passes a wide iron bar under it, and, carrying it on the left arm, places it <lb/>in another recess.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The glass-makers make divers things, such as goblets, cups, ewers, flasks, <lb/>dishes, plates, panes of glass, animals, trees, and ships, all of which excellent and <lb/>wonderful works I have seen when I spent two whole years in Venice some <lb/>time ago. </s> <s>Especially at the time of the Feast of the Ascension they were on <lb/>sale at Morano, where are located the most celebrated glass-works. </s> <s>These I <lb/>saw on other occasions, and when, for a certain reason, I visited Andrea <lb/>Naugerio in his house which he had there, and conversed with him and <lb/>Francisco Asulano.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>END OF BOOK XII.</s></p><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>APPENDIX A.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>AGRICOLA'S WORKS.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Georgius agricola was not only the author of <lb/>works on Mining and allied subjects, usually asso­<lb/>ciated with his name, but he also interested himself <lb/>to some extent in political and religious subjects. <lb/></s> <s>For convenience in discussion we may, therefore, <lb/>divide his writings on the broad lines of (1) works on <lb/>mining, geology, mineralogy, and allied subjects; (2) <lb/>works on other subjects, medical, religious, critical, <lb/>political, and historical. </s> <s>In respect especially to the <lb/>first division, and partially with regard to the others, we find three principal <lb/>cases: (<emph type="italics"/>a<emph.end type="italics"/>) Works which can be authenticated in European libraries to-day; <lb/>(<emph type="italics"/>b<emph.end type="italics"/>) references to editions of these in bibliographies, catalogues, etc., which we <lb/>have been unable to authenticate; and (<emph type="italics"/>c<emph.end type="italics"/>) references to works either un­<lb/>published or lost. </s> <s>The following are the short titles of all of the published <lb/>works which we have been able to find on the subjects allied to mining, <lb/>arranged according to their present importance:—<emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallíca,<emph.end type="italics"/> first <lb/>edition, 1556; <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossílíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> first edition, 1546; <emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causis <lb/>Subterraneorum,<emph.end type="italics"/> first edition, 1546; <emph type="italics"/>Bermannus,<emph.end type="italics"/> first edition, 1530; <emph type="italics"/>Rerum <lb/>Metallicarum Interpretatio,<emph.end type="italics"/> first edition, 1546; <emph type="italics"/>De Mensuris et Ponderibus,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>first edition, 1533; <emph type="italics"/>De Precio Metallorum et Monetís,<emph.end type="italics"/> first edition, 1550; <emph type="italics"/>De <lb/>Veteribus et Novis Metallis,<emph.end type="italics"/> first edition, 1546; <emph type="italics"/>De Natura eorum quae Effluunt <lb/>ex Terra,<emph.end type="italics"/> first edition, 1546; <emph type="italics"/>De Animantibus Subterraneis,<emph.end type="italics"/> first edition, 1549.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Of the “lost” or unpublished works, on which there is some evidence, <lb/>the following are the most important:—<emph type="italics"/>De Metallicis et Machinís, De Ortu <lb/>Metallorum Defensio ad Jacobum Scheckium, De Jure et Legíbus Metallicis, <lb/>De Varía Temperie síve Constitutione Aerís, De Terrae Motu,<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>Commen­<lb/>tariorum, Librí VI.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>The known published works upon other subjects are as follows:—Latin <lb/>Grammar, first edition, 1520; Two Religious Tracts, first edition, 1522; <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Galen<emph.end type="italics"/> (Joint Revision of Greek Text), first edition, 1525; <emph type="italics"/>De Bello adversus <lb/>Turcam,<emph.end type="italics"/> first edition, 1528; <emph type="italics"/>De Peste,<emph.end type="italics"/> first edition, 1554.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The lost or partially completed works on subjects unrelated to mining, <lb/>of which some trace has been found, are:—<emph type="italics"/>De Medicatís Fontibus, De Putre­<lb/>díne solidas partes,<emph.end type="italics"/> etc., <emph type="italics"/>Castigationes in Híppocratem, Typographia Mysnae <lb/>et Toringiae, De Tradítioníbus Apostolícis, Oratío de rebus gestis Ernesti et <lb/>Alberti, Ducum Saxoniae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL WORKS.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Before proceeding with the bibliographical detail, we consider it desirable <lb/>to review briefly the most important of the author's works on subjects related <lb/>to mining.</s></p><pb pagenum="594"/><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossílium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This is the most important work of Agricola, <lb/>excepting <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> It has always been printed in combination with <lb/>other works, and first appeared at Basel, 1546. This edition was considerably <lb/>revised by the author, the amended edition being that of 1558, which we have <lb/>used in giving references. </s> <s>The work comprises ten “books” of a total of <lb/>217 folio pages. </s> <s>It is the first attempt at systematic mineralogy, the minerals<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>being classified into (1) “earths” (clay, ochre, etc.), (2) “stones properly so­<lb/>called” (gems, semi-precious and unusual stones, as distinguished from rocks), <lb/>(3) “solidified juices” (salt, vitriol, alum, etc.), (4) metals, and (5) “com­<lb/>pounds” (homogeneous “mixtures” of simple substances, thus forming <lb/>such minerals as galena, pyrite, etc.). In this classification Agricola en­<lb/>deavoured to find some fundamental basis, and therefore adopted solubility, <lb/>fusibility, odour, taste, etc., but any true classification without the atomic <lb/>theory was, of course, impossible. </s> <s>However, he makes a very creditable <lb/>performance out of their properties and obvious characteristics. </s> <s>All of the <lb/>external characteristics which we use to-day in discrimination, such as colour, <lb/>hardness, lustre, etc., are enumerated, the origin of these being attributed to <lb/>the proportions of the Peripatetic elements and their binary properties. <lb/></s> <s>Dana, in his great work<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/>, among some fourscore minerals which he identifies <lb/>as having been described by Agricola and his predecessors, accredits a score to <lb/>Agricola himself. </s> <s>It is our belief, however, that although in a few cases <lb/>Agricola has been wrongly credited, there are still more of which priority in <lb/>description might be assigned to him. </s> <s>While a greater number than four­<lb/>score of so-called species are given by Agricola and his predecessors, many <lb/>of these are, in our modern system, but varieties; for instance, some eight <lb/>or ten of the ancient species consist of one form or another of silica.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Book I. is devoted to mineral characteristics—colour, brilliance, taste, <lb/>shape, hardness, etc., and to the classification of minerals; Book II., <lb/>“earths”—clay, Lemnian earth, chalk, ochre, etc.; Book III., “solidified <lb/>juices”—salt, <emph type="italics"/>nitrum<emph.end type="italics"/> (soda and potash), saltpetre, alum, vitriol, chrysocolla, <lb/><emph type="italics"/>caeruleum<emph.end type="italics"/> (part azurite), orpiment, realgar, and sulphur; Book IV., camphor, <lb/>bitumen, coal, bituminous shales, amber; Book V., lodestone, bloodstone, <lb/>gypsum, talc, asbestos, mica, calamine, various fossils, geodes, emery, touch­<lb/>stones, pumice, fluorspar, and quartz; Book VI., gems and precious stones; <lb/>Book VII., “rocks”—marble, serpentine, onyx, alabaster, limestone, etc.; <lb/>Book VIII., metals—gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, lead, tin, antimony, <lb/>bismuth, iron, and alloys, such as electrum, brass, etc.; Book IX., various <lb/>furnace operations, such as making brass, gilding, tinning, and products such <lb/>as slags, furnace accretions, <emph type="italics"/>pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"/> (zinc oxide), copper flowers, litharge, <lb/>hearth-lead, verdigris, white-lead, red-lead, etc.; Book X., “compounds,” <lb/>embracing the description of a number of recognisable silver, copper, lead, <lb/>quicksilver, iron, tin, antimony, and zinc minerals, many of which we set <lb/>out more fully in Note 8, page 108.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This work also has always been <lb/>published in company with others. </s> <s>The first edition was printed at Basel, <lb/><pb pagenum="595"/>1546; the second at Basel, 1558, which, being the edition revised and added to <lb/>by the author, has been used by us for reference. </s> <s>There are five “books,” and <lb/>in the main they contain Agricola's philosophical views on geologic phenomena. <lb/></s> <s>The largest portion of the actual text is occupied with refutations of the <lb/>ancient philosophers, the alchemists, and the astrologers; and these portions, <lb/>while they exhibit his ability in observation and in dialectics, make but dull <lb/>reading. </s> <s>Those sections of the book which contain his own views, however, <lb/>are of the utmost importance in the history of science, and we reproduce <lb/>extensively the material relating to ore deposits in the footnotes on pages 43 <lb/>to 52. Briefly, Book I. is devoted to discussion of the origin and distribution <lb/>of ground waters and juices. </s> <s>The latter part of this book and a portion of <lb/>Book II. are devoted to the origin of subterranean heat, which he assumes <lb/>is in the main due to burning bitumen—a genus which with him embraced <lb/>coal—and also, in a minor degree, to friction of internal winds and to <lb/>burning sulphur. </s> <s>The remainder of Book II. is mainly devoted to the dis­<lb/>cussion of subterranean “air”, “vapour”, and “exhalations”, and he con­<lb/>ceives that volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are due to their agency, and <lb/>in these hypotheses he comes fairly close to the modern theory of eruptions <lb/>from explosions of steam. </s> <s>“Vapour arises when the internal heat of the <lb/>earth or some hidden fire burns earth which is moistened with vapour. <lb/></s> <s>When heat or subterranean fire meets with a great force of vapour which <lb/>cold has contracted and encompassed in every direction, then the vapour, <lb/>finding no outlet, tries to break through whatever is nearest to it, in order <lb/>to give place to the insistent and urgent cold. </s> <s>Heat and cold cannot abide <lb/>together in one place, but expel and drive each other out of it by turns”.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>As he was, we believe, the first to recognise the fundamental agencies <lb/>of mountain sculpture, we consider it is of sufficient interest to warrant a <lb/>reproduction of his views on this subject: “Hills and mountains are pro­<lb/>duced by two forces, one of which is the power of water, and the other the <lb/>strength of the wind. </s> <s>There are three forces which loosen and demolish <lb/>the mountains, for in this case, to the power of the water and the strength <lb/>of the wind we must add the fire in the interior of the earth. </s> <s>Now we can <lb/>plainly see that a great abundance of water produces mountains, for the <lb/>torrents first of all wash out the soft earth, next carry away the harder <lb/>earth, and then roll down the rocks, and thus in a few years they excavate <lb/>the plains or slopes to a considerable depth; this may be noticed in moun­<lb/>tainous regions even by unskilled observers. </s> <s>By such excavation to a <lb/>great depth through many ages, there rises an immense eminence on each <lb/>side. </s> <s>When an eminence has thus arisen, the earth rolls down, loosened by <lb/>constant rain and split away by frost, and the rocks, unless they are exceed­<lb/>ingly firm, since their seams are similarly softened by the damp, roll down <lb/>into the excavations below. </s> <s>This continues until the steep eminence is <lb/>changed into a slope. </s> <s>Each side of the excavation is said to be a mountain, <lb/>just as the bottom is called a valley. </s> <s>Moreover, streams, and to a far greater <lb/>extent rivers, effect the same results by their rushing and washing; for this <lb/>reason they are frequently seen flowing either between very high mountains <pb pagenum="596"/>which they have created, or close by the shore which borders them. . . . <lb/>Nor did the hollow places which now contain the seas all formerly exist, <lb/>nor yet the mountains which check and break their advance, but in many <lb/>parts there was a level plain, until the force of winds let loose upon it a <lb/>tumultuous sea and a scathing tide. </s> <s>By a similar process the impact of <lb/>water entirely overthrows and flattens out hills and mountains. </s> <s>But <lb/>these changes of local conditions, numerous and important as they are, are <lb/>not noticed by the common people to be taking place at the very moment <lb/>when they are happening, because, through their antiquity, the time, place, <lb/>and manner in which they began is far prior to human memory. </s> <s>The wind <lb/>produces hills and mountains in two ways: either when set loose and free <lb/>from bonds, it violently moves and agitates the sand; or else when, after <lb/>having been driven into the hidden recesses of the earth by cold, as into a <lb/>prison, it struggles with a great effort to burst out. </s> <s>For hills and mountains <lb/>are created in hot countries, whether they are situated by the sea coasts or <lb/>in districts remote from the sea, by the force of winds; these no longer held <lb/>in check by the valleys, but set free, heap up the sand and dust, which they <lb/>gather from all sides, to one spot, and a mass arises and grows together. </s> <s>If <lb/>time and space allow, it grows together and hardens, but if it be not allowed <lb/>(and in truth this is more often the case), the same force again scatters the <lb/>sand far and wide. . . . Then, on the other hand, an earthquake <lb/>either rends and tears away part of a mountain, or engulfs and devours the <lb/>whole mountain in some fearful chasm. </s> <s>In this way it is recorded the <lb/>Cybotus was destroyed, and it is believed that within the memory of man <lb/>an island under the rule of Denmark disappeared. </s> <s>Historians tell us that <lb/>Taygetus suffered a loss in this way, and that Therasia was swallowed up <lb/>with the island of Thera. </s> <s>Thus it is clear that water and the powerful <lb/>winds produce mountains, and also scatter and destroy them. </s> <s>Fire only <lb/>consumes them, and does not produce at all, for part of the mountains— <lb/>usually the inner part—takes fire.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The major portion of Book III. is devoted to the origin of ore channels, <lb/>which we reproduce at some length on page 47. In the latter part of Book <lb/>III., and in Books IV. and V., he discusses the principal divisions of the mineral <lb/>kingdom given in <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossilium,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the origin of their characteristics. <lb/></s> <s>It involves a large amount of what now appears fruitless tilting at the Peripa­<lb/>tetics and the alchemists; but nevertheless, embracing, as Agricola did, the <lb/>fundamental Aristotelian elements, he must needs find in these same ele­<lb/>ments and their subordinate binary combinations cause for every variation in <lb/>external character.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Bermannus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This, Agricola's first work in relation to mining, was appa­<lb/>rently first published at Basel, 1530. The work is in the form of a dialogue <lb/>between “Bermannus,” who is described as a miner, mineralogist, and “a <lb/>student of mathematics and poetry,” and “Nicolaus Ancon” and “Johannes <lb/>Neavius,” both scholars and physicians. </s> <s>Ancon is supposed to be of philoso­<lb/>phical turn of mind and a student of Moorish literature, Naevius to be par­<lb/>ticularly learned in the writings of Dioscorides, Pliny, Galen, etc. </s> <s>“Berman-<pb pagenum="597"/>nus” was probably an adaptation by Agricola of the name of his friend Lorenz <lb/>Berman, a prominent miner. </s> <s>The book is in the main devoted to a correla­<lb/>tion of the minerals mentioned by the Ancients with those found in the Saxon <lb/>mines. </s> <s>This phase is interesting as indicating the natural trend of Agricola's <lb/>scholastic mind when he first comes into contact with the sciences to which <lb/>he devoted himself. </s> <s>The book opens with a letter of commendation from <lb/>Erasmus, of Rotterdam, and with the usual dedication and preface by the <lb/>author. </s> <s>The three conversationalists are supposed to take walks among the <lb/>mines and to discuss, incidentally, matters which come to their attention; <lb/>therefore the book has no systematic or logical arrangement. </s> <s>There are <lb/>occasional statements bearing on the history, management, titles, and methods <lb/>used in the mines, and on mining lore generally. </s> <s>The mineralogical part, while <lb/>of importance from the point of view of giving the first description of several <lb/>minerals, is immensely improved upon in <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossílíum,<emph.end type="italics"/> published <lb/>15 years later. </s> <s>It is of interest to find here the first appearance of the names <lb/>of many minerals which we have since adopted from the German into our own <lb/>nomenclature. </s> <s>Of importance is the first description of bismuth, although, <lb/>as pointed out on page 433, the metal had been mentioned before. </s> <s>In the <lb/>revised collection of collateral works published in 1558, the author makes <lb/>many important changes and adds some new material, but some of the later <lb/>editions were made from the unrevised older texts.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Rerum Metallícarum Interpretatío.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This list of German equivalents <lb/>for Latin mineralogical terms was prepared by Agricola himself, and first <lb/>appears in the 1546 collection of <emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causis, De Natura Fossilium,<emph.end type="italics"/> etc., <lb/>being repeated in all subsequent publications of these works. </s> <s>It consists of <lb/>some 500 Latin mineralogical and metallurgical terms, many of which are of <lb/>Agricola's own coinage. </s> <s>It is of great help in translation and of great value <lb/>in the study of mineralogic nomenclature.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Mensuris et Ponderibus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This work is devoted to a discussion of the <lb/>Greek and Roman weights and measures, with some correlation to those used <lb/>in Saxony. </s> <s>It is a careful work still much referred to by students of these <lb/>subjects. </s> <s>The first edition was published at Paris in 1533, and in the 1550 <lb/>edition at Basel appears, for the first time, <emph type="italics"/>De Precío Metallorum et Monetís.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novís Metallís.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This short work comprises 31 folio <lb/>pages, and first appears in the 1546 collection of collateral works. </s> <s>It consists <lb/>mainly of historical and geographical references to the occurrence of metals <lb/>and mines, culled from the Greek and Latin classics, together with some <lb/>information as to the history of the mines in Central Europe. </s> <s>The latter <lb/>is the only original material, and unfortunately is not very extensive. </s> <s>We <lb/>have incorporated some of this information in the footnotes.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Animantibus Subterraneis.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This short work was first printed in <lb/>Basel, 1549, and consists of one chapter of 23 folio pages. </s> <s>Practically the whole <lb/>is devoted to the discussion of various animals who at least a portion of their <lb/>time live underground, such as hibernating, cave-dwelling, and burrowing <lb/>animals, together with cave-dwelling birds, lizards, crocodiles, serpents, <lb/>etc. </s> <s>There are only a few lines of remote geological interest as to migration <pb pagenum="598"/>of animals imposed by geologic phenomena, such as earthquakes, floods, etc. <lb/></s> <s>This book also discloses an occasional vein of credulity not to be expected from <lb/>the author's other works, in that he apparently believes Aristotle's story of <lb/>the flies which were born and lived only in the smelting furnace; and further, <lb/>the last paragraph in the book is devoted to underground gnomes. </s> <s>This we <lb/>reproduce in the footnote on page 217.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This work of four books, <lb/>comprising 83 folio pages, first appears in the 1546 collection. </s> <s>As the title <lb/>indicates, the discussion is upon the substances which flow from the earth, <lb/>such as water, bitumen, gases, etc. </s> <s>Altogether it is of microscopic value and <lb/>wholly uninteresting. </s> <s>The major part refers to colour, taste, temperature, <lb/>medicinal uses of water, descriptions of rivers, lakes, swamps, and aqueducts.</s></p><figure></figure><pb pagenum="599"/><p type="head"> <s>BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>For the following we have mainly to thank Miss Kathleen Schlesinger, who has been <lb/>employed many months in following up every clue, and although the results display <lb/>very considerable literary activity on the part of the author, they do not by any means <lb/>indicate Miss Schlesinger's labours. </s> <s>Agricola's works were many of them published at <lb/>various times in combination, and therefore to set out the title and the publication of each <lb/>work separately would involve much repetition of titles, and we consequently give the titles <lb/>of the various volumes arranged according to dates. </s> <s>For instance, <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossilium, De <lb/>Ortu et Causis, De Veteribus et Novis Metallis, De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra,<emph.end type="italics"/> and <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Interpretatio<emph.end type="italics"/> have always been published together, and the Latin and Italian editions of <lb/>these works always include <emph type="italics"/>Bermannus<emph.end type="italics"/> as well. </s> <s>Moreover, the Latin <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> of <lb/>1657 includes all of these works.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We mark with an asterisk the titles to editions which we have been able to authen­<lb/>ticate by various means from actual books. </s> <s>Those unmarked are editions which we are <lb/>satisfied do exist, but the titles of which are possibly incomplete, as they are taken from <lb/>library catalogues, etc. </s> <s>Other editions to which we find reference and of which we are not <lb/>certain are noted separately in the discussion later on.<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1530 (8vo).</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae Medici, Bermannus sive de re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>(Froben's mark).</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Basileae in aedibus Frobenianis Anno.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> MDXXX.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Bound with this edition is (p. </s> <s>131-135), at least occasionally, <emph type="italics"/>Rerum metallicarum <lb/>appellationes juxta vernaculam Germanorum linguam, autori Plateano.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Basileae in officina Frobeniana,<emph.end type="italics"/> Anno. </s> <s>MDXXX.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1533 (8vo):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae Medici libri quinque de Mensuris et Ponderibus: in quibus plaeraque <lb/>à Budaeo et Portio parum animadversa diligenter excutiuntur. </s> <s>Opus nunc primum in lucem <lb/>aeditum.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>(Wechelus's Mark).</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Parisiis. </s> <s>Excudebat Christianus Wechelus, in vico Iacobaeo, sub scuto Basileiensi, Anno<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>MDXXXIII.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>261 pages and index of 5 pages.</s></p><pb pagenum="600"/><p type="head"> <s>*1533 (4to):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae Medici Libri quinque. </s> <s>De Mensuris et Ponderibus: In quibus <lb/>pleraque à Budaeo et Portio parum animadversa diligenter excutiuntur.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>(F<gap/>oben's Mark).</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Basileae ex Officina Frobeniana Anno<emph.end type="italics"/> MDXXXIII. <emph type="italics"/>Cum gratia et privilegio Caesareo <lb/>ad sex annos.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>1534 (4to):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae. </s> <s>Epistola ad Plateanum, cui sunt adiecta aliquot loca castigata in <lb/>libris de mensuris et ponderibus nuper editis.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Froben, Basel, 1534.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1535 (8vo):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae Medici libri V. de Mensuris et Ponderibus: in quibus pleraque à <lb/>Budaeo et Portio parum animadversa diligenter excutiuntur.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>(Printer's Mark).</s></p><p type="main"> <s>At the end of Index: <emph type="italics"/>Venitüs per Joan Anto. </s> <s>de Nicolinis de Sabio, sumptu vero et <lb/>requisitione <expan abbr="Dñi">Dnni</expan> Melchionis Sessae. </s> <s>Anno. </s> <s><expan abbr="Dñi">Dnni</expan><emph.end type="italics"/> MDXXXV. <emph type="italics"/>Mense Julii.<emph.end type="italics"/> 116 folios.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>On back of title page is given: <emph type="italics"/>Liber primus de mensuris Romanis, Secundus de men­<lb/>suris Graecis, Tertius de rerum quas metimur pondere, Quartus de ponderibus Romanis, <lb/>Quintus de ponderibus Graecis.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1541 (8vo):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae Medici Bermannus sive de re metallica.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Parisiis. </s> <s>Apud Hieronymum Gormontiú. </s> <s>In Vico Jacobeo sub signotrium coronarum.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>1541.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1546 (8vo):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae medici Bermannus, sive de metallica ab accurata autoris recognitione <lb/>et emendatione nunc primum editus cum nomenclalura rerum metallicarum.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Eorum Lipsiae In officina Valentini Papae Anno.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> MDXLVI.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1546 (folio):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae De ortu et causis subterraneorum Lib. V. </s> <s>De natura eorum quae <lb/>effluunt ex terra Lib. </s> <s>IIII. </s> <s>De natura fossilium Lib. </s> <s>X. </s> <s>De veteribus et novis metallis, Lib. </s> <s>II. <lb/></s> <s>Bermannus sive De re Metallica dialogus. </s> <s>Interpretatio Germanica vocum rei metallicae addito <lb/>Indice faecundissimo.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Apud Hieron Frobenium et Nicolaum Episcopium Basileae,<emph.end type="italics"/> MDXLVI. <emph type="italics"/>Cum privilegio <lb/>Imp. </s> <s>Maiestatis ad quinquennium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1549 (8vo):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae de animantibus subterraneis Liber.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Froben, Basel, MDXLIX.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1550 (8vo):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Di Georgio Agricola De la generatione de le cose, che sotto la terra sono, e de le cause de' <lb/>loro effetti e natura, Lib. V. </s> <s>De La Natura di quelle cose, che de la terra scorrono Lib. </s> <s>IIII. </s> <s>De <lb/>La Natura de le cose Fossili, e che sotto la terra si Cavano Lib. X. </s> <s>De Le Minere antiche e <lb/>moderne Lib. II. </s> <s>Il Bermanno, ò de le cose Metallice Dialogo, Recato tutto hora dal Latino <lb/>in Buona Lingua volgare.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>(Vignette of Sybilla surrounded by the words)—<emph type="italics"/>Qv Al Piv Fermo E Il Mio Foglio È Il <lb/>Mio Presaggio.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Col Privilegio del Sommo Pontefice Papa Giulio III. </s> <s>Et del Illustriss. </s> <s>Senato Veneto per <lb/>anni.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> XX.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>(Colophon). <emph type="italics"/>In Vinegia per Michele Tramezzino,<emph.end type="italics"/> MDL.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1550 (folio):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae. </s> <s>De Mensuris et ponderibus Rom. </s> <s>atque Graec. </s> <s>lib. V. </s> <s>De externis <lb/>mensuris et ponderibus Lib. II. </s> <s>Ad ea quae Andreas Alciatus denuo disputavit De Men­<lb/>suris et Ponderibus brevis defensio Lib. </s> <s>I. </s> <s>De Mensuris quibus intervalla metimur Lib. I. <lb/></s> <s>De restituendis ponderibus atque mensuris. </s> <s>Lib. I. </s> <s>De precio metallorum et monetis. </s> <s>Lib. <lb/></s> <s>III.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Basileae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Froben. </s> <s>MDL. <emph type="italics"/>Cum privilegio Imp. </s> <s>Maiestatis ad quinquennium.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1556 (folio):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae De Re Metallica Libri XII. quibus Officia, Instrumenta, Machinae, ac <lb/>omnia denique ad Metallicam spectantia, non modo luculentissime describuntur, sed et per effigies, <lb/>suis locis insertas, adjunctis Latinis, Germanicisque appellationibus ita ob oculos ponuntur, <lb/>ut clarius tradi non possint Eiusdem De Animantibus Subterraneis Liber, ab Autore recognitus: <lb/>cum Indicibus diversis, quicquid in opere tractatum est, pulchre demonstrantibus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>(Froben's Mark).</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Basileae MDLVI. </s> <s>Cum Privilegio Imperatoris in annos V. et Galliarum Regis ad <lb/>Sexennium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>Folio 538 pages and preface, glossary and index amounting to 86 pages. </s> <s>This is the <lb/>first edition of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> We reproduce this title-page on page XIX.</s></p><pb pagenum="601"/><p type="head"> <s>*1557 (folio):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Vom Bergkwerck xii Bücher darinn alle Empter, Instrument, Gezeuge, unnd Alles zu disem <lb/>Handel gehörig, mitt schönen figuren vorbildet, und Klärlich beschriben seindt erstlich in <lb/>Lateinischer Sprach durch den Hochgelerten und weittberümpten Herrn Georgium Agricolam, <lb/>Doctorn und. </s> <s>Bürgermeistern der Churfürstlichen statt Kempnitz, jezundt aber verteüscht durch <lb/>den Achtparen, unnd Hochgelerten Herrn Philippum Bechium, Philosophen, Artzer und in der <lb/>Loblichen Universitet zu Basel Professorn.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Gedruckt zu Basel durch Jeronymus Froben Und Niclausen Bischoff im 1557 Jar mitt <lb/>Keiserlicher Freyheit.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1558 (folio):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolac De ortu et causis subterraneorum Lib. V. </s> <s>De natura eorum quae <lb/>effluunt ex terra Lib. </s> <s>IV. </s> <s>De natura fossilium Lib. </s> <s>X. </s> <s>De veteribus et novis meiallis Lib. </s> <s>II. <lb/>Bermannus, sive De Re Metallica Dialogus Liber. </s> <s>Interpretatio Germanica vocum rei metallicae, <lb/>addito duplici Indice, altero rerum, altero locorum Omnia ab ipso authore, cum haud poenitenda <lb/>accessione, recens recognita.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Froben, et Episcop. </s> <s>Basileae<emph.end type="italics"/> MDLVIII. <emph type="italics"/>Cum Imp. </s> <s>Maiestatis renovato privilegio ad quin­<lb/>quennium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>270 pages and index. </s> <s>As the title states, this is a revised edition by the author, and <lb/>as the changes are very considerable it should be the one used. </s> <s>The Italian translation <lb/>and the 1612 Wittenberg edition, mentioned below, are taken from the 1546 edition, and are, <lb/>therefore, very imperfect.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1561 (folio):</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Second edition of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> including <emph type="italics"/>De Animantibus Subterraneis,<emph.end type="italics"/> with same <lb/>title as the first edition except the addition, after the body of the title, of the words <emph type="italics"/>Atque <lb/>omnibus nunc iterum ad archetypum diligenter restitutis et castigatis<emph.end type="italics"/> and the year MDLXI. 502 <lb/>pages and 72 pages of glossary and index.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1563 (folio):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Opera di Giorgio Agricola de L'arte de Metalli Partita in XII. libri, ne quali si descrivano <lb/>tutte le sorti, e qualità de gli uffizii, de gli strumenti, delle macchine, e di tutte l'altre cose attenenti <lb/>a cotal arte, non pure con parole chiare ma eziandio si mettano a luoghi loro le figure di dette <lb/>cose, ritratte al naturale, con l'aggiunta de nomi di quelle, cotanto chiari, e spediti, che meglio non <lb/>si puo desiderare, o havere.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Aggiugnesi il libro del medesimo autore, che tratta de gl' Animali di sottoterra da lui stesso <lb/>corretto et riveduto. </s> <s>Tradotti in lingua Toscana da M. </s> <s>Michelangelo Florio Fiorentino.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Con l'Indice di tutte le cose piu notabili alla fine<emph.end type="italics"/> (Froben's mark) <emph type="italics"/>in Basilea per Hieronimo <lb/>Frobenio et Nicolao Episcopio,<emph.end type="italics"/> MDLXIII.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>542 pages with 6 pages of index.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1580 (folio):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Bergwerck Buch: Darinn nicht Allain alle Empte Instrument Gezeug und alles so zu <lb/>diesem Handel gehörig mit figuren vorgebildet und klärlich beschriben, etc. </s> <s>Durch den Hoch­<lb/>gelehrten . . . . Herrn Georgium Agricolam der Artzney Doctorn und Burgermeister <lb/>der Churfürstlichen Statt Kemnitz erstlich mit grossem fleyss mühe und arbeit in Latein beschriben <lb/>und in zwölff Bücher abgetheilt: Nachmals aber durch den Achtbarn und auch Hochgelehrten <lb/>Philippum Bechium Philosophen Artzt und in der Löblichen Universitet zu Basel Professorn <lb/>mit sonderm fleyss Teutscher Nation zu gut verteutscht und an Tag geben. </s> <s>Allen Berckherrn <lb/>Gewercken Berckmeistern Geschwornen Schichtmeistern Steigern Berckheuwern Wäschern <lb/>und Schmeltzern nicht allein nützlich und dienstlich sondern auch zu wissem hochnotwendig.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Mit Römischer Keys. </s> <s>May Freyheit nicht nachzutrucken.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Getruckt in der Keyserlichen Reichsstatt, Franckfort am Mayn, etc. </s> <s>Im Jahr<emph.end type="italics"/> MDLXXX.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1612 (12mo):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae De ortu et causis subterraneorum Lib. V. </s> <s>De natura eorum quae <lb/>effluunt ex terra, Lib. </s> <s>IV. </s> <s>De natura fossilium Lib. </s> <s>X. </s> <s>De veteribus et novis metallis Lib. </s> <s>II. <lb/>Bermannus, sive de re metallica Dialogus. </s> <s>Interpretatio Germanica vocum rei metallicae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Addito Indice faecundissimo, Plurimos jam annos à Germanis, et externarum quoque <lb/>nationum doctissimis viris, valde desiderati et expetiti.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Nunc vero in rei metallicae studiosorum gratiam recensiti, in certa capita distributi, <lb/>capitum argumentis, et nonnullis scholiis marginalibus illustrati à Johanne Sigfrido Philos: et <lb/>Medicinae Doctore et in illustri Julia Professore ordinario.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Accesserunt De metallicis rebus et nominibus observationes variae et eruditae, ex schedis <lb/>Georgii Fabricii, quibus ea potissimum explicantur, quae Georgius Agricola praeteriit.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Wittebergae Sumptibus Zachariae Schüreri Bibliopolae Typis Andreae Rüdingeri,<emph.end type="italics"/> 1612.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are 970 pages in the work of Agricola proper, the notes of Fabricius comprising <lb/>a further 44 pages, and the index 112 pages.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1614 (8vo):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae De Animantibus Subterraneis Liber Hactenus à multis desideratus, <lb/>nunc vero in gratiam studiosorum seorsim editus, in certa capita divisus, capitum argumentis et <lb/>nonnullis marginalibus exornatus à Johanne Sigfrido, Phil. </s> <s>& Med. </s> <s>Doctore,<emph.end type="italics"/> etc.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Wittebergae, Typis Meisnerianis: Impensis Zachariae. </s> <s>Schureri Bibliop. </s> <s>Anno.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>MDCXIV.</s></p><pb pagenum="602"/><p type="head"> <s>*1621 (folio):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae Kempuicensis Medici ac Philosophi Clariss. </s> <s>De Re Metallica Libri XII <lb/>Quibus Officia, Instrumenta, Machinae, ac omnia denique ad metallicam spectantia, non modo <lb/>Luculentissimè describuntur; sed et per effigies, suis locis insertas adjunctis Latinis. </s> <s>German­<lb/>icisque; appellationibus, ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non possiut.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Ejusdem De Animantibus Subterrancis Liber, ab Autore recognitus cum Indicibus diversis <lb/>quicquid in Opere tractatum est, pulchrè demonstrantibus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>(Vignette of man at assay furnace).</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Basileae Helvet. </s> <s>Sumptibus itemque typis chalcographicis Ludovici Regis Anno<emph.end type="italics"/> MDCXXI.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>502 pages and 58 pages glossary and mdices.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1621 (folio):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Bergwerck Buch Darinnen nicht allein alle Empter Instrument Gezeug und alles so zu <lb/>disem Handel gehörig mit Figuren vorgchildet und klärlich beschrieben: . . . . Durch <lb/>den Hochgelehrten und weitberühmten Herrn Georgium Agricolam, der Artzney Doctorn und <lb/>Burgermeister der Churfürstlichen Statt Kemnitz Erstlich mit grossem fleiss mühe und arbeit in <lb/>Latein beschrieben und in zwöl&longs;&longs; Bücher abgetheilt: Nachmals aber durch den Achtbarn und <lb/>auch Hochgelehrten Philippum Bechium. </s> <s>Philosophen, Artzt, und in der loblichen Universitet zu <lb/>Basel Professorn mit sonderm fleiss Teutscher Nation zu gut verteutscht und an Tag geben und <lb/>nun zum andern mal getruckt.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Allen Bergherrn Gewercken Bergmeistern Geschwornen Schichtmeistern Steigern <lb/>Berghäwern Wäschern unnd Schmeltzern nicht allein nutzlich und dienstlich sondern auch zu <lb/>wissen hochnohtwendig.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>(Vignette of man at assay furnace).</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Getruckt zu Basel inverlegung Ludwig Königs Im Jahr,<emph.end type="italics"/> MDCXXI.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>491 pages 5 pages glossary—no index.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1657 (folio):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae Kempnicensis Medici ac Philosophi Clariss. </s> <s>De Re Metallica Libri <lb/>XII. </s> <s>Quibus Officia, instrumenta, machinae, ac omnia denique ad metallicam spectantia, non <lb/>modo luculentissimè describuntur: sed et per effigies, suis locis insertas, adjunctis Latinis, <lb/>Germanicisque appellationibus, ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non possint. </s> <s>Quibus <lb/>accesserunt hac ultima editione, Tractatus ejusdem argumenti, ab eodem conscripti, sequentes.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Animantibus Subterraneis Lib. I., De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum Lib. </s> <s>V., De <lb/>Natura eorum quae effluunt ex Terra Lib. IV., De Natura Fossilium Lib. X., De Veteribus et <lb/>Novis Metallis Lib. II., Bermannus sive de Re Metallica, Dialogus Lib. </s> <s>I.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Cum Indicibus diversis, quicquid in Opere tractatum est, pulchrè demonstrantibus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>(Vignette of assayer and furnace).</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Basileae Sumptibus et Typis Emanuelis König. </s> <s>Anno<emph.end type="italics"/> MDCLVII.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Folio, 708 pages and 90 pages of glossary and indices. </s> <s>This is a very serviceable <lb/>edition of all of Agricola's important works, and so far as we have noticed there are but few <lb/>typographical errors.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1778 (8vo):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Gespräch vom Bergwesen, wegen seiner Fürtrefflich keit aus dem Lateinischen in das <lb/>Deutsche übersetzet, mit nützl. </s> <s>Anmerkungen erläutert. </s> <s>u. </s> <s>mit einem ganz neuen Zusatze von <lb/>Zlüglicher Anstellung des Bergbaues u. </s> <s>von der Zugutemachung der Erze auf den Hüttenwerken <lb/>versehen von Johann Gottlieb Stör.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Rotenburg a. </s> <s>d. </s> <s>Fulda, Hermstädt<emph.end type="italics"/> 1778. 180 pages.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1806 (8vo):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georg Agricola's Bermannus eine Einleitung in die metallurgischen Schriften desselben, <lb/>übersetzt und mit Exkursionen herausgegeben von Friedrich August Schmid. </s> <s>Haushalts-und <lb/>Befahrungs-Protokollist im Churf. </s> <s>vereinigten Bergamte zu St. </s> <s>Annaberg.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Freyberg 1806. Bey Craz und Gerlach.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>*1807-12 (8vo):</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Georg Agrikola's Mineralogische Schriften übersetzt und mit erläuternden Anmerkungen. <lb/></s> <s>Begleitet von Ernst Lehmann Bergamts-Assessor, Berg-Gegen-und Receszschreiber in Dem <lb/>Königl. </s> <s>Sächs. </s> <s>Bergamte Voigtsberg der jenaischen Societät für die gesammte Mineralogie <lb/>Ehrenmitgliede.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Freyberg, 1807-12. Bey Craz und Gerlach.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>This German translation consists of four parts: the first being <emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causis,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>the second <emph type="italics"/>De Natura eorum quae effluunt ex terra,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the third in two volumes <emph type="italics"/>De Natura <lb/>Fossilium,<emph.end type="italics"/> the fourth <emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis;<emph.end type="italics"/> with glossary and index to the four <lb/>parts.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We give the following notes on other possible prints, as a great many references to the <lb/>above works occur in various quarters, of date other than the above. </s> <s>Unless otherwise <lb/>convinced it is our belief that most of these refer to the prints given above, and are due to <lb/>error in giving titles or dates. </s> <s>It is always possible that such prints do exist and have escaped <lb/>our search.</s></p><pb pagenum="603"/><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Leupold, Richter, Schmid, van der Linden, Mercklinus and Eloy <lb/>give an 8vo edition of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> without illustrations, Schweinfurt, 1607. We have <lb/>found no trace of this print. </s> <s>Leupold, van der Linden, Richter, Schmid and Eloy mention <lb/>an 8vo edition, Wittenberg, 1614. It is our belief that this refers to the 1612 Wittenberg <lb/>edition of the selected works, which contains a somewhat similar title referring in reality <lb/>to <emph type="italics"/>Bermannus,<emph.end type="italics"/> which was and is still continually confused with <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Ferguson <lb/>mentions a German edition, Schweinfurt, 8vo, 1687. We can find no trace of this; it may <lb/>refer to the 1607 Schweinfurt edition mentioned above.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossilium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Leupold and Gatter refer to a folio edition of 1550. This was <lb/>probably an error for either the 1546 or the 1558 editions. </s> <s>Watt refers to an edition of 1561 <lb/>combined with <emph type="italics"/>De Medicatis Fonlibus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> We find no trace of such edition, nor even that the <lb/>latter work was ever actually printed. </s> <s>He also refers to an edition of 1614 and one of 1621, <lb/>this probably being an error for the 1612 edition of the subsidiary works and the <emph type="italics"/>De Re <lb/>Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> of 1621. Leupold also refers to an edition of 1622, this probably being an error for <lb/>1612.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causis.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Albinus, Hofmann, Jacobi, Schmid, Richter, and Reuss mention <lb/>an edition of 1544. This we believe to be an error in giving the date of the dedication instead <lb/>of that of the publication (1546). Albinus and Ferguson give an edition of 1555, which date <lb/>is, we believe, an error for 1558. Ferguson gives an edition of the Italian translation as <lb/>1559; we believe this should be 1550. Draud gives an edition of 1621; probably this <lb/>should be 1612.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Bermannus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Albinus, Schmid, Reuss, Richter, and Weinart give the first edition as <lb/>1528. We have been unable to learn of any actual copy of that date, and it is our belief that <lb/>the date is taken from the dedication instead of from the publication, and should be 1530. <lb/>Leupold, Schmid, and Reuss give an edition by Froben in 1549; we have been unable to <lb/>confirm this. </s> <s>Leupold also gives an edition of 1550 (folio), and Jöcher gives an edition of <lb/>Geneva 1561 (folio); we have also been unable to find this, and believe the latter to be a <lb/>confusion with the <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> of 1561, as it is unlikely that <emph type="italics"/>Bermannus<emph.end type="italics"/> would be pub­<lb/>lished by itself in folio. </s> <s>The catalogue of the library at Siena (Vol. </s> <s>III., p. </s> <s>78) gives <emph type="italics"/>Il <lb/>Bermanno, Vinegia,<emph.end type="italics"/> 1550, 8vo. </s> <s>We have found no trace of this edition elsewhere.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Mensuris et Ponderibus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Albinus and Schmid mention an edition of 1539, and one <lb/>of 1550. The Biographie Universelle, Paris, gives one of 1553, and Leupold one of 1714, all <lb/>of which we have been unable to find. </s> <s>An epitome of this work was published at various <lb/>times, sometimes in connection with editions of Vitruvius; so far as we are aware on the <lb/>following dates, 1552, 1585, 1586, 1829. There also appear extracts in relation to liquid <lb/>measures in works entitled <emph type="italics"/>Vocabula rei numariae ponderum et mensurarum,<emph.end type="italics"/> etc. </s> <s>Paul Eber <lb/>and Caspar Peucer, <emph type="italics"/>Lipsiae,<emph.end type="italics"/> 1549, and in same Wittenberg, 1552.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Watt gives an edition, Basel, 1530, and Paris, 1541; <lb/>we believe this is incorrect and refers to <emph type="italics"/>Bermannus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Reuss mentions a folio print of Basel, <lb/>1550. We consider this very unlikely.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Albinus, Hofmann, Schmid, Jacobi, <lb/>Richter, Reuss, and Weinart give an edition of 1545. We believe this is again the dedication <lb/>instead of the publication date (1546).</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Animantibus Subterraneis.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Van der Linden gives an edition at Schweinfurt, <lb/>8vo, 1607. Although we have been unable to find a copy, this slightly confirms the <lb/>possibility of an octavo edition of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> of this date, as they were usually published <lb/>together. </s> <s>Leupold gives assurance that he handled an octavo edition of Wittenberg, 1612, <lb/><emph type="italics"/>cum notis Johann Sigfridi.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> We think he confused this with <emph type="italics"/>Bermannus sive de re metallica<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>of that date and place. </s> <s>Schmid, Richter, and Draud all refer to an edition similarly annotated, <lb/>Leipzig, 1613, 8vo. </s> <s>We have no trace of it otherwise.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>UNPUBLISHED WORKS ON SUBJECTS RELATED TO MINING.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Agricola apparently projected a complete series of works covering the whole range of <lb/>subjects relating to minerals: geology, mineralogy, mining, metallurgy, history of metals, <lb/>their uses, laws, etc. </s> <s>In a letter<emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> from Fabricius to Meurer (March, 1553), the former states <lb/>that Agricola intended writing about 30 books (chapters) in addition to those already pub­<lb/>lished, and to the twelve books <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> which he was about to publish. </s> <s>Apparently <lb/>a number of these works were either unfinished or unpublished at Agricola's death, for his <lb/>friend George Fabricius seems to have made some effort to secure their publication, but did <lb/>not succeed, through lack of sympathy on the part of Agricola's family. </s> <s>Hofmann<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> states on <lb/>this matter: “His intentions were frustrated mainly through the lack of support with which <lb/>he was met by the heirs of the Mineralogist. </s> <s>These, as he complains to a Councillor of the <lb/>Electorate, Christopher von Carlovitz, in 1556, and to Paul Eber in another letter, adopted <lb/>a grudging and ungracious tone with regard to his proposal to collect all Agricola's works <lb/>left behind, and they only consented to communicate to him as much as they were obliged <lb/><pb pagenum="604"/>by express command of the Prince. </s> <s>At the Prince's command they showed him a little, <lb/>but he supposed that there was much more that they had suppressed or not preserved. <lb/></s> <s>The attempt to purchase some of the works—the Elector had given Fabricius money for <lb/>the purpose (30 nummos unciales)—proved unavailing, owing to the disagreeableness of <lb/>Agricola's heirs. </s> <s>It is no doubt due to these regrettable circumstances that all the works <lb/>of the industrious scholar did not come down to us.” The “disagreeableness” was pro­<lb/>bably due to the refusal of the Protestant townsfolk to allow the burial of Agricola in the <lb/>Cathedral at Chemnitz. </s> <s>So far as we know the following are the unpublished or lost works.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Jure et Legibus Metallicis.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This work on mining law is mentioned at the end of <lb/>Book IV. of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> and it is referred to by others apparently from that source. </s> <s>We <lb/>have been unable to find any evidence that it was ever published.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Varia temperie sive Constitutione Aeris.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> In a letter<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/> to Johann Naevius, Agricola <lb/>refers to having a work in hand of this title.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Metallis et Machinis.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Hofmann<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> states that a work of this title by Agricola, dated <lb/>Basel 1543, was sold to someone in America by a Frankfort-on-Main bookseller in 1896. <lb/>This is apparently the only reference to it that we know of, and it is possibly a confusion of <lb/>titles or a “separate” of some chapters from <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Ortu Metallorum Defensio ad Jacobum Scheckium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Referred to by Fabricius in a <lb/>letter<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> to Meurer. </s> <s>If published was probably only a tract.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Terrae Motu.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> In a letter<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/> from Agricola to Meurer (Jan. </s> <s>1, 1544) is some reference <lb/>which might indicate that he was formulating a work on earthquakes under this title, or <lb/>perhaps may be only incidental to the portions of <emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causis<emph.end type="italics"/> dealing with this subject.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Commentariorum in quibus utriusque linguae scriptorum locos difficiles de rebus <lb/>subterraneis explicat, Libri VI.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Agricola apparently partially completed a work under some <lb/>such title as this, which was to embrace chapters entitled <emph type="italics"/>De Methodis<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>De Demonstratione.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>The main object seems to have been a commentary on the terms and passages in the classics <lb/>relating to mining, mineralogy, etc. </s> <s>It is mentioned in the Preface of <emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novis <lb/>Metallis,<emph.end type="italics"/> and in a letter<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> from one of Froben's firm to Agricola in 1548, where it is suggested <lb/>that Agricola should defer sending his new commentaries until the following spring. </s> <s>The <lb/>work is mentioned by Albinus<emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/>, and in a letter from Georg Fabricius to Meurer on the 2nd <lb/>Jan. </s> <s>1548,<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/> in another from G. Fabricius, to his brother Andreas on Oct. </s> <s>28, 1555,<emph type="sup"/>14<emph.end type="sup"/> and in <lb/>a third from Fabricius to Melanchthon on December 8th, 1555<emph type="sup"/>15<emph.end type="sup"/>, in which regret is expressed <lb/>that the work was not completed by Agricola.<lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/></s></p><figure></figure><pb pagenum="605"/><p type="head"> <s>WRITINGS NOT RELATED TO MINING, INCLUDING LOST OR UNPUBLISHED <lb/>WORKS.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Latin Grammar.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This was probably the first of Agricola's publications, the full title <lb/>to which is <emph type="italics"/>Georgii Agricolae Glaucii Libellus de prima ac simplici institutione grammatica. <lb/></s> <s>Excusum Lipsiae in Officina Melchioris Lottheri. </s> <s>Anno<emph.end type="italics"/> MDXX. (4to), 24 folios.<emph type="sup"/>16<emph.end type="sup"/> There is <lb/>some reason to believe that Agricola also published a Greek grammar, for there is a letter<emph type="sup"/>17<emph.end type="sup"/><lb/>from Agricola dated March 18th, 1522, in which Henicus Camitianus is requested to send a <lb/>copy to Stephan Roth.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Theological Tracts.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> There are preserved in the Zwickau Rathsschul Library<emph type="sup"/>18<emph.end type="sup"/> copies <lb/>by Stephan Roth of two tracts, the one entitled, <emph type="italics"/>Deum non esse auctorem Peccati,<emph.end type="italics"/> the <lb/>other. <emph type="italics"/>Religioso patri Petri Fontano, sacre theologie Doctori eximio Georgius Agricola salutem <lb/>dicit in Christo.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> The former was written from Leipzig in 1522, and the latter, although <lb/>not dated, is assigned to the same period. </s> <s>Both are printed in <emph type="italics"/>Zwei theologische Abhandlungen <lb/>des Georg Agricola,<emph.end type="italics"/> an article by Otto Clemen, <emph type="italics"/>Neuen Archiv für Sächsische Geschichte,<emph.end type="italics"/> etc., <lb/>Dresden, 1900. There is some reason (from a letter of Fabricius to Melanchthon, Dec. </s> <s>8th, <lb/>1555) to believe that Agricola had completed a work on the unwritten traditions concerning <lb/>the Church. </s> <s>There is no further trace of it.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Galen.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Agricola appears to have been joint author with Andreas Asulanus and J. B. <lb/></s> <s>Opizo of a revision of this well-known Greek work. </s> <s>It was published at Venice in 1525, <lb/>under the title of <emph type="italics"/>Galeni Librorum,<emph.end type="italics"/> etc., etc. </s> <s>Agricola's name is mentioned in a prefatory <lb/>letter to Opizo by Asulanus.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Bello adversus Turcam.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This political tract, directed against the Turks, was written in <lb/>Latin and first printed by Froben, Basel, 1528. It was translated into German apparently <lb/>by Agricola's friend Laurenz Berman, and published under the title <emph type="italics"/>Oration Anrede Und <lb/>Vormanunge . . . . widder den Türcken<emph.end type="italics"/> by Frederich Peypus, Nuremberg, in 1531 <lb/>(8vo), and either in 1530 or 1531 by Wolfgang Stöckel, Dresden, 4to. </s> <s>It was again printed <lb/>in Latin by Froben, Basel, 1538, 4to; by H. Grosius, Leipzig, 1594, 8vo; it was included <lb/>among other works published on the same subject by Nicholas Reusnerus, Leipzig, 1595; <lb/>by Michael Lantzenberger, Frankfurt-am-Main, 1597, 4to. </s> <s>Further, there is reference by <lb/>Watt to an edition at Eisleben, 1603, of which we have no confirmation. </s> <s>There is another <lb/>work on the subject, or a revision by the author mentioned by Albinus<emph type="sup"/>19<emph.end type="sup"/> as having been, <lb/>after Agricola's death, sent to Froben by George Fabricius to be printed; nothing further <lb/>appears in this matter however.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Peste.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This work on the Plague appears to have been first printed by Froben, <lb/>Basel, 1554, 8vo. </s> <s>The work was republished at Schweinfurt, 1607, and at Augsburg in <lb/>1614, under various editors. </s> <s>It would appear from Albinus<emph type="sup"/>20<emph.end type="sup"/> that the work was revised by <lb/>Agricola and in Froben's hands for publication after the author's death.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Medicatis Fontibus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This work is referred to by Agricola himself in <emph type="italics"/>De Natura <lb/>Eorum,<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>21<emph.end type="sup"/> in the prefatory letter in <emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis;<emph.end type="italics"/> and Albinus<emph type="sup"/>22<emph.end type="sup"/> quotes a <lb/>letter of Agricola to Sebastian Munster on the subject. </s> <s>Albinus states (<emph type="italics"/>Bergchronik,<emph.end type="italics"/> p. </s> <s>193) <lb/>that to his knowledge it had not yet been published. </s> <s>Conrad Gesner, in his work <emph type="italics"/>Excerp­<lb/>torum et observationum de Thermis,<emph.end type="italics"/> which is reprinted in <emph type="italics"/>De Balneis,<emph.end type="italics"/> Venice, 1553, after <lb/>Agricola's <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Eorum,<emph.end type="italics"/> states<emph type="sup"/>23<emph.end type="sup"/> concerning Agricola <emph type="italics"/>in libris quos de medicatis fontibus <lb/>instituerit copiosus se dicturum pollicetur.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Watts mentions it as having been published in 1549, <lb/>1561, 1614, and 1621. He, however, apparently confuses it with <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Eorum.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> We <lb/>are unable to state whether it was ever printed or not. </s> <s>A note of inquiry to the principal <lb/>libraries in Germany gave a negative result.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Putredine solidas partes humani corporis corrumpente.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This work, according to <lb/>Albinus was received by Fabricius a year after Agricola's death, but whether it was published <lb/>or not is uncertain.<emph type="sup"/>24<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Castigationes in Hippocratem et Galenum.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> This work is referred to by Agricola in the <lb/>preface of <emph type="italics"/>Bermannus,<emph.end type="italics"/> and Albinus<emph type="sup"/>25<emph.end type="sup"/> mentions several letters referring to the preparation <lb/>of the work. </s> <s>There is no evidence of publication.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Typographia Mysnae et Toringiae.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> It seems from Agricola's letter<emph type="sup"/>26<emph.end type="sup"/> to Munster that <lb/>Agricola prepared some sort of a work on the history of Saxony and of the Royal Family <lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="606"/>thereof at the command of the Elector and sent it to him when finished, but it was never <lb/>published as written by Agricola. </s> <s>Albinus, Hofmann, and Struve give some details of letters <lb/>in reference to it. </s> <s>Fabricius in a letter<emph type="sup"/>27<emph.end type="sup"/> dated Nov. </s> <s>11, 1536 asks Meurer to send Agricola <lb/>some material for it; in a letter from Fabricius to Meurer dated Oct. </s> <s>30, 1554, it appears <lb/>that the Elector had granted Agricola 200 thalers to assist in the work. </s> <s>After Agricola's <lb/>death the material seems to have been handed over to Fabricius, who made use of it (as he <lb/>states in the preface) in preparing the work he was commissioned by the Elector to write, <lb/>the title of which was, <emph type="italics"/>Originum illustrissimae stirpis Saxonicae Libri,<emph.end type="italics"/> and was published in <lb/>Leipzig, 1597. It includes on page 880 a fragment of a work entitled <emph type="italics"/>Oratio de rebus Gestis <lb/>Ernesti et Alberti Ducum Saxoniae,<emph.end type="italics"/> by Agricola.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>WORKS WRONGLY ATTRIBUTED TO GEORGIUS AGRICOLA.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The following works have been at one time or another wrongly attributed to Georgius <lb/>Agricola:—</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Galerazeya sive Revelator Secretorum De Lapide Philosophorum,<emph.end type="italics"/> Cologne, 1531 and <lb/>1534, by one Daniel Agricola, which is merely a controversial book with a catch-title, used <lb/>by Catholics for converting heretics.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Rechter Gebrauch der Alchimey,<emph.end type="italics"/> a book of miscellaneous receipts which treats very <lb/>slightly of transmutation.<emph type="sup"/>28<emph.end type="sup"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Chronik der Stadt Freiberg<emph.end type="italics"/> by a Georg Agricola (died 1630), a preacher at Freiberg.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Dominatores Saxonici,<emph.end type="italics"/> by the same author.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Breviarum de Asse<emph.end type="italics"/> by Guillaume Bude.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>De Inventione Dialectica<emph.end type="italics"/> by Rudolph Agricola.<lb/><lb/></s></p><figure></figure><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>APPENDIX B.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>ANCIENT AUTHORS.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>We give the following brief notes on early works containing some reference to miner­<lb/>alogy, mining, or metallurgy, to indicate the literature available to Agricola and for historical <lb/>notes bearing upon the subject. </s> <s>References to these works in the footnotes may be most <lb/>easily consulted through the personal index.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>GREEK AUTHORS.—Only a very limited Greek literature upon subjects allied to <lb/>mining or natural science survives. </s> <s>The whole of the material of technical interest could be <lb/>reproduced on less than twenty of these pages. </s> <s>Those of most importance are: Aristotle <lb/>(384-322 B.C.), Theophrastus (371-288 B.C.), Diodorus Siculus (1st Century B.C.), Strabo <lb/>(64 B.C.—25 A.D.), and Dioscorides (1st Century A.D.).</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Aristotle, apart from occasional mineralogical or metallurgical references in <emph type="italics"/>De Mira­<lb/>bilibus,<emph.end type="italics"/> is mostly of interest as the author of the Peripatetic theory of the elements and the <lb/>relation of these to the origin of stones and metals. </s> <s>Agricola was, to a considerable measure, <lb/>a follower of this school, and their views colour much of his writings. </s> <s>We, however, discuss <lb/>elsewhere<emph type="sup"/>1<emph.end type="sup"/> at what point he departed from them. </s> <s>Especially in <emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causis<emph.end type="italics"/> does he <lb/>quote largely from Aristotle's <emph type="italics"/>Meteorologica, Physica,<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>De Coelo<emph.end type="italics"/> on these subjects. </s> <s>There <lb/>is a spurious work on stones attributed to Aristotle of some interest to mineralogists. </s> <s>It was <lb/>probably the work of some Arab early in the Middle Ages.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Theophrastus, the principal disciple of Aristotle, appears to have written at least two <lb/>works relating to our subject—one “On Stones”, and the other on metals, mining or metal­<lb/>lurgy, but the latter is not extant. </s> <s>The work “On Stones” was first printed in Venice in <lb/>1498, and the Greek text, together with a fair English translation by Sir John Hill, was <lb/>published in London in 1746 under the title “Theophrastus on Stones”; the translation is, <lb/>however, somewhat coloured with Hill's views on mineralogy. </s> <s>The work comprises 120 <lb/>short paragraphs, and would, if reproduced, cover but about four of these pages. </s> <s>In the <lb/>first paragraphs are the Peripatetic view of the origin of stones and minerals, and upon the <lb/>foundation of Aristotle he makes some modifications. </s> <s>The principal interest in Theophrastus' <lb/>work is the description of minerals; the information given is, however, such as might be pos­<lb/>sessed by any ordinary workman, and betrays no particular abilities for natural philosophy. <lb/></s> <s>He enumerates various exterior characteristics, such as colour, tenacity, hardness, smooth­<lb/>ness, density, fusibility, lustre, and transparence, and their quality of reproduction, and then <lb/>proceeds to describe various substances, but usually omits his enumerated characteristics. <lb/></s> <s>Apart from the then known metals and certain “earths” (ochre, marls, clay, etc.), it is possible <lb/>to identify from his descriptions the following rocks and minerals:—marble, pumice, onyx, <lb/>gypsum, pyrites, coal, bitumen, amber, azurite, chrysocolla, realgar, orpiment, cinnabar, <lb/>quartz in various forms, lapis lazuli, emerald, sapphire, diamond, and ruby. </s> <s>Altogether there <lb/>are some sixteen distinct mineral species. </s> <s>He also describes the touchstone and its uses, the <lb/>making of white-lead and verdigris, and of quicksilver from cinnabar.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Diodorus Siculus was a Greek native of Sicily. </s> <s>His “historical library” consisted of <lb/>some 40 books, of which parts of 15 are extant. </s> <s>The first print was in Latin, 1472, and in <lb/>Greek in 1539; the first translation into English was by Thomas Stocker, London, 1568, and <lb/>later by G. Booth, 1700. We have relied upon Booth's translation, but with some amend­<lb/>ments by friends, to gain more literal statement. </s> <s>Diodorus, so far as relates to our subject, <lb/>gives merely the occasional note of a traveller. </s> <s>The most interesting paragraphs are his <lb/>quotation from Agatharchides on Egyptian mining and upon British tin.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Strabo was also a geographer. </s> <s>His work consists of 17 books, and practically all <lb/>survive. </s> <s>We have relied upon the most excellent translation of Hamilton and Falconer, <lb/>London, 1903, the only one in English. </s> <s>Mines and minerals did not escape such an acute <lb/>geographer, and the matters of greatest interest are those with relation to Spanish mines.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Dioscorides was a Greek physician who wrote entirely from the standpoint of materia <lb/>medica, most of his work being devoted to herbs; but Book V. is devoted to minerals and <lb/>rocks, and their preparation for medicinal purposes. </s> <s>The work has never been translated <lb/>into English, and we have relied upon the Latin translation of Matthioli, Venice, 1565, and notes <lb/>upon the Greek text prepared for us by Mr. </s> <s>C. Katopodes. </s> <s>In addition to most of the sub­<lb/>stances known before, he, so far as can be identified, adds schist, <emph type="italics"/>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/> (blende or calamine), <lb/><emph type="italics"/>chalcitis<emph.end type="italics"/> (copper sulphide), <emph type="italics"/>misy, melanteria, sory<emph.end type="italics"/> (copper or iron sulphide oxidation minerals). <lb/>He describes the making of certain artificial products, such as copper oxides, vitriol, litharge, <lb/><emph type="italics"/>pompholyx,<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>spodos<emph.end type="italics"/> (zinc and / or arsenical oxides). His principal interest for us, however, <lb/>lies in the processes set out for making his medicines.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Occasional scraps of information relating to the metals or mines in some connection <lb/>are to be found in many other Greek writers, and in quotations by them from others which are <lb/>not now extant, such as Polybius, Posidonius, etc. </s> <s>The poets occasionally throw a gleam <pb pagenum="608"/>of light on ancient metallurgy, as for instance in Homer's description of Vulcan's foundry: <lb/>while the historians, philosophers, statesmen, and physicians, among them Herodotus, <lb/>Xenophon, Demosthenes, Galen, and many others, have left some incidental references to the <lb/>metals and mining, helpful to gleaners from a field, which has been almost exhausted by time. <lb/></s> <s>Even Archimedes made pumps, and Hero surveying instruments for mines.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>ROMAN AUTHORS.—Pre-eminent among all ancient writers on these subjects is, of <lb/>course. </s> <s>Pliny, and in fact, except some few lines by Vitruvius, there is practically little else <lb/>in extant Roman literature of technical interest, for the metallurgical metaphors of the poets <lb/>and orators were threadbare by this time, and do not excite so much interest as upon their <lb/>first appearance among the Greeks and Hebrews.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Pliny (Caius Plinius Secundus) was born 23 A.D., and was killed by eruption of Vesuvius <lb/>79 A.D. </s> <s>His Natural History should be more properly called an encyclopædia, the whole <lb/>comprising 37 books; but only portions of the last four books relate to our subject, and over <lb/>one-half of the material there is upon precious stones. </s> <s>To give some rough idea of the small <lb/>quantity of even this, the most voluminous of ancient works upon our subject, we have made <lb/>an estimate that the portions of metallurgical character would cover, say, three pages of <lb/>this text, on mining two pages, on building and precious stones about ten pages. </s> <s>Pliny <lb/>and Dioscorides were contemporaries, and while Pliny nowhere refers to the Greek, internal <lb/>evidence is most convincing, either that they drew from the same source, or that Pliny drew <lb/>from Dioscorides. </s> <s>We have, therefore, throughout the text given precedence in time to the <lb/>Greek author in matters of historical interest. </s> <s>The works of Pliny were first printed at Venice <lb/>in 1469. They have passed dozens of editions in various languages, and have been twice <lb/>translated into English. </s> <s>The first translation by Philemon Holland, London, 1601, is quite <lb/>impossible. </s> <s>The second translation, by Bostock and Riley, London, 1855, was a great <lb/>advance, and the notes are most valuable, but in general the work has suffered from a freedom <lb/>justifiable in the translation of poetry, but not in science. </s> <s>We have relied upon the Latin <lb/>edition of Janus, Leipzig, 1870. The frequent quotations in our footnotes are sufficient <lb/>indication of the character of Pliny's work. </s> <s>In general it should be remembered that he was <lb/>himself but a compiler of information from others, and, so far as our subjects are concerned, <lb/>of no other experience than most travellers. </s> <s>When one considers the reliability of such <lb/>authors to-day on technical subjects, respect for Pliny is much enhanced. </s> <s>Further, the text <lb/>is no doubt much corrupted through the generations of transcription before it was set in type. <lb/></s> <s>So far as can be identified with any assurance, Pliny adds but few distinct minerals to those <lb/>enumerated by Theophrastus and Dioscorides. </s> <s>For his metallurgical and mining information <lb/>we refer to the footnotes, and in general it may be said that while those skilled in metallurgy <lb/>can dimly see in his statements many metallurgical operations, there is little that does not <lb/>require much deduction to arrive at a conclusion. </s> <s>On geology he offers no new philosophical <lb/>deductions of consequence; the remote connection of building stones is practically all that <lb/>can be enumerated, lest one build some assumption of a knowledge of ore-deposits on the <lb/>use of the word “vein”. </s> <s>One point of great interest to this work is that in his search for Latin <lb/>terms for technical purposes Agricola relied almost wholly upon Pliny, and by some devotion <lb/>to the latter we have been able to disentangle some very puzzling matters of nomenclature <lb/>in <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> of which the term <emph type="italics"/>molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"/> may be cited as a case in point.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Vitruvius was a Roman architect of note of the 1st Century B.C. </s> <s>His work of ten <lb/>books contains some very minor references to pumps and machinery, building stones, and the <lb/>preparation of pigments, the latter involving operations from which metallurgical deductions <lb/>can occasionally be safely made. </s> <s>His works were apparently first printed in Rome in 1496. <lb/>There are many editions in various languages, the first English translation being from the <lb/>French in 1692. We have relied upon the translation of Joseph Gwilt, London, 1875, with <lb/>such alterations as we have considered necessary.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>MEDIÆVAL AUTHORS. </s> <s>For convenience we group under this heading the writers <lb/>of interest from Roman times to the awakening of learning in the early 16th Century. <lb/></s> <s>Apart from Theophilus, they are mostly alchemists; but, nevertheless, some are of great <lb/>importance in the history of metallurgy and chemistry. </s> <s>Omitting a horde of lesser lights <lb/>upon whom we have given some data under the author's preface, the works principally con­<lb/>cerned are those ascribed to Avicenna, Theophilus, Geber, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, <lb/>and Basil Valentine. </s> <s>Judging from the Preface to <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> and from quotations in his <lb/>subsidiary works, Agricola must have been not only familiar with a wide range of alchemistic <lb/>material, but also with a good deal of the Arabic literature, which had been translated into <lb/>Latin. </s> <s>The Arabs were, of course, the only race which kept the light of science burning <lb/>during the Dark Ages, and their works were in considerable vogue at Agricola's time.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Avicenna (980-1037) was an Arabian physician of great note, a translator of the Greek <lb/>classics into Arabic, and a follower of Aristotle to the extent of attempting to reconcile the <lb/>Peripatetic elements with those of the alchemists. </s> <s>He is chiefly known to the world through <lb/>the works which he compiled on medicine, mostly from the Greek and Latin authors. </s> <s>These <lb/>works for centuries dominated the medical world, and were used in certain European Univer­<lb/>sities until the 17th century. </s> <s>A great many works are attributed to him, and he is copiously <lb/>quoted by Agricola, principally in his <emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causis,<emph.end type="italics"/> apparently for the purpose of <lb/>exposure.</s></p><pb pagenum="609"/><p type="main"> <s>Theophilus was a Monk and the author of a most illuminating work, largely upon <lb/>working metal and its decoration for ecclesiastical purposes. </s> <s>An excellent translation, with <lb/>the Latin text, was published by Robert Hendrie, London, 1847, under the title “An Essay <lb/>upon various Arts, in three books, by Theophilus, called also Rugerus, Priest and Monk.” <lb/>Hendrie, for many sufficient reasons, places the period of Theophilus as the latter half of the <lb/>11th century. </s> <s>The work is mainly devoted to preparing pigments, making glass, and working <lb/>metals, and their conversion into ecclesiastical paraphernalia, such as mural decoration, <lb/>pictures, windows, chalices, censers, bells, organs, etc. </s> <s>However, he incidentally describes <lb/>the making of metallurgical furnaces, cupellation, parting gold and silver by cementation <lb/>with salt, and by melting with sulphur, the smelting of copper, liquating lead from it, and the <lb/>refining of copper under a blast with poling.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Geber was until recent years considered to be an Arab alchemist of a period somewhere <lb/>between the 7th and 12th centuries. </s> <s>A mere bibliography of the very considerable literature <lb/>which exists in discussion of who, where, and at what time the author was, would fill pages. <lb/></s> <s>Those who are interested may obtain a start upon such references from Hermann Kopp's <emph type="italics"/>Bei­<lb/>träge zur Geschichte der Chemie,<emph.end type="italics"/> Braunschweig, 1875, and in John Ferguson's <emph type="italics"/>Bibliotheca Chemica,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>Glasgow, 1906. Berthelot, in his <emph type="italics"/>Chimie au Moyen Age,<emph.end type="italics"/> Paris, 1893, considers the works under <lb/>the name of Geber were not in the main of Arabic origin, but composed by some Latin scholar <lb/>in the 13th century. </s> <s>In any event, certain works were, under this name, printed in Latin as <lb/>early as 1470-80, and have passed innumerable editions since. </s> <s>They were first translated into <lb/>English by Richard Russell, London, 1678, and we have relied upon this and the Nuremberg <lb/>edition in Latin of 1541. This work, even assuming Berthelot's view, is one of the most <lb/>important in the history of chemistry and metallurgy, and is characterised by a directness <lb/>of statement unique among alchemists. </s> <s>The making of the mineral acids—certainly nitric and <lb/><emph type="italics"/>aqua regia,<emph.end type="italics"/> and perhaps hydrochloric and sulphuric—are here first described. </s> <s>The author <lb/>was familiar with saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, and alkali, and with the acids he prepared many <lb/>salts for the first time. </s> <s>He was familiar with amalgamation, cupellation, the separation of <lb/>gold and silver by cementation with salt and by nitric acid. </s> <s>His views on the primary com­<lb/>position of bodies dominated the alchemistic world for centuries. </s> <s>He contended that all <lb/>metals were composed of “spiritual” sulphur (or arsenic, which he seems to consider a special <lb/>form of sulphur) and quicksilver, varying proportions and qualities yielding different metals. <lb/></s> <s>The more the quicksilver, the more “perfect” the metal.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Albertus Magnus (Albert von Bollstadt) was a Dominican Monk, afterwards Bishop, <lb/>born about 1205, and died about 1280. He was rated the most learned man of his time, and <lb/>evidence of his literary activities lies in the complete edition of his works issued by Pierre <lb/>Jammy, Lyons, 1651, which comprises 21 folio volumes. </s> <s>However, there is little doubt that <lb/>a great number of works attributed to him, especially upon alchemy, are spurious. </s> <s>He <lb/>covered a wide range of theology, logic, alchemy, and natural science, and of the latter the <lb/>following works which concern our subject are considered genuine:—<emph type="italics"/>De Rebus Metallicis et <lb/>Mineralibus, De Generatione et Corruptione,<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>De Meteoris.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> They are little more than <lb/>compilations and expositions of the classics muddled with the writings of the Arabs, and in <lb/>general an attempt to conciliate the Peripatetic and Alchemistic schools. </s> <s>His position in the <lb/>history of science has been greatly over-estimated. </s> <s>However, his mineralogy is, except for <lb/>books on gems, the only writing of any consequence at all on the subject between Pliny and <lb/>Agricola, and while there are but two or three minerals mentioned which are not to be found <lb/>in the ancient authors, this work, nevertheless, deserves some place in the history of science, <lb/>especially as some attempt at classification is made. </s> <s>Agricola devotes some thousands of <lb/>words to the refutation of his “errors.”</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Roger Bacon (1214-1294) was a Franciscan Friar, a lecturer at Oxford, and a man of <lb/>considerable scientific attainments for his time. </s> <s>He was the author of a large number of <lb/>mathematical, philosophical, and alchemistic treatises. </s> <s>The latter are of some importance <lb/>in the history of chemistry, but have only minute bearing upon metallurgy, and this chiefly <lb/>as being one of the earliest to mention saltpetre.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Basil Valentine is the reputed author of a number of alchemistic works, of which none <lb/>appeared in print until early in the 17th century. </s> <s>Internal evidence seems to indicate that <lb/>the “Triumphant Chariot of Antimony” is the only one which may possibly be authentic, <lb/>and could not have been written prior to the end of the 15th or early 16th century, although <lb/>it has been variously placed as early as 1350. To this work has been accredited the first <lb/>mention of sulphuric and hydrochloric acid, the separation of gold and silver by the use of <lb/>antimony (sulphide), the reduction of the antimony sulphide to the metal, the extraction of <lb/>copper by the precipitation of the sulphate with iron, and the discovery of various antimonial <lb/>salts. </s> <s>At the time of the publication of works ascribed to Valentine practically all these <lb/>things were well known, and had been previously described. </s> <s>We are, therefore, in much doubt <lb/>as to whether this author really deserves any notice in the history of metallurgy.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>EARLY 16TH CENTURY WORKS. </s> <s>During the 16th century, and prior to <emph type="italics"/>De Re <lb/>Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> there are only three works of importance from the point of view of mining tech­<lb/>nology—the <emph type="italics"/>Nützlich Bergbüchlin,<emph.end type="italics"/> the <emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"/> and Biringuccio's <emph type="italics"/>De La Pirotechnia.<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>There are also some minor works by the alchemists of some interest for isolated statements, <lb/>particularly those of Paracelsus. </s> <s>The three works mentioned, however, represent such a <pb pagenum="610"/>stride of advance over anything previous, that they merit careful consideration.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Eyn Nützlich Bergbüchlin.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Under this title we frequently refer to a little booklet on <lb/>veins and ores, published at the beginning of the 16th century. </s> <s>The title page of our copy is <lb/>as below:—</s></p><p type="caption"> <s><expan abbr="Eiñ">Einm</expan> nüb lith Berg <lb/>büchlin von allen Metal <lb/>len/als Golt/Silber/Zcyn/Rupfer <lb/>erts/<gap/>i&longs;en &longs;tein/Bleyerts/<gap/>nd <lb/><gap/>om Quec<gap/>&longs;ilber.</s></p><figure></figure><p type="main"> <s>This book is small 8vo, comprises 24 folios without pagination, and has no typographical <lb/>indications upon the title page, but the last line in the book reads: <emph type="italics"/>Gedruckt zu Erffurd durch <lb/>Johan Loersfelt,<emph.end type="italics"/> 1527. Another edition in our possession, that of “Frankfurt am Meyn”, <lb/>1533, by Christian Egenolph, is entitled <emph type="italics"/>Bergwerk und Probierbüchlin,<emph.end type="italics"/> etc., and contains, <lb/>besides the above, an extract and plates from the <emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"/> (referred to later on), and a few <lb/>recipes for assay tests. </s> <s>All of these booklets, of which we find mention, comprise instructions <lb/>from Daniel, a skilled miner, to Knappius, “his mining boy”. </s> <s>Although the little books of <lb/>this title are all anonymous, we are convinced, largely from the statement in the Preface of <lb/><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> that one Calbus of Freiberg was the original author of this work. </s> <s>Agricola <lb/>says: “Two books have been written in our tongue: the one on the assaying of mineral sub­<lb/>stances and metals, somewhat confused, whose author is unknown; the other ‘On Veins’, <lb/>of which Pandulfus Anglus is also said to have written, <emph type="italics"/>although the German book was written <lb/>by Calbus of Freiberg, a well-known doctor; but neither of them accomplished the task he had <lb/>begun.<emph.end type="italics"/>” He again refers to Calbus at the end of Book III.<emph type="sup"/>2<emph.end type="sup"/> of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> and gives <lb/>an almost verbatim quotation from the <emph type="italics"/>Nützlich Bergbüchlin.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Jacobi<emph type="sup"/>3<emph.end type="sup"/> says: “Calbus <lb/>Fribergius, so called by Agricola himself, is certainly no other than the Freiberg doctor, <lb/>Rühlein von C(K)albe.” There are also certain internal evidences that support Agricola's <lb/>statement, for the work was evidently written in Meissen, and the statement of Agricola that <lb/>the book was unfinished is borne out by a short dialogue at the end of the earlier editions, <lb/>designed to introduce further discussion. </s> <s>Calbus (or Dr. </s> <s>Ulrich Rühlein von Kalbe) was a very <lb/>active citizen of Freiberg, having been a town councillor in 1509, burgomaster in 1514, a <lb/>mathematician, mining surveyor, founder of a school of liberal arts, and in general a physician. <lb/></s> <s>He died in 1523.<emph type="sup"/>4<emph.end type="sup"/> The book possesses great literary interest, as it is, so far as we are aware, <lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="611"/>undoubtedly the first work on mining geology, and in consequence we have spent some effort <lb/>in endeavour to find the date of its first appearance. </s> <s>Through the courtesy of M. Polain, <lb/>who has carefully examined for us the <emph type="italics"/>Nützlich Bergbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"/> described in Marie Pellechet's <lb/><emph type="italics"/>Catalogue Général des Incunables des Bibliothèques Publiques de France,<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>5<emph.end type="sup"/> we have ascertained <lb/>that it is similar as regards text and woodcuts to the Erfurt edition, 1527. This copy in the <lb/>Bibliothèque Nationale is without typographical indications, and M. </s> <s>Polain considers it <lb/>very possible that it is the original edition printed at the end of the fifteenth or begininng of <lb/>the sixteenth centuries. </s> <s>Mr. </s> <s>Bennett Brough,<emph type="sup"/>6<emph.end type="sup"/> quoting Hans von Dechen,<emph type="sup"/>7<emph.end type="sup"/> states that the <lb/>first edition was printed at Augsburg in 1505, no copy of which seems to be extant. </s> <s>The <lb/>Librarian at the School of Mines at Freiberg has kindly furnished us with the following notes <lb/>as to the titles of the copies in that Institution:—(1) <emph type="italics"/>Eyn Wolgeordent und Nützlich Bergbüch­<lb/>lein,<emph.end type="italics"/> etc., Worms, 1512<emph type="sup"/>8<emph.end type="sup"/> and 1518<emph type="sup"/>9<emph.end type="sup"/> (the place and date are written in); (2) the same as ours <lb/>(1527); (3) the same, Heinrich Steyner, Augsburg, 1534; (4) the same, 1539. On comparing <lb/>these various editions (to which may be added one probably published in Nürnberg by Fried­<lb/>rich Peypus in 1532<emph type="sup"/>10<emph.end type="sup"/>) we find that they fall into two very distinct groups, characterised by <lb/>their contents and by two entirely different sets of woodcuts.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>GROUP I.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>(a) Eyn Nützlich Bergbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"/> (in <emph type="italics"/>Bibl. </s> <s>Nat.,<emph.end type="italics"/> Paris) before 1500 (?).</s></p><p type="main"> <s>(<emph type="italics"/>b<emph.end type="italics"/>) Ditto, Erfurt, 1527.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>GROUP II.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>(c) Wolgeordent Nützlich Bergbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"/> Worms, Peter Schöfern, 1512.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>(d) Wolgeordent Nützlich Bergbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"/> Worms, Peter Schöfern, 1518.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>(e) Bergbüchlin von Erkantnus der Berckwerck,<emph.end type="italics"/> Nürnberg, undated, 1532 (?).</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>(f) Bergwerckbuch & Probirbuch,<emph.end type="italics"/> Christian Egenolph, Frankfurt-am-Meyn, 1533.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>(g) Wolgeordent Nützlich Bergbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"/> Augsburg, Heinrich Steyner, 1534.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>(h) Wolgeordent Nützlich Bergbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"/> Augsburg, Heinrich Steyner, 1539.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>There are also others of later date toward the end of the sixteenth century.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The <emph type="italics"/>Büchlein<emph.end type="italics"/> of Group I. terminate after the short dialogue between Daniel and Knappius <lb/>with the words: <emph type="italics"/>Mitt welchen das kleinspeissig ertz geschmeltzt soll werden;<emph.end type="italics"/> whereas in those of <lb/>Group II. these words are followed by a short explanation of the signs used in the woodcuts, <lb/>and by directions for colouring the woodcuts, and in some cases by several pages containing <lb/>definitions of some 92 mining terms. </s> <s>In the editions of Group I. the woodcut on the title page <lb/>represents a miner hewing ore in a vein and two others working a windlass. </s> <s>In those of <lb/>Group II. the woodcut on the title page represents one miner hewing on the surface, another to <lb/>the right carting away ore in a handcart, and two others carrying between them a heavy <lb/>timber. </s> <s>In our opinion Group I. represents the older and original work of Calbus; but as we <lb/>have not seen the copy in the <emph type="italics"/>Bibliothèque Nationale,<emph.end type="italics"/> and the Augsburg edition of 1505 has only <lb/>so far been traced to Veith's catalogue,<emph type="sup"/>11<emph.end type="sup"/> the question of the first edition cannot be considered <lb/>settled at present. </s> <s>In any event, it appears that the material grafted on in the second group <lb/>was later, and by various authors.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The earliest books comprise ten chapters, in which Daniel delivers about 6,000 words <lb/>of instruction. </s> <s>The first four chapters are devoted to the description of veins and the origin <lb/>of the metals, of the remaining six chapters one each to silver, gold, tin, copper, iron, <lb/>lead, and quicksilver. </s> <s>Among the mining terms are explained the meaning of country rock <lb/>(<emph type="italics"/>zechstein<emph.end type="italics"/>), hanging and footwalls (<emph type="italics"/>hangends<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>liegends<emph.end type="italics"/>), the strike (<emph type="italics"/>streichen<emph.end type="italics"/>), dip (<emph type="italics"/>fallen<emph.end type="italics"/>), <lb/>and outcrop (<emph type="italics"/>ausgehen<emph.end type="italics"/>). Of the latter two varieties are given, one of the “whole vein,” <lb/>the other of the <emph type="italics"/>gesteins,<emph.end type="italics"/> which may be the ore-shoot. </s> <s>Various veins are illustrated, and also <lb/>for the first time a mining compass. </s> <s>The account of the origin of the metals is a muddle <lb/>of the Peripatetics, the alchemists, and the astrologers, for which acknowledgment to Albertus <lb/>Magnus is given. </s> <s>They are represented to originate from quicksilver and sulphur through <lb/>heat, cold, dampness, and dryness, and are drawn out as exhalations through the veins, each <lb/>metal owing its origin to the special influence of some planet; the Moon for silver, Saturn for <lb/>lead, etc. </s> <s>Two types of veins are mentioned, “standing” (<emph type="italics"/>stehendergang<emph.end type="italics"/>) and flat (<emph type="italics"/>flach­<lb/>gang<emph.end type="italics"/>). Stringers are given the same characteristics as veins, but divided into hanging, foot­<lb/>wall, and other varieties. </s> <s>Prominence is also given to the <emph type="italics"/>geschick<emph.end type="italics"/> (selvage seams or joints?). <lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><lb/><pb pagenum="612"/>The importance of the bearing of the junctions of veins and stringers on enrichment is elabor­<lb/>ated upon, and veins of east-west strike lying upon a south slope are considered the best. <lb/></s> <s>From the following notes it will be seen that two or three other types of deposits besides veins <lb/>are referred to.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In describing silver veins, of peculiar interest is the mention of the association of bismuth <lb/>(<emph type="italics"/>wismuth<emph.end type="italics"/>), this being, we believe, the first mention of that metal, galena (<emph type="italics"/>glantz<emph.end type="italics"/>), quartz (<emph type="italics"/>quertz<emph.end type="italics"/>), <lb/>spar (<emph type="italics"/>spar<emph.end type="italics"/>), hornstone (<emph type="italics"/>hornstein<emph.end type="italics"/>), ironstone and pyrites (<emph type="italics"/>kies<emph.end type="italics"/>), are mentioned as gangue <lb/>materials, “according to the mingling of the various vapours.” The term <emph type="italics"/>glasertz<emph.end type="italics"/> is used, <lb/>but it is difficult to say if silver glance is meant; if so, it is the first mention of this mineral. <lb/></s> <s>So far as we know, this is the first use of any of the terms in print. </s> <s>Gold alluvial is described, <lb/>part of the gold being assumed as generated in the gravel. </s> <s>The best alluvial is in streams <lb/>running east and west. </s> <s>The association of gold with pyrites is mentioned, and the pyrites is <lb/>found “in some places as a complete stratum carried through horizontally, and is called a <lb/><emph type="italics"/>schwebender gang.<emph.end type="italics"/>” This sort of occurrence is not considered very good “because the work <lb/>of the heavens can be but little completed on account of the unsuitability of the position.” <lb/>Gold pyrites that comes in veins is better. </s> <s>Tin is mentioned as found in alluvial, and also in <lb/>veins, the latter being better or worse, according to the amount of pyrites, although the latter <lb/>can be burned off. </s> <s>Tin-stone is found in masses, copper ore in schist and in veins sometimes <lb/>with pyrites. </s> <s>The ore from veins is better than schist. </s> <s>Iron ore is found in masses, and <lb/>sometimes in veins; the latter is the best. </s> <s>“The iron veins with good hanging-and foot­<lb/>walls are not to be despised, especially if their strike be from east to west, their dip to the <lb/>south, the foot-wall and outcrop to the north, then if the ironstone is followed down, the <lb/>vein usually reveals gold or other valuable ore”. </s> <s>Lead ore is found in <emph type="italics"/>schwebenden gang<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and <emph type="italics"/>stehenden gang.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Quicksilver, like other ore, is sometimes found in brown earth, and <lb/>sometimes, again, in caves where it has run out like water. </s> <s>The classification of veins is the <lb/>same as in <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"/><emph type="sup"/>12<emph.end type="sup"/> The book generally, however, seems to have raised Agricola's <lb/>opposition, for the quotations are given in order to be demolished.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Agricola refers in the Preface of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> to a work in German <lb/>on assaying and refining metals, and it is our belief that it was to some one of the little assay <lb/>books published early in the 16th century. </s> <s>There are several of them, seemingly revised <lb/>editions of each other; in the early ones no author's name appears, although among the <lb/>later editions various names appear on the title page. </s> <s>An examination of these little books <lb/>discloses the fact that their main contents are identical, for they are really collections of <lb/>recipes after the order of cookery books, and intended rather to refresh the memory of those </s></p><p type="caption"> <s><emph type="bold"/>Probier büch<gap/><emph.end type="bold"/><lb/>lein/auff Bold/Silber/tupffer/ <lb/>vnd Sley/Unch allerlay Metall <lb/>wie mandie zů nus arbayten <expan abbr="vñ">vnm</expan> <lb/>Probieren&longs;oll.</s></p><p type="caption"> <s><gap/><expan abbr="ll&etilde;">llem</expan> Müngmay&longs;tern/Warbeytt/Bdt <lb/>werc<gap/>ern/Berc<gap/><expan abbr="leuten/vñtauff">leuten/vnntauff</expan> <expan abbr="leüt&etilde;">leütem</expan> <lb/><gap/>er Metall zů nus mitgro&longs;&longs;em fleyhzů <lb/>&longs;amengebracht.<lb/><figure id="fig4"></figure><pb pagenum="613"/>already skilled than to instruct the novice. </s> <s>The books appear to have grown by accretions <lb/>from many sources, for a large number of methods are given over and over again in the same <lb/>book with slight variations. </s> <s>We reproduce the title page of our earliest copy.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The following is a list of these booklets so far as we have been able to discover actual <lb/>copies:—<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table6"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table6"></table.target><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Date.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Place.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Publisher.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Title (Short).<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Author.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>Un-known</cell><cell>Unknown</cell><cell>Unknown</cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Anon.</cell></row><row><cell>(Undated; but catalogue of British Museum suggests Augsburg, 1510.)</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>1524</cell><cell>Magdeburg</cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probirbüchleyn tzu Gotteslob<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Anon.</cell></row><row><cell>1531</cell><cell>Augsburg</cell><cell>Unknown</cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probierbuch aller Sachsischer Ertze<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Anon.</cell></row><row><cell>1533</cell><cell>Frankfurt a. Meyn</cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Bergwerck und Probierbüch-lein<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Anon.</cell></row><row><cell>1534</cell><cell>Augsburg</cell><cell>Heinrich Stey-ner, 8vo.</cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probirbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Anon.</cell></row><row><cell>1546</cell><cell>Augsburg</cell><cell>Ditto, ditto</cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probirbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Anon.</cell></row><row><cell>1549</cell><cell>Augsburg</cell><cell>Ditto, ditto</cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probirbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Anon.</cell></row><row><cell>1564</cell><cell>Augsburg</cell><cell>Math. Francke, 4to</cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probirbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Zach. Lochner</cell></row><row><cell>1573</cell><cell>Augsburg</cell><cell>8vo.</cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probirbuch<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Sam. Zimmermann</cell></row><row><cell>1574</cell><cell>Franckfurt a. Meyn</cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Anon.</cell></row><row><cell>1578</cell><cell>Ditto</cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein Fremde und subtile Kunst<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Cyriacus Schreittmann</cell></row><row><cell>1580</cell><cell>Ditto</cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Anon.</cell></row><row><cell>1595</cell><cell>Ditto</cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein darinn gründ-licher Bericht<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Modestin Fachs</cell></row><row><cell>1607</cell><cell>Dresden</cell><cell>4to</cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Metallische Probier Kunst<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Bericht vom Ursprung und Erkenntniss der Metallis-chen erze<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>C. C. Schindler</cell></row><row><cell>1669</cell><cell>Amsterdam</cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein darinn gründ-licher Bericht<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Modestin Fachs</cell></row><row><cell>1678</cell><cell>Leipzig</cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein darinn gründ-licher Bericht<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Modestin Fachs</cell></row><row><cell>1689</cell><cell>Leipzig</cell><cell></cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein darinn gründ-licher Bericht<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Modestin Fachs</cell></row><row><cell>1695</cell><cell>Nürnberg</cell><cell>12mo.</cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Deutliche Vorstellung der Pro-bier Kunst<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Anon.</cell></row><row><cell>1744</cell><cell>Lübeck</cell><cell>8vo.</cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Neu-eröffnete Probier Buch<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Anon.</cell></row><row><cell>1755</cell><cell>Frankfurt and Leipzig</cell><cell>8vo.</cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Scheid-Künstler . . . alle Ertz und Metalle . . . probiren<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>Anon.</cell></row><row><cell>1782</cell><cell>Rotenburg an der Fulde</cell><cell>8vo.</cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probierbuch aus Erfahrung aufgesetzt<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>K. A. Scheidt</cell></row></table><p type="main"> <s>As mentioned under the <emph type="italics"/>Nützlich Bergbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"/> our copy of that work, printed in 1533, <lb/>contains only a portion of the <emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Ferguson<emph type="sup"/>13<emph.end type="sup"/> mentions an edition of 1608, and the <lb/>Freiberg School of Mines Catalogue gives also Frankfort, 1608, and Nürnberg, 1706. The <lb/>British Museum copy of earliest date, like the title page reproduced, contains no date. </s> <s>The <lb/>title page woodcut, however, in the Museum copy is referred from that above, possibly indi­<lb/>cating an earlier date of the Museum copy.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>The booklets enumerated above vary a great deal in contents, the successive prints <lb/>representing a sort of growth by accretion. </s> <s>The first portion of our earliest edition is devoted <lb/>to weights, in which the system of “lesser weights” (the principle of the “assay ton”) is <lb/>explained. </s> <s>Following this are exhaustive lists of touch-needles of various composition. <lb/></s> <s>Directions are given with regard to assay furnaces, cupels, muffles, scorifiers, and crucibles, <lb/>granulated and leaf metals, for washing, roasting, and the preparation of assay charges. <lb/></s> <s>Various reagents, including glass-gall, litharge, salt, iron filings, lead, “alkali”, talc, argol, <lb/>saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, alum, vitriol, lime, sulphur, antimony, <emph type="italics"/>aqua fortis,<emph.end type="italics"/> or <emph type="italics"/>scheid­<lb/>wasser,<emph.end type="italics"/> etc., are made use of. </s> <s>Various assays are described and directions given for crucible, <lb/>scorification, and cupellation tests. </s> <s>The latter part of the book is devoted to the refining <lb/>and parting of precious metals. </s> <s>Instructions are given for the separation of silver from iron, <lb/>from lead, and from antimony; of gold from silver with antimony (sulphide) and sulphur, or <lb/>with sulphur alone, with “<emph type="italics"/>scheidwasser,<emph.end type="italics"/>” and by cementation with salt; of gold from copper <lb/>with sulphur and with lead. </s> <s>The amalgamation of gold and silver is mentioned.</s></p><pb pagenum="614"/><p type="main"> <s>The book is diffuse and confused, and without arrangement or system, yet a little <lb/>consideration enables one of experience to understand most statements. </s> <s>There are over 120 <lb/>recipes, with, as said before, much repetition; for instance, the parting of gold and silver <lb/>by use of sulphur is given eight times in different places. </s> <s>The final line of the book is: “Take <lb/>this in good part, dear reader, after it, please God, there will be a better.” In truth, however, <lb/>there are books on assaying four centuries younger that are worse. </s> <s>This is, without doubt, <lb/>the first written word on assaying, and it displays that art already full grown, so far as con­<lb/>cerns gold and silver, and to some extent copper and lead; for if we eliminate the words <lb/>dependent on the atomic theory from modern works on dry assaying, there has been but very <lb/>minor progress. </s> <s>The art could not, however, have reached this advanced stage but by slow <lb/>accretion, and no doubt this collection of recipes had been handed from father to son long <lb/>before the 16th century. </s> <s>It is of wider interest that these booklets represent the first milestone <lb/>on the road to quantitative analysis, and in this light they have been largely ignored by the <lb/>historians of chemistry. </s> <s>Internal evidence in Book VII. of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/> together with <lb/>the reference in the Preface, leave little doubt that Agricola was familiar with these book­<lb/>lets. </s> <s>His work, however, is arranged more systematically, each operation stated more clearly, <lb/>with more detail and fresh items; and further, he gives methods of determining copper and <lb/>lead which are but minutely touched upon in the <emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"/> while the directions as to tin, <lb/>bismuth, quicksilver, and iron are entirely new.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Biringuccio (Vanuccio). We practically know nothing about this author. </s> <s>From the <lb/>preface to the first edition of his work it appears he was styled a mathematician, but in the <lb/>text^{14} he certainly states that he was most of his time engaged in metallurgical operations, <lb/>and that in pursuit of such knowledge he had visited Germany. </s> <s>The work was in Italian, <lb/>published at Venice in 1540, the title page of the first edition as below:—</s></p><figure></figure><pb pagenum="615"/><p type="main"> <s>It comprises ten chapters in 168 folios demi-octavo. </s> <s>Other Italian editions of which <lb/>we find some record are the second at Venice, 1552; third, Venice, 1558; fourth, Venice, <lb/>1559: fifth, Bologna, 1678. A French translation, by Jacques Vincent, was published in <lb/>Paris, 1556, and this translation was again published at Rouen in 1627. Of the ten chapters the <lb/>last six are almost wholly devoted to metal working and founding, and it is more largely for <lb/>this description of the methods of making artillery, <expan abbr="munitĩons">munitinons</expan> of war and bells that the book <lb/>is celebrated. </s> <s>In any event, with the exception of a quotation which we give on page 297 on <lb/>silver amalgamation, there is little of interest on our subject in the latter chapters. </s> <s>The <lb/>first four chapters are undoubtedly of importance in the history of metallurgical literature, <lb/>and represent the first work on smelting. </s> <s>The descriptions are, however, very diffuse, difficult <lb/>to follow, and lack arrangement and detail. </s> <s>But like the <emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein,<emph.end type="italics"/> the fact that it was <lb/>written prior to <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> demands attention for it which it would not otherwise receive. <lb/></s> <s>The ores of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and iron are described, but much interrupted with <lb/>denunciations of the alchemists. </s> <s>There is little of geological or mineralogical interest, he too <lb/>holding to a muddle of the classic elements astrology and alchemy. </s> <s>He has nothing of con­<lb/>sequence to say on mining, and dismisses concentration with a few words. </s> <s>Upon assaying <lb/>his work is not so useful as the <emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> On ore smelting he describes the reduction <lb/>of iron and lead ores and cupriferous silver or gold ores with lead. </s> <s>He gives the barest <lb/>description of a blast furnace, but adds an interesting account of a <emph type="italics"/>reverbero<emph.end type="italics"/> furnace. </s> <s>He <lb/>describes liquation as consisting of one operation; the subsequent treatment of the copper <lb/>by refining with an oxidising blast, but does not mention poling; the cupellation of argen­<lb/>tiferous lead and the reduction of the litharge; the manufacture of nitric acid and that <lb/>method of parting gold and silver. </s> <s>He also gives the method of parting with antimony and <lb/>sulphur, and by cementation with common salt. </s> <s>Among the side issues, he describes the <lb/>method of making brass with calamine; of making steel; of distilling quicksilver; of melting <lb/>out sulphur; of making vitriol and alum. </s> <s>He states that <emph type="italics"/>arsenico<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>orpimento<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>etrisa­<lb/>gallio<emph.end type="italics"/> (realgar) are the same substance, and are used to colour copper white.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>In general, Biringuccio should be accredited with the first description (as far as we <lb/>are aware) of silver amalgamation, of a reverberatory furnace, and of liquation, although the <lb/>description is not complete. </s> <s>Also he is, so far as we are aware, the first to mention cobalt <lb/>blue (<emph type="italics"/>Zaffre<emph.end type="italics"/>) and manganese, although he classed them as “half” metals. </s> <s>His descriptions <lb/>are far inferior to Agricola's; they do not compass anything like the same range of metal­<lb/>lurgy, and betray the lack of a logical mind.</s></p><p type="main"> <s><emph type="italics"/>Other works.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> There are several works devoted to mineralogy, dating from the fifteenth <lb/>and early sixteenth centuries, which were, no doubt, available to Agricola in the compilation of <lb/>his <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossilium.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> They are, however, practically all compiled from the jeweller's point <lb/>of view rather than from that of the miner. </s> <s>Among them we may mention the poem on <lb/>precious stones by Marbodaeus, an author who lived from 1035 to 1123, but which was first <lb/>printed at Vienna in 1511; <emph type="italics"/>Speculum Lapidum,<emph.end type="italics"/> a work on precious stones, by Camilli Leonardi, <lb/>first printed in Venice in 1502. A work of wider interest to mineralogists is that by Christoph <lb/>Entzelt (or Enzelius, Encelio, Encelius, as it is variously given), entitled <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and first printed in 1551. The work is five years later than <emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossilium,<emph.end type="italics"/> but contains <lb/>much new material and was available to Agricola prior to his revised editions.</s></p><figure></figure><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>APPENDIX C.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="head"> <s>WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>As stated in the preface, the nomenclature to be adopted for weights and measures <lb/>has presented great difficulty. </s> <s>Agricola uses, throughout, the Roman and the Romanized <lb/>Greek scales, but in many cases he uses these terms merely as lingual equivalents for the <lb/>German quantities of his day. </s> <s>Moreover the classic language sometimes failed him, where­<lb/>upon he coined new Latin terms adapted from the Roman scale, and thus added further <lb/>confusion. </s> <s>We can, perhaps, make the matter clearer by an illustration of a case in weights. <lb/></s> <s>The Roman <emph type="italics"/>centúmpondium,<emph.end type="italics"/> composed of 100 <emph type="italics"/>librae,<emph.end type="italics"/> the old German <emph type="italics"/>centner<emph.end type="italics"/> of 100 <emph type="italics"/>pfundt,<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and the English hundredweight of 112 pounds can be called lingual equivalents. </s> <s>The first <lb/>weighs about 494,600 Troy grains, the second 721,900, and the third 784,000. While the <lb/>divisions of the <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> and the <emph type="italics"/>centner<emph.end type="italics"/> are the same, the <emph type="italics"/>libra<emph.end type="italics"/> is divided into 12 <emph type="italics"/>unciae<emph.end type="italics"/><lb/>and the <emph type="italics"/>pfundt<emph.end type="italics"/> into 16 <emph type="italics"/>untzen,<emph.end type="italics"/> and in most places a summation of the units given proves that <lb/>the author had in mind the Roman ratios. </s> <s>However, on p. </s> <s>509 he makes the direct statement <lb/>that the <emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> weighs 146 <emph type="italics"/>librae,<emph.end type="italics"/> which would be about the correct weight if the <lb/><emph type="italics"/>centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/> referred to was a <emph type="italics"/>centner.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> If we take an example such as “each <emph type="italics"/>centum­<lb/>pondium<emph.end type="italics"/> of lead contains one <emph type="italics"/>uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> of silver”, and reduce it according to purely lingual equiva­<lb/>lents, we should find that it runs 24.3 Troy ounces per short ton, on the basis of Roman <lb/>values, and 18.25 ounces per short ton, on the basis of old German. </s> <s>If we were to trans­<lb/>late these into English lingual equivalents of one ounce per hundredweight, then the value <lb/>would be 17.9 ounces per short ton.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>Several possibilities were open in translation: first, to calculate the values accur­<lb/>ately in the English units; second, to adopt the nearest English lingual equivalent; third, <lb/>to introduce the German scale of the period; or, fourth, to leave the original Latin in the <lb/>text. </s> <s>The first would lead to an indefinite number of decimals and to constant doubt as to <lb/>whether the values, upon which calculations were to be based, were Roman or German. </s> <s>The <lb/>second, that is the substitution of lingual equivalents, is objectionable, not only because <lb/>it would indicate values not meant by the author, but also because we should have, like <lb/>Agricola, to coin new terms to accommodate the lapses in the scales, or again to use decimals. <lb/></s> <s>In the third case, that is in the use of the old German scale, while it would be easier to adapt <lb/>than the English, it would be more unfamiliar to most readers than the Latin, and not so <lb/>expressive in print, and further, in some cases would present the same difficulties of cal­<lb/>culation as in using the English scale. </s> <s>Nor does the contemporary German translation of <emph type="italics"/>De <lb/>Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/> prove of help, for its translator adopted only lingual equivalents, and in conse­<lb/>quence the summation of his weights often gives incorrect results. </s> <s>From all these possibilities <lb/>we have chosen the fourth, that is simply to reproduce the Latin terms for both weights and <lb/>measures. </s> <s>We have introduced into the footnotes such reductions to the English scale as we <lb/>considered would interest readers. </s> <s>We have, however, digressed from the rule in two cases, <lb/>in the adoption of “foot” for the Latin <emph type="italics"/>pes,<emph.end type="italics"/> and “fathom” for <emph type="italics"/>passus.<emph.end type="italics"/></s><s> Apart from the fact <lb/>that these were not cases where accuracy is involved, Agricola himself explains (p. </s> <s>77) <lb/>that he means the German values for these particular terms, which, fortunately, fairly closely <lb/>approximate to the English. </s> <s>Further, we have adopted the Anglicized words “digit”, <lb/>“palm”, and “cubit”, instead of their Latin forms.</s></p><p type="main"> <s>For purposes of reference, we reproduce the principal Roman and old German scales, <lb/>in so far as they are used by Agricola in this work, with their values in English. </s> <s>All students <lb/>of weights and measures will realize that these values are but approximate, and that this is <lb/>not an occasion to enter upon a discussion of the variations in different periods or by different <lb/>authorities. </s> <s>Agricola himself is the author of one of the standard works on Ancient Weights <lb/>and Measures (see Appendix A), and further gives fairly complete information on contem­<lb/>porary scales of weight and fineness for precious metals in Book VII. p. </s> <s>262 etc., to which <lb/>we refer readers.</s></p><p type="head"> <s>ROMAN SCALES OF WEIGHTS.<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table7"></arrow.to.target></s></p><pb pagenum="617"/><table><table.target id="table7"></table.target><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Troy Grains.</cell></row><row><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Siliqua<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>2.87</cell></row><row><cell>6 <emph type="italics"/>Siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Scripulum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>17.2</cell></row><row><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>Scripula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>68.7</cell></row><row><cell>6 <emph type="italics"/>Sextulae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Uncia<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>412.2</cell></row><row><cell>12 <emph type="italics"/>Unciae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Libra<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>4946.4</cell></row><row><cell>100 <emph type="italics"/>Librae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>494640.0</cell></row><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Also</cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Scripulum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>17.2</cell></row><row><cell>3 <emph type="italics"/>Scripula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Drachma<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>51.5</cell></row><row><cell>2 <emph type="italics"/>Drachmae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Sicilicus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>103.0</cell></row><row><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>Sicilici<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Uncia<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>412.2</cell></row><row><cell>8 <emph type="italics"/>Unciae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Bes<emph.end type="italics"/> ..</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>3297.6</cell></row></table><p type="head"> <s>SCALE OF FINENESS</s></p><p type="head"> <s>(AGRICOLA'S ADAPTATION).<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table8"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table8"></table.target><row><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>Siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 Unit of <emph type="italics"/>Siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>3 <emph type="italics"/>Units of Siliquae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Semi-sextula<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>Semi-sextulae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Duella<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>24 <emph type="italics"/>Duellae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Bes<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row></table><p type="head"> <s>OLD GERMAN SCALE OF WEIGHTS.<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table9"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table9"></table.target><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Troy Grains.</cell></row><row><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Pfennig<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>14.1</cell></row><row><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>Pfennige<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Quintlein<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>56.4</cell></row><row><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>Quintlein<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Loth<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>225.6</cell></row><row><cell>2 <emph type="italics"/>Loth<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Untzen<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>451.2</cell></row><row><cell>8 <emph type="italics"/>Untzen<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Mark<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>3609.6</cell></row><row><cell>2 <emph type="italics"/>Mark<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Pfundt<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>7219.2</cell></row><row><cell>100 <emph type="italics"/>Pfundt<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Centner<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>721920.0</cell></row></table><p type="head"> <s>SCALE OF FINENESS.<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table10"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table10"></table.target><row><cell>3 <emph type="italics"/>Grenlin<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Gran<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>Gran<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Krat<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row><row><cell>24 <emph type="italics"/>Krat<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Mark<emph.end type="italics"/></cell></row></table><p type="head"> <s>ROMAN LONG MEASURE.<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table11"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table11"></table.target><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Inches.</cell></row><row><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Digitus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>.726</cell></row><row><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>Digiti<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Palmus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>2.90</cell></row><row><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>Palmi<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Pes<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>11.61</cell></row><row><cell>1 1/2 <emph type="italics"/>Pedes<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Cubitus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>17.41</cell></row><row><cell>5 <emph type="italics"/>Pedes<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Passus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>58.1</cell></row></table><p type="head"> <s>Also<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table12"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table12"></table.target><row><cell>1 Roman <emph type="italics"/>Uncia<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>.97</cell></row><row><cell>12 <emph type="italics"/>Unciae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pes<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>11.61</cell></row></table><p type="head"> <s>GREEK LONG MEASURE.<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table13"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table13"></table.target><row><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Dactylos<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>.758</cell></row><row><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>Dactyloi<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Palaiste<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>3.03</cell></row><row><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>Palaistai<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Pous<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>12.135</cell></row><row><cell>1 1/2 <emph type="italics"/>Pous<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Pechus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>18.20</cell></row><row><cell>6 <emph type="italics"/>Pous<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Oryguia<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>72.81</cell></row></table><p type="head"> <s>OLD GERMAN LONG MEASURE.<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table14"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table14"></table.target><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Inches.</cell></row><row><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Querfinger<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>.703</cell></row><row><cell>16 <emph type="italics"/>Querfinger<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Werckschuh<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>11.247</cell></row><row><cell>2 <emph type="italics"/>Werckschuh<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Elle<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>22.494</cell></row><row><cell>3 <emph type="italics"/>Elle<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Lachter<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>67.518</cell></row></table><p type="head"> <s>Also<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table15"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table15"></table.target><row><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Zoll<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>.85</cell></row><row><cell>12 <emph type="italics"/>Zoll<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Werkschuh<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell></row></table><p type="head"> <s>ROMAN LIQUID MEASURE.<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table16"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table16"></table.target><row><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell></cell><cell>Cubic</cell><cell>inches.</cell><cell></cell><cell>Pints.</cell></row><row><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Quartarius<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>8.6</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>.247</cell></row><row><cell>4 <emph type="italics"/>Quartarii<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Sextarius<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>31.4</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>.991</cell></row><row><cell>6 <emph type="italics"/>Sextarii<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Congius<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>206.4</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>5.947</cell></row><row><cell>16 <emph type="italics"/>Sextarii<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Modius<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>550.4</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>15.867</cell></row><row><cell>8 <emph type="italics"/>Congii<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>=</cell><cell>1 <emph type="italics"/>Amphora<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>..</cell><cell>1650.0</cell><cell>..</cell><cell>47.577</cell></row></table><p type="head"> <s>(Agricola nowhere uses the Saxon liquid measures, nor do they fall into units comparable <lb/>with the Roman).</s></p><pb/><figure></figure><pb/><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>GENERAL INDEX.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>NOTE.—The numbers in heavy type refer to the Text; <lb/>those in plain type to the Footnotes, Appendices, etc.<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table17"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table17"></table.target><row><cell></cell><cell>PAGE</cell></row><row><cell>ABANDONMENT OF MINES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>217<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ABERTHAM.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mines at</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>74; 92;<emph.end type="bold"/> 74</cell></row><row><cell>ABOLITE</cell><cell>113</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Abstrich<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>465; 492</cell></row><row><cell>ABYDOS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold mines of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26;<emph.end type="bold"/> 27</cell></row><row><cell>Lead figure from</cell><cell>390</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Abrug<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>464; 465; 475</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Achates<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> AGATE).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ACCIDENTS TO MINERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>214—218<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ACCOUNTS (Mining)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>96—98<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ADIT</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Aeris flos<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Copper Flowers).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Aeris squama<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Copper Scales).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Aes caldarium<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Aes luteum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Aes nigrum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Aes purum fossile<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Native Copper).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Aes rude plumbei coloris<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Copper Glance).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Aes ustum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Roasted Copper).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Aetites<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>2</cell></row><row><cell>AFRICA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Iron</cell><cell>420</cell></row><row><cell>Tin</cell><cell>412</cell></row><row><cell>AGATE</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell>AGRICULTURE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mining compared with</cell><cell>5</cell></row><row><cell>AILMENTS OF MINERS (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Maladies of Miners).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>AIR CURRENTS IN MINES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>121; 200<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ALABASTER</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell>ALCHEMISTS</cell><cell>XXVII—XXX; 44; 608</cell></row><row><cell>Agricola's opinion of</cell><cell>XII; <emph type="bold"/>XXVII.<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation</cell><cell>297</cell></row><row><cell>Assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>248;<emph.end type="bold"/> 219</cell></row><row><cell>Discovery of acids</cell><cell>439; 460</cell></row><row><cell>Distillation</cell><cell>441</cell></row><row><cell>ALJUSTREL TABLET</cell><cell>83—84</cell></row><row><cell>ALKALI</cell><cell>558</cell></row><row><cell>ALLOYS. ASSAYING OF</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>247—252<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ALLUVIAL MINING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>321—348;<emph.end type="bold"/> 330—332</cell></row><row><cell>ALSTON MOOR.</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>ALTENBERG</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXXI;<emph.end type="bold"/> VI.</cell></row><row><cell>Collapse of mine</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>216<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Miners poisoned</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>214<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Tin working appliances</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>290; 304; 318<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ALUM</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>564—568;<emph.end type="bold"/> 564—570</cell></row><row><cell>A solidified juice</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>Elizabethan Charter</cell><cell>283</cell></row><row><cell>In roasted pyrites</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>350<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In <emph type="italics"/>Sal artificiosus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>463<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Latin and German terms</cell><cell>220; 221</cell></row><row><cell>Papal monopoly</cell><cell>570</cell></row><row><cell>Use in making nitric acid</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>439;<emph.end type="bold"/> 460</cell></row><row><cell>AMALGAM.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Parting the gold from</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>298;<emph.end type="bold"/> 297</cell></row><row><cell>AMALGAMATION</cell><cell>297</cell></row><row><cell>Of gilt objects</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>461<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Mills</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>295—299<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>AMBER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>34;<emph.end type="bold"/> 35</cell></row><row><cell>AMETHYST</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Amiantus<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Asbestos).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>AMPULLA</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>445—447;<emph.end type="bold"/> 220</cell></row><row><cell>ANNABERG</cell><cell>VI; <emph type="bold"/>XXI; 42; 75;<emph.end type="bold"/> 75</cell></row><row><cell>Profits</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>92<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ANT, VENOMOUS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>216<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ANTIMONY</cell><cell>220; 428; 354</cell></row><row><cell>Minerals</cell><cell>110</cell></row><row><cell>Smelting of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>440; 428<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use as type-metal</cell><cell>2; 429</cell></row><row><cell>ANTIMONY SULPHIDE</cell><cell>220; 428; 451</cell></row><row><cell>Parting gold and silver with</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>451;<emph.end type="bold"/> 451; 461</cell></row><row><cell>Parting gold from copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>463<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Parting silver and iron</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>544<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ANTWERP, SCALE OF WEIGHTS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>263<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>APEX LAW</cell><cell>81; 83—86</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Aqua regia<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>439; 441; 354</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Aqua valeus (see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Nitric Acid)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>439—443;<emph.end type="bold"/> 439; 220</cell></row><row><cell>Clarification with silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>443;<emph.end type="bold"/> 443</cell></row><row><cell>Cleansing gold-dust with</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>396<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Parting precious metals with</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>443—447<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Arbores dissectae<emph.end type="italics"/> (Lagging)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>ARCHIMEDES, SCREW OF</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell>ARCHITECTURE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Knowledge necessary for miners</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>4<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Area fodinarum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Meer).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ARGENTIFEROUS COPPER ORES, SMELTING OF</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>404—407<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ARGENTITE</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Argentum purum in venis<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Native Silver).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Argentum rude plumbei coloris<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/>Silver Glance).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Argentum rude rubrum translucidum<emph.end type="italics"/>(<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Ruby Silver).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ARGOL</cell><cell>234; 220</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>234; 238; 243<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in melting silver nitrate</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>447<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in smelting gold dust</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>396—398<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ARGONAUTS</cell><cell>330</cell></row><row><cell>ARITHMETICAL SCIENCE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Knowledge necessary for miners</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>4<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ARMENIA, STONE OF</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>ARSENIC (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Orpiment <emph type="italics"/>and<emph.end type="italics"/>Realgar)</cell><cell>111; 214</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Arsenicum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>ARSENOPYRITE</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>ASBESTOS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>440;<emph.end type="bold"/> 440; 114</cell></row><row><cell>ASH-COLOURED COPPER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>539—540;<emph.end type="bold"/> 540; 523—524; 492</cell></row><row><cell>From liquation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>529—530<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ASHES WHICH WOOL DYERS USE (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Potash)</cell><cell>233; 559; 220</cell></row><row><cell>Use in assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>236—238<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ASH OF LEAD</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>237—238;<emph.end type="bold"/> 237; 220</cell></row><row><cell>ASH OF MUSK IVY (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Potash and <emph type="italics"/>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>236—238;<emph.end type="bold"/> 220</cell></row><row><cell>ASPHALT</cell><cell>581</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Asphaltites<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Dead Sea).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ASSAY BALANCES (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Balances).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ASSAY FLUXES (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Fluxes).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ASSAY FURNACES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>224—228;<emph.end type="bold"/> 220</cell></row><row><cell>Crucible</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>226—227<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Muffle</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>224—228; 239<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ASSAYING (<emph type="italics"/>see also Probierbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>219;<emph.end type="bold"/> 219; 220; 354</cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>243<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Bismuth</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>247<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>244<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>240<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Gold and silver alloys</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>248<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Gold ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>242—244<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Iron ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>247<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Lead</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>245—246<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>242—245<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Silver and copper alloys</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>249—250<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Tin</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>246<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Tin and silver alloys</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>251<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ASSAY MUFFLES (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Muffles).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ASSAY TON</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>261;<emph.end type="bold"/> 242</cell></row><row><cell>ASSYRIAN COPPER</cell><cell>402</cell></row><row><cell>ASTHMA</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>214<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ASTRONOMY.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Knowledge necessary for miners</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>4<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ATARNEA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mines near</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26;<emph.end type="bold"/> 27</cell></row><row><cell>ATHENS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mining law</cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell>Sea power and mines</cell><cell>27</cell></row><pb pagenum="620"/><row><cell>ATHENS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Silver mines (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mt. Laurion, Mines of).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Atramentum Sutorium (see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Vitriol)</cell><cell>572; 110</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Atramentum Sutorium candidum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>113</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Atramentum Sutorium rubrum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>274;<emph.end type="bold"/> 274</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Aurichalcum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>409; 404</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Auripigmentum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Orpiment).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>AZURE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>1;<emph.end type="bold"/> 109; 220</cell></row><row><cell>An indication of copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>An indication of gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>117<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Colour of flame</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>AZURITE</cell><cell>109; 220; 402</cell></row><row><cell>BABEL, TOWER OF</cell><cell>582</cell></row><row><cell>BABYLONIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Bitumen in</cell><cell>582</cell></row><row><cell>Use of lead</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>BABYTACE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold buried by inhabitants</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BAEBELO</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>42;<emph.end type="bold"/> 42</cell></row><row><cell>BALANCES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>224; 264—265<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BARITE</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>BARMASTER, OF HIGH PEAK</cell><cell>77</cell></row><row><cell>BARS, FOR FURNACE WORK</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>382<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BASKETS, FOR HOISTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>153<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BATEA</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>156<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BEER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>230;<emph.end type="bold"/> 220</cell></row><row><cell>BELL, TO CALL WORKMEN</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>100<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BELLOWS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>362—373; 419<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Ancient use of</cell><cell>354; 355; 362</cell></row><row><cell>Assay furnace</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>226; 245<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Mine ventilation with</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>207—210<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BENI HASSEN, INSCRIPTIONS AT</cell><cell>586</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Berg-geel<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>BERGMEISTER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>33; 81; 95; 77;<emph.end type="bold"/> 77; 78</cell></row><row><cell>Deals with forfeited shares</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>92—93<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Jurors</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>96<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BERGMEISTER'S CLERK</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>95;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Bergzinober<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Quicksilver).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>BERMIUS (BERMIUM), MT. (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mt. Bermius).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>BISMUTH</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>433;<emph.end type="bold"/> 354; 220</cell></row><row><cell>Assaying ores of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>247<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Indication of silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Minerals</cell><cell>2; 111</cell></row><row><cell>Smelting of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>433—437; 400<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>The “roof of silver”</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>117;<emph.end type="bold"/> 433</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Zaffre<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>112</cell></row><row><cell>BITUMEN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ancient knowledge of</cell><cell>220; 581—582; 354</cell></row><row><cell>Colour of fumes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Dead Sea</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>33<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Distillation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>581<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>From springs</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>582<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Harmful to metals</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>273<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Roasting from ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>273; 276; 351<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Solidified juice</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Bituminosa cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/> (see <emph type="italics"/>Cadmia bituminosa<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>BLAST, REGULATION OF</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>380; 386<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BLASTING</cell><cell>119</cell></row><row><cell>BLENDE</cell><cell>113</cell></row><row><cell>BLEYBERG</cell><cell>239</cell></row><row><cell>BLOODSTONE</cell><cell>111; 2</cell></row><row><cell>BLOOM</cell><cell>420</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Blutstein<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Ironstone).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>BOHEMIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Antimony sulphide</cell><cell>428</cell></row><row><cell>Pestilential vapours</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>216<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Sifting ore in</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>293<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>384<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BONE-ASH</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>230;<emph.end type="bold"/> 466</cell></row><row><cell>BORAX</cell><cell>560; 221; 110</cell></row><row><cell>Method of manufacture</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>560<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in gold smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>444; 457; 464<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>245; 246<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BORNITE</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell>BOUNDARY STONES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>87;<emph.end type="bold"/> 129</cell></row><row><cell>BOUNDARIES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>77; 147<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BOWLS FOR ALLUVIAL WASHING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>322; 324; 334; 336<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BRASS</cell><cell>410; 354; 2</cell></row><row><cell>Ancient methods of making</cell><cell>404—405; 112</cell></row><row><cell>BREAKING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>117—119<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BRICK DUST.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Used in cementation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>454;<emph.end type="bold"/> 454</cell></row><row><cell>Used in making nitric acid</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>440<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BRINE (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Salt).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Evaporation of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>547—548<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BRITAIN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Lead-silver smelting</cell><cell>392</cell></row><row><cell>Miners mentioned by Pliny</cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell>Tin trade</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>411—413<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BRITISH MUSEUM.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Egyptian gold-mining</cell><cell>399</cell></row><row><cell>Egyptian lead</cell><cell>390</cell></row><row><cell>Egyptian steel</cell><cell>402</cell></row><row><cell>BROMYRITE</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell>BRONZE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Historical notes</cell><cell>411; 402; 354</cell></row><row><cell>BRONZE AGE.</cell><cell>355; <emph type="bold"/>402; 411<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BRYLE (Outcrop).</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>BUCKETS, FOR HOISTING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>153—154; 157<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BUDDLE</cell><cell>281; 282; 267</cell></row><row><cell>Divided</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>302—303<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Simple</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>300—302; 312—315<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BULLION, POURING INTO BARS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>382<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BURNING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>231; 273;<emph.end type="bold"/> 267</cell></row><row><cell>BURNT ALUM</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>233;<emph.end type="bold"/> 565; 221</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Cadmia (see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Zinc, <emph type="italics"/>Pompholy<gap/>,<emph.end type="italics"/>and Cobalt)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>542;<emph.end type="bold"/> 542; 112—113</cell></row><row><cell>Ancient ore of brass</cell><cell>410</cell></row><row><cell>From dust chambers</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>394<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>From liquation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>539;<emph.end type="bold"/> 542</cell></row><row><cell>From roasting matte</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>349<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Poisonous to miners</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>214;<emph.end type="bold"/> 214</cell></row><row><cell>Roasting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>276<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting for gold and silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>410<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Cadmia bituminosa<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>276;<emph.end type="bold"/> 273; 113</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Cadmia fornacis<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Furnace Accre-tions).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Cadmia fossilis<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Calamine <emph type="italics"/>and<emph.end type="italics"/>Blende).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Cadmia metallica (see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Cobalt)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>403;<emph.end type="bold"/> 113</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Caeruleum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Azure).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>CAKES OF MELTED PYRITES</cell><cell>379; 222</cell></row><row><cell>A flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>234<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Roasting of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>349—351<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>379<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CALAËM (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Zinc)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>409<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CALAMINE</cell><cell>112; 113; 409; 410</cell></row><row><cell>CALCITE</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell>CALCSPAR</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116;<emph.end type="bold"/> 114</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Caldarium<emph.end type="italics"/> COPPER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>512; 542;<emph.end type="bold"/> 404; 511</cell></row><row><cell>CALDRONS, FOR EVAPORATING SALTS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>548<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Calmei<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Calamine).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>CAMEROS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Zinc found at</cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell>CAMPHOR</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>238;<emph.end type="bold"/> 238; 221</cell></row><row><cell>CAM-SHAFT</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>282—283;<emph.end type="bold"/> 267</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Canales<emph.end type="italics"/> (Ore Channels)</cell><cell>43; 46; 47</cell></row><row><cell>Ore shoots in</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>117<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CANNON</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>11<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CARDINAL POINTS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>57; 58<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CARNELIAN</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Carneol<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Carnelian).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Carni<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>390</cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>483<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting of lead ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>390<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Liquation practice in</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>540; 544<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Sieves</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>289<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Stamp-milling</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>319<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CARTHAGE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mines in Spain</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>27<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CASTULO (Cazlona)</cell><cell>42</cell></row><row><cell>CEMENTATION (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Parting Gold from Silver)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>453—457;<emph.end type="bold"/> 453; 458</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Centumpondium<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>616; 242; 509</cell></row><row><cell>Scale of weights</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>260—261<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CERAGURITE</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Cerussa<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> White-lead).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>CERUSSITE</cell><cell>110</cell></row><row><cell>CHAIN PUMPS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>171—175<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CHALCANTHITE</cell><cell>110</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Chalcanthum (see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Vitriol)</cell><cell>109; 572</cell></row><pb pagenum="621"/><row><cell>CHALCEDONY</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Chal<gap/><emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>573; 109</cell></row><row><cell>Indication of copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CHALCOCITE</cell><cell>109; 402</cell></row><row><cell>CHALCOPYRITE</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell>CHALDEAN ANTIMONY</cell><cell>429</cell></row><row><cell>CHEMISTRY.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Origin</cell><cell>XXVII; 220</cell></row><row><cell>CHEMNITZ.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Agricola appointed city physician</cell><cell>VII.</cell></row><row><cell>Agricola elected burgomaster</cell><cell>VIII; IX.</cell></row><row><cell>Quarrel over Agricola's burial</cell><cell>XI.</cell></row><row><cell>CHINA, GRAND CANAL OF</cell><cell>129</cell></row><row><cell>CHINESE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Early copper smelting</cell><cell>402</cell></row><row><cell>Early iron</cell><cell>421</cell></row><row><cell>Early silver metallurgy</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>Early zinc smelting</cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Chrysocolla (see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Borax)</cell><cell>110; 221; 584; 1</cell></row><row><cell>Collection in vats</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>584<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Colour of fumes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Indication of copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Indication of gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>117<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Mineral</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell>Smelting of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>401<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CHURCH, SHARE IN MINES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>91<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CIMOLITE</cell><cell>31</cell></row><row><cell>CINNABAR (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Quicksilver <emph type="italics"/>and Minium<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>CLAIM, IN AMERICAN TITLE</cell><cell>77</cell></row><row><cell>CLOTH.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Lining sluices</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>322<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Ventilation by shaking</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>210<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COAL</cell><cell>34</cell></row><row><cell>COBALT</cell><cell>354; 542; 112—113</cell></row><row><cell>Cobalt-blue</cell><cell>112; 433</cell></row><row><cell>From lead smelting</cell><cell>408</cell></row><row><cell>King Hiram's experience with</cell><cell>214</cell></row><row><cell>Poisonous to miners</cell><cell>214</cell></row><row><cell>Relation to <emph type="italics"/>cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>112</cell></row><row><cell>Relation to bismuth</cell><cell>435</cell></row><row><cell>Smelting ores of</cell><cell>401</cell></row><row><cell>COBALT-ARSENIC MINERALS (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/>Arsenic).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>COBALTITE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>113<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Cobaltum cineraceum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Smallite).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Cobaltum ferri colore<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Cobaltite).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Cobaltum nigrum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Abolite).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>COINERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>95;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell>COINS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>251—253; 457<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COLCHIS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Alluvial gold washing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>330<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COLOGNE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Scale of weights</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>263<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COMPANIES, MINING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>89—93;<emph.end type="bold"/> 90</cell></row><row><cell>Fraudulent dealing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>22<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Investment in</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>29<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COMPASS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>141—142;<emph.end type="bold"/> 56; 129</cell></row><row><cell>Divisions of the</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>56; 57<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Swiss</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>145;<emph.end type="bold"/> 137</cell></row><row><cell>CONCENTRATES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>From washing liquation products</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>542<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Sintering of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>401<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>394; 396—399; 401<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CONCENTRATION</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>267—348;<emph.end type="bold"/> 279; 354</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Congius<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>153; 172; 617</cell></row><row><cell>CONSTANTINOPLE, ALUM TRADE</cell><cell>569</cell></row><row><cell>CONSUMPTION.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Miners liable to</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>214<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Conterfei<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Zinc).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>CONTRACTS, METHOD OF SETTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>96<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COPIAPITE</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>COPPER (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Liquation)</cell><cell>109; 402; 511</cell></row><row><cell>Assay of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>244; 249<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Granulation of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>250<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Indications of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Parting from gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>462—464<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Parting gold from silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>448—451;<emph.end type="bold"/> 448</cell></row><row><cell>Ratio in liquation cakes</cell><cell>505; 506</cell></row><row><cell>Residues from liquation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>521<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Rosette</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>538<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COPPER-FILINGS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>233;<emph.end type="bold"/> 233; 221</cell></row><row><cell>COPPER FLOWERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>538;<emph.end type="bold"/> 110; 233; 538</cell></row><row><cell>Pliny's description</cell><cell>404</cell></row><row><cell>COPPER GLANCE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>401;<emph.end type="bold"/> 109</cell></row><row><cell>COPPER MATTE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Roasting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>350<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>404—407<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COPPER ORE (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Copper Smelting, <emph type="italics"/>etc.<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell>Assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>244—245<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COPPER PYRITES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>117;<emph.end type="bold"/> 109</cell></row><row><cell>COPPER REFINING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>530—538;<emph.end type="bold"/> 354; 492; 535—536</cell></row><row><cell>Breaking cakes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>501—503<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Enrichment of silver by settling</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>510<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Roman method</cell><cell>404</cell></row><row><cell>Rosette copper</cell><cell>535</cell></row><row><cell>COPPER SCALES</cell><cell>110; 221; 233; 539</cell></row><row><cell>Use in assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>245<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COPPER SCHISTS (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Mannsfeld Copper Slates)</cell><cell>127</cell></row><row><cell>Method of smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>408<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COPPER SMELTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>388—390; 401; 404;<emph.end type="bold"/> 402</cell></row><row><cell>Invention of appliances</cell><cell>353—354</cell></row><row><cell>CORNWALL.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ancient tin mining</cell><cell>413</cell></row><row><cell>Early German miners</cell><cell>282</cell></row><row><cell>Early mining law</cell><cell>85</cell></row><row><cell>Early ore dressing</cell><cell>282</cell></row><row><cell>Influence on German mining</cell><cell>283</cell></row><row><cell>“Knockers”</cell><cell>217</cell></row><row><cell>Mining terms</cell><cell>77; 101; 267; 282</cell></row><row><cell>Royal Geol. Soc. Transactions</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Coticula<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Touchstone).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Counterfeht<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Zinc).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>CRANE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>For cupellation furnaces</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>476—477<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For lead cakes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>500<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For liquation cakes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>514<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CREMNITZ.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Age of mines</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>5<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Width of veins</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>52<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CRINOID STEMS</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>CROPPINGS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>37;<emph.end type="bold"/> 37</cell></row><row><cell>CROSSCUTS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>106<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CROWBARS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>152<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CRUCIBLE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Assay</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>228; 230; 241; 245;<emph.end type="bold"/> 221</cell></row><row><cell>Of blast furnaces</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>376; 377<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Crudaria<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>65</cell></row><row><cell>CRUSHING MILLS (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Stamp-mill <emph type="italics"/>and<emph.end type="italics"/>Mills).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>CRUSHING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>231; 279—287;<emph.end type="bold"/> 279</cell></row><row><cell>CRYSTAL (<emph type="italics"/>Crystallum<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell>CUMBERLAND.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Early report on ores of</cell><cell>267</cell></row><row><cell>Roman lead furnaces</cell><cell>392</cell></row><row><cell>CUP-BEARER.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Right to a meer</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>81<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CUPELLATION</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>464—483;<emph.end type="bold"/> 465—466</cell></row><row><cell>Buildings and furnaces</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>464—472;<emph.end type="bold"/> 492</cell></row><row><cell>Brightening of the silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>241; 475<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>240<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In “tests”</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>483<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Latin and German terms</cell><cell>221; 492</cell></row><row><cell>Litharge</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>475<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CUPELS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>228—230;<emph.end type="bold"/> 221; 466</cell></row><row><cell>Drying of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>240<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Moulds</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>231<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CUPRIC OXIDE</cell><cell>221</cell></row><row><cell>CUPRITE</cell><cell>109; 402</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Cyanus (see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Azurite)</cell><cell>110</cell></row><row><cell>CYPRUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ancient copper smelting</cell><cell>402</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Dach<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>127</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Dactylos<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>617; 78</cell></row><row><cell>DANGERS TO MINERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>214—218<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Darrlinge<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>492</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Darrofen<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>492</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Darrsöhle<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>492</cell></row><row><cell>DAWLING, OF A VEIN</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>DEAD SEA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Bitumen in</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>33<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DECEMVIRAL COLLEGE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>96<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Decumanus<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Tithe Gatherer).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Demensum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Measure).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>DEMONS (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Gnomes)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>217;<emph.end type="bold"/> 217</cell></row><pb pagenum="622"/><row><cell>DERBYSHIRE (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> High Peak).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Early ore washing</cell><cell>281</cell></row><row><cell>Introduction jigging sieve</cell><cell>283</cell></row><row><cell>Mining law</cell><cell>77; 84—85</cell></row><row><cell>DESCENT INTO MINES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>212<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DEVON.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mining law</cell><cell>85</cell></row><row><cell>DILLEUGHER</cell><cell>267</cell></row><row><cell>DIOPTRA</cell><cell>129</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Diphrygum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>404</cell></row><row><cell>DIP OF VEINS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>65—75<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DIPPAS</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>DIPPERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>157<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Of pumps</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>172<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Discretores<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Sorters).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>DISTILLATION</cell><cell>441</cell></row><row><cell>For making nitric acid</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>441<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Of amalgam</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>244<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Of quicksilver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>426—432<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Distributor<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>78</cell></row><row><cell>DIVINING ROD</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>38—40;<emph.end type="bold"/> 38; 40</cell></row><row><cell>DIVISIONS OF THE COMPASS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>56; 57<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DRAINAGE OF MINES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>121; 171—198<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>With buckets</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>171<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>With chain pumps</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>172<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>With rag and chain pumps</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>188<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>With suction pumps</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>172<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>With water bags</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>198<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DRAWING.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Knowledge necessary for miners</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>4<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DRIFTS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>104; 105;<emph.end type="bold"/> 101</cell></row><row><cell>Timbering of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>125<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DRUSY VEINS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>107;<emph.end type="bold"/> 107</cell></row><row><cell>“DRYING” LIQUATION RESIDUES (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Liquation)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>527—529;<emph.end type="bold"/> 491; 492</cell></row><row><cell>Furnaces for</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>521; 526;<emph.end type="bold"/> 492</cell></row><row><cell>Silver extracted by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>529<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Slags from</cell><cell>523</cell></row><row><cell>DUMPS, WORKING OF</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>30<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DUST CHAMBERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>394; 416;<emph.end type="bold"/> 354</cell></row><row><cell>DUTINS (Timbers)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>DYNAMITE</cell><cell>119</cell></row><row><cell>“EARTHS.”</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Agricola's view of</cell><cell>1; 46; 48</cell></row><row><cell>Extraordinary</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>115<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Peripatetic view of</cell><cell>46; 47</cell></row><row><cell>EGYPTIANS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Alluvial mining</cell><cell>330</cell></row><row><cell>Antimony</cell><cell>428</cell></row><row><cell>Bronze</cell><cell>402; 411</cell></row><row><cell>Copper smelting</cell><cell>402</cell></row><row><cell>Crushing and concentration</cell><cell>279</cell></row><row><cell>Furnaces</cell><cell>355</cell></row><row><cell>Glass making</cell><cell>586</cell></row><row><cell>Gold mining</cell><cell>399</cell></row><row><cell>Iron</cell><cell>421</cell></row><row><cell>Maps</cell><cell>129</cell></row><row><cell>Mining law</cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell>Silver and lead metallurgy</cell><cell>390</cell></row><row><cell>Tin</cell><cell>411; 412</cell></row><row><cell>EGYPTIAN SCREW (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Archimedes, Screw of).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>EIFEL.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Spalling ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>272<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Eisenertz<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Ironstone).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Eisenglantz<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Ironstone).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>EISLEBEN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Heap roasting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>279;<emph.end type="bold"/> 274</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Electrum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>458; 2; 35</cell></row><row><cell>ELEMENTS, PERIPATETIC THEORY OF</cell><cell>44</cell></row><row><cell>EMERY</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>ERBISDORFF.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Tin strakes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>304<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Excoctores<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Smelters).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>EXHALATIONS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>From veins</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>38; 44<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>EXHAUSTED LIQUATION CAKES (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/>Liquation Cakes, Exhausted).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>FANS, VENTILATION</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>203—207<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FATHOM</cell><cell>616; <emph type="bold"/>77;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Federwis (see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Asbestos)</cell><cell>114; 274</cell></row><row><cell>FELDSPAR</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>114<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Ferrugo<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Iron-rust).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Ferrum purum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Native Iron).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Fibræ<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Stringers).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>FINENESS, SCALES OF</cell><cell>253; 617</cell></row><row><cell>FIRE-SETTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>118—120;<emph.end type="bold"/> 118—119</cell></row><row><cell>FIRSTUM MINES (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Fürst).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>FISSURE VEIN (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> V<emph type="italics"/>ena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>FLAME.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Determination of metal by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Determination of required flux by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FLINT, AS A FLUX</cell><cell>380</cell></row><row><cell>FLOAT, FROM VEINS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>37<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FLOOKAN</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>FLUE-DUST</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>394—396<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Fluores<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Fluorspar).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>FLUORSPAR</cell><cell>115; 380; 381</cell></row><row><cell>Indication of ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Flüsse<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Fluorspar).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>FLUXES (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Argol, Saltpetre, Limestone, Stones which easily melt, <emph type="italics"/>etc.<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>232—239;<emph.end type="bold"/> 232; 237; 380; 221</cell></row><row><cell>Basic</cell><cell>237</cell></row><row><cell>De-sulphurizing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>236;<emph.end type="bold"/> 237</cell></row><row><cell>For smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>379; 380; 386; 390<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Reducing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>236;<emph.end type="bold"/> 237</cell></row><row><cell>Stock fluxes for assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>236<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Sulphurizing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>236;<emph.end type="bold"/> 237</cell></row><row><cell>FOOTWALL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>68; 117<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FOREHEARTH</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>356; 375—378; 386;<emph.end type="bold"/> 355</cell></row><row><cell>For tin furnaces</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>411; 413<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FOREMAN (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mining Foreman).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>FOREST-FIRES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>36;<emph.end type="bold"/> 36</cell></row><row><cell>FOREST OF DEAN</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>FOREST OF MENDIP</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Formae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Fossa latens (see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Drifts)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Fossa latens transversa (see also<emph.end type="italics"/>Crosscuts)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Fossores<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Miners).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>FOUNDERS' HOARDS</cell><cell>355; 402</cell></row><row><cell>FRACTIONAL MEERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>80<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FRANCE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mediæval mining law</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>FREE MINING CITIES</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>FREIBERG</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXXI.<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Age of the mines</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>5<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Bergmeister</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>95<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Division of shares</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>81; 90; 91<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>First discovery of veins</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>35;<emph.end type="bold"/> 36</cell></row><row><cell>Flooding of mines</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>218<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Method of cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>482<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FULLERS' EARTH</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>FUMES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>From heated ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Poisonous</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>215—216<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Fundamentum (see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Footwall)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Fundgrube (see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Meer)</cell><cell>77</cell></row><row><cell>FURNACES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>374—378; 386; 388;<emph.end type="bold"/> 355; 492</cell></row><row><cell>Assaying (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Assay Furnaces).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Bismuth smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>433—437<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Burning tin concentrates</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>349<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Cementation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>455<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Copper smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>401—408<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>467—468; 482—483</cell></row><row><cell>“Drying” liquated copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>522—526<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Enriching copper bottoms</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>510<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Gold and silver ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>382—384<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Heating copper cakes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>503<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Iron smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>420—421;<emph.end type="bold"/> 420</cell></row><row><cell>Latin and German terms</cell><cell>220</cell></row><row><cell>Lead ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>408—410<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Liquation of silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>515<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Melting lead cakes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>498<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Nitric acid making</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>441<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Parting precious metals with anti-mony</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>452—453<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Quicksilver distillation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>426—432<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Refining copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>531—533<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Refining silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>483; 489<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Refining tin</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>418<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Roasting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>276—277<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting liquation slags</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>507<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Tin smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>411—413; 419<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><pb pagenum="623"/><row><cell>FURNACE ACCRETIONS</cell><cell>113; 221; 492</cell></row><row><cell>Removal of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>376<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FURNACE HOODS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>494<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FORST.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mines of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>24;<emph.end type="bold"/> 24</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Gaarherd<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Refining-hearth).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Gaarmachen<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Copper Refining).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>GAD</cell><cell>150</cell></row><row><cell>GALENA</cell><cell>51; 109; 110; 221</cell></row><row><cell>Bismuth distinguished from</cell><cell>3</cell></row><row><cell>Smelting of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>400—401<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GANGUE MINERALS</cell><cell>48</cell></row><row><cell>GARLIC.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Magnet weakened by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>39<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GARNETS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>334<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GASES (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Fumes)</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>From fire-setting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>120<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Gedigen eisen, silher,<emph.end type="italics"/> etc. (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Native Iron, Silver, etc.).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Gel atrament<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see Misy<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>GEMS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>115;<emph.end type="bold"/> 1</cell></row><row><cell>GEOLOGY.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Agricola's views</cell><cell>595</cell></row><row><cell>GERMANS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>English mining influenced by</cell><cell>283</cell></row><row><cell>Mining men imported into England</cell><cell>282</cell></row><row><cell>Ore-dressing methods</cell><cell>281—282</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Geschwornen<emph.end type="italics"/> (in Saxon mines)</cell><cell>77</cell></row><row><cell>GEYER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXXI; 42;<emph.end type="bold"/> VI.</cell></row><row><cell>Shafts</cell><cell>102</cell></row><row><cell>Tin-strakes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>304<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GILDING</cell><cell>460</cell></row><row><cell>Removal from objects</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>460; 464<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GIPS (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Gypsum).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>GITTELDE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting of lead ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>391<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Glantz<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Galena).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Glasertz<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Silver Glance).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Glasköpfe<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Ironstone).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>GLASS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>534—592<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Blowing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>592<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Furnaces</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>586—590<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>From sand</cell><cell>380</cell></row><row><cell>GLASS-GALLS</cell><cell>235; 221</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235; 238; 243; 246<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in parting gold from copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>464<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in smelting gold concentrates</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>397; 398<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Glette<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Litharge).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Glimmer<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mica).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>GNOMES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>In mines</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>217;<emph.end type="bold"/> 112; 214; 217</cell></row><row><cell>GOBLINS (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Gnomes).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>GOD'S GIFT MINE (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Gottsgaab Mine).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>GOLD (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Gold Ores, Parting, Smelting, Stamp-Mill, <emph type="italics"/>etc.<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Alluvial mining</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>321—336;<emph.end type="bold"/> 330</cell></row><row><cell>Alluvial streams</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>75<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation</cell><cell>297</cell></row><row><cell>Gold-dust</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>396<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Historical notes</cell><cell>399; 354</cell></row><row><cell>Indications of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>108; 116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Lust for, not the fault of the metal</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>16<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Minerals</cell><cell>108</cell></row><row><cell>Minerals associated with</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>108—109<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting of ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>381—382; 386; 388; 390; 396<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Wickedness caused by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9—10<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GOLD CONCENTRATES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>396—399;<emph.end type="bold"/> 398</cell></row><row><cell>GOLDEN FLEECE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>330;<emph.end type="bold"/> 330</cell></row><row><cell>GOLD ORES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>107—108<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>295—299;<emph.end type="bold"/> 297</cell></row><row><cell>Assay by amalgamation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>243—244<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Assay by fire</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>242—243<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Flux used in assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Flux used in smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>398<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting in blast furnace</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>398—400<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting cupriferous ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>404—407<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting in lead bath</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>399<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting pyritiferous ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>398—401<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Stamp-milling</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>321<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Goldstein<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Touchstone).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>GOSLAR</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>5; 37;<emph.end type="bold"/> 37</cell></row><row><cell>Lead smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>408<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Native zine vitriol</cell><cell>572</cell></row><row><cell>Roasting ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>274;<emph.end type="bold"/> 274</cell></row><row><cell>Spalling hard ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>271<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GOSLARITE</cell><cell>113; 572</cell></row><row><cell>GOTTSGAAB MINE</cell><cell>VI; VII; <emph type="bold"/>74;<emph.end type="bold"/> 74</cell></row><row><cell>GOUNCE</cell><cell>267</cell></row><row><cell>GRAND CANAL OF CHINA</cell><cell>129</cell></row><row><cell>GRANULATION METHODS FOR BULLION</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>444<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GRANULATION OF COPPER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>250<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GREEKS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Antimony</cell><cell>428</cell></row><row><cell>Brass making</cell><cell>410</cell></row><row><cell>Copper smelting</cell><cell>403</cell></row><row><cell>Iron and steel making</cell><cell>421</cell></row><row><cell>Metallurgy from Egypt</cell><cell>402</cell></row><row><cell>Mining law</cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell>Ore dressing</cell><cell>281</cell></row><row><cell>Quicksilver</cell><cell>432</cell></row><row><cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>Smelting appliances</cell><cell>355</cell></row><row><cell>GREY ANTIMONY (<emph type="italics"/>see also Stibium<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell>110; 221; 428</cell></row><row><cell>GRIFFINS</cell><cell>331</cell></row><row><cell>GROOM OF THE CHAMBER.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Right to a meer</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>81<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GROOVE (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Shafts)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>GROUND SLUICES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>336—337<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GROUND WATERS</cell><cell>46—48</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Grünspan<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Verdigris).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Gulden<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>92; 419</cell></row><row><cell>GUNPOWDER.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>First use for blasting in mines</cell><cell>119</cell></row><row><cell>Invention of</cell><cell>562</cell></row><row><cell>GYPSUM</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell>HADE</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Haematites<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Ironstone).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Halinitrum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Saltpetre).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>HALLE, SALT INDUSTRY</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>552<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HAMMERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>151<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>With water power</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>423<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HANGINGWALL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>68; 117<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HARZ MINERS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Agricola consulted</cell><cell>VII.</cell></row><row><cell>Antimony sulphide</cell><cell>428</cell></row><row><cell>First mining charter</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>First stamp-mill</cell><cell>282</cell></row><row><cell>Pumps</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>194<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HAULING APPLIANCES (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Whims <emph type="italics"/>and<emph.end type="italics"/> Windlasses)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>160—168;<emph.end type="bold"/> 149</cell></row><row><cell>HEAP ROASTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>274—276<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HEARTH-LEAD (<emph type="italics"/>see also Molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>475;<emph.end type="bold"/> 476; 110; 221</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>232<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>379; 398; 400<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HEARTHS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>For bismuth smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>433—437<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For melting lead</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>390; 498<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HEAVENLY HOST MINE (<emph type="italics"/>see Himmelisch Höz<emph.end type="italics"/> Mine).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>HEAVY SPAR</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>HEBREWS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Knowledge of antimony</cell><cell>428</cell></row><row><cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>Term for tin</cell><cell>412</cell></row><row><cell>HEMATITE</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>HEMICYCLE (<emph type="italics"/>Hemicyclium<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>137—138<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Heraclion<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Lodestone).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Herdplei<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Hearth-Lead).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>HIERO, KING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>247;<emph.end type="bold"/> 247</cell></row><row><cell>HIGH PEAK (Derbyshire).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mining law</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>Nomenclature in mines</cell><cell>77</cell></row><row><cell>Saxon customs, connection with</cell><cell>77; 85</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Himmelisch Höz<emph.end type="italics"/> MINE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>74; 92;<emph.end type="bold"/> 75</cell></row><row><cell>HOE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>152<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HOLIDAYS OF MINERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>99<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HORN SILVER</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell>HORNS OF DEER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>230<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HORNSTONE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116;<emph.end type="bold"/> 114</cell></row><row><cell>HUNGARY.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>483<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><pb pagenum="624"/><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Hüttenrauch<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see Pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>IGLAU, CHARTER OF</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>INCENSE IN CUPELLATION FURNACES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>472<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>INDICATIONS OF ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>106; 107; 116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Ingestores<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Shovellers).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>INDIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Steel</cell><cell>423</cell></row><row><cell>Zinc</cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Intervenium<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>51; 50<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>INVESTMENT IN MINES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26—29<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>IRON</cell><cell>420; 354; 111</cell></row><row><cell>Cast</cell><cell>420</cell></row><row><cell>Censure of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>11<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Indications of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Malleable</cell><cell>420</cell></row><row><cell>Smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>420—426<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Sulphur harm&longs;ul to</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>273<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>IRON AGE</cell><cell>420</cell></row><row><cell>IRON FILINGS (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Iron-Scales)</cell><cell>221</cell></row><row><cell>Use in assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>234; 238; 246<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>IRON ORE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Assaying of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>247<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>420—426<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>IRON-RUST</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116; 474;<emph.end type="bold"/> 1; 111</cell></row><row><cell>IRON-SCALES</cell><cell>221</cell></row><row><cell>Flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>234<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in smelting gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>398<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in smelting silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>400<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in making nitric acid</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>440<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in parting gold from copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>464<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>IRON-SLAG.</cell><cell>221</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>234; 235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>IRONSTONE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>390;<emph.end type="bold"/> 111</cell></row><row><cell>ITALIANS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Alluvial mining in Germany</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>334<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ITALY.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mining formerly forbidden</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>8<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>JADE</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell>JAPAN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Steel</cell><cell>423</cell></row><row><cell>JASPER</cell><cell>111; 2</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Jaspis<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell>JET</cell><cell>34</cell></row><row><cell>JIGGING SIEVE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>310;<emph.end type="bold"/> 267; 283</cell></row><row><cell>JOACHIMSTHAL</cell><cell>VI.</cell></row><row><cell>First stamp-mill</cell><cell>281</cell></row><row><cell>Mining shares and profits</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>91; 92<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Jüdenstein<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see Lapis Judaicus<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>JUICES</cell><cell>1; 47</cell></row><row><cell>Agricola's theory</cell><cell>46; 52</cell></row><row><cell>From springs and streams</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>33<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Stone juice</cell><cell>46; 49</cell></row><row><cell>Tastes of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>34<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>JUICES, SOLIDIFIED.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Agricola's view of</cell><cell>1; 49</cell></row><row><cell>Extraction of metals from</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>350<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Preparation of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>545<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>JULIAN ALPS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Stamp-milling in</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>319<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>JUNCTIONS (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Veins, Intersections of).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Jurati<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Jurors).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>JURORS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>22; 92; 96;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell>In English mining custom</cell><cell>85</cell></row><row><cell>Relations to Bergmeister</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>95;<emph.end type="bold"/> 77</cell></row><row><cell>JUSTINIAN CODE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mines</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Kalchstein<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Limestone).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Kammschale<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>127</cell></row><row><cell>KAOLINITE (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Porcelain Clay).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Katzensilber<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mica).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>KING.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Deputy</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>94<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Right to a meer</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>81<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Kinstock<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Liquation Cakes, Exhausted).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Kis<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Pyrites).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>KNOCKERS (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Gnomes).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Kobelt<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Cobalt).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>KÖLERGANG VEIN</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>42<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>KÖNIGSBERG.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Fire-setting</cell><cell>119</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Kupferglas ertz<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Copper Glance).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Kupferschiefer<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Copper Schists).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>KUTTENBLRG.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Depths of shafts</cell><cell>102</cell></row><row><cell>LABOUR CONDITION IN MINING TITLE.</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>92;<emph.end type="bold"/> 83—85</cell></row><row><cell>LACEDAEMONIANS (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Spartans).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Lachter<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Fathom).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>LADDERWAYS IN SHAFTS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>124; 212<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LADLE FOR BULLION</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>382<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Lapis aerarius<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Copper Ore).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Lapis alabandicus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>380</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Lapis Judaicus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>115;<emph.end type="bold"/> 115</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Lapis specularis<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Gypsum).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>LATHS (Lagging)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>LA TOLFA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Alum manufacture</cell><cell>565</cell></row><row><cell>Discovery of</cell><cell>570</cell></row><row><cell>LAURION (LAURIUM), Mr. (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mr. LAURION, MINES OF).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>LAUTENTAL, LIQUATION AT</cell><cell>491</cell></row><row><cell>LAW (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mining Law).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>LAW-SUITS OVER SHARES IN MINES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>94<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LEAD</cell><cell>354; 390; 110</cell></row><row><cell>Censure of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>11<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>464—483<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Melting prior to liquation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>500<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In liquation cakes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>505—506;<emph.end type="bold"/> 505; 506</cell></row><row><cell>Refining silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>483—490<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting of ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>388—392; 400<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>232; 239; 242; 244; 249; 251<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Washing in sluices</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>347<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LEAD-ASH</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>237;<emph.end type="bold"/> 237; 221</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>234<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in parting gold from copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>463<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LEAD BATH</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>381<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LEAD-GLASS</cell><cell>236</cell></row><row><cell>LEAD GRANULES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>239; 463;<emph.end type="bold"/> 221</cell></row><row><cell>LEADING (in liquation)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>304; 507; 513;<emph.end type="bold"/> 491; 492; 504</cell></row><row><cell>Components of the charge</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>505—509<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LEAD OCHRE</cell><cell>232; 110; 221</cell></row><row><cell>LEAD ORE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Assay methods</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>245—246<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Roasting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>275<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting in blast furnace</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>390; 408<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LEASE, IN AUSTRALIAN TITLE</cell><cell>77</cell></row><row><cell>LEAVES PREPARATION OF BULLION INTO</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>444<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LEBERTHAL</cell><cell>24</cell></row><row><cell>LEES OF <emph type="italics"/>aqua<emph.end type="italics"/> WHICH SEPARATES GOLD FROM SILVER</cell><cell>234; 443; 221</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>234; 238<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LEES OF VINEGAR (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Argol)</cell><cell>221</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>234; 236; 243;<emph.end type="bold"/> 234</cell></row><row><cell>LEES OF WINE (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Argol).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>LEMNOS, ISLAND OF</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>31<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LEMNIAN EARTH</cell><cell>31</cell></row><row><cell>LEPROSY OF HOUSE WALLS (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Salt-petre).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>LEVEL (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Drift)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>LEVEL, PLUMMET (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Plummet Level)</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>LIMESTONE</cell><cell>114; 221</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>236; 390<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LIMONITE</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>LIMP</cell><cell>267</cell></row><row><cell>LINARES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Hannibal's mines near</cell><cell>42</cell></row><row><cell>LIPARI ISLANDS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Alum from</cell><cell>566</cell></row><row><cell>LIQUATED SILVER-LEAD (<emph type="italics"/>see Stannum and<emph.end type="italics"/> Silver-lead).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>LIQUATION</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>519—521;<emph.end type="bold"/> 491; 519</cell></row><row><cell>Ash-coloured copper from</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>529<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Buildings for</cell><cell>491</cell></row><row><cell>Furnace</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>515—518;<emph.end type="bold"/> 492</cell></row><row><cell>Historical note on</cell><cell>494</cell></row><row><cell>Losses</cell><cell>491; 539</cell></row><row><cell>Nomenclature</cell><cell>492</cell></row><row><cell>LIQUATION CAKES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>505—509;<emph.end type="bold"/> 492; 505; 506</cell></row><row><cell>Enrichment of the lead</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>512;<emph.end type="bold"/> 512</cell></row><row><cell>Extraction of silver from</cell><cell>512</cell></row><row><cell>From bye-products of liquation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>539—540<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>From copper bottoms</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>512;<emph.end type="bold"/> 512</cell></row><pb pagenum="625"/><row><cell>Proportion of lead in rich silver copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>509<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LIQUATION CAKES, EXHAUSTED</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>521—526; 406;<emph.end type="bold"/> 492; 520</cell></row><row><cell>LIQUATION SLAGS</cell><cell>509; 492; 541</cell></row><row><cell>Furnaces for</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>507<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Treatment of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>541<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LIQUATION THORNS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>522; 539;<emph.end type="bold"/> 492; 539; 540</cell></row><row><cell>From cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>543;<emph.end type="bold"/> 543</cell></row><row><cell>From “drying” copper residues</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>529<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LITHARGE (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Cupellation)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>475; 232—238;<emph.end type="bold"/> 466; 476; 110; 222</cell></row><row><cell>Use in reducing silver nitrate</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>447<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>379; 398; 400<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Lithargyrum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Litharge).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>LODESTONE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>115;<emph.end type="bold"/> 111; 115; 2</cell></row><row><cell>Compass</cell><cell>57</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Los Pozos de Anibal<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>42</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Lotores<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Washers).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>LUSITANIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold alluvial</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>347<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Sluices for gold washing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>325<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Tin smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>419<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LUTE</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>Preparation of for furnace linings</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>375—376<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LYDIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mining law</cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell>The King's mines</cell><cell>27</cell></row><row><cell>LYE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>558;<emph.end type="bold"/> 221; 233</cell></row><row><cell>Use in making fluxes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>236<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in parting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>463<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Magister Metallicorum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Bergmeister).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Magister Monetariorum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Master of the Mint).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Magnes<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Lodestone <emph type="italics"/>and<emph.end type="italics"/> Man-ganese)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>584;<emph.end type="bold"/> 111; 115; 584</cell></row><row><cell>MAGNET</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>247<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Garlic</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>39<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Magnetis<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mica).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>MAGNETITE</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>MALACHITE</cell><cell>109; 221</cell></row><row><cell>MALADIES OF MINERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>214—217<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MALTHA</cell><cell>581</cell></row><row><cell>MANAGER (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mine Manager).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>MANGANESE</cell><cell>586; 354</cell></row><row><cell>MANNSFELD COPPER SLATES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>126—127; 279;<emph.end type="bold"/> 127; 273</cell></row><row><cell>MAP-MAKING</cell><cell>129</cell></row><row><cell>MARBLE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>115;<emph.end type="bold"/> 2; 114</cell></row><row><cell>MARCASITE</cell><cell>111; 112; 409</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Marga<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Marl).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>MARIENBERG</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXXI;<emph.end type="bold"/> VI.</cell></row><row><cell>MARL</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell>MARMELSTEIN (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Marble).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Marmor<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Marble).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Marmor alabastrites<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Alabaster).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Marmor glarea<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell>MASSICOT (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Lead Ochre)</cell><cell>110; 221; 232</cell></row><row><cell>MASTER OF THE HORSE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>81<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MASTER OF THE MINT</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>95;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell>MATTE (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Cakes of Melted Pyrites).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>MATTE SMELTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>404—407<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MEASURE (unit of mining area)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>78;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell>MEASURES</cell><cell>616—617; 78; 550</cell></row><row><cell>MEDICINE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Knowledge necessary for miners</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>3<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Medulla saxorum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Porcelain Clay).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>MEER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>77—89<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Boundary stones</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>87<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>On <emph type="italics"/>vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>87<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>On <emph type="italics"/>vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>86<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MEISSEN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Duraps from mines</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>312<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Melanteria<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>117;<emph.end type="bold"/> 112; 573</cell></row><row><cell>Indication of copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MELANTERITE</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>MELOS, ISLAND OF</cell><cell>566</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Menning<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Red-lead).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Mergel<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Marl).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>METALS</cell><cell>2; 44; 51</cell></row><row><cell>Advantages and uses</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>19; 20<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Necessity to man</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXV; 12—13<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Not responsible for evil passions</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Metreta<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>153</cell></row><row><cell>MEXICO</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Patio process</cell><cell>297</cell></row><row><cell>MICA</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell>MIDDLE AGES, MINING LAW OF</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>MILLS FOR GRINDING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>294—299;<emph.end type="bold"/> 280</cell></row><row><cell>MIMES (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Gnomes)</cell><cell>217</cell></row><row><cell>MINE CAPTAIN</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26;<emph.end type="bold"/> 77</cell></row><row><cell>MINE MANAGER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>97; 98;<emph.end type="bold"/> 77; 78</cell></row><row><cell>MINERAL KINGDOM, AGRICOLA'S DIVISIONS OF</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>MINERALS</cell><cell>594; 108; 48; 51</cell></row><row><cell>Compound</cell><cell>2; 51</cell></row><row><cell>Mixed</cell><cell>2; 51</cell></row><row><cell>MINERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>1—4; 25;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell>Duties and punishments</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>100; 22<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Law (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mining Law).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Litigation among</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>21<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Slaves as</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>23<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MINES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Abandonment of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>217<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Conditions desirable</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>30—33<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Investments in</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26—29<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Management of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>25; 26<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Names of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>42<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MINES ROYAL, COMPANY OF</cell><cell>283</cell></row><row><cell>MINING (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Sett, Lease, Claim, Meer, <emph type="italics"/>etc.<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Criticisms of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>4—12<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Harmless and honourable</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>14; 20; 23<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Methods of breaking ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>117—118<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Stoping</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>125<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MINING CLERK</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>93; 95; 96;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell>MINING COMPANIES (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Companies, Mining).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>MINING FOREMAN</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>98—99;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell>Frauds by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>21—22<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MINING LAW</cell><cell>82—86</cell></row><row><cell>Boundary stones</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>87<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Drainage requirements</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>92—93<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>England</cell><cell>84—86</cell></row><row><cell>Europe</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>Forfeiture of title</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>92—93<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>France</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>Greek and Roman</cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell>Middle Ages</cell><cell>84—85</cell></row><row><cell>Right of Overlord, Landowner, State and Miner</cell><cell>82</cell></row><row><cell>Tunnels</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>88—89<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MINING PREFECT</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26; 94;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell>MINING RIGHTS (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mining Law <emph type="italics"/>and<emph.end type="italics"/>Meer).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>MINING TERMS, OLD ENGLISH</cell><cell>77; 101</cell></row><row><cell>MINING TOOLS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>149—153<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Buckets for ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>153—154<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Buckets for water</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>157<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Trucks</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>156<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Wheelbarrows</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>155<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Minium<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>Quicksilver from</cell><cell>433</cell></row><row><cell>Red-lead</cell><cell>232</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Minium secundarium<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Red-lead).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>MISPICKEL (<emph type="italics"/>Mistpuckel<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Misy<emph.end type="italics"/> (the mineral)</cell><cell>573; 111; 403</cell></row><row><cell>An indication of copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in parting gold and silver</cell><cell>459</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Mitlere und obere offenbrüche<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/>Furnace Accretions).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Modius<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>617; 405</cell></row><row><cell>MOGLITZ.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Tin working</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>318<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MOIL</cell><cell>150</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>110; 221; 476; 400; 408</cell></row><row><cell>Term for lead carbonates</cell><cell>400; 408</cell></row><row><cell>Molybdenite</cell><cell>477</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Monetarius<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Coiners).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>MONEY, ASSAYING OF</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>251—252<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MORANO GLASS FACTORIES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>592<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MORAVIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>483<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Stamp-milling</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>321<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Washing gold ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>324<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MORDANTS</cell><cell>569</cell></row><row><cell>MORTAR-BOX</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>279—280; 312; 319;<emph.end type="bold"/> 267</cell></row><pb pagenum="626"/><row><cell>MOUNTAINS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Formation of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>595<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MT. BERMIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold Mines of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26;<emph.end type="bold"/> 27</cell></row><row><cell>MT. LAURION, MINES OF</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>27;<emph.end type="bold"/> 27—29; 391</cell></row><row><cell>Crushing and concentration of ores</cell><cell>281</cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>Mining law</cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell>Smelting appliances</cell><cell>355</cell></row><row><cell>Xenophon on</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>6<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MT. SINAI.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ancient copper smelting</cell><cell>355; 402</cell></row><row><cell>MUFFLE FURNACES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>224—228; 239<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MUFFLES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>227; 239;<emph.end type="bold"/> 222</cell></row><row><cell>Refining silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>489—490<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MÜHLBERG, BATTLE OF</cell><cell>X.</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Murrhina<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Chalcedony).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>MUSKETS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>11<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MYCENAE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Copper</cell><cell>402</cell></row><row><cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>NAMES OF MINES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>42<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>NAPHTHA</cell><cell>581</cell></row><row><cell>NATIVE COPPER</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell>NATIVE IRON</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>NATIVE MINERALS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>107<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>NATIVE SILVER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>269;<emph.end type="bold"/> 109</cell></row><row><cell>NATRON (<emph type="italics"/>see Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>NEOLITHIC FURNACES</cell><cell>355</cell></row><row><cell>NEUSOHL, METHOD OF SCREENING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>290<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>NEWBOTTLE ABBEY</cell><cell>35</cell></row><row><cell>NITOCRIS, BRIDGE OF</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>NITRIC ACID (<emph type="italics"/>see also Aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>439—443;<emph.end type="bold"/> 460; 439; 354</cell></row><row><cell>Assay parting gold and silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>248<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Testing silver regulus with</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>449<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in cleaning gold dust</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>396<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Soda)</cell><cell>558; 110</cell></row><row><cell>NOMENCLATURE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>I;<emph.end type="bold"/> 267</cell></row><row><cell>Mining law</cell><cell>77; 78</cell></row><row><cell>Mining officials</cell><cell>77; 78</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Norici<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>388</cell></row><row><cell>Conveyance of ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>169<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>NORMANS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mining Law in England</cell><cell>85</cell></row><row><cell>NOTARY</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>94;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell>NUBIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Early gold-mining</cell><cell>399</cell></row><row><cell>NUREMBERG, SCALE OF WEIGHTS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>264<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Obolus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>25</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Ochra nativa<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>OCHRE YELLOW</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Of&longs;enbrüche<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Furnace Accretions).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>OLYNTHUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Betrayal to Philip of Macedon</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Operculum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>441;<emph.end type="bold"/> 222</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Orbis<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>141;<emph.end type="bold"/> 137</cell></row><row><cell>ORE (<emph type="italics"/>see various. metals,<emph.end type="italics"/> Assaying, Mining, <emph type="italics"/>etc.<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ORE CHANNELS (<emph type="italics"/>see Canales<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ORE DEPOSITS, THEORY OF</cell><cell>XIII; 43—53</cell></row><row><cell>ORE DRESSING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>267—351<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Burning</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>273<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Hand spalling</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>271—272<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Sorting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>268—271<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Orguia<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>78;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78; 617</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Orichalcum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see Aurichalcum<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ORPIMENT</cell><cell>111; 1; 222</cell></row><row><cell>Colour of fumes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Harmful to metals</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>273<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Indication of gold, etc.</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Roasted from ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>273<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>237<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>OUTCROPS</cell><cell>68; 43</cell></row><row><cell>OX-BLOOD IN SALT MAKING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>552<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PACTOLUS, GOLD SANDS OF</cell><cell>27</cell></row><row><cell>PARK'S PROCESS</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>PARTING GOLD FROM COPPER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>462—464<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PARTING GOLD FROM SILVER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>443—460;<emph.end type="bold"/> 458—463</cell></row><row><cell>Antimony sulphide</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>451—452;<emph.end type="bold"/> 451—452; 461</cell></row><row><cell>PARTING GOLD FROM SILVER.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cementation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>453—457; 453—454; 458<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Chlorine gas</cell><cell>458; 462</cell></row><row><cell>Electrolysis</cell><cell>458; 462</cell></row><row><cell>Nitric acid</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>443—447;<emph.end type="bold"/> 443; 447; 460</cell></row><row><cell>Nitric acid (in assaying)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>247—249<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Sulphur and copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>448—451;<emph.end type="bold"/> 448; 461</cell></row><row><cell>Sulphuric acid</cell><cell>458; 462</cell></row><row><cell>PARTITIONS</cell><cell>493</cell></row><row><cell>PASSAU, PEACE OF</cell><cell>IX.</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Passus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>616; 78</cell></row><row><cell>PATIO PROCESS</cell><cell>297—298</cell></row><row><cell>PATTINSON'S PROCESS</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>PEAK, THE (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> High Peak).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pentremites<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>PERGAMUM.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Brazen ox of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>11<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Mines near</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26; 27<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PERIPATETICS</cell><cell>XII.</cell></row><row><cell>Theory of ore deposits</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>47;<emph.end type="bold"/> 44</cell></row><row><cell>View of wealth</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>18<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PERSIANS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ancient mining law</cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pes<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>616; 78</cell></row><row><cell>PESTLES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>231; 483<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PETROLEUM</cell><cell>581—582</cell></row><row><cell>PHALARIS. BRAZEN BULL OF</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>11<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PHILOSOPHY.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Knowledge necessary for miners</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>3<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PHOENICIANS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Copper and bronze</cell><cell>402</cell></row><row><cell>In Thasos</cell><cell>24</cell></row><row><cell>Tin</cell><cell>411—412</cell></row><row><cell>PICKS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>152—153<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pickscheifer<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Ash-coloured Copper).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>PLACER MINING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>321—348<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pleigeel<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Lead Ochre).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pleiweis<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> White-lead).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>PLEYGANG VEIN</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>42<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Plumbago<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>110</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Plumbum candidum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>110; 3; 473</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Plumbum cinereum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>111; 3</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Plumbum nigrum lutei coloris<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>110; 3</cell></row><row><cell>PLUMMET LEVEL.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Standing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>143;<emph.end type="bold"/> 137</cell></row><row><cell>Suspended</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>145; 146;<emph.end type="bold"/> 137</cell></row><row><cell>POCKETS IN ALLUVIAL STUICES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>322—330<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>POISONOUS FUMES (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Fumes).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>POLAND.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>483<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Lead ore washing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>347<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Lead smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>392<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Poletae,<emph.end type="italics"/> TABLETS OF THE</cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell>POLING COPPER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>531—538;<emph.end type="bold"/> 535—536</cell></row><row><cell>POMPEIOPOLIS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Arsenic mine at</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>394; 113—114; 403</cell></row><row><cell>From copper refinings</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>538<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>From cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>476<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>From dust-chambers</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>394<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>From roasting ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>278<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Poisonous</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>214;<emph.end type="bold"/> 215</cell></row><row><cell>Used for brass making</cell><cell>410</cell></row><row><cell>PORCELAIN CLAY</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>POTASH</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>558—559;<emph.end type="bold"/> 558; 233; 220</cell></row><row><cell>In <emph type="italics"/>Sal artificiosus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>463<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>POTTERY, EGYPTIAN</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>POTOSI</cell><cell>298</cell></row><row><cell>POZOS DE ANIBAL, LOS</cell><cell>42</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pous<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>617; 78</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Praefectus cuniculi<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>78</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Praefectus fodinae<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mine Manager).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Praefectus metallorum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mining Prefect).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Praeses cuniculi<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>78</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Praeses fodinae<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mining Foreman).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>PRECIOUS AND BASE METALS</cell><cell>439</cell></row><row><cell>PRIMGAP</cell><cell>80</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Procurator metallorum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell>PROSPECTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>35<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PROUSTITE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>109<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PUMPS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>171—200;<emph.end type="bold"/> 149</cell></row><row><cell>Chain</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>171—175<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Rag and chain</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>188—200<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><pb pagenum="627"/><row><cell>Suction</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>175—188<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Purgator argents<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Silver Refiner).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>PURSER</cell><cell>77</cell></row><row><cell>PUTROLI</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>501<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PYRARGYRITK</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pyriten argenium<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>408</cell></row><row><cell>PYRITES (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Cakes of Melted Pyrites)</cell><cell>51; 111; 112; 1</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>234<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Assay for gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>243<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In tin concentrates</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>348<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Latin and German terms</cell><cell>222</cell></row><row><cell>Roasting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>273—274<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Roasting cakes of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>349—351<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting for gold and silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>399; 401<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Used in making vitriol</cell><cell>578</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pyrites aerosus<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Copper Pyrites).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pyrites aurei coloris<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Copper Pyrites).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>QUARTZ (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Stones which easily melt)</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell>380</cell></row><row><cell>An indication of ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Material of glass</cell><cell>380</cell></row><row><cell>Silver ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>113<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>401<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Quarzum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Quartz).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>QUERTZE</cell><cell>380</cell></row><row><cell>QUICKSILVER</cell><cell>432; 2; 354; 111</cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation of gilt objects</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>461<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation of gold dust</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>396<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation of gold ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>297;<emph.end type="bold"/> 297</cell></row><row><cell>Assaying methods</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>247<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Ore</cell><cell>426—432</cell></row><row><cell>Use in assaying gold ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>243<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>RAG AND CHAIN PUMPS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>188—200<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>RAKE VEINS</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>RAMMELSBERG.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Collapse of mines</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>216<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Discovery</cell><cell>37</cell></row><row><cell>Early vitriol making</cell><cell>572</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Rauchstein<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>127</cell></row><row><cell>REALGAR</cell><cell>1; 111; 222</cell></row><row><cell>Colour of fumes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Harmful to metals</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>273<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Indication of ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Roasted from ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>273<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Rederstein (see Trochitis).<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>RED-LEAD</cell><cell>232; 110; 222</cell></row><row><cell>Use in parting gold from copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>463<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in parting gold from silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>459<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>REFINED SALT</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>454; 463;<emph.end type="bold"/> 233</cell></row><row><cell>REFINERY FOR SILVER AND COPPER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>491—498<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>REFINING GOLD FROM COPPER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>462—464<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>REFINING GOLD FROM SILVER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>443—458<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>REFINING-HEARTH</cell><cell>492</cell></row><row><cell>REFINING SILVER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>483—490;<emph.end type="bold"/> 465; 484</cell></row><row><cell>REFINING SILVER FROM LEAD</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>464<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>REFORMATION, THE</cell><cell>V; VIII.</cell></row><row><cell>RE-OPENING OF OLD MINES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>217<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>REVIVAL OF LEARNING.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Agricola's position in</cell><cell>XIII.</cell></row><row><cell>REWARD LEASE, IN AUSTRALIAN LAW</cell><cell>77</cell></row><row><cell>RHAETIA</cell><cell>388</cell></row><row><cell>RHAETIAN ALPS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Stamp milling in</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>319<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>RING-FIRE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>448<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>RIO TINTO MINES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Roman methods of smelting</cell><cell>405</cell></row><row><cell>Roman water-wheels</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell>RISKS OF MINING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>28—29<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>RITHER (a horse)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>ROASTED COPPER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>233;<emph.end type="bold"/> 233; 222</cell></row><row><cell>ROASTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>273—279;<emph.end type="bold"/> 267</cell></row><row><cell>Heap roasting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>274—275<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In furnaces</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>276<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Mattes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>349—351<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Prior to assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>231<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ROCKS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>119;<emph.end type="bold"/> 2</cell></row><row><cell>ROCK-SALT</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>548;<emph.end type="bold"/> 222</cell></row><row><cell>Use in cementation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>454<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ROMAN ALUM</cell><cell>565</cell></row><row><cell>ROMANS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation</cell><cell>297</cell></row><row><cell>Antimony</cell><cell>428</cell></row><row><cell>Brass making</cell><cell>410</cell></row><row><cell>Companies</cell><cell>90</cell></row><row><cell>Copper smelting</cell><cell>404—405</cell></row><row><cell>Mining law</cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell>Minium Company</cell><cell>232</cell></row><row><cell>Quicksilver</cell><cell>433</cell></row><row><cell>Roasting</cell><cell>267</cell></row><row><cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell><cell>392</cell></row><row><cell>Washing of ore</cell><cell>281</cell></row><row><cell>ROSETTE COPPER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>538;<emph.end type="bold"/> 535</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Rosgeel<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Realgar).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>RUBY COPPER</cell><cell>109; 402</cell></row><row><cell>RUBY SILVER</cell><cell>51; 109</cell></row><row><cell>Assaying of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>244<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>473<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> Ores</cell><cell>108</cell></row><row><cell>RUST (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Iron-rust).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SABINES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Saigerdörner<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Liquation Thorns).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Saigerwerk (see Stannum).<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Salamander har<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Asbestos).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Salamis, Battle of</cell><cell>27</cell></row><row><cell>Sal-ammoniac</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>560;<emph.end type="bold"/> 560; 222</cell></row><row><cell>In cements for parting gold and silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>454—457<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In making <emph type="italics"/>aqua valens<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>441<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Uses in cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>474<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Uses in making <emph type="italics"/>aqua regia<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>460</cell></row><row><cell>Uses in parting gold from copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>463<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sal artificiosus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>236; 463;<emph.end type="bold"/> 236</cell></row><row><cell>In assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>242<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>234<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SALT</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>545; 556;<emph.end type="bold"/> 546; 233; 222</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>234—238<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Pans</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>545; 546<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Solidified juice</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>Use in cementation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>454;<emph.end type="bold"/> 454</cell></row><row><cell>Use in parting gold from copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>463; 464<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in smelting ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>396; 400<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Wells</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>546—547<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SALT MADE FROM ASHES OF MUSK IVY</cell><cell>560; 233</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sal torrefactus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>242;<emph.end type="bold"/> 222; 233</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sal tostus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>233;<emph.end type="bold"/> 233; 222</cell></row><row><cell>SALTPETRE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>561—564;<emph.end type="bold"/> 561; 562; 222</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>233; 236—238; 245; 247<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In smelting gold concentrates</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>398<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Uses in cementation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>454;<emph.end type="bold"/> 454</cell></row><row><cell>Uses in making nitric acid</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>439; 440; 447; 454<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Uses in melting silver nitrate</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>447<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SAMPLING COPPER BULLION</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>249<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SAND</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>117<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sandaraca<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Realgar).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SANDIVER (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Glass-galls).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sarda<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Carnelian).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SAXONY.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>High Peak customs from</cell><cell>77; 85</cell></row><row><cell>Political state in Agricola's time.</cell><cell>VIII; IX.</cell></row><row><cell>Reformation</cell><cell>IX.</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Saxum calcis<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Limestone).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SCALES OF FINENESS</cell><cell>253; 617</cell></row><row><cell>SCAPTE-HYLE, MINES OF</cell><cell>23</cell></row><row><cell>SCHEMNITZ.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Age of mines</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>5<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Gunpowder for blasting</cell><cell>119</cell></row><row><cell>Pumps</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>194<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SCHIST</cell><cell>222</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Schistos<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Ironstone).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SCHLACKENWALD.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ore washing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>304<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SCHMALKALDEN LEAGUE</cell><cell>IX.</cell></row><row><cell>SCHMALKALDEN WAR</cell><cell>IX; X.</cell></row><row><cell>SCHNEEBERG</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXXI;<emph.end type="bold"/> VI.</cell></row><row><cell>Cobalt</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>435<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Depth of shafts</cell><cell>102</cell></row><row><cell>Ore stamping</cell><cell>281</cell></row><row><cell>Shares</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>91<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>St. George mine</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>92;<emph.end type="bold"/> 74; 75</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Schwartz-atrament<emph.end type="italics"/> (see <emph type="italics"/>Melanteria<emph.end type="italics"/> and <emph type="italics"/>Sory<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><pb pagenum="628"/><row><cell>SCORIFICATION ASSAY</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>239<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SCORIFIER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>228; 230;<emph.end type="bold"/> 222</cell></row><row><cell>Assays in</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>238; 239<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SCREENING ORE (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Sifting Ore).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SCREENS (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Screening)</cell><cell>267</cell></row><row><cell>In stamp-mill</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>315<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Scriba fodinarum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mining Clerk).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Scriba magistri metallicorum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/>Bergmeister's Clerk).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Scriba partium<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Share Clerk).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SCUM OF LEAD FROM CUPELLATION</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>475<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SCYTHIANS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Wealth condemned</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SEAMS IN THE ROCKS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>72;<emph.end type="bold"/> 43; 47</cell></row><row><cell>Indications of ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>67; 107<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SEA-WATER, SALT FROM</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>545—546<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sesterce<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>448</cell></row><row><cell>SETT</cell><cell>77</cell></row><row><cell>SETTLING PITS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>316;<emph.end type="bold"/> 267</cell></row><row><cell>SHAFT-HOUSES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>102<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SHAFTS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>102—107; 122—124<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Surveys of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>129—135<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Venae cumulatae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>128<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SHAKES</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>SHARE CLERK</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>97; 93;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell>SHARE IN MINES (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Companies, Mining).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SHEARS FOR CUTTING NATIVE SILVER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>269<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SHIFT</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>99;<emph.end type="bold"/> 92</cell></row><row><cell>SHOES (stamp)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>285—286;<emph.end type="bold"/> 267</cell></row><row><cell>SHOVELLERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>153; 169;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sideritis<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Lodestone).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Siegelstein<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Lodestone).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SIEVES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>For charcoal</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>375<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For crushed ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>287—293; 341<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SIFTING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>287—293<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Signator publicus<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Notary).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Silberweis<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Mica).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Silex<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>114; 118</cell></row><row><cell>SILVER (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Assaying, Liquation, Parting, Refining, <emph type="italics"/>etc<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell>390; 354; 109</cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation</cell><cell>297; 300</cell></row><row><cell>Assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>248—251<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>464—483; 241<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>“Drying” copper residues from liquation</cell><cell>529</cell></row><row><cell>Enrichment in copper bottoms</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>510;<emph.end type="bold"/> 510</cell></row><row><cell>Exhausted liquation cakes</cell><cell>524</cell></row><row><cell>Indicated by bismuth, etc.</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Liquation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>505—507;<emph.end type="bold"/> 506; 509; 512</cell></row><row><cell>Parting from gold (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Parting Gold and Silver).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Parting from iron</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>544;<emph.end type="bold"/> 544</cell></row><row><cell>Precipitation from solution in copper bowl</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>444<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Refining</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>483—490;<emph.end type="bold"/> 465; 484</cell></row><row><cell>Smelting of ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>381—382; 386; 388; 390; 400; 402<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in clarification of nitric acid</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>443;<emph.end type="bold"/> 443</cell></row><row><cell>SILVER, RUBY (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Ruby Silver).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SILVER GLANCE</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell>Assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>244<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>473<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Dressing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>269<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SILVER-LEAD ALLOY (<emph type="italics"/>see Stannum, etc.<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SILVER ORES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>109;<emph.end type="bold"/> 109</cell></row><row><cell>Assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>242—244<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Assaying cupriferous ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>245<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Fluxes required in assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting cupriferous ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>404—407<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SILVER-PLATING</cell><cell>460</cell></row><row><cell>SILVER REFINER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>95;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell>SILVER REFINING (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Refining).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SILVER VEINS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>117<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SINGING BY MINERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>118<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SINTERING CONCENTRATES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>401<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SLAGS (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Liquation Slags)</cell><cell>222</cell></row><row><cell>From blast furnace</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>379; 381<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>From liquation</cell><cell>491; 492; 523</cell></row><row><cell>SLAVES AS MINERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>23;<emph.end type="bold"/> 83</cell></row><row><cell>In Greek mines</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>25;<emph.end type="bold"/> 25; 28</cell></row><row><cell>SLOUGH (tunnel)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>SLUICES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>319; 322—348<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SMALLITE</cell><cell>113</cell></row><row><cell>SMALT</cell><cell>112</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Smega<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>404</cell></row><row><cell>SMELTERS</cell><cell>78</cell></row><row><cell>SMELTING (<emph type="italics"/>see also various metals<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>379—390;<emph.end type="bold"/> 353—355</cell></row><row><cell>Assaying compared</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>220<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Building for</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>355—361<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Objects of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>353<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Smirgel<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Emery).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Smiris<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Emery).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SMYRNA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mines near</cell><cell>27</cell></row><row><cell>SNAKE-BITES</cell><cell>31</cell></row><row><cell>SODA (<emph type="italics"/>see also Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>558; 559;<emph.end type="bold"/> 233; 222</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>233; 234<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Historical notes</cell><cell>558; 354</cell></row><row><cell>Solidified juice</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>SOLE</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>SOLIDIFIED JUICES (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Juices, Solidified).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Solifuga<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>216;<emph.end type="bold"/> 216</cell></row><row><cell>SORTERS</cell><cell>78</cell></row><row><cell>SORTING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>268—271<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sory<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>112; 403; 573</cell></row><row><cell>Sows</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>376; 386;<emph.end type="bold"/> 376</cell></row><row><cell>SPAIN (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Lusitania).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ancient silver-lead mines</cell><cell>149; 392</cell></row><row><cell>Ancient silver mines of Carthage</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>27<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Ancient tin mines</cell><cell>411—412</cell></row><row><cell>SPALLING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>271—272<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Spangen (see Trochitis).<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Spanschgrün<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Verdigris).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SPARTANS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold and silver forbidden</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Interference with Athenian mines</cell><cell>27</cell></row><row><cell>SPAT (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Heavy Spar).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SPELTER</cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell>SPHALERITE</cell><cell>113</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Spiauter<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Spiesglas (see Stibium).<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SPINES OF FISHES FOR CUPELS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>230<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Spodos<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>538;<emph.end type="bold"/> 394; 113; 114</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Spuma argenti<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Litharge).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>STAFFORDSHIRE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>First pumping engine</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell>STALAGMITES</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell>STALL ROASTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>350—351<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STAMP</cell><cell>267</cell></row><row><cell>For breaking copper cakes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>501—503<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For crushing crucible lining</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>373—375<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STAMPING REFINED SILVER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>489<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STAMP-MILL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>279—287;<emph.end type="bold"/> 281—282; 267</cell></row><row><cell>Wet ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>312—314; 319—321<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STANDING PLUMMET LEVEL (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/>Plummet Level).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>STANNARIES</cell><cell>85</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Stannum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>473; 2; 384; 492</cell></row><row><cell>STEEL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>423—426;<emph.end type="bold"/> 422—423; 354</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Steiger<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>77</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Steinmack<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Porcelain Clay).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>STEMPLE (stull)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>STEPHANITE</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell>STERNEN MINE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>92;<emph.end type="bold"/> 75</cell></row><row><cell>STEWARD (of High Peak mines)</cell><cell>77</cell></row><row><cell>ST. GEORGE MINE (Schneeberg)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>92;<emph.end type="bold"/> 74; 75</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Stibium<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Antimony <emph type="italics"/>and<emph.end type="italics"/> Anti-mony Sulphide)</cell><cell>110; 428; 2; 221</cell></row><row><cell>Flux to be added to</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>237—239<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In cementation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>458—460<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Indication of silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In making nitric acid</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>440<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In parting gold and silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>451—452; 459<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In parting gold from copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>464<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In treatment of gold concentrates</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>396; 397<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STIBNITE</cell><cell>428; 451</cell></row><row><cell>ST. LORENTZ MINE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>74; 92<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STOCKWERKE (<emph type="italics"/>see Vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>STOICS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Views on wealth</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>18<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Stomoma<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>423</cell></row><row><cell>STONE JUICE</cell><cell>46; 49</cell></row><pb pagenum="629"/><row><cell>STONES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Agricola's view of</cell><cell>2; 46; 49</cell></row><row><cell>Various orders of fusibility</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>380<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>“STONES WHICH EASILY MELT” (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Quartz)</cell><cell>380; 222</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>233; 236;<emph.end type="bold"/> 233</cell></row><row><cell>In making nitric acid</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>440<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>379; 380; 390<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>401<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STOOL (of a drift)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>STOPE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>126<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STOPING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>125<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Venae cumulatae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>128<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Venae dilatatae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>126; 127<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STRAKE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>303—310;<emph.end type="bold"/> 267; 282</cell></row><row><cell>Canvas</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>307—310; 314; 316;<emph.end type="bold"/> 267</cell></row><row><cell>Egyptians</cell><cell>280</cell></row><row><cell>Greeks</cell><cell>281</cell></row><row><cell>Short</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>306—307;<emph.end type="bold"/> 267</cell></row><row><cell>Washing tin concentrates</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>341—343<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STRATA</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>126<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STREAMING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>316—318<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STRINGERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>70;<emph.end type="bold"/> 43; 47; 70</cell></row><row><cell>Indication of ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>106<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Mining method</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>128<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STYRIA</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>388<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SUBTERRANEAN HEAT</cell><cell>46; 595</cell></row><row><cell>SUCTION PUMPS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>175—188<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SULPHIDES</cell><cell>267; 355</cell></row><row><cell>SULPHUR</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>578—581;<emph.end type="bold"/> 579; 222</cell></row><row><cell>Colour of fumes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Harmful to metals</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>273<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235—238<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In parting gold from copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>463;<emph.end type="bold"/> 462</cell></row><row><cell>In parting gold from silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>448—451;<emph.end type="bold"/> 448; 461</cell></row><row><cell>In smelting gold dust</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>396<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Roasted from ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>273; 276<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Solidified juice</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>SULPHUR “NOT EXPOSED TO THE FIRE.”</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>458; 463;<emph.end type="bold"/> 579</cell></row><row><cell>SURVEYOR'S FIELD</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>137; 144;<emph.end type="bold"/> 142</cell></row><row><cell>SURVEYING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>128—148;<emph.end type="bold"/> 129</cell></row><row><cell>Necessary for miners</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>4<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Rod</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>137—138<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SUSPENDED PLUMMET LEVEL (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/>Plummet Level).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SWISS COMPASS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>145;<emph.end type="bold"/> 137</cell></row><row><cell>SWISS SURVEYORS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>145<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Symposium<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>91<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TAP-HOLE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>378; 386<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TAPPETS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>282; 319;<emph.end type="bold"/> 267</cell></row><row><cell>TAPPING-BAR</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>381<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TARSHISH, TIN TRADE</cell><cell>412</cell></row><row><cell>TARTAR (Cream of)</cell><cell>220; 234</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Tectum<emph.end type="italics"/> (Hangingwall)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Terra sigillata<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Lemnian Earth).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>“TESTS”, REFINING SILVER IN</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>483—490;<emph.end type="bold"/> 465; 484</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Thaler<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>92</cell></row><row><cell>THASOS, MINES OF</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>23; 95;<emph.end type="bold"/> 23</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Theamedes<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>THEODOSIAN CODE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mines</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>THORNS (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Liquation Thorns).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>THURINGIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Roasting pyrites</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>276<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Sluices of gold washing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>327<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TIGNA (Wall plate)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>TIMBERING.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Of ladderways and shafts</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>122; 123; 124<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Of stopes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>126<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Of tunnels and drifts</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>124—125<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TIN</cell><cell>411—413; 354; 110</cell></row><row><cell>Alluvial mining</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>336—340<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Assaying ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>246<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Assaying for silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>251<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Colour of fumes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>235<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Concentrates</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>340—342; 348—349<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Cornish treatment</cell><cell>282</cell></row><row><cell>Refining</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>418—419<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>411—420<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Stamp-milling</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>312—317<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Streaming</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>316—318<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TIN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Washing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>298; 302; 304<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Tincar<emph.end type="italics"/> or <emph type="italics"/>Tincal<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Borax).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>TITHE GATHERER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>81; 95; 98;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell>TITHE ON METALS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>81;<emph.end type="bold"/> 82</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Toden Kopf&longs;<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>235</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Tofstein (see Tophus).<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>TOLFA, LA (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> La Tolta).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>TOOLS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>149—153<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Topfstein (see Tophus).<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Tophus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>233; 114; 222</cell></row><row><cell>As a flux</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>233; 237; 390<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TORTURES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>With metals</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>11<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Without metals</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>17<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TOUCH-NEEDLES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>253—260;<emph.end type="bold"/> 253</cell></row><row><cell>TOUCHSTONE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>253—253;<emph.end type="bold"/> 252; 354; 458; 222</cell></row><row><cell>Mineral</cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell>Uses</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>243; 248; 447<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TRADE-ROUTES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Salt-deposits influence on</cell><cell>546</cell></row><row><cell>TRANSPORT OF ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>168—169<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TRENT, BISHOP OF.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Charter (1185)</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>TRIANGLES IN SURVEYING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>129—137<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TRIPOLI</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Trochitis<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>115;<emph.end type="bold"/> 115</cell></row><row><cell>TROLLEY</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>480; 500; 514<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TROY.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Lead found in</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>TROY WEIGHTS</cell><cell>616; 617; 242</cell></row><row><cell>TRUCKS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>156<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TUNNELS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>102;<emph.end type="bold"/> 101</cell></row><row><cell>Law</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>88—93<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Surveys of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>130—141<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Timbering</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>124<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TURIN PAPYRUS</cell><cell>129; 399</cell></row><row><cell>TURN (winze)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Tuteneque<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Tuttanego<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell>TUTTY</cell><cell>394</cell></row><row><cell>TWITCHES OF THE VEIN</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>TWYER</cell><cell>376</cell></row><row><cell>TYE</cell><cell>267</cell></row><row><cell>TYPE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Stibium<emph.end type="italics"/> used for</cell><cell>2; 429</cell></row><row><cell>TYRANTS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Inimical to miners</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>32<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TYROLESE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>388; 404<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ULCERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>214;<emph.end type="bold"/> 31</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> (length)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>78;<emph.end type="bold"/> 616; 78</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Uncia<emph.end type="italics"/> (weight)</cell><cell>616; 242</cell></row><row><cell>UNDERCURRENTS (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Sluices).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>UNITED STATES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Apex law</cell><cell>82</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Vectiarii<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Windlass Men).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>VEINS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>43; 64—69; 106—107;<emph.end type="bold"/> 47</cell></row><row><cell>Barren</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>72; 107<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Direction of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>54—58<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Drusy</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>72; 73; 107<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Hardness variable</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>117<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Indications</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>35—38<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Intersections of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>65; 66; 67; 106; 107<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Vena.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Use of term</cell><cell>43; 47</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>46; 49; 70;<emph.end type="bold"/> 43; 47</cell></row><row><cell>Mining method</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>128<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Mining rights</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>87<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>41; 45; 53; 60—61;<emph.end type="bold"/> 43; 47</cell></row><row><cell>Junctions with <emph type="italics"/>vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>67; 68<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Mining method</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>126—127<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Mining rights</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>83—86<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Washing lead ore from</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>347<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>44; 51; 60; 62; 63; 68; 69;<emph.end type="bold"/> 43; 47</cell></row><row><cell>Cross veins</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>65<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Functions</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>65; 66; 67; 68<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Mining rights</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>79—83<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>VENETIAN GLASS</cell><cell>222</cell></row><row><cell>Factories</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>592<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>238; 245; 246<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><pb pagenum="630"/><row><cell>VENETIAN GLASS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>In cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>474<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>VENICE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Glass-factories</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>592<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Parting with nitric acid</cell><cell>461</cell></row><row><cell>Scale of weights</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>264<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>VENTILATION</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>200—212; 121<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>With bellows</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>207—210<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>With fans</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>203—207<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>With linen cloths</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>210<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>With windsails</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>200—203<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>VERDIGRIS</cell><cell>440; 1; 110; 222</cell></row><row><cell>In cementation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>454; 457<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Indication of ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In making nitric acid</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>440<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In parting gold from copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>464<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>VERMILION.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Adulteration with red-lead</cell><cell>232</cell></row><row><cell>Poisonous</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>215<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>VILLACENSE LEAD</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>239;<emph.end type="bold"/> 239</cell></row><row><cell>VINEGAR.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Use in breaking rocks</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>119;<emph.end type="bold"/> 118</cell></row><row><cell>Use in cleansing quicksilver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>426<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in roasting matte</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>349<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Use in softening ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>231<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Virgula divina<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Divining Rod).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>VITRIOL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>571;<emph.end type="bold"/> 572; 403; 222; 1</cell></row><row><cell>In assaying</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>237—238<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In cementation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>454;<emph.end type="bold"/> 454</cell></row><row><cell>Indication of copper</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>116<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In making nitric acid</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>439—440<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In roasted ores</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>350<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In <emph type="italics"/>sal artificiosus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>463<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Native</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>Native blue</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell>Native white</cell><cell>113</cell></row><row><cell>Red</cell><cell>274</cell></row><row><cell>White</cell><cell>454</cell></row><row><cell>VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS</cell><cell>595</cell></row><row><cell>WASHERS</cell><cell>78</cell></row><row><cell>WASHING ORE (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Concentration, Screening Ore, <emph type="italics"/>etc.<emph.end type="italics"/>)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>300—310<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WATER-BAGS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>157—159; 198<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WATER-BUCKETS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>157—158<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WATER-WHEELS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>187; 283; 286; 319<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WATER-TANK, UNDER BLAST FUR-NACES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>356—357<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WEALTH</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>7—20<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WEDGES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>150<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WEIGHTS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>260—264;<emph.end type="bold"/> 616—617; 242; 253</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Weisser Kis<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Werckschuh<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>617; 78</cell></row><row><cell>WESTPHALIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting lead ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>391<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Spalling ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>272<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WHEELBARROWS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>154<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WHIMS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>164—167<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WHITE-LEAD</cell><cell>440; 354; 110; 232</cell></row><row><cell>WHITE SCHIST</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>234; 390;<emph.end type="bold"/> 234; 222</cell></row><row><cell>WINDING APPLIANCES (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Hauling Appliances).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>WINDLASSES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>160; 171;<emph.end type="bold"/> 149</cell></row><row><cell>WINDLASS MEN</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>160;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell>WINDS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Greek and Roman names</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>58<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Sailors' names</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>59; 60<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WINDS (winze)</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell>WINDSAILS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>200—203<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WINZES</cell><cell>102</cell></row><row><cell>WITTENBERG, CAPITULATION OF</cell><cell>IX.</cell></row><row><cell>WIZARDS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Divining rods</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>40<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WORKMEN</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>98; 100<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WOUGHS</cell><cell>101</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Zaffre<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>112</cell></row><row><cell>ZEITZ</cell><cell>XI.</cell></row><row><cell>ZINC (<emph type="italics"/>see also Cadmia, and<emph.end type="italics"/> Cobalt).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Historical notes</cell><cell>408—410; 354</cell></row><row><cell>Minerals</cell><cell>112—113</cell></row><row><cell>ZINCK (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Zinc).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ZINC OXIDES</cell><cell>113; 354</cell></row><row><cell>ZINC SULPHATE (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Vitriol).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Zincum<emph.end type="italics"/> (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Zinc).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Zoll<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>617; 78</cell></row><row><cell>ZWICKAU</cell><cell>VI.</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Zwitter<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>110</cell></row></table><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>INDEX TO PERSONS AND <lb/>AUTHORITIES.<emph.end type="bold"/></s></p><p type="main"> <s>NOTE.—The numbers in heavy type refer to the Text; <lb/>those in plain type to the Footnotes, Appendices, etc.<lb/><arrow.to.target n="table18"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table18"></table.target><row><cell></cell><cell>PAGE</cell></row><row><cell>ACOSTA, JOSEPH DE</cell><cell>298</cell></row><row><cell>AESCHYLUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Amber</cell><cell>35</cell></row><row><cell>AESCULAPIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Love of gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>AFRICANUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>AGATHARCHIDES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>Egyptian gold mining</cell><cell>279; 391; 399</cell></row><row><cell>Fire-setting</cell><cell>118</cell></row><row><cell>AGATHOCLES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Money</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>21<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>AGATHODAEMON (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>AGRICOLA, DANIEL</cell><cell>606</cell></row><row><cell>AGRICOLA, GEORG (a preacher at Freiberg)</cell><cell>606</cell></row><row><cell>AGRICOLA, GEORGIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Assaying</cell><cell>220</cell></row><row><cell>Biography</cell><cell>V—XVI</cell></row><row><cell>Founder of Science</cell><cell>XIV</cell></row><row><cell>Geologist</cell><cell>XII; 46; 53</cell></row><row><cell>Interest in <emph type="italics"/>Gottsgaab<emph.end type="italics"/> mine</cell><cell>VII; 74</cell></row><row><cell>Mineralogist</cell><cell>XII; 108; 594</cell></row><row><cell>Paracelsus compared with.</cell><cell>XIV</cell></row><row><cell>Real name</cell><cell>V</cell></row><row><cell>Works</cell><cell>Appendix A</cell></row><row><cell>See also:</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Bermannus.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Animantibus.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Natura eorum, etc.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossilium.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causis.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Peste.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><pb pagenum="631"/><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Precio Metallorum.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus Metallis.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Etc.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>AGRICOLA, RUDOLPH</cell><cell>606</cell></row><row><cell>ALBERT THE BRAVE, DUKE OF MEISSEN</cell><cell>VIII</cell></row><row><cell>ALBERTUS MAGNUS (Albert von Bollstadt)</cell><cell>XXX; 609</cell></row><row><cell>Alluvial gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>76<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Cementation</cell><cell>460</cell></row><row><cell>Metallic arsenic</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>Metals</cell><cell>44</cell></row><row><cell>Saltpetre</cell><cell>562</cell></row><row><cell>Zinc</cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell>ALBINUS, PETRUS</cell><cell>V; 599</cell></row><row><cell>Cuntz von Glück</cell><cell>24</cell></row><row><cell>ALPINUS, PROSPER</cell><cell>559</cell></row><row><cell>ALYATTES, KING OF LYDIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mines owned by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26;<emph.end type="bold"/> 27</cell></row><row><cell>AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS</cell><cell>38; 53</cell></row><row><cell>ANACHARSIS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Invention of bellows</cell><cell>362</cell></row><row><cell>ANACREON OF TEOS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Money despised by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ANAXAGORAS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Money despised by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ANNA, DAUGHTER OF AGRICOLA</cell><cell>VII</cell></row><row><cell>ANNA, WIFE OF AGRICOLA</cell><cell>VII</cell></row><row><cell>ANTIPHANES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>On wealth</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>19<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>APOLLODORUS</cell><cell>26</cell></row><row><cell>APULEJUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXIX</cell></row><row><cell>ARCHIMEDES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>King Hiero's crown</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>247<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Machines</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell>ARDAILLON, EDOUARD.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mt. Laurion</cell><cell>28; 281; 391</cell></row><row><cell>ARISTIPPUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold</cell><cell>9; <emph type="bold"/>14<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ARISTODEMUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Money</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>8<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ARISTOTLE</cell><cell>XII; 607</cell></row><row><cell>Amber</cell><cell>35</cell></row><row><cell>Athenian mines</cell><cell>27; 83</cell></row><row><cell>Burning springs</cell><cell>583</cell></row><row><cell>Coal</cell><cell>34</cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>Distillation</cell><cell>441</cell></row><row><cell>Lodestone</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>Nitrum</cell><cell>558</cell></row><row><cell>Ores of brass</cell><cell>410</cell></row><row><cell>Quicksilver</cell><cell>432</cell></row><row><cell>Silver from forest fires</cell><cell>36</cell></row><row><cell>Theory of ore deposits</cell><cell>44</cell></row><row><cell>Wealth of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ARNOLD DE VILLA NOVA. (<emph type="italics"/>See<emph.end type="italics"/> Villa Nova, Arnold de).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ATHENAEUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Silver from forest fires</cell><cell>36</cell></row><row><cell>AUGURELLUS, JOHANNES AURELIUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXX</cell></row><row><cell>AUGUSTINUS PANTHEUS (alchemist).</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>AUGUSTUS, ELECTOR OF SAXONY</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>IX<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Dedication of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXV<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Letter to Agricola</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XV<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>AVICENNA</cell><cell>XXX; 608</cell></row><row><cell>BACON, ROGER</cell><cell>XXX; 609</cell></row><row><cell>Saltpetre</cell><cell>460; 562</cell></row><row><cell>BADOARIUS, FRANCISCUS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BALBOA, V. N. DE</cell><cell>V</cell></row><row><cell>BALLON, PETER</cell><cell>559</cell></row><row><cell>BARBA, ALONSO</cell><cell>300; 1</cell></row><row><cell>BARBARUS, HERMOLAUS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BARRETT, W. F.</cell><cell>38</cell></row><row><cell>BECHER, J. J.</cell><cell>53</cell></row><row><cell>BECHIUS, PHILIP</cell><cell>XV</cell></row><row><cell>BECKMANN, JOHANN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Alumen<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>565</cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation</cell><cell>297</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>559</cell></row><row><cell>Parting with nitric acid</cell><cell>461</cell></row><row><cell>Stamp-mills</cell><cell>281</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Stannum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>473</cell></row><row><cell>Tin</cell><cell>412</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Bergbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"/> (see <emph type="italics"/>Nützlich Bergbü hlin<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Berguerhs Le<gap/>icon<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>37; 80; 81</cell></row><row><cell>BERMAN, LORENZ</cell><cell>VI; 597</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Bermannus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>596; 599; VI</cell></row><row><cell>Arsenical minerals</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>Bismuth</cell><cell>3; 433</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>113</cell></row><row><cell>Cobalt</cell><cell>112</cell></row><row><cell>Fluorspar</cell><cell>381</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Molybdasna<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>477</cell></row><row><cell>Schist</cell><cell>234</cell></row><row><cell>Shafts</cell><cell>102</cell></row><row><cell>Zinc</cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell>BERTHRLOT, M. P. E.</cell><cell>429; 609</cell></row><row><cell>BERTHIER</cell><cell>492</cell></row><row><cell>BIAS OF PRIENE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Wealth</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>8; 14<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BIRINGUCCIO, VANNUCCIO</cell><cell>614</cell></row><row><cell>Agricola indebted to</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation of silver ores</cell><cell>297</cell></row><row><cell>Assaying</cell><cell>220</cell></row><row><cell>Assay ton</cell><cell>242</cell></row><row><cell>Brass making</cell><cell>410</cell></row><row><cell>Clarifving nitric acid</cell><cell>443</cell></row><row><cell>Copper refining</cell><cell>536</cell></row><row><cell>Copper smelting</cell><cell>405</cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>466</cell></row><row><cell>Liquation</cell><cell>494</cell></row><row><cell>Managanese</cell><cell>586</cell></row><row><cell>Parting precious metals</cell><cell>451; 461; 462</cell></row><row><cell>Roasting</cell><cell>267</cell></row><row><cell>Steel making</cell><cell>420</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Zaffre<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>112</cell></row><row><cell>BOECKH, AUGUST</cell><cell>28</cell></row><row><cell>BOERHAAVE, HERMANN</cell><cell>XXIX</cell></row><row><cell>BORLASE, W. C.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Bronze celts</cell><cell>411</cell></row><row><cell>BORLASE, WILLIAM.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cornish miners in Germany</cell><cell>283</cell></row><row><cell>BORN, IGNAZ EDLER VON</cell><cell>300</cell></row><row><cell>BOUSSINGAULT, J. B.</cell><cell>454</cell></row><row><cell>BOYLE, ROBERT.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Divining rod</cell><cell>38</cell></row><row><cell>BROUGH, BENNETT</cell><cell>129</cell></row><row><cell>BRUCE, J. C.</cell><cell>392</cell></row><row><cell>BRUNSWICK, DUKE HENRY OF. (<emph type="italics"/>See<emph.end type="italics"/> Henry, Duke of Brunswick).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>BUDAEUS, WILLIAM (Guillaume Bude)</cell><cell>461; 606</cell></row><row><cell>CADMUS</cell><cell>27</cell></row><row><cell>CALBUS (see also <emph type="italics"/>Nützlich Bergbüchlin<emph.end type="italics"/>),</cell><cell>610; <emph type="bold"/>XXVI;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVII</cell></row><row><cell>Alluvial gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>75<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CALIGULA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold from <emph type="italics"/>auripigmentum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>CALLIDES (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>CALLIMACHUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>On wealth</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>19<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CAMERARIUS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>VIII<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CANIDES (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>CAREW, RICHARD.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cornish mining law</cell><cell>85</cell></row><row><cell>Cornish ore-dressing</cell><cell>282</cell></row><row><cell>CARLYLE, W. A.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ancient Rio Tinto smelting</cell><cell>405</cell></row><row><cell>CARNE, JOSEPH.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cornish cardinal points</cell><cell>57</cell></row><row><cell>CASIBROTIUS, LEONARDUS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>VI<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Castigationes in Hippocratem et Galenum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>605</cell></row><row><cell>CASTRO, JOHN DE</cell><cell>570</cell></row><row><cell>CHABAS, F. J.</cell><cell>129</cell></row><row><cell>CHALONER, THOMAS</cell><cell>570</cell></row><row><cell>CHANES (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>CHARLES V. OF SPAIN</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>IX<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Agricola sent on mission to</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>X<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CHEVREUL, M. E.</cell><cell>38</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Chronik der Stadt Freiberg<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>606</cell></row><row><cell>CICERO.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Divining rod</cell><cell>38</cell></row><row><cell>Wealth of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CINCINNATUS L. QUINTIUS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>23<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CIRCE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Magic rod</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>40<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><pb pagenum="632"/><row><cell>CLEOPATRA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>As an alchemist</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXIX</cell></row><row><cell>COLLINS, A. L.</cell><cell>119</cell></row><row><cell>COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>V<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COLUMELLA, MODERATUS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXV; XXVI<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COMERIUS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXIX</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Commentariorum...Libri VI.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>604</cell></row><row><cell>CONRAD (Graf Cuntz von Glück)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>23;<emph.end type="bold"/> 24</cell></row><row><cell>CORDUBA, DON JUAN DE</cell><cell>300</cell></row><row><cell>CORTES, HERNANDO</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>V<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CRAMER, JOHN</cell><cell>236</cell></row><row><cell>CRASSUS, MARCUS</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Love of gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CRATES, THE THEBAN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Money despised by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CROESUS, KING OF LYDIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mines owned by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26;<emph.end type="bold"/> 27</cell></row><row><cell>CTESIAS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Divining rod</cell><cell>38</cell></row><row><cell>CTESIBIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Machines</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell>CURIO, CLAUDIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Love of gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CURIUS, MARCUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold of Samnites</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DANA, J. D.</cell><cell>108</cell></row><row><cell>Alum</cell><cell>566</cell></row><row><cell>Copiapite</cell><cell>574</cell></row><row><cell>Emery</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>Lemnian earth</cell><cell>31</cell></row><row><cell>Minerals of Agricola</cell><cell>594</cell></row><row><cell>Zinc vitriol</cell><cell>572</cell></row><row><cell>DANAE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Jove and</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>10<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>D'ARCET, J.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Parting with sulphuric acid</cell><cell>462</cell></row><row><cell>DAY, ST. JOHN V.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ancient steel making</cell><cell>423</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Animantibus Subterraneis<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>597; <emph type="bold"/>VII<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Editions</cell><cell>600</cell></row><row><cell>Gnomes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>217;<emph.end type="bold"/> 217</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Bello adversus Turcam<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>605</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Inventione Dialectica<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>606</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Jure et Legibus Metallicis<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>100;<emph.end type="bold"/> 604</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Medicatis Fontibus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>605</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Mensuris et Ponderibus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>597</cell></row><row><cell>Editions</cell><cell>599</cell></row><row><cell>Weights and measures</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>264;<emph.end type="bold"/> 78</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Metallis et Machinis<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>604</cell></row><row><cell>Democritus (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>DEMOSTHENES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mt. Laurion mines</cell><cell>27; 83</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>598; <emph type="bold"/>32<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Dedication</cell><cell>VIII</cell></row><row><cell>Editions</cell><cell>600</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Natura Fossilium<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>594; 600; III; XII</cell></row><row><cell>Alum</cell><cell>565</cell></row><row><cell>Amber</cell><cell>35</cell></row><row><cell>Antimony</cell><cell>429</cell></row><row><cell>Argol</cell><cell>234</cell></row><row><cell>Arsenical minerals</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>Asbestos</cell><cell>440</cell></row><row><cell>Bismuth</cell><cell>110</cell></row><row><cell>Bitumen</cell><cell>581</cell></row><row><cell>Borax</cell><cell>560</cell></row><row><cell>Brass making</cell><cell>410</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>113</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Caldarium<emph.end type="italics"/> copper</cell><cell>511</cell></row><row><cell>Camphor</cell><cell>238</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>584</cell></row><row><cell>Coal</cell><cell>35</cell></row><row><cell>Cobalt</cell><cell>112</cell></row><row><cell>Copper flowers</cell><cell>539; 233</cell></row><row><cell>Copper scales</cell><cell>233</cell></row><row><cell>Crinoid stems</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>Emery</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>Fluorspar</cell><cell>380</cell></row><row><cell>Goslar ores</cell><cell>273</cell></row><row><cell>Goslar smelting</cell><cell>408</cell></row><row><cell>Iron ores</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>Iron smelting</cell><cell>420</cell></row><row><cell>Jet</cell><cell>34</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Lapis judaicus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>Lead minerals</cell><cell>110</cell></row><row><cell>Mannsfeld ores</cell><cell>273</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Melanteria<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>573</cell></row><row><cell>Mineral Kingdom</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Misv<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>573</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>476</cell></row><row><cell>Native metals</cell><cell>108</cell></row><row><cell>Petroleum</cell><cell>581</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pompholv<gap/><emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>114; 278</cell></row><row><cell>Pyrites</cell><cell>112</cell></row><row><cell>Quicksilver</cell><cell>110</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Rudis<emph.end type="italics"/> minerals</cell><cell>108</cell></row><row><cell>Sal-ammoniac</cell><cell>560</cell></row><row><cell>Silver glance</cell><cell>109</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sory<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>573</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Spodos<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>114</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Stannum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>473</cell></row><row><cell>Stones which easily melt</cell><cell>380</cell></row><row><cell>Sulphur</cell><cell>578</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Tophus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>233</cell></row><row><cell>Touchstone</cell><cell>253</cell></row><row><cell>White schist</cell><cell>234</cell></row><row><cell>Zinc</cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>594; 600; III; VII; XII; XIII</cell></row><row><cell>Earths</cell><cell>48</cell></row><row><cell>Gangue minerals</cell><cell>48</cell></row><row><cell>Gold in alluvial</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>76<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Ground waters</cell><cell>48</cell></row><row><cell>Juices</cell><cell>52</cell></row><row><cell>Metals</cell><cell>51</cell></row><row><cell>Solidified juices</cell><cell>49</cell></row><row><cell>Stones</cell><cell>49</cell></row><row><cell>Touchstone</cell><cell>253</cell></row><row><cell>Veins</cell><cell>47</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Ortu Metallorum Defensio ad J. Scheckium<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>604</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Peste<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>605; VIII</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Precio Metallorum et Monetis<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>597; 600</cell></row><row><cell>Mention by Agricola</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>252; 264<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Putredine solidas partes,<emph.end type="italics"/> etc.</cell><cell>605</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>I; XIII; XIV—XVI</cell></row><row><cell>Editions</cell><cell>600; XIV</cell></row><row><cell>Title page</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XIX<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DE SOTO, FERNANDES</cell><cell>V</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Terrae Motu<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>604</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Varia temperie sive Constitutione Aeris<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>604</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>597; 600; VII; <emph type="bold"/>XXVI; 5<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Agricola's training</cell><cell>VI</cell></row><row><cell>Conrad</cell><cell>24</cell></row><row><cell>Discovery of mines</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>36;<emph.end type="bold"/> 5; 37</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Gottsgaab<emph.end type="italics"/> mine</cell><cell>74</cell></row><row><cell>DEVOZ (DE VOZ), CORNELIUS</cell><cell>570; 283</cell></row><row><cell>DIODORUS SICULUS</cell><cell>607</cell></row><row><cell>Alum</cell><cell>566</cell></row><row><cell>Bitumen</cell><cell>582</cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>Drainage of Spanish mines</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell>Egyptian gold mining</cell><cell>279</cell></row><row><cell>Fire-setting</cell><cell>118</cell></row><row><cell>Lead</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>Silver from forest fires</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>36<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Tin</cell><cell>412</cell></row><row><cell>DIOGENES LAERTIUS</cell><cell>7; 9; 10</cell></row><row><cell>DIOSCORIDES</cell><cell>607; 608</cell></row><row><cell>Alum</cell><cell>566</cell></row><row><cell>Antimony</cell><cell>428</cell></row><row><cell>Argol</cell><cell>234</cell></row><row><cell>Arsenic minerals</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>Asbestos</cell><cell>440</cell></row><row><cell>Bitumen</cell><cell>584</cell></row><row><cell>Brass making</cell><cell>410</cell></row><row><cell>Burned lead</cell><cell>237</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Cadmia<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>112</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Chalcitis<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>573</cell></row><row><cell>Copper flowers</cell><cell>233; 538</cell></row><row><cell>Copper smelting</cell><cell>403</cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>Distillation apparatus</cell><cell>355</cell></row><row><cell>Dust-chambers</cell><cell>355; 394</cell></row><row><cell>Emery</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>Lead</cell><cell>392</cell></row><pb pagenum="633"/><row><cell>Lead minerals</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>477<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Lemnian earth</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>31<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Litharge</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>465<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Lodestone</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>115<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Melanteria<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>573<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Misy<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>573<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Naphtha</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>584<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>394; 410<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Quicksilver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>297; 432<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Red-lead</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>232<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Sal-ammoniac</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>560<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sory<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>573<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Spodos<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>394<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Verdigris</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>440<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Vitriol</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>572<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>White-lead</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>440<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DIPHILUS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>27; 83<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DIPHILUS (poet). .</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>10<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Dominatores Saxonici<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>606</cell></row><row><cell>DRAUD, G.</cell><cell>599</cell></row><row><cell>DUDAE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Alum trade</cell><cell>569</cell></row><row><cell>ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF ENGLAND.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Charters to alum makers</cell><cell>283; 570</cell></row><row><cell>Dedication of Italian <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metal-lica<emph.end type="italics"/> to</cell><cell>XV</cell></row><row><cell>Importation of German miners</cell><cell>283; 570</cell></row><row><cell>ELOY, N. F. J.</cell><cell>599</cell></row><row><cell>ENTZELT (Enzelius, Encelio)</cell><cell>615</cell></row><row><cell>ERASMUS</cell><cell>VI; VIII; XIV</cell></row><row><cell>ERCKER, LAZARUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation</cell><cell>300</cell></row><row><cell>Liquation</cell><cell>491; 505</cell></row><row><cell>Nitric acid preparation</cell><cell>443</cell></row><row><cell>Parting gold and silver</cell><cell>444; 451</cell></row><row><cell>ERIPHYLE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Love of gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ERNEST, ELECTOR OF SAXONY</cell><cell>VIII</cell></row><row><cell>EURIPIDES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Amber mentioned by</cell><cell>35</cell></row><row><cell>Plutus</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>8; 7<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>EZEKIEL, PROPHET.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Antimony</cell><cell>428</cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>Tin</cell><cell>412</cell></row><row><cell>FABRICIUS, GEORGE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Agricola's death</cell><cell>X</cell></row><row><cell>Friendship with Agricola</cell><cell>VIII</cell></row><row><cell>Laudatory poem on Agricola</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXI<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Letters</cell><cell>IX; X; XIV; XV</cell></row><row><cell>Posthumous editor of Agricola</cell><cell>603; 606</cell></row><row><cell>FAIRCLOUGH, H. R.</cell><cell>III</cell></row><row><cell>FARINATOR, MATHIAS</cell><cell>XXVI</cell></row><row><cell>FERDINAND, KING OF AUSTRIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Agricola sent on mission to</cell><cell>X</cell></row><row><cell>Badoarius sent on mission to</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FERGUSON, JOHN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Editions of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>XVI; 599</cell></row><row><cell>FEYRABENDT, SIGMUNDI</cell><cell>XV</cell></row><row><cell>FIGUIER, L.</cell><cell>38</cell></row><row><cell>FLACH, JACQUES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Aljustrel tablet</cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell>FLORIO, MICHELANGELO</cell><cell>XV</cell></row><row><cell>FÖRSTER, JOHANNES</cell><cell>VI</cell></row><row><cell>FRANCIS, COL. GRANT</cell><cell>267; 283</cell></row><row><cell>FRANCIS I., KING OF FRANCE</cell><cell>IX</cell></row><row><cell>FREDERICK, ELECTOR OF SAXONY</cell><cell>VIII; IX</cell></row><row><cell>FROBEN, publisher of <emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>XIV; XV</cell></row><row><cell>FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS</cell><cell>87</cell></row><row><cell>GALEN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Agricola's revision of</cell><cell>605; VI</cell></row><row><cell>Lemnian earth</cell><cell>31</cell></row><row><cell>Mention by Agricola</cell><cell>2</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Galerazeya sive Revelator Secretorum,<emph.end type="italics"/> etc.</cell><cell>606</cell></row><row><cell>GAMA, VASCO DA</cell><cell>V</cell></row><row><cell>GANSE (GAUNSE), JOACHIM</cell><cell>267; 283</cell></row><row><cell>GATTERER, C. W.</cell><cell>599</cell></row><row><cell>GEBER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXX; 609</cell></row><row><cell>Alum</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>569<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Assaying</cell><cell>219</cell></row><row><cell>Cementation</cell><cell>459</cell></row><row><cell>Cupels</cell><cell>466</cell></row><row><cell>Nitric acid</cell><cell>460</cell></row><row><cell>Origin of metals</cell><cell>44</cell></row><row><cell>Precipitation of silver nitrate</cell><cell>443</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Genesis, Book of<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>XII; 43</cell></row><row><cell>GEORGE, DU<gap/>E OF SAXONY</cell><cell>IX; 310; 310</cell></row><row><cell>GESNER, CONRAD</cell><cell>52</cell></row><row><cell>GIBBON, EDWARD</cell><cell>119</cell></row><row><cell>GLAUBER, J. R.</cell><cell>410</cell></row><row><cell>GLUCK, CUNTZ VON (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Conrad).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>GMELIN, J. F.</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>GÖCHER, C. G.</cell><cell>599</cell></row><row><cell>GODOLPHIN, SIR FRANCIS</cell><cell>282</cell></row><row><cell>GOWLAND, WILLIAM.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ancient bronze</cell><cell>410; 411; 421</cell></row><row><cell>Early smelting</cell><cell>402</cell></row><row><cell>GRAECUS, MARCUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Saltpetre</cell><cell>562</cell></row><row><cell>GROMMESTETTER, PAUL</cell><cell>281</cell></row><row><cell>GRYMALDO, LEODIGARIS</cell><cell>XVI</cell></row><row><cell>GYGES, KING OF LYDIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mines owned by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26;<emph.end type="bold"/> 27</cell></row><row><cell>HANNIBAL.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Alps broken by vinegar</cell><cell>119</cell></row><row><cell>Spanish mines</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>42;<emph.end type="bold"/> 42</cell></row><row><cell>HARDY, WILLIAM</cell><cell>85</cell></row><row><cell>HEATH, THOMAS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>On Hero</cell><cell>129</cell></row><row><cell>HELIODORUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXIX</cell></row><row><cell>HENCKEL, J. F.</cell><cell>53; 112; 410</cell></row><row><cell>HENDRIE, R.</cell><cell>609</cell></row><row><cell>HENNEBERT, E.</cell><cell>119</cell></row><row><cell>HENRY, DUKE OF BRUNSWICK</cell><cell>VII</cell></row><row><cell>HENRY, DUKE OF MEISSEN</cell><cell>IX</cell></row><row><cell>HERMES (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVI;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>HERMES (Mercury).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Magic rod</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>40<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HERO.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Underground surveying</cell><cell>129</cell></row><row><cell>HERODOTUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Alum</cell><cell>566</cell></row><row><cell>Bitumen</cell><cell>582</cell></row><row><cell>Lead</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>Mines of Thrace</cell><cell>23</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>558</cell></row><row><cell>HERTEL, VALENTINE</cell><cell>XIV</cell></row><row><cell>HIERO, KING OF SYRACUSE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Crown</cell><cell>247</cell></row><row><cell>HILL, JOHN</cell><cell>607</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Auripigmentum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>HIMILCE, WIFE OF HANNIBAL</cell><cell>42</cell></row><row><cell>HIPPOCRATES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>391; 465</cell></row><row><cell>Lodestone</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>HIRAM, KING OF TYRE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mines</cell><cell>214</cell></row><row><cell>HOFMANN, DR. R.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Biography of Agricola</cell><cell>V; XI; 599; 603</cell></row><row><cell>HOMER.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Amber</cell><cell>35</cell></row><row><cell>Divining rod</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>40;<emph.end type="bold"/> 40</cell></row><row><cell>Lead</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>Smelting</cell><cell>402</cell></row><row><cell>Steel</cell><cell>421</cell></row><row><cell>Sulphur</cell><cell>579</cell></row><row><cell>Tin</cell><cell>412</cell></row><row><cell>HOMMEL, W.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Early zinc smelting</cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell>HORACE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Metals</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>11<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Wealth</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>15; 17<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HORDEBORCH, JOHANNES</cell><cell>VII</cell></row><row><cell>HOUGHSTETTER, DANIEL</cell><cell>283</cell></row><row><cell>HOUGHTON, THOMAS</cell><cell>85</cell></row><row><cell>HUMPHREY, WILLIAM.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Jigging sieve</cell><cell>283</cell></row><row><cell>HUNT, ROBERT.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Roman lead smelting</cell><cell>392</cell></row><row><cell>INAMA-STERNEGG, K. T. VON</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Interpretatio Rerum Metallicarum.<emph.end type="italics"/>(See <emph type="italics"/>Rerum Metall. Interpretatio<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>IRENE, DAUGHTER OF AGRICOLA</cell><cell>VII</cell></row><pb pagenum="634"/><row><cell>JACOBI, G. H.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Biography of Agricola</cell><cell>V; 599</cell></row><row><cell>Calbus</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII; 610<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>JAGNAUX, RAOUL.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ancient zinc</cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell>JASON.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Golden fleece</cell><cell>330</cell></row><row><cell>JEREMIAH.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Bellows</cell><cell>362</cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>Lead smelting</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>558</cell></row><row><cell>JEZEBEL.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Use of antimony</cell><cell>428</cell></row><row><cell>JOB.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Refining silver</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>JOHANNES (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>JOHN, ELECTOR OF SAXONY</cell><cell>IX</cell></row><row><cell>JOHN, KING OF ENGLAND.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mining claims</cell><cell>85</cell></row><row><cell>JOHN FREDERICK, ELECTOR OF SAXONY</cell><cell>IX</cell></row><row><cell>JOSEPHUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Dead Sea bitumen</cell><cell>33</cell></row><row><cell>JOVE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Danae legend</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>10<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>JUSTIN</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>36<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>JUVENAL.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Money</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>10<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>KARSTEN, K. J. B.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Liquation</cell><cell>491; 492; 505; 509; 523; 535</cell></row><row><cell>KERL, BRUNO.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Liquation</cell><cell>505</cell></row><row><cell>KÖNIG, EMANUEL</cell><cell>XV</cell></row><row><cell>KÖNIG, LUDWIG</cell><cell>XV</cell></row><row><cell>KOPP, DR. HERMANN</cell><cell>609; 441</cell></row><row><cell>LAMPADIUS, G. A.</cell><cell>462</cell></row><row><cell>LASTHENES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Love of gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Latin Grammar<emph.end type="italics"/> (Agricola)</cell><cell>605</cell></row><row><cell>LEONARDI, CAMILLI</cell><cell>615</cell></row><row><cell>LEUPOLD, JACOB</cell><cell>XV; 599</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Leviticus.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Leprosy of walls</cell><cell>562</cell></row><row><cell>LEWIS, G. R.</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>LEWIS</cell><cell>454</cell></row><row><cell>LIBAVIS, ANDREW</cell><cell>410</cell></row><row><cell>LIEBLEIN, J. D. C.</cell><cell>129</cell></row><row><cell>LINNAEUS, CHARLES</cell><cell>559</cell></row><row><cell>LIVY.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Hannibal's march over the Alps</cell><cell>119</cell></row><row><cell>LOHNEYS, G. E.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Liquation</cell><cell>491; 505</cell></row><row><cell>Parting with antimony</cell><cell>451</cell></row><row><cell>Zinc</cell><cell>409; 410</cell></row><row><cell>LUCRETIA, DAUGHTER OF AGRICOLA.</cell><cell>VII</cell></row><row><cell>LUCRETIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Forest fires melting veins</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>36<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LULLY, RAYMOND</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXX</cell></row><row><cell>LUSCINUS, FABRICIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LUTHER, MARTIN</cell><cell>V; VI; VIII; IX</cell></row><row><cell>LYCURGUS (Athenian orator).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Prosecution of Diphilos</cell><cell>27; 83</cell></row><row><cell>LYCURGUS (Spartan legislator).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Wealth prohibited by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MAGELLAN, F. DE</cell><cell>V</cell></row><row><cell>MALTITZ, SIGISMUND</cell><cell>312</cell></row><row><cell>MANLOVE, EDWARD</cell><cell>70; 85</cell></row><row><cell>MARBODAEUS</cell><cell>615</cell></row><row><cell>MARCELLINUS, AMMIANUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>On Thucydides</cell><cell>23</cell></row><row><cell>MARCELLUS, NONIUS</cell><cell>XXXI</cell></row><row><cell>MARIA THE JEWESS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>MATHESIUS, JOHANN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cobalt</cell><cell>214</cell></row><row><cell>Conrad mentioned by</cell><cell>24</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>De Re Metallica<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>XIV</cell></row><row><cell>King Hiram's mines</cell><cell>214</cell></row><row><cell>MATTHEW PARIS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cornish miners in Germany</cell><cell>283</cell></row><row><cell>MAURICE, ELECTOR OF SAXONY.</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXV;<emph.end type="bold"/> VIII; IX; X</cell></row><row><cell>MAWR, J.</cell><cell>70</cell></row><row><cell>MAXIMILIAN, EMPEROR</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>23; 24<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MEISSEN, DUKES OF (<emph type="italics"/>see under personal names:<emph.end type="italics"/> Albert, Henry, <emph type="italics"/>etc.<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>MELANCHTHON.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Relations with Agricola</cell><cell>VIII; X</cell></row><row><cell>MENANDER.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Riches</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>8<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MERCKLINUS, G. A.</cell><cell>599</cell></row><row><cell>MERCURY (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> HERMES).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>MERLIN (magician)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXX</cell></row><row><cell>MEURER, WOLFGANG.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Letters</cell><cell>IX; X</cell></row><row><cell>MEYER, ERNST VON</cell><cell>248; 569</cell></row><row><cell>MEYNER, MATTHIAS</cell><cell>VII</cell></row><row><cell>MIDAS, KING OF LYDIA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mines owned by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26; 27<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MILLER, F. B.</cell><cell>462</cell></row><row><cell>MINERVA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Magic rod</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>40<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MORRIS, W. O'C</cell><cell>119</cell></row><row><cell>MOSELLANUS, PETRUS</cell><cell>VI</cell></row><row><cell>MOSES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Bitumen</cell><cell>582</cell></row><row><cell>Lead</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>Refining gold</cell><cell>399</cell></row><row><cell>Rod of Horeb</cell><cell>38; <emph type="bold"/>40<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MÜLLER, MAX.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ancient iron</cell><cell>421</cell></row><row><cell>NAEVIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Money</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>20<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>NASH, W. G.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Rio Tinto mine</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell>NAUMACHIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold and silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>8<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>NECKAM, ALEXANDER</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Compass</cell><cell>57</cell></row><row><cell>NEWCOMEN, THOMAS</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell>NICANDER.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>On coal</cell><cell>34</cell></row><row><cell>NICIAS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Sosias and slaves of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>25;<emph.end type="bold"/> 25</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Nützlich Bergbüchlin<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>610; <emph type="bold"/>XXVI;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVII</cell></row><row><cell>Alluvial gold</cell><cell>75</cell></row><row><cell>Bismuth</cell><cell>110; 433</cell></row><row><cell>Compass</cell><cell>57; 129</cell></row><row><cell>Ore-deposits</cell><cell>44</cell></row><row><cell>Ore-shoots</cell><cell>43</cell></row><row><cell>Veins</cell><cell>43; 46; 73</cell></row><row><cell>OLYMPIODORUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXX</cell></row><row><cell>OPPEL, VAN (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> VAN OPPEL).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ORUS CHRYSORICHITES (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>OSTHANES (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXIX</cell></row><row><cell>OTHO THE GREAT</cell><cell>6</cell></row><row><cell>OTHO, PRINCE</cell><cell>6</cell></row><row><cell>OVID.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mining censured by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>7<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PANDULFUS ANGLUS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVI<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PANTAENETUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Demosthenes' oration against</cell><cell>27; 83</cell></row><row><cell>PANTHEUS, AUGUSTINUS (alchemist).</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PARACELSUS</cell><cell>XIV; XXX</cell></row><row><cell>Divining rod</cell><cell>38</cell></row><row><cell>Zinc</cell><cell>112; 409</cell></row><row><cell>PARIS, MATTHEW (<emph type="italics"/>See<emph.end type="italics"/> MATTHEW PARIS).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>PEBICHIUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>PELAGIUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PENNENT, THOMAS</cell><cell>570</cell></row><row><cell>PERCY, JOHN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cementation</cell><cell>454; 459</cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>Liquation</cell><cell>491</cell></row><row><cell>Parting with antimony</cell><cell>451; 452</cell></row><row><cell>PEREGRINUS, PETRUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Compass</cell><cell>57</cell></row><row><cell>PETASIUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>PETRIE, W. M. F.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Egyptian iron</cell><cell>421</cell></row><row><cell>Mt. Sinai copper</cell><cell>402</cell></row><row><cell>PETTUS, SIR JOHN</cell><cell>XVI; 283</cell></row><pb pagenum="635"/><row><cell>PHAENIPPUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Demosthenes' oration against</cell><cell>27; 83</cell></row><row><cell>PHAETON'S SISTERS</cell><cell>35</cell></row><row><cell>PHERECRATES.</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVI<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PHILEMON.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Riches</cell><cell>7</cell></row><row><cell>PHILIP OF MACEDONIA</cell><cell>27</cell></row><row><cell>PHILIP. PETER</cell><cell>282</cell></row><row><cell>PHILLIPS, J. A.</cell><cell>410</cell></row><row><cell>PHILO.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Lost work on mining</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVI<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PHOCION.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Bribe of Alexander</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9; 15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PHOCYLIDES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>7<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PHOTIUS</cell><cell>279</cell></row><row><cell>Fire-setting</cell><cell>118</cell></row><row><cell>PINDAR.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Wealth</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>19;<emph.end type="bold"/> 252</cell></row><row><cell>PIUS II. POPE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Alum maker</cell><cell>570</cell></row><row><cell>PIZARRO, F</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>V<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PLATEANUS, PETRUS</cell><cell>XIV</cell></row><row><cell>PLAUTUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>10<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PLINY (Caius Plinius Secundus)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVI;<emph.end type="bold"/> 608</cell></row><row><cell>Alluvial mining</cell><cell>331; 333</cell></row><row><cell>Alum</cell><cell>566</cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation</cell><cell>297</cell></row><row><cell>Amber</cell><cell>35</cell></row><row><cell>Antimony</cell><cell>428</cell></row><row><cell>Argol</cell><cell>234</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Arrhenicum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>Asbestos</cell><cell>440</cell></row><row><cell>Bitumen</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>33;<emph.end type="bold"/> 583</cell></row><row><cell>Brass</cell><cell>410</cell></row><row><cell>British miners</cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell>Cadmia</cell><cell>112</cell></row><row><cell>Cementation</cell><cell>459</cell></row><row><cell>Chrysocolla</cell><cell>560</cell></row><row><cell>Copper flowers and scales</cell><cell>233; 538</cell></row><row><cell>Copper smelting</cell><cell>404</cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>466</cell></row><row><cell>Drainage of Spanish mines</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Electrum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>458</cell></row><row><cell>Fire-setting</cell><cell>118</cell></row><row><cell>Galena</cell><cell>476</cell></row><row><cell>Glass</cell><cell>585; 586</cell></row><row><cell>Hannibal's silver mine</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>42;<emph.end type="bold"/> 42</cell></row><row><cell>Hoisting ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>157;<emph.end type="bold"/> 157</cell></row><row><cell>Iron</cell><cell>11</cell></row><row><cell>Jew-stone</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>Lead</cell><cell>392</cell></row><row><cell>Lemnian earth</cell><cell>31</cell></row><row><cell>Litharge</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>475;<emph.end type="bold"/> 466; 501</cell></row><row><cell>Lodestone</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>Manganese (?)</cell><cell>586</cell></row><row><cell>Metallurgical appliances</cell><cell>355</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Misy<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>573</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Molybdaena<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>466; 476</cell></row><row><cell>Naphtha</cell><cell>583</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>560</cell></row><row><cell>Ore-dressing</cell><cell>281</cell></row><row><cell>Outcrops</cell><cell>65</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Pompholyx<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>396</cell></row><row><cell>Protection from poison</cell><cell>215</cell></row><row><cell>Quicksilver</cell><cell>433</cell></row><row><cell>Red-lead</cell><cell>232</cell></row><row><cell>Roasting</cell><cell>267</cell></row><row><cell>Sal-ammoniac</cell><cell>560</cell></row><row><cell>Salt from wood</cell><cell>558</cell></row><row><cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell><cell>392</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Sory<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>573</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Spodos<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>396</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Stannum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>473</cell></row><row><cell>Tin, Spanish</cell><cell>412</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Tophus<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>233</cell></row><row><cell>Touchstone</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>256;<emph.end type="bold"/> 253</cell></row><row><cell>Turfs in sluices</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>331<emph.end type="bold"/>; 332</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Vena<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>43</cell></row><row><cell>Ventilation with wet cloths</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>210;<emph.end type="bold"/> 210</cell></row><row><cell>Verdigris</cell><cell>440</cell></row><row><cell>Vitriol</cell><cell>572</cell></row><row><cell>White-lead</cell><cell>440</cell></row><row><cell>PLUTARCH</cell><cell>25</cell></row><row><cell>PLUTO</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>216<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>POLYBIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ore washing</cell><cell>281</cell></row><row><cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell><cell>392; 465</cell></row><row><cell>POLYMNESTOR, KING OF THRACE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Love of gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9; 16<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PÖRTNER, HANS</cell><cell>281</cell></row><row><cell>POSEPNY, FRANZ</cell><cell>53</cell></row><row><cell>POSIDONIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Asphalt and naphtha</cell><cell>584</cell></row><row><cell>Drainage of Spanish mines</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell>Silver from forest fires</cell><cell>36</cell></row><row><cell>PRIAM, KING OF TROY.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold mines of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26;<emph.end type="bold"/> 27</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>612; <emph type="bold"/>XXVI<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation</cell><cell>297</cell></row><row><cell>Antimony</cell><cell>4<gap/>0</cell></row><row><cell>Assaying</cell><cell>220</cell></row><row><cell>Assay ton</cell><cell>242</cell></row><row><cell>Bismuth</cell><cell>433</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Probierbüchlein.<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cementation</cell><cell>454</cell></row><row><cell>Nitric acid</cell><cell>439</cell></row><row><cell>Parting</cell><cell>461; 462; 463</cell></row><row><cell>Precipitation of silver nitrate</cell><cell>443</cell></row><row><cell>Residues from distillation of nitric acid</cell><cell>235; 443</cell></row><row><cell>Roasting</cell><cell>267</cell></row><row><cell>Stock fluxes</cell><cell>235; 236</cell></row><row><cell>Touchstone</cell><cell>253</cell></row><row><cell>PROPERTIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>10<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PRYCE, WILLIAM.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Adam's fall</cell><cell>353</cell></row><row><cell>Divining rod</cell><cell>38</cell></row><row><cell>Juices</cell><cell>1</cell></row><row><cell>Ore-deposits</cell><cell>53</cell></row><row><cell>Stamp-mill</cell><cell>282</cell></row><row><cell>Stringers</cell><cell>70</cell></row><row><cell>PSALMS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Silver refining</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>PULSIFER, WM. H.</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>PYGMALION.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Love of gold</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>9; 16<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>RACHAIDIBUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>RAMESES I.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Map of mines</cell><cell>129</cell></row><row><cell>RAMESES III.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Leaden objects dating from</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>RASPE, R. E.</cell><cell>300</cell></row><row><cell>RAWLINSON, GEORGE</cell><cell>583</cell></row><row><cell>RAY, P. CHANDRA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Indian zinc</cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell>RAYMOND, ROSSITER W.</cell><cell>38</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Rechter Gebrauch der Alchimey<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>606</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Rerum Metallicarum Interpretatio<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>597; VII; 600</cell></row><row><cell>REUSS, F. A.</cell><cell>599</cell></row><row><cell>RICHTER, A. D.</cell><cell>V; 599</cell></row><row><cell>RODIANUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>RÖSSLER, B.</cell><cell>53</cell></row><row><cell>ROYAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF CORNWALL</cell><cell>84</cell></row><row><cell>RÜHLEIN VON KALBE (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> CALBUS).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SALMONEUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Lightning</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>11<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SANDWICH, EARL OF, trans. Barba's book</cell><cell>300</cell></row><row><cell>SAPPHO.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Wealth</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>19<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SAVERY, THOMAS</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell>SAXONY, DUKES AND ELECTORS OF. (<emph type="italics"/>See under personal names:<emph.end type="italics"/> Albert, Ernest, <emph type="italics"/>etc.<emph.end type="italics"/>).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SCHLIEMANN, H.</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>SCHLÜTER, C.A.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Artificial zinc vitriol</cell><cell>572</cell></row><row><cell>Copper refining</cell><cell>535</cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>464</cell></row><row><cell>Liquation</cell><cell>491; 505</cell></row><pb pagenum="636"/><row><cell>Parting with sulphur</cell><cell>462</cell></row><row><cell>SCHMID, F. A.</cell><cell>V; XV; 599</cell></row><row><cell>SCHNABEL AND LEWIS</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>SCOTT, SIR WALTER.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>“Antiquary”</cell><cell>300</cell></row><row><cell>SENECA.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Wealth of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>15<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SENEFERU.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Copper mines</cell><cell>402</cell></row><row><cell>SETI I.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Map of mine</cell><cell>129</cell></row><row><cell>SHAW, PETER</cell><cell>XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>SHOO KING.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Copper and lead</cell><cell>391; 402</cell></row><row><cell>Iron</cell><cell>421</cell></row><row><cell>SHUTZ, CHRISTOPHER</cell><cell>283</cell></row><row><cell>SIGFRIDO, JOANNE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Ed. Agricola's works</cell><cell>XV</cell></row><row><cell>SOCRATES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Riches</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>7; 9; 14; 18<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SOLINUS, C. JULIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Solifuga<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>216;<emph.end type="bold"/> 216</cell></row><row><cell>SOLOMON, KING.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cobalt in mines</cell><cell>214</cell></row><row><cell>SOLON.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Scarcity of silver under</cell><cell>27</cell></row><row><cell>SOSIAS, THE THRACIAN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Slaves employed by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>25<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STAHL, G. E.</cell><cell>53</cell></row><row><cell>STAUNTON, SIR GEORGE</cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell>STEPHANUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXX</cell></row><row><cell>STEPHENSON, GEORGE</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell>STRABO</cell><cell>607</cell></row><row><cell>Arsenical minerals</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>Asbestos</cell><cell>440</cell></row><row><cell>Asphalt</cell><cell>584; 33</cell></row><row><cell>Bellows</cell><cell>362</cell></row><row><cell>Cementation</cell><cell>458</cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>Drainage of Spanish mines</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell>Forest fires melting veins</cell><cell>36</cell></row><row><cell>High stacks</cell><cell>355</cell></row><row><cell>Lydian mines</cell><cell>26; 27</cell></row><row><cell>Mt. Laurion</cell><cell>27</cell></row><row><cell>Silver-lead smelting</cell><cell>391</cell></row><row><cell>Spanish ore-washing</cell><cell>281</cell></row><row><cell>Zinc (?)</cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell>STRATO.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Lost work on mines</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVI; XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XII</cell></row><row><cell>STRUVE, B. G.</cell><cell>599</cell></row><row><cell>SYNESIUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXIX</cell></row><row><cell>TANTALUS</cell><cell>27</cell></row><row><cell>TAPHNUTIA (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>TAPPING, THOMAS</cell><cell>85</cell></row><row><cell>THALES OF MILETUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Amber</cell><cell>35</cell></row><row><cell>THEMISTOCLES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Athenian mine royalties</cell><cell>27</cell></row><row><cell>THEODOR, SON OF AGRICOLA</cell><cell>VII</cell></row><row><cell>THEOGNIS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell>465</cell></row><row><cell>On greed</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>18<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Plutus</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>8<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Refining gold</cell><cell>399</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Theological Tracts<emph.end type="italics"/> (Agricola).</cell><cell>605</cell></row><row><cell>THEOPHILUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>THEOPHILUS THE MONK</cell><cell>609</cell></row><row><cell>Brass making</cell><cell>410</cell></row><row><cell>Calamine</cell><cell>112</cell></row><row><cell>Cementation</cell><cell>459</cell></row><row><cell>Copper refining</cell><cell>536</cell></row><row><cell>Copper smelting</cell><cell>405</cell></row><row><cell>Cupels</cell><cell>466</cell></row><row><cell>Divining rod</cell><cell>38</cell></row><row><cell>Liquation</cell><cell>494</cell></row><row><cell>Metallurgical appliances</cell><cell>355</cell></row><row><cell>Parting with sulphur</cell><cell>461</cell></row><row><cell>Roasting</cell><cell>267</cell></row><row><cell>THEOPHRASTUS</cell><cell>XII; 607</cell></row><row><cell>Amber</cell><cell>35</cell></row><row><cell>Arsenical minerals</cell><cell>111</cell></row><row><cell>Asbestos</cell><cell>440</cell></row><row><cell>Assaying</cell><cell>219</cell></row><row><cell>Coal</cell><cell>34</cell></row><row><cell>Copper minerals</cell><cell>110</cell></row><row><cell>Copper ore</cell><cell>403</cell></row><row><cell>Emery</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>Lodestone</cell><cell>115</cell></row><row><cell>Lost works</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVI;<emph.end type="bold"/> 403</cell></row><row><cell>Origin of minerals</cell><cell>44</cell></row><row><cell>Parting precious metals</cell><cell>458</cell></row><row><cell>Quicksilver</cell><cell>297; 432</cell></row><row><cell>Touchstone</cell><cell>252</cell></row><row><cell>Verdigris</cell><cell>440</cell></row><row><cell>Vermihon</cell><cell>232</cell></row><row><cell>White-lead</cell><cell>391; 440</cell></row><row><cell>THOMPSON, LEWIS</cell><cell>462</cell></row><row><cell>THOTH.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Hermes Trismegistos</cell><cell>XXIX</cell></row><row><cell>THOTMES III.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Lead</cell><cell>391; 582</cell></row><row><cell>THUCYDIDES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Mining prefect</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>23;<emph.end type="bold"/> 23; 95</cell></row><row><cell>TIBULLUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Wealth condemned by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>16<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TIMOCLES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Riches</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>8<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TIMOCREON OF RHODES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Plutus</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>7<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TOURNEFORT, JOSEPH P. DE</cell><cell>566</cell></row><row><cell>TUBAL CAIN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Instructor in metallurgy</cell><cell>353</cell></row><row><cell>TURSIUS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>24<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TWAIN, MARK.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Merlin</cell><cell>XXX</cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Typographia Mysnae et Toringiae<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell>605</cell></row><row><cell>ULLOA, DON ANTONIO DE</cell><cell>298</cell></row><row><cell>ULYSSES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Magic rod</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>40<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>VALENTINE, BASIL</cell><cell>XXX; 609</cell></row><row><cell>Antimony</cell><cell>429</cell></row><row><cell>Divining rod</cell><cell>38</cell></row><row><cell>Parting with antimony</cell><cell>461</cell></row><row><cell>Zinc</cell><cell>409</cell></row><row><cell>VALERIUS, SON OF AGRICOLA</cell><cell>VII</cell></row><row><cell>VAN DER LINDEN, J. A.</cell><cell>599</cell></row><row><cell>VAN OPPEL</cell><cell>XIII; 52</cell></row><row><cell>VARRO, MARCUS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVI<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>VASCO DA GAMA (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> GAMA, VASCO DA).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>VEIGA, ESTACIA DE</cell><cell>83</cell></row><row><cell>VELASCO, DOM PEDRO DE</cell><cell>298</cell></row><row><cell>VERADIANUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXVIII</cell></row><row><cell>VILLA NOVA, ARNOLD DE (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXX</cell></row><row><cell>VIRGIL.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Avarice condemned by</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>16<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>VITRUVIUS</cell><cell>608</cell></row><row><cell>Amalgamation</cell><cell>297</cell></row><row><cell>Hiero's Crown</cell><cell>248</cell></row><row><cell>VITRUVIUS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Pumps</cell><cell>174; 149</cell></row><row><cell>Red-lead</cell><cell>232</cell></row><row><cell>Surveying</cell><cell>129</cell></row><row><cell>Verdigris</cell><cell>440</cell></row><row><cell>White-lead</cell><cell>440</cell></row><row><cell>VLADISLAUS III., KING OF POLAND.</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>24<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>VON OPPEL (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> VAN OPPEL).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>VOZ, CORNELIUS DE (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> DEVOZ, CORNELIUS).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>WALLERIUS, J. G.</cell><cell>234; 273</cell></row><row><cell>WATT, JAMES</cell><cell>149</cell></row><row><cell>WATT, ROBERT</cell><cell>XXVII</cell></row><row><cell>WEFRING, BASILIUS</cell><cell>XIV.</cell></row><row><cell>WEINDLE, CASPAR</cell><cell>119</cell></row><row><cell>WEINART, B. G.</cell><cell>599</cell></row><row><cell>WELLER, J. G.</cell><cell>V</cell></row><row><cell>WERNER, A. G.</cell><cell>XIII; 53</cell></row><row><cell>WILKINSON, J. GARDNER.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Bitumen</cell><cell>582</cell></row><row><cell>Egyptian bellows</cell><cell>362</cell></row><row><cell>Egyptian gold-washing</cell><cell>279</cell></row><row><cell>WILLIAMS, JOHN</cell><cell>53</cell></row><row><cell>WINKLER, K. A.</cell><cell>464</cell></row><row><cell>WROTHAM, WILLIAM DE</cell><cell>85; 413; 473</cell></row><pb pagenum="637"/><row><cell>XENOPHON.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Athenian mines</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>28; 83; 27; 29<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Fruitfulness of mines</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>6<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Mining companies</cell><cell>90</cell></row><row><cell>Mine slaves</cell><cell>25; <emph type="bold"/>28<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Quoted by Agricola</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>26; 28<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ZIMMERMAN, C. F.</cell><cell>53</cell></row><row><cell>ZOSIMUS (alchemist)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>XXVII;<emph.end type="bold"/> XXIX</cell></row></table><p type="head"> <s><emph type="bold"/>INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.<emph.end type="bold"/><lb/><arrow.to.target n="table19"></arrow.to.target></s></p><table><table.target id="table19"></table.target><row><cell></cell><cell>PAGE</cell></row><row><cell>ALUM MAKING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>571<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>AMALGAMATION MILL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>299<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>AMPULLA</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>442; 446<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ARGONAUTS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>330<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ASSAY BALANCES (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Balances).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ASSAY CRUCIBLE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>229<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ASSAY FURNACES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Crucible</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>227<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Muffle</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>223; 224<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BALANCES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>265<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BALING WATER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>199<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BARS, FOR FURNACE WORK</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>377; 389<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BATEA</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>157<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BELLOWS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>For blast furnaces</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>359; 365; 368; 370; 372<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For mine ventilation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>208; 209; 211<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For tin furnace</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>419<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BISMUTH SMELTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>434; 435; 436; 437<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BITUMEN MAKING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>582<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BITUMEN SPRING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>583<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BOWLS FOR ALLUVIAL WASHING (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Batea)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>336<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BUCKETS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>For hoisting ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>154<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For hoisting water</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>158<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BUDDLE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>301; 302; 314; 315<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BUILDING PLAN FOR REFINERY</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>493<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>BUILDING PLAN FOR SMELTER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>361<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CHAIN PUMPS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>173; 174; 175<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Chrysocolla<emph.end type="italics"/> MAKING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>585<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CIRCULAR FIRE (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Ring-Fire).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>CLAY WASHING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>374; 375<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COMPASS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>57; 59; 142; 147<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COPPER MOULD FOR ASSAYING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>250<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COPPER REFINING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>534; 537<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>COPPER REFINING FURNACE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>532<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CRANE.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>For cupellation furnace</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>479<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For liquation cakes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>514<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CROWBARS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>152<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CUPEL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>229<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Mould</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>231<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CUPELLATION FURNACE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>468; 470; 474<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>At Freiberg</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>481<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>In Poland</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>482<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>CUTTING METAL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>269<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DESCENT INTO MINES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>213<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DIPPING-POTS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>385; 387; 389; 393; 415; 417<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DISTILLATION (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Nitric Acid <emph type="italics"/>and<emph.end type="italics"/>Quicksilver).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>DIVINING ROD</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>40<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DOGS PACKING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>168<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DRIFTS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>105<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DRYING FURNACE FOR LIQUATION </cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>525; 527; 528<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>DUST CHAMBERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>395; 417<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FANS, VENTILATION</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>204; 205; 206; 207<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FIRE-BUCKETS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>377<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FIRE PUMP</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>377<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FIRE-SETTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>120<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FOREHEARTH</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>357; 358; 383; 385; 387; 390; 417<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FRAMES (OR SLUICES) FOR WASHING ORE OR ALLUVIAL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>322—324; 326—329; 331—333<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FURNACES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>ASSAYING (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Assay Furnaces).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Blast</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>357; 358; 373; 377; 383; 385; 387; 390; 395; 419; 424; 508<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Copper refining</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>537<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Cupellation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>468; 470; 474; 481; 482<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Distilling sulphur</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>277<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Enriching copper bottoms</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>510<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Glass-making</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>587; 588; 589; 591<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Iron smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>422; 424<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FURNACES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Lead smelting (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Furnaces, blast)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>393<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Liquation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>517; 519; 525; 527; 528<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Nitric acid making</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>442<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Nitric acid parting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>446<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Parting precious metals with anti-mony</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>453<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Ditto cementation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>455<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Quicksilver distillation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>427—432<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Refining silver</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>485; 486; 489<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Roasting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>276<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Steel making</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>425<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Tin burning</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>349<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Tin smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>415<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GAD</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>150<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GLASS MAKING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>591<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Furnaces</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>587; 588; 589<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>GROUND SLUICING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>337; 340; 343; 346; 347<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HAMMERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>151<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>With water-power</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>422; 425<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HEAP ROASTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>275; 278<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HEARTHS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>For bismuth smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>436; 437<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For heating copper cakes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>504<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For melting lead</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>393<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For melting lead cakes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>499<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For refining tin</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>418<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For roasting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>277<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HEMICYCLE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>138<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>HOE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>152<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Intervenium<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>50<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>IRON FORK FOR METAL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>387<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>IRON HOOK FOR ASSAYING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>240<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>IRON SMELTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>422; 424<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>IRON TOOLS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>150<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>JIGGING SIEVE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>311<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LADDERS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>213<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LADLE FOR METAL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>383<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LEAD MOULD FOR ASSAYING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>240<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LIQUATION CAKES.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Dried</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>530<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LIQUATION CAKES, EXHAUSTED</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>522<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>LIQUATION FURNACES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>517; 519; 525; 527; 528<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><pb pagenum="638"/><row><cell>LYE MAKING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>557<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MATTE ROASTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>350; 351<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MEERS, SHAPE OF</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>79; 80; 86; 87; 89<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MILLS FOR GRINDING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>294; 296<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MUFFLE FURNACES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>223; 489<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>MUFFLES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>228<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>NITRIC ACID MAKING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>442<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Nitrum<emph.end type="italics"/> PITS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>559<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Operculum<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>445<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Orbis<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>142A<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>FARTING PRECIOUS METALS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>With antimony</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>453<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>By cementation</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>455<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>With nitric acid</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>446<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>With sulphur</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>449<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PICKS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>152<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PLUMMET LEVEL.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Standing</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>143<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Suspended</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>146<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>PUMPS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Chain</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>173; 174; 175<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Duplex suction</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>180; 185; 189<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Rag and chain</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>191; 193; 194; 195<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Suction</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>177; 178; 179; 182; 188; 137<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>QUICKSILVER DISTILLATION.</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>427; 429; 430; 431; 432<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>RAG AND CHAIN PUMPS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>191; 193; 194; 195; 197<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>RAMMERS FOR FIRE-CLAY</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>377; 383<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>RING-FIRE, FOR PARTING WITH SULPHUR</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>449<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ROASTING (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Heap <emph type="italics"/>and<emph.end type="italics"/> Stall Roasting)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>278; 350; 351; 274; 275; 276<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>ROSETTE COPPER MAKING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>537<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SALT.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Boiling</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>549; 554; 555<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Caldron</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>551; 553<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Evaporated on faggots</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>556<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Pans</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>547<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Wells</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>549<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SALTPETRE MAKING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>563<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SAXON LEAD FURNACE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>393<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SCORIFIER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>229<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SEAMS IN THE ROCKS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>54; 55; 56; 60; 72<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SHAFTS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Inclined</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>104<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Timbering</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>123<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Vertical</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>103; 105<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SHEARS FOR CUTTING METAL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>269<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SHIELD FOR MUFFLE FURNACE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>241<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SIFTING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>287; 288; 289; 291; 292; 293; 311; 342<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SILVER.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Cakes, Cleansing of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>476; 488<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Refining</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>484; 485; 486; 489<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SLEIGH FOR ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>168<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SLUICING TIN</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>337; 338; 340; 343<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SMELTER, PLAN OF BUILDING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>361<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SODA MAKING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>561<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SORTING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>268; 270<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SPALLING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>270; 271; 272<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STALL ROASTING.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Matte</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>350; 351<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Ore</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>274; 276<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STAMP-MILL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>284; 286; 287; 299; 313; 320; 321; 373<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For breaking copper cakes</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>501<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STAMPS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>285<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STEEL FURNACE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>425<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STRAKE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>302; 303; 305; 304; 307; 341; 342; 345<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Canvas</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>303; 309; 317; 321; 329<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STREAMING FOR TIN</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>318<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>STRINGERS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Associated</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>71<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Fibra dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>71<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Fibra incumbens<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>71<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Oblique</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>71<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Transverse</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>71<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SURVEYING.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Rods</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>138A<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Shafts and Tunnels</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>131<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Triangles</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>133; 134; 135; 136; 137; 139; 140<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>SUCTION PUMPS (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Pumps).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>SULPHUR MAKING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>579; 581<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TAP-HOLES IN FURNACES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>389<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TAPPING-BAR</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>383; 385<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>“TESTS” FOR REFINING SILVER</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>384; 485<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TIMBERING.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Shafts</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>123<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Tunnels</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>125<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TIN.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Bars</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>415<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Burning</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>349<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Refining</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>418<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Smelting</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>415; 419<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TOUCH-NEEDLES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>255<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TRAYS FOR WASHING ALLUVIAL</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>334<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TREAD WHIM</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>163<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TROUGH</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>159<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>For washing alluvial</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>335; 348<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TRUCKS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>156<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>TUNNELS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>103; 104; 105; 120<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Timbering</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>125<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>VEINS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Barren</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>73<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Beginning of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>69<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Cavernous</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>73<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Curved</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>61<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>End of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>69<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Head of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>69<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Horizontal</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>61<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Intersections of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>64; 65; 66; 67; 68<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Solid</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>73<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Strike of</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>62; 63<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Vena cumulata<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>49; 70<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Vena dilatata<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>45; 50; 54; 60; 61; 68; 69<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell><emph type="italics"/>Vena profunda<emph.end type="italics"/></cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>45; 50; 53; 61; 62; 63; 64; 68<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>VENTILATING WITH DAMP CLOTH (<emph type="italics"/>see also<emph.end type="italics"/> Bellows, Fans, and Wind-sails)</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>212<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>VITRIOL MAKING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>567; 574; 575; 576; 577<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WAGONS, FOR HAULING ORE</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>170<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WASHING ORE (<emph type="italics"/>see<emph.end type="italics"/> Sifting Ore).</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>WATER TANKS, UNDER FURNACES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>358<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WEDGES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>150<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WEIGHTS, FOR ASSAY BALANCES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>262<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WESTPHALIAN LEAD SMELTING</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>393<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WHEELBARROWS</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>155<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WHIMS.</cell><cell></cell></row><row><cell>Horse</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>165; 167<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>Tread</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>163<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WINDLASSES</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>161; 162; 171<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WINDS, DIRECTION OF</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>59<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row><row><cell>WINDSAILS FOR VENTILATION</cell><cell><emph type="bold"/>201; 202; 203<emph.end type="bold"/></cell></row></table> </chap> </body> <back></back> </text></archimedes>