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<pb>
<head>THE TEN BOOKS OF
<B>ARCHITECTURE</B></head>
<head><I>LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI</I></head>
<head>The 1755 Leoni Edition</head>
<fig>
<cap><I>On ribbon: &ldquo;May it [he?] gleam with the greatest beauty.&rdquo;</I></cap>
<pb>
<head>DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.</head>
<head>NEW YORK</head>
<pb>
<fig>
<head>THE
<B>PREFACE.</B></head>
<P>Our Ance$tors have left us many and various Arts tending to the Plea$ure and
Conveniency of Life, acquired with the greate$t Indu$try and Diligence:
Which Arts, though they all pretend, with a Kind of Emulation, to have in
View the great End of being $erviceable to Mankind; yet we know that each
of them in particular has $omething in it that $eems to promi$e a di$tinct and
$<*>parate Fruit: Some Arts we follow for Nece$$ity, $ome we approve for their
U$efulne$s, and $ome we e$teem becau$e they lead us to the Knowledge of Things that are de-
light$ul. What the$e Arts are, it is not nece$$ary for me to enumerate; for they are obvious.
But if you take a View of the whole Circle of Arts, you $hall hardly find one but what, de$pi$-
ing all others, regards and $eeks only its own particular Ends: Or if you do meet with any of
$uch a Nature that you can in no wi$e do without it, and which yet brings along with it Pro-
$it at the $ame Time, conjoined with Plea$ure and Honour, you will, I believe, be convinced,
that Architecture is not to be excluded from that Number. For it is certain, if you examine
the Matter carefully, it is inexpre$$ibly delightful, and of the greate$t Convenience to Mankind
in all Re$pects, both publick and private; and in Dignity not inferior to the mo$t excellent. But
before I proceed further, it will not be improper to explain what he is that I allow to be an
Architect: For it is not a Carpenter or a Joiner that I thus rank with the greate$t Ma$ters in
other Sciences; the manual Operator being no more than an In$trument to the Architect.
Him I call an Architect, who, by $ure and wonderful Art and Method, is able, both with
Thought and Invention, to devi$e, and, with Execution, to compleat all tho$e Works, which,
by means of the Movement of great Weights, and the Conjunction and Ama$$ment of Bodies,
can, with the greate$t Beauty, be adapted to the U$es of Mankind: And to be able to do this,
he mu$t have a thorough In$ight into the noble$t and mo$t curious Sciences. Such mu$t be the
Architect. But to return.</P>
<P>SOME have been of Opinion, that either Water or Fire were the principal Occa$ions of bring-
ing Men together into Societies; but to us, who con$ider the U$efulne$s and Nece$$ity of Co-
verings and Walls, it $eems evident, that they were the chief Cau$es of a$$embling Men toge-
ther. But the only Obligation we have to the Architect is not for his providing us with $afe
and plea$ant Places, where we may $helter our$elves from the Heat of the Sun, from Cold and
Tempe$t, (though this is no $mall Benefit); but for having be$ides contrived many other
Things, both of a private and publick Nature of the highe$t U$e and Convenience to the Life
of Man. How many noble Families, reduced by the Calamity of the Times, had been utterly
lo$t, both in our own native City, and in others, had not their paternal Habitations pre$erved
and cheri$hed them, as it were, in the Bo$om of their Forefathers. <I>D&aelig;dalus</I> in his Time was
greatly e$teemed for having made the <I>Selinuntians</I> a Vault, which gathered $o warm and kindly
a Vapour, as provoked a plentiful Sweat, and thereby cured their Di$tempers with great Ea$e
and Plea$ure. Why need I mention others who have contrived many Things of the like Sort
conducive to Health; as Places for Exerci$e, for Swimming, Baths and the like? Or why
$hould I in$tance in Vehicles, Mills, Time-mea$ures, and other $uch minute Things, which
neverthele$s are of great U$e in Life? Why $hould I in$i$t upon the great Plenty of Waters
brought from the mo$t remote and hidden Places, and employed to $o many different and u$e-
ful Purpo$es? Upon Trophies, Tabernacles, $acred Edifices, Churches and the like, adapted
<foot>to</foot>
<pb>
to divine Wor$hip, and the Service of Po$terity? Or la$tly, why $hould I mention the Rocks
cut, Mountains bored through, Vallies filled up, Lakes confined, Mar$hes di$charged into the
Sea, Shi<*>s built, Rivers turned, their Mouths cleared, Bridges laid over them, Harbours formed,
not only $erving to Men's immediate Conveniencies, but al$o opening them a Way to all Parts
of the World; whereby Men have been enabled mutually to furni$h one ano<*>her with Provi$i-
ons, Spices, Gems, and to communicate their Knowledge, and whatever el$e is healthful or
plea$urable. Add to the$e the Engines and Machines of War, Fortre$$es, and the like Inventi-
ons nece$$ary to the Defending the Liberty of our Country, Maintaining the Honour, and En-
crea$ing the Greatne$s of a City, and to the Acqui$ition and E$tabli$hment of an Empire. I
am really per$uaded, that if we were to enquire of all the Cities which, within the Memory of
Man, have fallen by Siege into the Power of new Ma$ters, who it was that $ubjected and over-
came them, they would tell you, the Architect; and that they were $trong enough to have
de$pi$ed the armed Enemy, but not to with$tand the Shocks of the Engines, the Violence of
the Machines, and the Force of the other In$truments of War, with which the Architect di$-
tre$$ed, demoli$hed and ruinated them. And the Be$ieged, on the contrary, would inform
you, that their greate$t Defence lay in the Art and A$$i$tance of the Architect. And if you
were to examine into the Expeditions that have been undertaken, you would go near to find
that mo$t of the Victories were gained more by the Art and Skill of the Architects, than by the
Conduct or Fortune of the Generals; and that the Enemy was oftener overcome and conquered
by the Architect's Wit, without the Captain's Arms, than by the Captain's Arms without the
Architect's Wit: And what is of great Con$equence is, that the Architect conquers with a
$mall Number of Men, and without the Lo$s of Troops. Let this $uffice as to the U$efulne$s
of this Art.</P>
<P>BUT how much the Study and Subject of Building delights, and how firmly it is rooted in
the Mind of Man, appears from $everal In$tances, and particularly from this; that you $hall
find no body who has the Means but what has an Inclination to be building $omething: And
if a Man has happened to think of any Thing new in Architecture, he is $ond of communicat-
ing and divulging it for the U$e of others, as if con$trained thereto by Nature. And how o$ten
does it fall out, that even when we are employed upon other Things, we cannot keep our
Thoughts and Imaginations, from Projecting $ome Edi$ice? And when we $ee other Men's
Hou$es, we immediately $et about a careful Examination of all the Proportions and Dimen$ions,
and, to the be$t of our Ability, con$ider what might be added, retrenched or altered; and pre-
$ently give our Opinions how it might be made more compleat or beautiful. And if a Build-
ing be well laid out, and ju$tly fini$hed, who is he that does not view it with the utmo$t Plea-
$ure and Delight? But why need I mention not only how much Benefit and Delight, but how
much Glory to Architecture has brought to Nations, which have cultivated it both at home
and abroad? Who that has built any publick Edifice does not think him$elf honoured by it,
when it is reputable to a Man only to have built a hand$ome Habitation for him$elf? Men of
publick Spirits approve and rejoice when you have rai$ed a fine Wall or Portico, and adorned
it with Portals, Columns, and a hand$ome Roof, knowing you have thereby not only $erved
your$elf, but them too, having by this generous U$e of your Wealth, gained an Addition of
great Honour to your$elf, your Family, your De$cendants, and your City. The Sepulchre of
<I>Jupiter</I> was the fir$t Step to the ennobling the I$land of <I>Crete;</I> and <I>Delos</I> was not $o much
re$pected for the Oracle of <I>Apollo,</I> as for the beautiful Structure of the City, and the Maje$ty of
the Temple. How much Authority accrued to the <I>Roman</I> Name and Empire from their
Buildings, I $hall dwell upon no further, than that the Sepulchres and other Remains of the
ancient Magnificence, every where to be found, are a great Inducement and Argument with us
for believing many Things related by Hi$torians, which might otherwi$e have $eemed incredible.
<I>Thucydides</I> extreamly commends the Prudence of $ome Ancients, who had $o adorned their City
with all Sorts of fine Structures, that their Power thereby appeared to be much greater than it
really was. And what potent or wi$e Prince can be named, that among his chief Projects for
eternizing his Name and Po$terity, did not make U$e of Architecture. But of this enough.
The Conclu$ion is, that for the Service, Security, Honour and Ornament of the Publick, we
are exceedingly obliged to the Architect; to whom, in Time of Lei$ure, we are indebted for
<foot>Tranquility,</foot>
<pb>
Tranquility, Plea$ure and Health, in Time of Bu$ine$s for A$$i$tance and Profit; and in both,
$or Security and Dignity. Let us not therefore deny that he ought to be prai$ed and e$teemed,
and to be allowed a Place, both for the wonderful and ravi$hing Beauty of his Works, and for
the Nece$$ity, Serviceablene$s, and Strength of the Things which he has invented, among the
Chief of tho$e who have de$erved Honour and Rewards from Mankind. The Con$ideration of
the$e Things induced me, for my Diver$ion, to look a little further into this Art and its Ope-
rations, from what Principles it was derived, and of what Parts it con$i$ted: And finding them
of various Kinds, in Number almo$t infinite, in their Nature marvellous, of U$e incredible, in-
$omuch that it was doubtful what Condition of Men, or what Part of the Commonwealth, or
what Degree in the City, whether the Publick or Private, Things $acred or profane, Repo$e or
Labour, the Individual or the whole human Species, was mo$t obliged to the Architect, or
rather Inventor of all Conveniencies; I re$olved, for $everal Rea$ons, too tedious here to re-
peat, to collect all tho$e Things which are contained in the$e Ten Books. In treating of which,
we $hall ob$erve this Method: We con$ider that an Edi$ice is a Kind of Body con$i$ting, like
all other Bodies, of De$ign and of Matter; the fir$t is produced by the Thought, the other by
Nature; $o that the one is to be provided by the Application and Contrivance of the Mind,
and the other by due Preparation and Choice. And we further reflected, that neither the one
nor the other of it$elf was $ufficient, without the Hand of an experienced Artificer, that knew
how to form his Materials after a ju$t De$ign. And the U$e of Edi$ices being various, it was
nece$$ary to enquire whether one and the $ame Kind of De$ign was fit for all Sorts of Buildings;
upon which Account we have di$tingui$hed the $everal Kinds of Buildings: Wherein perceiv-
ing that the main Point was the ju$t Compo$ition and Relation of the Lines among them$elves,
from whence ari$es the Height of Beauty, I therefore began to examine what Beauty really was,
and what Sort of Beauty was proper to each Edifice. And as we often meet with Faults in all
the$e Re$pects, I con$idered how they might be altered or amended. Every Book therefore
has its Title prefixed to it, according to the Variety of the Subject: The Fir$t treats of De$igns;
the Second, of Materials; the Third, of the Work; the Fourth, of Works in general; the
Fifth, of Works in particular; the Sixth, of Ornaments in general; the Seventh, of the Orna-
ments proper for $acred Edifices; the Eighth, of tho$e for publick and profane ones; The
Ninth, of tho$e for the Hou$es of private Per$ons; the Tenth, of Amendments and Alterations
in Buildings: To which is added, a various Hi$tory of Waters, and how they are found, and
what U$e is to be made of the Architect in all the$e Works: As al$o Four other Books, Three of
which treat of the Art of Painting; and the Fourth, of Sculpture.</P>
<fig>
<foot>a The</foot>
<pb>
<fig>
<head>The TABLE of CONTENTS.</head>
<head>BOOK I.</head>
<P>CHAP. I. <I>Of De$igns; their Value and Rules.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. II. <I>Of the fir$t Occa$ion of erecting Edifices;
of how many Parts the Art of Building con$i$ts, and
what is nece$$ary to each of tho$e Parts.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. III. <I>Of the Region of the Climate or Air, of the
Sun and Winds which affect the Air.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IV. <I>Which Region is, and which is not commodi-
ous for Building.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. V. <I>By what Marks and Characters we are to
know the Goodne$s of the Region.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VI. <I>Of $ome hidden Conveniencies and Inccnveni-
encies of the Region which a wi$e Man ought to enquire
into.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VII. <I>Of the Seat, or Platform, and of the $everal
Sorts of Lines.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VIII. <I>Of the Kinds of Platforms, their Forms and
Figures, and which are the mo$t $erviceable and la$ting.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IX. <I>Of the Compartition, and of the Origin of
Building.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. X. <I>Of the Columns and Walls, and $ome Ob$erva-
tions relating to the Columns.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XI. <I>Of the great U$efulne$s of the Coverings both
to the Inhabitants and the other Parts of the Building,
and that being various in their Natures, they mu$t be
made of various Sorts.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XII. <I>Of the Apertures in the Building, that is to
$ay, of the Windows and Doors, and of tho$e which do
not take up the whole Thickne$s of the Wall, and their
Number and Sizes.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XIII. <I>Of the Stair-ca$es, and their different Sorts;
of Steps of the Stairs which ought to be in odd Numbers,
and how many. Of the Re$ting-places, of the Tunnels
for carrying away the Smoke. Of Pipes and Conduits
for carrying off the Water, and of the proper placing of
Wells and Sinks.</I></P>
<head>BOOK II.</head>
<P>CHAP. I. <I>Treating of the Materials. That no Man
ought to begin a Building ha$tily, but $hould
fir$t take a good deal of Time to con$ider, and revolve in
his Mind all the Qualities and Requi$ites of $uch a Work:
And that he $hould carefully review and examine, with
the Advice of proper Judges, the whole Structure in it-
$elf, and the Proportions and Mea$ures of every di$tinct
Part, not only in Draughts or Paintings, but in actual
Models of Wood or $ome other Sub$tance, that when he
has fini$hed his Building, he may not repent of his Labour.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. II. <I>That we ought to undertake nothing above our
Abilities, nor $trive again$t Nature, and that we ought
al$o not only to con$ider what we can do, but what is fit
for us to do, and in what Place it is that we are to build.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. III. <I>That having con$idered the whole Di$po$ition
of the Building in all the Parts of the Model, we ought
to take the Advice of prudent and under$tanding Men,
and before we begin our Work, it will not only be proper
to know how to rai$e Money for the Expence, but al$o
long before-hand to provide all the Materials for com-
pleating $uch an Undertaking.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IV. <I>What Materials are to be provided for the
Building, what Workmen to be cho$e, and in what Sea-
$ons, according to the Opinions of the Ancients, to cut
Timber.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. V. <I>Of pre$erving the Trees after they are cut,
what to plai$ter or anoint them with, of the Remedies
again$t their Infirmities, and of allotting them their pro-
per Places in the Building.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VI. <I>What Woods are mo$t proper for Buildings,
their Nature and U$es, how they are to be employed, and
in what Part of the Edifice each Kind is mo$t fit for.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VII. <I>Of Trees more $ummarily and in general.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VIII. <I>Of Stones in general, when they are to be
dug, and when u$ed; which are the $ofte$t and which
the harde$t, and which be$t and mo$t durable.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IX. <I>Some Things worthy memorial, relating to
Stones, left us by the Ancients.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. X. <I>Of the Origin of the U$e of Bricks, in what
Sea$on they ought to be made, and in what Shapes, their
different Sorts, and the U$efulne$s of triangular ones;
and briefly, of all other Works made of baked Earth.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XI. <I>Of the Nature of Lime and Plai$ter of</I> Paris,
<I>their U$es and Kinds, wherein they agree and wherein
they differ, and of $ome Things not unworthy of Memory.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XII. <I>Of the three different Kinds of Sands, and of the
various Materials u$ed in Building in different Places.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XIII. <I>Whether the Ob$ervation of Times and Sea-
$ons is of any U$e in beginning a Building; what Sea-
$on is mo$t convenient; as al$o, with what Auguries or
Prayers we ought to $et out upon our Work.</I></P>
<head>BOOK III.</head>
<P>CHAP. I. <I>Of the Work. Wherein lies the Bu$ine$s of
the Work; the different Parts of the Walls,
and what they require. That the Foundation is no Part
of the Wall; what Soil makes the be$t Foundation.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. II. <I>That the Foundation chiefly is to be marked out
with Lines; and by what Tokens we may know the
Goodne$s of the Ground.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. III. <I>That the Nature of Places is various, and
therefore we ought not to tru$t any Place too ha$tily, till
we have fir$t dug Wells or Re$ervoirs; but that in mar$hy
Places we mu$t make our Foundation with Piles burnt
at the Ends, and driven in with their Heads downward
with light Beetles, and many repeated Blows, till they
are driven quite in to the Head.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IV. <I>Of the Nature, Forms and Qualities of Stones,
and of the Tempering of Mortar.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. V. <I>Of the lower Cour$es or Foundations, accord-
ing to the Precepts and Example of the Ancients.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VI. <I>That there ought to be Vents left open in
thick Walls from the Bottom to the Top, the Difference
between the Wall and the Foundation: The principal
Parts of the Wall; the three Methods of Wailing; the
Materials and Form of the fir$t Cour$e or Layer.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VII. <I>Of the Generation of Stones: How they are
to be di$po$ed and joined together, as al$o, which are the
$tronge$t and which the weake$t.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VIII. <I>Of the Parts of the Fini$hing; of the Shells,
the Stuffing, and their different Sorts.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IX. <I>Of the Girders of Stone, of the Ligament and
Fortification of the Cornices, and how to unite $everal
Stones for the Strengthening of the Wall.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. X. <I>Of the true Manner of Working the Wall,
and of the Agreement there is between Stone and Sand.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XI. <I>Of the Way of Working different Materials;
of Plai$tering, of Cramps, and how to pre$erve them;</I>
<foot><I>the</I></foot>
<pb>
<I>the mo$t ancient In$tructions of Architects; and $ome
Methods to prevent the Mi$chiefs of Lightning.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XII. <I>Of Coverings of $treight Lines; of the Beams
and Rafters, and of the uniting the Ribs.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XIII. <I>Of Coverings, or Roofs of Curve Lines; of
Arches, their Difference and Con$truction, and how to
$et the Stones in an Arch.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XIV. <I>Of the $everal Sorts of Vaults, and wherein
they differ; of what Lines they are compo$ed, and the
Method of letting them $ettle.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XV. <I>Of the Shell of the Covering, and its U$eful-
ne$s; the different Sorts and Shapes of Tiles, and what
to make them of.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XVI. <I>Of Pavements according to the Opinion of</I>
Pliny <I>and</I> Vitruvius, <I>and the Works of the Ancients;
and of the proper Sea$ons for beginning, and fini$hing
the $everal Parts of Building.</I></P>
<head>BOOK IV.</head>
<P>CHAP. I. <I>Of Works of a publick Nature. That all
Buildings, whether contrived for Nece$$ity,
Conveniency, or Plea$ure, were intended for the Service
of Mankind. Of the $everal Divi$ions of human Condi-
tions, whence ari$es the Diver$ity of Buildings.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. II. <I>Of the Region, Place, and Conveniencies, and
Inconveniencies of a Situation for a City, according to
the Opinion of the Ancients, and that of the Author.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. III. <I>Of the Compa$s, Space and Bigne$s of a City,
of the Form and Di$po$ition of the Walls and Fortifica-
tions, and of the Cu$toms and Ceremonies ob$erved by the
Ancients in making them out.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IV. <I>Of Walls, Battlements, Towers, Corni$hes and
Gates, and the Timber-work belonging to them.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. V. <I>Of the Proportion, Fa$hion and Con$truction of
great military Ways, and private Ways.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VI. <I>Of Bridges both of Wood and Stone, their pro-
per Situation, their Piers, Arches, Angles, Feet, Key-
$tones, Cramps, Pavements, and Slopes.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VII. <I>Of Drains or Sewers, their di$ferent Sorts
and U$es; and of Rivers and Canals for Ships.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VIII. <I>Of the proper Structure for a Haven, and
of making convenient Squares in the City.</I></P>
<head>BOOK V.</head>
<P>CHAP. I. <I>Of Buildings for particular Per$ons. Of the
Ca$tles or Habitations of a King, or others;
their different Properties and Parts.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. II. <I>Of the Portico, Ve$tibule, Court-yard, Hall,
Stairs, Lobbies, Apertures, Back-doors, concealed Pa$$-
ages and private Apartments; and wherein the Hou$es
of Princes differ from tho$e of private Men; as al$o of
the $eparate and common Apartments for the Prince
and his Spou$e.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. III. <I>Of the Properties of the Portico, Lobby, Halls
both for Summer and Winter, Watch-Towers and of the
Difference between the Ca$tle for a Tyrant, and the
Palace for a King.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IV. <I>Of the proper Situation, Structure and For-
tification of a Fortre$s, whether in a Plain, or upon a
Hill, its Inclo$ure, Area, Walls, Ditches, Bridges, and
Towers.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. V. <I>Of tho$e Parts of the Fortre$s where the Soldiers
are to $tand either to keep centinel, or to fight. Of the
covering Roof of the Fortre$s, and in what Manner it
is to be made $trong, and of the other Conveniencies ne-
ce$$ary in the Ca$tle either of a King or a Tyrant.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VI. <I>Of the $everal Parts of which the Republick
con$i$ts. The proper Situation and Building for the
Hou$es of tho$e that govern the Republick, and of the
Prie$ts. Of Temples as well large as $inall, Chapels
and Oratories.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VII. <I>That the Prie$t's Camp is the Cloy$ter; the
Duty of the Prie$t; the various Sorts of Cloy$iers and
their proper Situation.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VIII. <I>Of Places $or Exerci$e, publick Schools, and
Ho$pitals both for Men and Women.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IX. <I>Of the Senate-hou$e, the Temple, and the Tri-
bunals for the Admini$tration of Ju$tice.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. X. <I>That Incampments, or Lodgments for Soldiers
by Land are of three Sorts; in what Manner they are
to be fortified; and the various Methods u$ed by diffe-
rent Nations.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XI. <I>The mo$t convenient Situation for a Camp,
and its Size, Form and various Parts; together with
the different Methods of attacking and defending a Camp
or other Fortification.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XII. <I>Of Incampments or Stations at Sea, which
are Fleets; of Ships and their Parts; as al$o of Havens
and their proper Fortification.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XIII. <I>Of the Commi$$aries, Chamberlains, publick
Receivers and the like Magi$trates, who$e Bu$ine$s is to
$upply and pre$ide over the publick Granaries, Chambers
of Accounts, Ar$enals, Marts, Docks and Stables; as
al$o of the three Sorts of Pri$ons, their Structures, Situ-
ations, and Compartitions.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XIV. <I>Of private Hou$es and their Differences;
as al$o of the Country Hou$e, and the Rules to be ob$erved
in its Situation and Structure.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XV. <I>That Country Hou$es are of two Sorts; the
proper Di$po$ition of all their Members whether for the
Lodging of Men, Animals, or Tools for Agriculture
and other nece$$ary In$truments,</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XVI. <I>That the Indu$try of the Farmer or Over$eer
ought to be employed as well about all Sorts of Animals,
as about the Fruits of the Earth; as al$o of the Con-
$truction of the Thre$hing-floor.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XVII. <I>Of the Country Hou$e for a Gentleman;
its various Parts, and the proper Di$po$ition of each of
tho$e Parts.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XVIII. <I>The Difference between the Country Hou$e
and Town Hou$e for the Rich. The Habitation of the
middling Sort ought to re$emble tho$e of the Rich; at
lea$t in Proportion to their Circum$tances. Buildings
$hould be contrived more for Summer than for Winter.</I></P>
<head>BOOK VI.</head>
<P>CHAP. I. <I>Of the Rea$on and Difficulty of the Author's
Undertaking, whereby it appears how much
Pains, Study and Application he has employed in writ-
ing upon the$e Matters.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. II. <I>Of Beauty and Ornament, their Effects and
Difference, that they are owing to Art and Exactne$s
of Proportion; as al$o of the Birth and Progre$s of Arts.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. III. <I>That Architecture began in</I> A$ia, <I>flouri$hed in</I>
Greece, <I>and was brought to Perfection in</I> Italy.</P>
<P>CHAP. IV. <I>That Beauty and Ornament in every Thing
ari$e either $rom Contrivance, or the Hand of the Arti-
ficer, or from Nature; and that though the Region in-
deed can hardly be improved by the Wit or Labour of
Man, yet many other Things may be done highly worthy
of Admiration, and $carcely credible.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. V. <I>A $hort Recapitulation of the Compartition,
and of the ju$t Compo$ition and adorning the Wall and
Covering.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VI. <I>In what Manner great Weights and large
Stones are moved from one Place to another, or rai$ed to
any great Height.</I></P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<pb>
<P>CHAP. VII. <I>Of Wheels, Pins, Leavers, Pullies, their
Parts, Sizes, and Figures.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VIII. <I>Of the Skrew and its Circles or Worm, and
in what manner great Weights are either drawn, car-
ried or pu$hed along.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IX. <I>That the Incru$tations which are made upon
the Wall with Mortar, mu$t be three in Number: How
they are to be made, and to what Purpo$es they are to
$erve. Of the $everal Sorts of Mortar, and in what
Manner the Lime is to be prepared for making them:
Of Ba$s-relieves in $tuc-work and Paintings, with
which the Wall may be adorned.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. X. <I>Of the Method of cutting of Marble into thin
Seantlings, and what Sand is be$t for that Purpo$e; as
al$o of the Difference and Agreement between</I> Mo$aic
<I>Work in Relieve, and Flat, and of the Cement to be u$ed
in that Sort of Work.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XI. <I>Of the Ornaments of the Covering, which con-
$i$ts in the Richne$s and Beauty of the Rafters, Vaults,
and open Terra$$es.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XII. <I>That the Ornaments of the Apertures are
very plea$ing, but are attended with many and various
Difficu<*>ties and Inconveniencies; that the fal$e Aper-
tures are of two Sorts, and what is required in each.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XIII <I>Of Columns and their Ornaments, their
Plans, Axes, Out-lines, Sweeps, Diminutions, Swells,
A$iragals and Fillets.</I></P>
<head>BOOK VII.</head>
<P>CHAP. I. <I>That the Walls of Cities, the Temples, and
Courts of Ju$tice, u$ed to be con$ecreated to
the Gods; of the proper Region for the City, its Situati-
on and principal Ornaments.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. II. <I>Of how large and what Kind of Stone the Walls
ought to be built, and who were the fir$t that erected
Temples.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. III. <I>With how much Thought, Care and Diligence
we ought to lay out and adorn our Temples; to what
Gods and in what Places we $hould build them, and of
the various Kinds of Sacrifices.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IV. <I>Of the Parts, Forms and Figures of Temples
and their Chapels, and how the$e latter $hould be di$tri-
buted.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. V. <I>Of the Porticoes and Entrance to the Temple,
its A$cent and the Apertures and Inter$paces of the
Portico.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VI. <I>Of Columns, and the different Sorts of Ca-
pitals.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VII. <I>A nece$$ary Rehear$al of the $everal Mem-
bers of Columns, the Ba$e, Torus, Scotia, Li$ts, Die,
and of the $maller Parts of tho$e Members, the Plat-
band, Corona, Ovolo, $mall Ogee, Cima-inver$a, and
Cymatium, both upright and rever$ed.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VIII. <I>Of the</I> Doric, Ionic, Corinthian <I>and Com-
po$ite Capitals.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IX. <I>Of the Entablature, the Architrave, Tri-
glyphs, Dentils, Mutules, Cavetto, and Drip or Corona,
as al$o of the Flutings and $ome other Ornaments be-
longing to Columns.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. X. <I>Of the Pavement of the Temple and its inner
Area, of the Place $or the Altar, and of the Walls and
their Ornaments.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XI. <I>Why the Roo$s of Temples ought to be arched.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XII. <I>Of the Apertures proper to Temples, namely,
the Windows, Doors, and Valves; together with their
Members, Proportions and Ornaments.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XIII. <I>Of the Altar, Communion, Lights, Candle-
$ticks, holy Ve$$els, and $ome other noble Ornaments of
Temples.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XIV. <I>Of the fir$t Original of Ba$iliques, their
Porticoes and different Members, and wherein they dif-
fer from Temples.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XV. <I>Of Colonnades both with Architraves and
with Arches; what Sort of Columns are to be u$ed in
Ba$iliques, and what Cornices, and where they are to be
placed; of the Height and Wedth of Windows and
their Gratings; of the Roofs and Doors of Ba$iliques,
and their Ornaments.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XVI. <I>Of Monuments rai$ed for pre$erving the
Memory of publick Actions and Events.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XVII. <I>Whether Statues ought to be placed in
Temples, and what Materials are the mo$t proper for
making them.</I></P>
<head>BOOK VIII.</head>
<P>CHAP. I. <I>Of the Ornaments of the great Ways either
within or without the City, and of the pro-
per Places for interring or burning the Bodies of the
Dead.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. II. <I>Of Sepulchres, and the various Manners of
burial.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. III. <I>Of little Chapels, by Way of Sepulchres, Py-
ramids, Columns, Altars and Moles.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IV. <I>Of the In$eriptions and Symbols carved on
Sepulchres.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. V. <I>Of Towers and their Ornaments.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VI. <I>Of the principal Ways belonging to the City,
and the Methods of adorning the Haven, Gates, Bridges,
Arches, Cro$s-ways and Squares.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VII. <I>Of the adorning Theatres and other Places
for publick Shows, and of their U$efulne$s.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VIII. <I>Of the Ornaments of the Amphitheatre,
Circus, publick Walks, and Halls, and Courts for petty
Judges.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IX. <I>Of the proper Ornaments for the Senate-
Hou$e and Council-Chambers, as al$o of the adorning the
City with Groves, Lakes for Swimming, Libraries,
Schools, publick Stables, Ar$enals, and mathematical
In$truments.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. X. <I>Of Thermes or publick Baths; their Conveni-
encies and Ornaments.</I></P>
<head>BOOK IX.</head>
<P>CHAP. I. <I>That particular Regard mu$t be had to
Frugality and Par$imony, and of the adorn-
ing the Palaces or Hou$es of the King and principal
Magi$trates.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. II. <I>Of adorning of private Hou$es, both in City
and Country.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. III. <I>That the Parts and Members of a Hou$e are
different both in Nature and Species, and that they are
to be adorned in various Manners.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IV. <I>With what Paintings, Plants, and Statues,
it is proper to adorn the Pavements, Porticoes, Apart-
ments and Gardens of a private Hou$e.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. V. <I>That the Beauty of all Edifices ari$es princi-
pally from three Things, namely, the Number, Figure
and Collocation of the $everal Members.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VI. <I>Of the Proportions of Numbers in the Mea-
$uring of Areas, and the Rules for $ome other Proper-
tions drawn neither from natural Bodies, nor from Har-
mony.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VII. <I>Of the Invention of Columns, their Dimen-
tions and Collocation.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VIII. <I>Some $hort, but general Ob$ervations which
may be locked upon as Laws in the Bu$ine$s of Building
and Ornaments.</I></P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<pb>
<P>CHAP. IX. <I>The Bu$ine$s and Duty of a good Architect,
and wherein the Excellence of the Ornaments con$i$ts.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. X. <I>What it is that an Architect ought principall<*>
to con$ider, and what Sciences he ought to be acquaint-
ed with.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XI. <I>To what Sort of Per$ons the Architect ought
to offer his Service.</I></P>
<head>BOOK X.</head>
<P>CHAP. I. <I>Of the Defects in Building, whence they pro-
ceed, and their different Sorts; which of
them can be corrected by the Architect, and which can-
not; and the various Cau$es of a bad Air.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. II. <I>That Water is the mo$t nece$$ary Thing of all,
and of its various Sorts.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. III. <I>Four Things to be con$idered with Relation to
Water; al$o whence it is engendered or ari$es, and its
Cour$e.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IV. <I>By what Marks to find any hidden Water.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. V. <I>Of the Digging and Walling of Wells and
Conduits.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VI. <I>Of the U$es of Water; which is be$t and mo$t
whole$ome; and that which is unwhole$ome.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VII. <I>Of the Method of conveying Water and ac-
commodating it to the U$es of Men.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. VIII. <I>Of Ci$terns, their U$es and Conveniencies.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. IX. <I>Of planting a Vineyard in a Meadow, or a
Wood in a Mar$h; and how we may amend a Region
which is mole$ted with too much Water.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. X. <I>Of Roads; of Pa$$ages by Water and of artifi-
cial Banks to Rivers.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XI. <I>Of Canals; how they are to be kept well $up-
plied with Water, and the U$es of them not ob$tructed.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XII. <I>Of the Sea Wall; of $trengthening the Ports;
and of Locks for confining the Water in it.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XIII. <I>Of the Remedies for $ome other Inconveni-
encies.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XIV. <I>Some more minute Particulars relating to
the U$e of Fire.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XV. <I>By what Methods to de$troy or drive away
Serpents, Gnats, Bugs, Flies, Mice, Fleas, Moths, and
the like trouble$ome Vermin.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XVI. <I>Of making a Room either warmer or cooler;
as al$o of amending Defects in the Walls.</I></P>
<P>CHAP. XVII. <I>Of $ome Defects which cannot be provided
again$t, but which may be repaired after they have hap-
pened.</I></P>
<fig>
<foot>THE</foot>
<pb>
<fig>
<head>THE
<B>ARCHITECTURE</B>
OF
<B><I>Leone Bati$ta Alberti.</I></B></head>
<head>BOOK I. CHAP. I.</head>
<head><I>Of De$igns; their Value and Rules.</I></head>
<P>Being to treat of the
De$igns of Edifices, we
$hall collect and tran-
$cribe into this our Work,
all the mo$t curious and
u$e$ul Ob$ervations left
us by the Ancients, and
which they gathered in
the actual Execution of
the$e Works; and to the$e we $hall join what-
ever we our$elves may have di$covered by our
Study, Application and Labour, that $eems like-
ly to be of U$e. But as we de$ire, in the hand-
ling this difficult, knotty, and commonly ob-
$cure Subject, to be as clear and intelligible as
po$$ible; we $hall, according to our Cu$tom,
explain what the Nature of our Subject is;
which will $hew the Origin of the important
Matters that we are to write of, at their very
Fountain-Head, and enable us to expre$s the
Things that follow, in a more ea$y and per-
$picuous Style. We $hall therefore fir$t lay
down, that the whole Art of Building con$i$ts
in the De$ign, and in the Structure. The
whole Force and Rule of the De$ign, con$i$ts
in a right and exact adapting and joining to-
gether the Lines and Angles which compo$e
and form the Face of the Building. It is the
Property and Bu$ine$s of the De$ign to appoint
to the Edifice and all its Parts their proper
Places, determinate Number, ju$t Proportion
and beautiful Order; $o that the whole Form
of the Structure be proportionable. Nor has
this De$ign any thing that makes it in its Na-
ture in$eparable from Matter; for we $ee that
the $ame De$ign is in a Multitude of Buildings,
which have all the $ame Form, and are exact-
ly alike as to the Situation of their Parts and
the Di$po$ition of their Lines and Angles; and
we can in our Thought and Imagination con-
trive perfect Forms of Buildings entirely $epa-
rate from Matter, by $ettling and regulating in
a certain Order, the Di$po$ition and Conjunc-
tion of the Lines and Angles. Which being
<foot>B granted,</foot>
<p n=>2</p>
granted, we $hall call the De$ign a firm and
graceful pre-ordering of the Lines and Angles,
conceived in the Mind, and contrived by an
ingenious Arti$t. But if we would enquire
what a Building is in its own Nature, together
with the Structure thereof, it may not be ami$s,
to con$ider from what Beginnings the Habita-
tions of Men, which we call Edifices, took
their Ri$e, and the Progre$s of their Improve-
ment: Which unle$s I am mi$taken, may be
re$olved as follows.</P>
<head>CHAP II.</head>
<head><I>Of the fir$t Occa$ion of erecting Edifices; of how many Parts the Art of
Building con$i$ts, and what is nece$$ary to each of tho$e Parts.</I></head>
<P>In the Beginning Men looked out for Set-
tlements in $ome $ecure Country; and ha-
ving found a convenient Spot $uitable to their
Occa$ions, they there made them$elves a Ha-
bitation $o contrived, that private and publick
Matters might not be confounded together in
the $ame Place; but that they might have one
Part for Sleep, another for their Kitchen, and
others for their other nece$$ary U$es. They
then began to think of a Covering to defend
them from Sun and Rain; and in order there-
to, they erected Walls to place this Covering
upon. By this means they knew they $hould
be the more compleatly $heltered from pierc-
ing Colds, and $tormy Winds. La$tly, in the
Sides of the Walls, from Top to Bottom, they
opened Pa$$ages and Windows, for going in and
out, and letting in Light and Air, and for the
Conveniency of di$charging any Wet, or any
gro$s Vapours, which might chance to get into
the Hou$e. And who$oever it was, whether
the Godde$s <I>Ve$ta,</I> Daughter of <I>Saturn,</I> or
<I>Euryalus</I> and <I>Hyperbius,</I> the two Brothers, or
<I>Gellio,</I> or <I>Thra$o,</I> or the Cyclop <I>Typhinchius,</I>
that fir$t contrived the$e Things: I am per-
$uaded the fir$t Beginnings of them were $uch
as I have de$cribed, and that U$e and Arts have
$ince improved them to $uch a Pitch, that the
various Kinds of Buildings are become almo$t
infinite: Some are publick, $ome private, $ome
$acred, $ome profane, $ome $erve for U$e and
Nece$$ity, $ome for the Ornament of our Cities,
or the Beauty of our Temples: But no body
will therefore deny, that they were all derived
from the Principles abovementioned: Which
being $o, it is evident, that the whole Art of
Building con$i$ts in $ix Things, which are the$e:
The Region, the Seat or Platform, the Com-
partition, the Walling, the Covering and the
Apertures; and if the$e Principles are fir$t
thoroughly conceived, that which is to follow
will the more ea$ily be under$tood. We $hall
therefore define them thus, the Region with
us $hall be the whole large open Place in which
we are to build, and of which the Seat or Plat-
form $hall be only a Part: But the Platform
$hall be a determined Spot of the Region, cir-
cum$cribed by Walls for U$e and Service. But
under the Title of Platform, we $hall likewi$e
include all tho$e Spaces of the Buildings, which
in walking we tread upon with our Feet. The
Compartition is that which $ub-divides the
whole Platform of the Hou$e into $maller Plat-
forms, $o that the whole Edifice thus formed
and con$tituted of the$e its Members, $eems to
be full of le$$er Edifices: By Walling we $hall
under$tand all that Structure, which is carried
up from the Ground to the Top to $upport
the Weight of the Roof, and $uch al$o as is
rai$ed on the In$ide of the Building, to $epa-
rate the Apartments; Covering we $hall call
not only that Part, which is laid over the Top
of the Edifice to receive the Rain, but any
Part too which is extended in length and
breadth over the Heads of tho$e within;
which includes all Ceilings, hal$-arched Roofs,
Vaults, and the like. Apertures are all tho$e
Outlets, which are in any Part of the Build-
ing, for the Convenience of Egre$s and Re-
gre$s, or the Pa$$age of Things nece$$ary for
the Inmates. Of the$e therefore we $hall treat,
and of all the Parts of each, having fir$t pre-
mi$ed $ome Things, which whether they are
Principles, or nece$$ary Concomitants of the
Principles of this Work which we have under-
taken, are certainly very much to our Purpo$e:
For having con$idered, whether there was any
Thing that might concern any of tho$e Parts
which we have enumerated; we found three
Things by no means to be neglected, which
relate particularly to the Covering, the Wall-
ing, and the like: Namely, that each of them
be adapted to $ome certain and determinate
Conveniency, and above all, be whole$ome.
<foot>That</foot>
<p n=>3</p>
That they be firm, $olid, durable, in a Man-
ner eternal, as to Stability: And as to Grace-
fulne$s and Beauty, delicately and ju$tly adorn-
ed, and $et off in all their Parts. Having laid
down the$e Principles as the Foundations of
what we are to write, we proceed to our Subject.</P>
<head>CHAP. III.</head>
<head><I>Of the Region, of the Climate or Air, of the Sun and Winds, which affect the Air.</I></head>
<P>The Ancients u$ed the utmo$t Caution
to $ix upon a Region that had in it
nothing noxious, and was furni$hed with all
Conveniences; and e$pecially they took parti-
cular Care that the Air was not unwhole$ome
or intemperate; in which they $hewed a great
Deal of Prudence; for they knew that if the
Earth or Water had any Defect in them, Art
and Indu$try might correct it; but they affirm-
ed, that neither Contrivance nor Multitude of
Hands was able $ufficiently to correct and a-
mend the Air. And it mu$t be allowed, that,
as what we breathe is $o conducive to the
Nouri$hment and Support of Life, the purer
it is, the more it mu$t pre$erve and main-
tain our Health. Be$ides, how great an In-
fluence the Air has in the Generation, Pro-
duction, Aliment, and Pre$ervation of Things,
is unknown to nobody. It is even ob$erved,
that they who draw a pure Air, have better
Under$tandings than tho$e who breathe a heavy
moi$t one: Which is $uppo$ed to be the Rea-
$on that the <I>Athenians</I> had much $harper Wits
than the <I>Thebans.</I> We know that the Air,
according to the different Situation and Po$iti-
on of Places, affects us $ometimes in one Man-
ner, and $ometimes in another. Some of the
Cau$es of this Variety we imagine we under-
$tand; others by the Ob$curity of their Natures
are altogether hidden and unknown to us. We
$hall fir$t $peak of the manife$t Cau$es, and
con$ider afterwards of the more occult; that
we may know how to chu$e a Region com-
modious and healthful. The Ancient Theo-
logi$ts called the Air <I>Pallas. Homer</I> makes
her a Godde$s, and names her <I>Glaucopis,</I> which
$ignifies an Air naturally clear and tran$parent.
And it is certain, that Air is the mo$t healthy,
which is the mo$t purged and purified, and
which may mo$t ea$ily be pierced by the Sight,
the cleare$t and lighte$t, and the lea$t Subject
to Variations. And on the contrary we af-
firm the Air to be pe$tiferous, where there is a
continued Collection of thick Clouds and $tink-
ing Vapours, and which always hangs like a
great Weight upon the Eyes, and ob$tructs
the Sight. The Occa$ion of this Difference
proceeds from $everal Cau$es, but chiefly I
take it, from the Sun and Winds. But we are
not here to $pend Time in the$e phy$ical En-
quiries, how the Vapours by the Power of the
Sun are rai$ed from the mo$t profound and
hidden Parts of the Earth, and drawn up to
the Sky, where gathering them$elves together
in va$t Bodies in the immen$e Spaces of the
Air, either by their own huge Weight, or by
receiving the Rays of the Sun upon their rari-
fied Parts, they fall and thereby pre$s upon the
Air and occa$ion the Winds; and being after-
wards carried to the Ocean by their Drought,
they plunge, and having bathed and impregna-
ted them$elves with Moi$ture from the Sea,
they once more a$cend through the Air, where
being pre$$ed by the Winds, and as it were
$queezed like a Sponge, they di$charge their
Burthen of Water in Rains, which again
create new Vapours. Whether the$e Conjec-
tures be true, or whether the Wind be occa$i-
oned by a dry Fumo$ity of the Earth, or a hot
Evaporation $tirred by the Pre$$ure of the Cold;
or that it be, as we may call it, the Breath of
the Air; or nothing but the Air it$elf put into
Agitation by the Motion of the World, or by
the Cour$e and Radiation of the Stars; or by
the generating Spirit of all Things in its own
Nature active, or $omething el$e not of a $epa-
rate Exi$tence, but con$i$ting in the Air it$elf
acted upon and inflamed by the Heat of the
higher Air; or whatever other Opinion or
Way of accounting for the$e Things be truer
or more ancient, I $hall pa$s it over as not
making to my Purpo$e. However, unle$s I am
mi$taken, we may conceive from what has been
$aid already, why $ome Countries in the World
enjoy a plea$ant chearful Air, while others,
clo$e adjoyning to them, and as it were laid
by Nature in the $ame Lap, are $tupified and
afflicted with a heavy and di$mal Climate.
For I $uppo$e, that this happens from no other
Cau$e, but their being ill di$po$ed for the O-
peration of the Sun and Winds. <I>Cicero</I> tells
us, that <I>Syracu$e</I> was $o placed, that the Inha-
bitants never mi$$ed $eeing the Sun every Day
in the Year; a Situation very $eldom to be met
<foot>with</foot>
<p n=>4</p>
with, but when Nece$$ity or Opportunity will
allow of it to be de$ired above all Things.
That Region therefore is to be cho$en, which
is mo$t free from the Power of Clouds and all
other heavy thick Vapours. Tho$e who ap-
ply them$elves to the$e Enquiries have ob$erv-
ed, that the Rays and Heat of the Sun act
with more Violence upon clo$e den$e Bodies,
than upon tho$e of a loo$er Contexture, upon
Oil more than Water, Iron more than Wool;
for which Rea$on they $ay the Air is mo$t
gro$s and heavy in tho$e Places, which are mo$t
$ubject to great Heats. The <I>&AElig;gyptians</I> con-
tending for Nobility with all the other Nati-
ons in the World, boa$ted, that the fir$t Men
were created in their Country, becau$e no
Place was $o fit to plant the fir$t Race of Men
in, as there, where they might live the mo$t
healthily; and that they were ble$$ed by the
Gods with a Kind of perpetual Spring, and a
c&oacute;n$tant unchangeable Di$po$ition of Air above
all the Re$t of the Word. And <I>Herodotus</I>
writes, that among the <I>&AElig;gyptians,</I> tho$e chief-
ly who lived towards <I>Libia,</I> are the mo$t
healthy, becau$e they enjoy continual gentle
Breezes. And to me the Rea$on why $ome
Cities, both in <I>Italy</I> and in other Parts of the
World, are perpetually unhealthy and pe$ti-
lential, $eems plainly to be the $udden Turns
and Changes in the Air, from Hot to Cold,
and from Cold to Hot. So that it very much
concerns us to be extremely careful in our Ob-
$ervation, what and how much Sun the Regi-
on we pitch upon is expo$ed to; that there be
neither more Sun nor more Shade than is ne-
ce$$ary. The <I>Garamantes</I> cur$e the Sun, both
at it's Ri$ing and it's Setting, becau$e they are
$corched with the long Continuation of it's
Beams. Other Nations look pale and wan, by
living in a Kind of perpetual Night. And
the$e Things happen not $o much, becau$e $uch
Places have the Pole more depre$$ed or oblique,
tho there is a great deal in that too, as becau$e
they are aptly $ituated for receiving the Sun and
Winds, or are skreened from them. I $hould
chu$e $oft Breezes before Winds, but even
Winds, though violent and blu$tering, before a
Calm, motionle$s, and con$equently, a heavy
Air. Water, $ays <I>Ovid,</I> corrupts, if not mov-
ed: And it is certain the Air, to u$e $uch an
Expre$$ion, wonderfully exhilerated by Moti-
on: For I am per$uaded, that thereby the Va-
pours which ri$e from the Earth are either di$-
$ipated, or el$e growing warm by Action are
concocted as they $hould be. But then I
would have the$e Winds come to me, broken
by the Oppo$ition of Hills and Woods, or tir-
ed with a long Journey. I would take heed
that they did not bring any ill Qualities along
with them, gathered from any Places they
pa$$ed through. And for this Rea$on we
$hould be care$ul to avoid all Neighbourhoods
from which any noxious Particles may be
brought: In the Number of which are all ill
Smells, and all gro$s Exhalations from Mar$hes,
and e$pecially from $tagnating Waters and
Ditches. The Naturali$ts lay it down for cer-
tain, that all Rivers that u$e to be $upplied by
Snows, bring cold $oggy Winds: But no Water
is $o noi$ome and pernicious, as that which
rots and putri<*>ies for want of Motion. And
the Contagion of $uch a Neighbourhood will
be $till more mi$chievous, according as it is
more or le$s expo$ed to unwhole$ome Winds:
For we are told, that the very Winds them-
$elves are in their own Natures $ome more
whole$ome than others. Thus <I>Pliny</I> from
<I>Theophra$tus</I> and <I>Hippocrates</I> informs us, that
the <I>North</I> is the be$t for re$toring and pre$erv-
ing of Health; and all the Naturali$ts affirm,
that the <I>South</I> is the mo$t noxious of all to
Mankind; nay further, that the very Bea$ts
may not $afely be left in the Fields while that
Wind blows; and they have ob$erved, that at
$uch Times the Stork never flies, and that the
Dolphins in a <I>North</I> Wind, if it $tands fair to-
wards them, can hear any Voice, but in a
<I>South,</I> they are more $low in hearing it, and
mu$t have it brought to them oppo$ite to the
Wind. They $ay too, that in a <I>North</I> Wind
an Eel will live $ix Days out of Water, but
not $o in a <I>South,</I> $uch is the Gro$$ne$s and un-
whole$ome Property of that Wind; and that
as the <I>South</I> Wind brings Catarrhs and Rheums,
$o the <I>North-We$t</I> is apt to give Coughs. They
likewi$e find Fault with the Neighbourhood of
the <I>Mediterranean,</I> upon this Account chiefly,
becau$e they $uppo$e, that a Place expo$ed to
the Reflection of the Sun's Rays, does in ef-
fect $uffer two Suns, one $corching them from
the Heavens, and the other from the Water;
and $uch Places upon the Setting of the Sun
feel the greate$t and mo$t $en$ible Alrerations
in the Air when the cold Shadows of Night
come on. And there are $ome who think, that
the <I>We$tern</I> Reverberations or Reflections of
the Sun, either from the Sea or any other
Water, or from the Mountains, mole$t us mo$t
<foot>of</foot>
<p n=>5</p>
of all: Becau$e they double the Heat of a Place
already $ufficiently warmed by whole Day's
Sun. And if it happens, that with all this Sun
the heavy gro$s Winds have free Acce$s to you,
what can be more annoying or intollerable?
The early Morning Breezes too, which bring
the Vapours crude ju$t as they are rai$ed, are
certainly to be avoided. Thus we have briefly
$poken of the Sun and Winds, by which the
Air is altered and made healthy and noxious,
as much as we thought nece$$ary here: And
in their Places we $hall di$cour$e of them more
di$tinctly.</P>
<head>CHAP. IV.</head>
<head><I>Which Region is, and which is not commodious for Building.</I></head>
<P>In chu$ing the Region it will be proper to
have it $uch, that the Inhabitants may find
it convenient in all Re$pects, both as to its na-
tural Properties, and as to the Neighbourhood
and its Corre$pondence with the re$t of Man-
kind. For certainly I would never build a City
upon a $teep inacce$$ible Cliff of the <I>Alps,</I> as
<I>Caligula</I> intended; unle$s obliged by the ut-
mo$t Extremity: Nor in a $olitary De$art, as
<I>Varro</I> de$cribes that Part of <I>France</I> to have
been which was beyond the <I>Rhine,</I> and as <I>C&aelig;$ar</I>
paints <I>England</I> in his Days. Neither $hould I
be plea$ed to live, as in <I>&AElig;gina,</I> only upon the
Eggs of Birds, or upon Acorns, as they did in
$ome Parts of <I>Spain</I> in <I>Pliny</I>'s Time. I would
if po$$ible have nothing be wanting that could
be of U$e in Life. For this Rea$on, more than
any other, <I>Alexander</I> was perfectly in the right
in not building a City upon Mount <I>Athos</I>
(though the Invention and De$ign of the Archi-
tect <I>Policrates</I> mu$t needs have been wonder-
ful) becau$e the Inhabitants could never have
been well $upplied with Conveniences. <I>Ari$totle</I>
was indeed be$t plea$ed with a Region that was
difficult of Acce$s, and e$pecially to build a
City in: And we find there have been $ome
Nations, which have cho$e to have their Con-
fines quite $tript and laid into a De$art for a
great Way together, only in order to di$tre$s
their Enemies. Whether this Method is to be
approved or blamed, we $hall examine in an-
other Place. If it is of Service in a publick
Regard, I cannot find Fault with it: But for
the Situation of other Buildings, I $hould much
rather chu$e a Region that had many and dif-
ferent Ways of Acce$s, for the ea$y bringing in
all Manner of Nece$$aries, both by Land-Car-
riage and Water-Carriage, as well in Winter
as in Summer. The Region it$elf likewi$e
$hould neither be too moi$t through too great
abundance of Water, nor too much parched
with Drought, but be kindly and temperate.
And if we cannot find one exactly in all Re-
$pects as we would have it, let us chu$e it ra-
ther $omewhat cold and dry, than warm and
moi$t: For our Hou$es, our Cloaths, Fires,
and Exerci$e, will ea$ily overcome the Cold;
neither is it believed, that the Dryne$s of a Soil
can have any thing in it very noxious, either to
the Bodies or Mind, only that by Dryne$s
Men's Bodies are hardened, and by Cold per-
haps made $omewhat rougher: But it is held
for certain, that all Bodies corrupt with too
much Humidity, and are relaxed by Heat.
And we find that Men either in cold Weather,
or that live in cold Places, are more healthy
and le$s $ubject to Di$tempers; though it is al-
lowed, that in hot Climates Men have better
Wits, as they have better Con$titutions in cold.
I have read in <I>Appian</I> the Hi$torian, that the
<I>Numidians</I> are very long lived, becau$e their
Winters are never too cold. That Region
therefore will be far the be$t, which is ju$t
moderately warm and moi$t, becau$e that will
produce lu$ty hand$ome Men, and not $ubject
to Melancholy. Secondly, that Region will
be mo$t eligible, which being placed among
Countries liable to Snow, enjoys more Sun
than its Neighbours; and among Countries
burnt by the Sun, that which has mo$t Humi-
dity and Shade. But no Building, let it be
what it will, can be placed more un$ightly or
inconveniently, than in a Valley down be-
tween two Hills; becau$e, not to in$i$t upon
more manife$t Rea$ons, an Edifice $o placed
has no Manner of Dignity, lying quite hid;
and it's Pro$pect being interrupted can have
neither Plea$ure nor Beauty. But what is this
to tho$e greater Mi$chiefs which will $hortly
happen, when the Hou$e is overwhelmed by
Floods and filled with Waters that pour in up-
on it from the adjoining Hills; and imbibing
<foot>C continual</foot>
<p n=>6</p>
continual Wet, rots and decays, and always
exhales Vapours extreamly noxious to the
Health of its Inhabitants. In $uch a Place,
the Under$tanding can never be clear, the
Spirits being dampt and $tupified; nor will
any Kind of Bodies endure long. The Books
will grow mouldy and rot; the Arms will
ru$t, nothing in the Storehou$e will keep, and
in $hort, the Exce$s of Moi$ture will $poil and
de$troy every Thing. If the Sun $hines in,
you will be $corched in$ufferably by the fre-
quent Reflection of his Rays, which will be
beat back upon you from every Side, and if it
does not, you will be dried and withered by
the continual Shade. Add to this, that if the
Winds gets in, being confined as it were in a
Channel, it will rage there with greater Fury
than in other Places; and if it never enters,
the Air for want of Motion will grow thick
and muddy; $uch a Valley may not impro-
perly be called a Puddle, or Bog of Air. The
Form of the Place therefore in which we in-
tend to build, ought to be graceful and plea-
$ant, not mean and low, as if it were buried
below the re$t of the Earth, but lofty, and as
it were a Hawk to look clear round about, and
con$tantly refre$hed on every Side with de-
lightful Breezes. Be$ides this, let there be
Plenty of every Thing nece$$ary, either to the
Convenience or Plea$ure of Life, as Water,
Fire and Provi$ions: But Care mu$t be taken,
that there is nothing in any of the$e Things
prejudicial to the Health. The Springs mu$t
be opened and ta$ted, and the Water tried by
Fire, that there be no Mixture in it of mucous,
vi$cous or crude Particles, that may affect the
Con$titutions of the Inhabitants. I omit the
ill Effects that often proceed from Water, as
breeding Wens in the Throat, and giving the
Stone; as likewi$e tho$e other more wonderful
Effects of Water, which <I>Vitruvius</I> the Archi-
tect has learnedly and elegantly $ummed up.
It is the Opinion of the Phy$ician <I>Hipocrates,</I>
that they who drink Water not well purged,
but heavy and ill-ta$ted, grow Cholicky, and
to have large $welled Bellies, while the re$t of
their Members, their Arms, their Shoulders and
their Faces become thin and extenuated. Add
to this, that though the Fault of the Spleen ill
dige$ting of the Blood, they fall into $everal
Kinds of Diftempers, $ome even pe$tilential.
In Summer, Fluxes of the Belly by the $tir-
ring of the Choler, and the di$$olving of the
Humours wa$te all their Strength; and all the
Year round they are continually liable to heavy
and tedious Infirmities, $uch as the Drop$y,
A$thma and Pleuri$y. The young lo$e their
Sen$es by melancholy Bile; the old are burnt
by the Inflammation of the Humours; the
Women with Difficulty conceive, and with
more Difficulty bring forth: In a Word, every
Age and every Sex will fall by early and un-
timely Deaths, de$troyed and worn away by
Di$ea$es; nor will they enjoy a $ingle Day
while they live, without being tormented with
Melancholy or black Humours, and fretted
with Spleen and Vapours; $o that their Minds
will never be free from Vexation and Unea$i-
ne$s. Many other Things might be $aid of
Water, which have been ob$erved by the an-
cient Hi$torians, very curious and remarkable,
and of extream Efficacy to the Health of Man-
kind; but they are uncommon, and might
$eem rather intended to make a Shew of
Knowledge than for actual U$e; be$ides that
we $hall $peak more copiou$ly of Waters in
their proper Place. Thus much certainly is
not to be neglected, and is mo$t manife$t,
namely, that Water gives Nouri$hment to all
Plants, Seeds, and every Thing el$e that has
the vegetative Life, with the Plenty of who$e
Fruits Men are refre$hed and $upported. If
all this be granted, certainly we ought very
carefully to examine what Veins of Water the
Country is furni$hed with, in which we intend
to dwell. <I>Diodorus</I> tells us, that the <I>Indians</I>
are generally lu$ty $trong Men, and very $harp
witted, which he imputes to their having a
whole$ome Air and good Water. Now that
Water we conceive to be the be$t ta$ted which
has no Ta$te, and that is be$t coloured which
has no Colour at all. It is agreed, that the
be$t Water is clear, tran$parent and light, $uch
as being poured upon a white Cloth leaves no
Stain; and upon boiling has no Sediment, and
which does not cover the Bed it flows in with
Mo$s or Slime, nor e$pecially the Stones which
it runs over. A further Proof of the Goodne$s
of Water is, when boiling any Kind of Pul$e in
it makes them tender, and when it makes good
Bread. Neither $hould we be le$s careful to ex-
amine and note, whether the Region ingenders
nothing pe$tiferous or venemous, that the Inha-
bitants may be in no Danger. I pa$s over
$ome Things, which are recorded by the An-
cients, to wit, that in <I>Colchos</I> there di$tills from
the Leaves of the Trees a Honey, which who-
$oever ta$tes falls $en$ele$s, and for a whole Day
$eems to be dead: As al$o what is $aid to have
happened in <I>Antony</I>'s Army, occa$ioned by
<foot>certain</foot>
<p n=>7</p>
certain Herbs, which the Soldiers eating for
want of Bread, grew be$otted, and employed
them$elves in nothing but digging Stones out
of the Ground, till their Choler being $tirred
they fell down dead; nor was any Remedy
found again$t this Plague, as we are informed
by <I>Plutarch,</I> but drinking of Wine; the$e
Things are commonly known. But good
Heavens! what $hall we $ay to what has hap-
pened in our own Days in <I>Apulia</I> in <I>Italy;</I>
what incredible Effects of Poi$on have we $een
there! the Bite of a $mall Earth Spider, com-
monly called a <I>Tarantula,</I> throwing Men into
various Kinds of Madne$s, and even Fury; a
Thing $trange to be told. No Swelling, no
livid Spot appearing in any Part of the Body
from the $harp Bite or Sting of the venomous
Bea$t; but $uddenly lo$ing their Sen$es, they
fall piteou$ly to bewail them$elves, and if no
A$$i$tance is given them they die. They cure
this Di$temper with <I>Theophra$tus</I>'s Remedy,
who $ays, that Per$ons bit by Vipers u$ed to
be cured by the Sound of Pipes. The Mu$i-
cians therefore with different Kinds of Har-
mony try to a$$wage the Pain, and when they
hit upon the Kind proper to the Patient, im-
mediately, as if he were $uddenly awakened,
he $tarts up, and tran$ported with Joy, falls to
be$tirring him$elf to the Mu$ick with all his
Strength, in whatever his Fancy prompts him
to. Some that are thus bit, you $hall $ee ex-
erci$e them$elves in Dancing, others in Singing,
and others $tirring in other Motions, ju$t as
their Inclination or Madne$s guides them, till
through mere Wearine$s they are forced to
give over. And thus without giving them-
$elves the lea$t Re$t, they will $weat them$elves
for $ome Days, and $o recover their Health
merely by their Madne$s having quite $pent it-
$elf. We read too of $omething like this that
happened among the <I>Albanians,</I> who $ought
again$t <I>Pompey</I> with $uch a Power of Hor$e;
that there was a Sort of Cobweb among them,
which whoever touched $urely died, $ome
Laughing, and others on the contrary Weeping.</P>
<head>CHAP. V.</head>
<head><I>By what Marks and Characters we are to know the Goodne$s of the Region.</I></head>
<P>Nor are tho$e Things alone $ufficient for
the chu$ing of the Region, which are
obvious and manife$t of them$elves; but we
mu$t weigh every Circum$tance, and con$ider
the mo$t occult Tokens. Thus it will be a
good Sign of an excelient Air and of good Wa-
ter, if the Country produces Plenty of good
Fruits, if it fo$ters a good Number of Men of
a good old Age, if it abounds with lu$ty hand-
$ome Youth, if the People are fruitful, and if
the Births are natural and never mon$trous. I
have my$elf $een $ome Cities, which out of Re-
$pect to the Times I forbear to name, where
there is $carce a Woman, but what $ees her$elf
at the $ame In$tant, the Mother both of a Man
and of a Mon$ter. Another City I know in
<I>Italy,</I> where there are $o many People Hump-
backed, Squint-eyed, Crooked and Lame, that
there is $carce a Family, but what has Some-
body in it defective or di$torted. And cer-
tainly, where we $ee $uch frequent and great
Inequalities of Pody to Body, and Member to
Member; we may well conclude, that it pro-
ceeds from $ome Defect in the Climate or Air,
or from $ome more hidden Cau$e of the Cor-
ruption of Nature. Nor is it foreign to our
Purpo$e what has been ob$erved, that in a gro$s
Air we are more inclined to Hunger, and in a
thin One to Thir$t: and we may not impro-
bably draw $ome Conjectures from the Shape
and Looks of other Animals, what Con$tituti-
ons the Men will have in the $ame Place; for
if the Cattle look lively, fat and large, you
may not unrea$onably hope to have Children
that will be $o too. Neither will it be ami$s to
gather Notice of the Air and Winds, even
from other Bodies not endued with animal
Life; thus if the Walls of the neighbouring
Buildings are grown ru$ty and rugged, it $hews
that $ome malignant Influence has Power
there. The Trees too bending all one Way,
as if by general Con$ent, $hew that they have
$uffered the Force of high rough Winds; and
the very Stones, whether growing in their na-
tive Seats, or placed in Buildings, if their Tops
are any thing con$iderably rotted, $hew the
Intemperature of the Air, $ometimes too hot
and $ometimes over cold. A Region $o ex-
po$ed to the furious A$$aults of Tempe$ts is to
be avoided, as the very wor$t of all; for if the
Bodies of Men are $eized with too exce$$ive
Cold or Heat, the whole Frame and Contex-
<foot>ture</foot>
<p n=>8</p>
ture of all the Parts is pre$ently broken and
di$$olved, and $alls into dangerous Di$tempers
and immature old Age. A City $tanding at
the Foot of a Hill, and looking towards the
$etting Sun, is accounted unhealthy, more for
this Rea$on than any other, that it feels too
$uddenly the cold chilling Breezes of the Night.
It may likewi$e be convenient by looking back
into Times pa$t, according to the Ob$ervations
of the Wi$e, to examine into Properties yet
more hidden, if there be $uch in the Place:
For there are Countries which have in their
Nature $ome Secret undi$covered Qualities,
which confer Happine$s or Unhappine$s. <I>Lo-
cris</I> and <I>Crotona</I> are $aid to have never been
infected with any Plague. In the I$le of
<I>Candia</I> there is no mi$chievous Creature. In
<I>France</I> very few Mon$ters are born; in other
Places the Naturali$ts $ay, that in the Middle
either of Summer or Winter it never Thunders:
But in <I>Campania,</I> according to <I>Pliny,</I> it Thun-
ders at tho$e very Times over tho$e Cities that
$tand to the South; and the Mountains near
<I>Albania</I> are $aid to be called <I>Ceraunia,</I> from
the frequent Lightnings that fall upon it. The
I$le of <I>Lemnos</I> too being very $ubject to Light-
ning, was the Rea$on, <I>Servius</I> informs us, of
the Poets feigning that <I>Vulcan</I> fell there from
Heaven. About the Streights of <I>Gallipoli</I> and
the <I>E$$edones,</I> it was never known either to
Thunder or Lighten. If it Rains in <I>&AElig;gypt</I>
it is reckoned a Prodigy. Near the <I>Hyda$pes</I>
in the Beginning of Summer it Rains continu-
ally. They $ay that in <I>Lybia</I> the Air is $o $eldom
$tirred by Winds, that it grows $o thick, that
$everal Kinds of Vapours are vi$ible in the Sky:
And on the Contrary, in mo$t Parts of <I>Gala-
tia,</I> the Winds blow in Summer with $o much
Violence, that it drives along the very Stones
like Sand. In <I>Spain</I> near the <I>Ebro,</I> they $ay
the North-We$t Wind blows $o hard, that it
overturns Carts heavy laden: In <I>&AElig;thiopia</I> we
are told the South never blows, and Hi$torians
write, that this Wind in <I>Arabia</I> and the
Country of the <I>Troglodites</I> burns up every
Thing that is green: And <I>Thucydides</I> affirms,
that <I>Delos</I> was never troubled with Earth-
quakes, but always $tood firm upon the $ame
Rock, though the other I$lands all about it
were often laid in Ruins by Earthquakes, We
our$elves $ee, that the Part of <I>Italy,</I> which
runs from the <I>Selva dell' Aglio</I> below <I>Rome,</I>
all along the Ridge of Hills of the <I>Campagna
di Roma</I> quite to <I>Capua,</I> is perpetually $tript
and almo$t quite laid wa$te by Earthquakes.
Some believe <I>Achaia</I> was $o called from its $re-
quent Inundations of Water. I find that <I>Rome</I>
was always $ubject to Agues, and <I>Galen</I> takes
tho$e Agues to be a new Kind of double Ter-
tian, which mu$t have varions and almo$t di-
rect Remedies applied to it at different Sea-
$ons. It is an old Fable among the Poets, that
<I>Typho</I> the Giant being buried in the I$land of
<I>Prochyta,</I> often turns him$elf about, and with
his turning $hakes the whole I$land from its
very Foundation. The Rea$on of this Ficti-
on of the Poets was, becau$e that I$land was $o
tormented with Earthquakes and Eruptions,
that the <I>Erythreans</I> and <I>Chalcidians,</I> who in-
habited it, were forced to fly for it. And a-
gain, aftewards tho$e who were $ent by <I>Hiero</I> of
<I>Syracu$e</I> to build a new City there, frightened
with the continual Danger of De$truction, de-
$erted it too. Wherefore all Things of this
Nature are to be $ifted out from long Ob$er-
vation, and examined and compared by other
Places, in order to come at a clear and full
Knowledge of every Particular.</P>
<head>CHAP. VI.</head>
<head><I>Of $ome more hidden Conveniencies and Inconveniencies of the Region which a
wi$e Man ought to enquire into.</I></head>
<P>We ought further to enquire carefully,
whether the Region is u$ed to be mo-
le$ted with any more hidden Inconveniency.
<I>Plato</I> believed, that in $ome Places the Influ-
ence of Spirits often reigned, and was at $ome-
times mi$chievous, and at others propitious to
the Inhabitants. It is certain there are $ome
Places where Men are very $ubject to run mad,
others where they are ca$ily di$po$ed to do
them$elves a Mi$chief, and where they put an
End to their own Lives by Halters or Preci-
pices, Steel or Poi$on. It is therefore very ne-
ce$$ary to examine by the mo$t occult Traces
of Nature, every Thing that can be attended
with $uch Effects. It was an ancient Cu$tom
brought down even from <I>Demetrius</I>'s Time,
<foot>not</foot>
<p n=>9</p>
not only in laying the Foundations of Cities
and Towns, but al$o in marking out Camps
for the Armies, to in$pect the Entrails of the
Bea$t that grazed upon the Place, and to ob-
$erve both their Condition and Colour. In
which if they chanced to find any Defect, they
avoided that Place as unhealthy. <I>Varro</I> in-
forms us of his own Knowledge, that in $ome
Places the Air was full of minute Animalcules
as $mall as Atoms, which being received toge-
ther with the Breath into the Lungs, fa$tened
upon the Inte$tines, and gnawing upon them,
cau$ed dreadful raging Di$ea$es, and at length
Plagues and Death. Nor ought we to forget
that there are $ome Places, which, though in
their own Nature, they are $ubject to no In-
convenience or Mi$chief what$oever, yet are $o
$ituated, that by the Arrival of Foreigners they
will often be infected with pe$tilential Di$tem-
pers. And this $hall happen, not only by
Means of Armies of Enemies endeavouring to
do you all the Mi$chief they can, as befals tho$e
Nations which are expo$ed to inhuman Barba-
rians; but by a friendly Reception and Enter-
tainment of them you $hall expo$e your$elf to
extreme Calamities. Others by having Neigh-
bours de$irous of Innovations, have by their
Broils and De$truction fallen into great Dangers
them$elves. <I>Pera</I> a City upon the <I>Pontus,</I> a
Colony of the <I>Genoe$e,</I> is continually afflicted
with the Plague, by their giving daily Admi$-
$ion to Slaves, both infirm in Mind, and almo$t
quste rotten and worn away with mere Filth
and Na$tine$s. Some likewi$e will have it, that
it is the Part of a prudent and wi$e Man to en-
quire by Augury and the Ob$ervation of the
Heavens, what Fortune he $hall have in $uch
a Place. Which Arts, provided they are not
incompatiable with our Religion, I own I do
not di$pi$e. Who can deny that what they
call Fortune, whatever $he be, has a very great
Power over human Affairs? Can we venture
to affirm, that the publick Fortune of <I>Rome</I> had
not a great Share in the Enlargement of the
Empire? The City of <I>Iolaus</I> in <I>Sardinia,</I> built
by a Grand$on of <I>Hercules,</I> though o$ten at-
tacked both by the <I>Carthaginians</I> and the <I>Ro-
mans,</I> yet as <I>Diodorus</I> writes, always pre$erved
its Li<*>erty. Can we $uppo$e that the Temple
at <I>Delphos,</I> fir$t burnt by <I>Flegias,</I> $hould after-
wards in <I>Sylla</I>'s Time be con$umed by Fire,
the third Time, without the particular ill For-
tune of that Place? What $hall we $ay of the
Capitol? How often has that been in Flames?
The City of the <I>Sybarites,</I> after repeated Cala-
mities, often de$erted and often re$tored, at
length quite ruined, was utterly abandoned;
nay, tho$e who fled from it were pur$ued by ill
Fortune, nor could they, by removing their
Dwellings and leaving the ancient Name of
their City, ever $ave them$elves from Mi$ery
and De$truction: For new Inhabitants coming
in upon them, all their mo$t ancient and prin-
cipal Families, their $acred Edifices and their
whole City, were utterly laid wa$te and de-
$troyed with Fire and Sword. But we need
not dwell upon the$e Things which Hi$torians
are full of. Our whole De$ign is to $hew, that
it is the Part of a wi$e Man to do every thing
which may make him $ecure, that the Trouble
and Expence of his Building $hall not be in
vain, and that his Work it$elf may be perma-
nent. And certainly to omit no Precaution
which may effect $o great a De$ign, is the Bu-
$ine$s of every prudent Man. Or will you $ay,
that it is not of the utmo$t Importance both to
you and yours to execute an Undertaking, that
brings with it Health, Dignity and Plea$ure,
and recommends your Name with Reputation
to Po$terity? Here you are to apply your$elves
to your Studies, here you are to breed
your dear Children and live with your Fa-
mily, here you are to $pend your Days both
of Labour and Re$t, here all the Schemes of
your whole Life are to be executed; $o that
I do not think any Thing in the World can be
named, except Virtue, which can de$erve more
Care and Application, than to fix a good and
convenient Habitation for your$elf and Family.
And who can be $ure of having $uch a one,
who de$pi$es the Precautions before-mention-
ed? but of the$e enough. Come we now to
the Seat or Platform.</P>
<head>CHAP. VII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Seat or Platform, and of the $everal Sorts of Lines.</I></head>
<P>In chu$ing the Platform, we ought to ob-
$erve all the $ame Rules that we have laid
down about the Region; for as the Region is
a determinate and $elect Part of the whole
<foot>D Country,</foot>
<p n=>10</p>
Country, $o the Platform is a certain determi-
nate Part of the Region taken up by the
Building; and for this Rea$on, any Thing that
may annoy or be of Service to the Region,
may do the $ame to the Platform. But though
this be $o, yet our Di$cu$$ion and Con$iderati-
ons here will offer us $ome Precepts, which
$eem particularly to regard the Platform only;
and $ome again which do not $eem $o proper-
ly to belong to the Seat as in a great Mea$ure
to the Region; which are the$e. It is nece$-
$ary to con$ider what Work we are taking in
Hand, publick or private, $acred or profane,
and $o of the Re$t, which we $hall treat of di$-
tinctly in their proper Places. For one Situa-
tion and one Space is to be allotted to an Ex-
change, another to a Theatre, another to a
<I>Pal&aelig;$tra,</I> or Place of Exerci$e, and another to
a Temple; $o that we mu$t have regard to the
Quality and U$e of every Edifice in the Deter-
mining of its Situation and Form. But to
proceed here only in a general Di$cu$$ion of
the$e Things as we began, we $hall touch on-
ly upon tho$e Points which we judge nece$-
$ary: Fir$t $aying $omething of Lines, which
may be of Service for under$tanding what fol-
lows. For being to treat of the De$ign of the
Platform, it will not be inconvenient to explain
tho$e Things fir$t whereof that De$ign con-
$i$ts. Every De$ign therefore is compo$ed of
Lines and Angles; the Lines are that extreme
De$ign which includes the whole Space of the
Platform. That Part of the Superficies of this
De$ign, which is contained between two Lines
touching at $ome certain Point, is called an
Angle. The Inter$ection therefore or cro$$ing
of two Lines over each other form four Angles.
If each of the$e Angles be equal to all and each
of the other three, they are called right Angles;
if they are le$s, they are called acute, and the
greater obtu$e. Of Lines too $ome are $trait
and others curve; of involved winding Lines
it is not nece$$ary to $peak here. The $trait
Line is a Line drawn from one Point to an-
other, the $horte$t Way that po$$ibly can be.
The curve Line is Part of a Circle; a Circle
is a Draught made from one of two Points,
and turned upon the $ame Superficies in $uch a
Manner, that in its whole Circumference it is
never nearer nor farther from that immoveable
Point the Centre, than it was at the fir$t Turn.
But to this it is nece$$ary to add, that the curve
Line, which was $aid to be Part of the Circle,
among us Architects, for its Similitude, is call-
ed an Arch. And the $trait Line, which is
drawn from the two extreme Points of the
curve Line, for the $ame Rea$on is called
a Chord. And that Line, which goes from
the middle Point of the Chord up to the
Arch, leaving equal Angles on each Side, is
called the <I>Sagitta.</I> And that which is carried
from the fixed immoveable Point within the
Circle to the curve Line of the Circle, is call-
ed the <I>Radius.</I> And that immoveable Point
in the Middle is called the Centre. And the
Line which pa$$es through the Centre and
touches both Sides of the Circumference, is
<marg>*</marg>
called the Diameter. Arches too are different,
for $ome are entire, $ome are imperfect, and
$ome are compo$ite. The entire is that which
is the full Half of a Circle, or that who$e
Chord is the Diameter of the whole Circle.
The Imperfect is that who$e Chord is le$s than
a Diameter, $o that this imperfect Arch is Part
of a Semi-circle. The compo$ite Arch is
formed of two imperfect Arches, and $o the
joyning of tho$e two Arches, inter$ecting each
other, makes an Angle at Top, which never
happens either in the entire or imperfect Arch.
The$e Things being premi$ed, we proceed as
follows.</P>
<head>CHAP. VIII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Kinds of Platforms, their Forms and Figures, and which are the mo$t
$erviceable and la$ting.</I></head>
<P>Of Platforms, $ome are angular and others
circular; of the angular, $ome con$i$t
all of right Lines, and $ome of right Lines
and curve mixed together. But I do not re-
member among the Buildings of the Ancients
to have met with any angular De$ign, com-
po$ed of $everal curve Lines, without any Mix-
ture of $trait Lines at all: But in this we
$hould have regard to tho$e Things, which be-
ing wanting in all Parts of the Structure, are
greatly blamed; and which, where they are,
make the Edifice hand$ome and convenient.
<foot>It</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 1, facing page 12.</I></foot>
<p n=>11</p>
It is that the Angles, the Lines and all the
Parts have a certain Variety, but not too much
nor too little of it, but $o ordered both for
U$e and Beauty, that the entire Parts may an-
$wer to the entire, and like Parts to like. Right
Angles are very convenient; the Acute are
never u$ed even in mean incon$iderable Plat-
forms, unle$s upon ab$olute Nece$$ity, or the
Con$traint of the Nature and Manner of the
Situation, or to make $ome other Part of the
Platform more graceful. The obtu$e Angles,
have been thought very convenient, but it has
always been ob$erved as a Rule never to place
them any where in unequal Numbers. The
circular Platform is e$teemed to be the mo$t
capacious of all, and the lea$t expen$ive to en-
clo$e either with Wall or Rampart. The
neare$t to this is $aid to be that which has $e-
veral Sides, but then they mu$t be all alike and
an$werable to each other, and equal through-
out the whole Platform. But tho$e are com-
mended mo$t of all, which are mo$t conveni-
ent for rai$ing the Wall to the ju$t Heighth of
the Work, as are tho$e which have $ix and
eight Sides. I have $een a Platform of ten
Angles very commodious and maje$tick. You
may make them very well of twelve, nay, $ix-
teen Angles. I my$elf have $een one of twenty-
four; but the$e are very rare. The Side Lines
ought to be $o ordered, that tho$e which are
oppo$ite may be equal to them, nor $hould we
ever in any Work apply a long Line to corre$-
pond to a $hort one; but let there be a ju$t
and rea$onable Proportion, according to the
Degree of the Thing, among all the Parts.
We would have the Angles $et towards that
Side, which either any Weight of Earth, or the
Violence and A$$aults of Waters or Winds may
threaten and endanger; to the Intent that the
Force and Shock that beats upon the Edifice
may be broken and $plit into $everal Parts, re-
$i$ting the Attack (to u$e $uch an Expre$$ion)
with the $tout Corner of the Wall, and not
with one of the weak Sides. But if the other
Lineaments of the Structure hinder you from
di$po$ing of $uch an Angle in $uch a Part as
you could de$ire, at lea$t make u$e of a curve
Line; that being a Part of a Circle, and the
Circle it$elf according to the Philo$ophers be-
ing all Angles. Further, the Seat mu$t be
either upon a Plain, or on the Side or Top of
a Hill; if it is on a Plain, it is nece$$ary to
rai$e the Earth and make $omething of an E-
minence; for be$ides that, $uch a Situation in
a Plain adds much of Dignity, if you neglect to
do it, you will find very great Inconveniences.
For the overflowing of Rivers and Rains gene-
rally leaves Mud upon level Grounds, which by
degrees rai$es the Earth higher and higher,
which $till increa$es, if through Negligence the
Rubbi$h and Dirt, which gathers every Day be
not removed. <I>Frontinus</I> the Architect u$ed to
$ay, that $everal Hills were ri$en in <I>Rome</I> in his
Time by the continual Fires. But we in our
Days $ee it in a Manner quite buried under
Ground with Filth and Rubbi$h. In the
Dutchy of <I>Spoletto,</I> I have $een a $mall ancient
Temple, which at fir$t was built in a Plain,
that is now almo$t wholly buried by the rai$-
ing of the Earth; that Plain reaching to the
Foot of the Hills. But why $hould I menti-
on Buildings that $tand under Mountains?
That noble Temple by the Wall of <I>Ravenna,</I>
which has for its Covering a Cup of Stone of
one $ingle Piece, though it be near the Sea and
far enough from the Hills, is above a fourth
Part $unk in the Earth, through the Injury of
Time. But how high this Eminence ought
to be rai$ed for each Platform, $hall be $hewn
in due Time, when we come to treat of that
Subject more particularly, and not $ummarily
as we do here. It is certain every Situation
$hould be made $trong, either by Nature or
Art. And therefore it is not ami$s to follow
their Method, who advi$e fir$t to try the Good-
ne$s of the Earth by digging in $everal Places at
$ome Di$tance the one from the other, whe-
ther it be firm or loo$e, or $oft, fit or unfit to
bear the Weight of the Wall. For if it $tands
upon a De$cent, we mu$t have a Care that the
upper Part does not lie too heavy and break
down the lower; or that the lower Part, if
any Accident $hould $hake it, does not pull
the upper down along with it. I would have
this Part of the Building, which is intended to
be the Ba$is of all the Re$t, particularly $trong
and tightly knit together in all its Parts. If
the Seat be upon the Summit of an Hill, either
it $hould be rai$ed where it is not even, or el$e
be made level by plaining away the Top. But
here we are to con$ider, that we $hould always
chu$e that Way (though $till with a due Re-
gard to the Dignity of the Work) which is lea$t
trouble$ome and expen$ive. Perhaps it may be
proper to pare away $ome of the Top of the
Hill, and enlarge and add to the Sides. For
which Rea$on that Architect, whoever he was,
$hewed a great deal of Contrivance, that built
<I>Alatro,</I> a Town of the <I>Campagna di Roma,</I>
$eated upon a Rocky Hill; for he $o ordered
<foot>it,</foot>
<p n=>12</p>
it, that the Foundations of the Citadel or Tem-
ple (whatever it was) which are all that now
remain, the Super$tructure being quite demo-
li$hed, $hould be $upported and $ortified be-
neath by the Pieces of Stone cut off in plaining
the Top of the Rock. And there is another
Thing in that Work that I am extremely
plea$ed with; namely, that he $et the Angle
of the Platform towards that Side on which
the Rock has the mo$t precipitate De$cent, and
fortified that Angle with huge Pieces of the
Fragments piled up one upon the other, and
contrived by the joyning of the Stones to make
the Structure beautiful with a very little Ex-
pence. I am likewi$e very much plea$ed with
the Contrivance of that other Architect, who
not having a $ufficient Quantity of Stone, in
order to keep up the Weight of the Hill, made
a Fence of a great Number of Semi-circles,
putting the Backs of the Curves within the
Hill; which be$ides that it looked hand$ome
to the Eye, was extremely $trong and very
cheap; for it makes a Wall, which though not
$olid, was as firm as if it had been $olid, and of
the Thickne$s of the <I>Sagitta</I> of tho$e Curves.
I like <I>Vitruvius</I>'s Method too, which I find
was ob$erved by the ancient Archi ects all over
<I>Rome,</I> and e$pecially in <I>Tarquin</I>'s Wall, of
making u$e of Buttre$$es; though they did not
every where mind to make the Di$tance be-
tween one Buttre$s and another, to be the $ame
as the Heighth of the Wall; but as the
Strength or Weakne$s of the Hill required it,
they placed them $ometimes clo$er and $ome-
times further off. I have taken Notice too,
that the ancient Architects were not contented
with making one Slope for their Platform, but
rai$ed $everal like $o many Steps, which
$trengthened and $ecured the Sides of the Hill
quite down to the very Root of it. Nor
can I di$approve their Method herein. That
Stream at <I>Perugia,</I> which runs under Mount
<I>Lucino</I> and the Hill the Town $tands upon,
continually undermining and eating away the
Root of the Mountain, by degrees brings down
all the impending Weight; by which means a
great Part of the Town drops and falls to
Ruin. I am mightily plea$ed with that Num-
ber of little Chapels, which are fixed about
the <I>Area</I> of the great Church in the Vatican;
for of the$e, $uch as are placed in the Hollows
of the Mountains clo$e again$t the Wall of the
Church, are of great Service both as to Strength
and Convenience, in $upporting the Weight of
the Hill, which continually grows heavier and
heavier, and in intercepting the Wet, which
falls from the Top of the Cliff, and keeping it
from getting into the Church; by which means
the principal Wall of it keeps dry and $ound.
And tho$e Chapels, which are placed on the
other Side at the lowe$t Decline of the Hill,
$erve with their Arches to clo$e the Plain,
which is made above, and preventing the Earth
from crumbling keeps it from falling in. And
I have ob$erved that the Architect, who built
the Temple of <I>Latona</I> in <I>Rome,</I> contrived his
Work and his Structure very ingeniou$ly; for
he $o placed the Angle of the Platform within
the impending Hill, that two upright Walls
$upported the incumbent Weight, and divided
and broke the Pre$$ure by $etting that Angle
again$t it. But $ince we have begun to cele-
bra<*>e the Prai$es of the Ancients that contriv-
ed their Buildings prudently, I will not omit
one Thing which I recollect, and which is very
much to the pre$ent Purpo$e. In the Church
o$ St. <I>Mark</I> at <I>Venice</I> is a very u$eful Precauti-
on of the Architect, who having made the
Foundation of the Temple very $trong, le$t
every here and there a Hole, that if by chance
any $ubterraneous Vapour or Wind $hould be
gathered there, it might ea$ily find a Pa$$age
out. To conclude, all the Plains that you
make which are to be under any Covering,
mu$t be laid exactly level, but tho$e which are
to be left open, $hould have ju$t Slope enough
for the Rain to run off; but of this we have
$aid enough, and perhaps more than was re-
qui$ite in this Place; becau$e mo$t of the$e
Things re$pect the Walling. But as they happen-
ed to fall naturally together, we did not think
proper to $eparate them in our Di$cour$e. It
remains that we treat of the Compartition.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 1. <I>(Page 10)</I></cap>
<fig>
<cap>&ldquo;<I>Arco Composto&rdquo; = composite arch. &ldquo;Arco Scemo&rdquo; = imperfect arch. &ldquo;Arco Intiero&rdquo;
= entire arch. &ldquo;Raggio&rdquo; = radius. &ldquo;Corda&rdquo; = chord. &ldquo;Diametro&rdquo; = diameter.</I></cap>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 2. <I>(Page 18)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>13</p>
<head>CHAP. IX.</head>
<head><I>Of the Compartition, and of the Origin of Building.</I></head>
<P>The whole Force of the Invention and
all our Skill and Knowledge in the Art
of Building, is required in the Compartition:
Becau$e the di$tinct Parts of the entire Building,
and, to u$e $uch a Word, the Entirene$s of each
of tho$e Parts, and the Union and Agreement of
all the Lines and Angles in the Work, duly
ordered for Convenience, Plea$ure and Beauty,
are di$po$ed and mea$ured out by the Com-
partition alone: for if a City, according to
the Opinion of Philo$ophers, be no more than
a great Hou$e, and, on the other Hand, a
Hou$e be a little City; why may it not be
$aid, that the Members of that Hou$e are $o
many little Hou$es; $uch as the Court-yard,
the Hall, the Parlour, the Portico, and the
like? And what is there in any of the$e,
which, if omitted by Carele$$ne$s or Negli-
gence, will not greatly take from the Prai$e
and Dignity of the Work. Great Care and
Diligence therefore is to be u$ed in well con-
$idering the$e Things, which $o much con-
cern the whole Building; and in $o ordering
it, that even the mo$t incon$iderable Parts
may not be uncomformable to the Rules of
Art, and good Contrivance. What has been
already $aid above of the Region and Platform,
may be of no $mall u$e in doing of this aptly
and conveniently; and as the Members of the
Body are corre$pondent to each other, $o it is
fit that one Part $hould an$wer to another in
a Building; whence we $ay, that great Edi-
fices require great Members. Which indeed
was $o well ob$erved by the Ancients, that
they u$ed much larger Bricks, as well as other
Materials, about publick and large Buildings,
than in private ones. To every Member there-
fore ought to be allotted its fit Place and pro-
per Situation; not le$s than Dignity requires,
not greater than Conveniency demands; not
in an impertinent or indecent Place, but in a
Situation $o proper to it$elf, that it could be
$et no where el$e more fitly. Nor $hould the
Part of the Structure, that is to be of the
greate$t Honour, be thrown into a remote
Corner; nor that which ought to be the mo$t
publick, into a private Hole; nor that which
$hould be mo$t private, be $et in too con$pi-
cuous a Place. We $hould be$ides have re-
gard to the Sea$ons of the Year, and make a
great deal of Difference between hot Places
and cold, both in Proportions and Situation.
If Rooms for Summer are large and $pacious,
and tho$e for Winter more compact, it will
not be at all ami$s; the Summer ones $hady and
open to the Air, and the Winter ones to the
Sun. And here we $hould provide, that the
Inhabitants may not be obliged to pa$s out of
a cold Place into a hot one, without a Medium
of temperate Air; or out of a warm one into
one expo$ed to Cold and Winds; becau$e no-
thing is $o prejudicial to human Bodies. And
the$e ought to agree one Member with ano-
ther to perfect and compo$e the main De$ign
and Beauty of the whole; that we may not
$o lay out our whole Study in adorning one
Part, as to leave the re$t neglected and
homely in Compari$on of it; but let them
bear that Proportion among them$elves, that
they may appear to be an entire and perfect
Body, and not disjointed and unfini$hed
Members. Moreover in the forming of the$e
Members too, we ought to imitate the Mode$ty
of Nature; becau$e in this, as well as in other
Ca$es, the World never commends a Modera-
tion, $o much as it blames an extravagant In-
temperance in Building. Let the Members
therefore be mode$tly proportioned, and ne-
ce$$ary for your U$es. For all Building in
general, if you con$ider it well, owes it's
Birth to Nece$$ity, was nur$ed by Convenience,
and embelli$hed by U$e; Plea$ure was the
la$t Thing con$ulted in it, which is never
truly obtained by Things that are immode-
rate. Let your Building therefore be $uch,
that it may not want any Members which it
has not, and that tho$e which it has, may
not in any Re$pect de$erve to be condemned.
Nor would I have the Edifice terminated all
the Way with even continued Lines void of
all manner of Variety; for $ome plea$e us by
their Largene$s, others with being little, and
others moderate. One Part therefore $hould
be terminated with $trait Lines, another with
curve, and another again with $trait and curve
mixed together; provided you ob$erve the
Caution I have $o often given you, to avoid
falling into the Error of Exce$s, $o as to $eem
<foot>E to</foot>
<p n=>14</p>
to have made a Mon$ter with Limbs di$pro-
portionable: Variety is without Di$pute a very
great Beauty in every Thing, when it joins and
brings together, in a regular manner, Things
different, but proportionable to each other;
but it is rather $hocking, if they are un$uitable
and incoherent. For as in Mu$ick, when the
Ba$e an$wers the Treble, and the Tenor agrees
with both, there ari$es from that Variety of
Sounds an harmonious and wonderful Union
of Proportions which delights and enchants
our Sen$es; $o the like happens in every thing
el$e that $trikes and plea$es our Fancy. La$tly,
the$e Things mu$t be $o executed, as U$e or
Conveniency requires, or according to the
approved Practice of Men of Skill; becau$e
deviating from e$tabli$hed Cu$tom, generally
robs a Thing of its whole Beauty, as conform-
ing to it, is applauded and attended with Suc-
ce$s. Neverthele$s, tho' other famous Archi-
tects $eem, by their Practice, to have deter-
mined this or that Compartition, whether
<I>Doric,</I> or <I>Ionic,</I> or <I>Corinthian,</I> or <I>Tu$can,</I> to
be the mo$t convenient of any; yet they do
not thereby tie us down to follow them $o
clo$ely, as to tran$cribe their very De$igns into
this Work of ours; but only $tir us up by
their In$tructions to produce $omething of
our own Invention, and to endeavour to ac-
quire equal or greater Prai$e than they did.
But of the$e Things we $hall $peak more di-
$tinctly in their proper Places, when we come
to con$ider in what manner a City and its
Members ought to be di$po$ed, and every
thing nece$$ary for the Convenience of
each.</P>
<head>CHAP. X.</head>
<head><I>Of the Columns and Walls, and $ome Ob$ervations relating to the Columns.</I></head>
<P>We are now to treat $ummarily of the
Di$po$ition of the Wall. But here I
mu$t not omit what I have ob$erved among
the Ancients; namely, that they con$tantly
avoided drawing any of the outer Lines of the
Platform quite $trait, $o as to let any great
Length go on without being interrupted by
the Concavity of $ome curve Line, or the In-
ter$ection of $ome Angle; and the Rea$on
why tho$e wi$e Men did this is plain, that the
Wall, having, as it were, Props joined to it to
re$t again$t, might be $o much the $tronger.
In treating of the Walling, we $hould begin
with the mo$t noble Parts of it. This Place
there$ore naturally leads us to $peak of the Co-
lumns, and of the Things belonging to them;
a Row of Columns being indeed nothing el$e
but a Wall open and di$continued in $everal
Places. And having occa$ion to define a Co-
lumn, it would not be at all improper to $ay,
that it is a certain $trong continued Part of
the Wall, carried up perpendicular from the
Foundation to the Top, for $upporting the
Covering. In the whole Compa$s of the Art
of Building, you will find nothing, that either
for Workman$hip, Expence or Beauty, de-
$erves to be preferred before the Columns.
But the$e Columns having $ome Particulars in
which they differ from one another; in this
Place we $hall $peak only of their Agreement;
becau$e that regards the Genus of them; but
as to their Difference, which relates to their
Species, we $hall handle it in its proper Place.
To begin therefore as we may $ay from the
Root, every Column has its Foundation; this
Foundation being brought up to a Level with
the Plane of the <I>Area,</I> it was u$ual to rai$e
thereupon a kind of little Wall, which we
$hall call the Plinth, others perhaps may call
it the Dye; upon the Plinth $tood the Ba$e,
on the Ba$e, the Column; and over the Co-
lumn the Capital; their Proportion was, that
from the middle downwards, they were $ome-
what bigger, and from thence upwards grew
more and more taper, and that the Foot was
$omething larger than the Top of all. I make
no doubt, that at fir$t the Column was in-
vented to $upport the Covering. Afterwards
Men's Thoughts being $tirred up to worthy
Attempts, they $tudied, tho' them$elves were
mortal, to make their Buildings in a Manner
immortal and eternal; and for this Rea$on
they made Columns, Architraves, Intabla-
tures, and Coverings all of Marble. And in
doing the$e Things, the ancient Architects al-
ways kept $o clo$e to Nature, as to $eem, if
po$$ible, never to have con$ulted any Thing
but mere Convenience in Building, and at the
$ame Time made it their Care, that their
Works $hould be not only $trong and u$eful,
<foot>but</foot>
<p n=>15</p>
but al$o plea$ant to the Sight. Nature at fir$t
certainly gave us Columns made of Wood,
and of a round Figure, afterwards by U$e they
came in $ome Places to be cut $quare. There-
upon, if I judge right, $eeing in the$e wooden
Columns certain Rings of Circles of Bra$s or
Iron, fa$ten'd about the Top and Bottom, that
the continual Weight which they are made to
bear, might not $plit them; the Architects too
left at the Foot of their Columns of Marble, a
little Ring like a $ort of Binding; whereby
they are defended from any Drops of Rain that
might da$h up again upon them. And at the
Top too they left another little Band, and over
that an A$tragal or Collar; with which helps
they ob$erv'd the Columns of Wood to be
fortified. In the Ba$es of their Columns it
was their Rule, that the under Part $hould
con$i$t of $trait Lines and right Angles, but
that their upper Superficies $hould terminate
circularly to an$wer to the Round of the Pil-
lar; and they made this Ba$e on every Side
broader than high, and wider than the Column
by a determinate Part of it$elf; and the under
Superficies of the Ba$e they made broader than
the upper; the Plinth too they would have a
certain Proportion broader than the Ba$e, and
the Foundation again a determinate Part wider
than the Plinth. And all the$e Parts thus
placed one upon the other, they erected per-
pendicular from the Center of the Foundation.
On the other hand, the Capitals all agree in
this, that their under Parts imitate their
Columns, but their upper End in a Square;
and con$equently the upper Part of the Capital
mu$t always be $omewhat broader than the
under. This may $uffice here as to the
Columns. The Wall ought to be rai$ed with
the $ame Proportions as the Columns; $o that
if it is to be as high as the Column and its Ca-
pital, its Thickne$s ought to be the $ame with
that of the bottom of the Column. And they
al$o ob$erved this Rule, that there $hou'd be
neither Pillar, nor Ba$e, nor Capital, nor Wall,
but what $hould in all re$pects corre$pond with
every thing el$e of the $ame Order, in Heighth,
Thickne$s, Form and Dimen$ion. But tho' both
are Faults, either to make the Wall too thin
or too thick, higher or lower than the Rule
and Proportion requires; yet of the two I
wou'd chu$e to offend on that Side, where we
$hou'd have occa$ion to take away rather than
to add. And here I think it will not be ami$s
to take notice of $ome Errors in Buildings,
that we our $elves may be the more circum-
$pect: in as much as the chief Prai$e is to be
exempt from Blame. I have ob$erved there-
fore in St. <I>Peter</I>'s Church at <I>Rome</I> what indeed
the thing it$elf demon$trates, that it was ill ad-
vi$ed to draw a very long and thick Wall over
$o many frequent and continued Apertures,
without $trength'ning it with any curve Lines
or any other Fortification what$oever. And
what more de$erves our Notice, all this Wing
of Wall, under which are too frequent and
continued Apertures, and which is rai$ed to a
great Heighth, is expo$ed as a Butt to the im-
petuous Bla$ts of the North-Ea$t: by which
means already thro' the continual Violence of
the Winds it is $werved from its Direction
above two Yards: and I doubt not that in a
$hort time, $ome little accidental $hock will
throw it down into Ruins; and if it were not
kept in by the Timber Frame of the Roof, it
mu$t infallibly have fallen down before now.
But the Architect may not be $o much in
Fault, becau$e con$ulting only the Nece$$ity of
his Situation, he might perhaps imagine that
the Neighbourhood of the Mountain, which
overlooks the Church, might be a $ufficient
Shelter again$t the Winds. Neverthele$s it is
certain, tho$e Wings ought to have been more
$trengthned on both Sides.</P>
<head>CHAP. XI.</head>
<P><I>Of the great U$efulne$s of the Coverings both to the Inhabitants and the other
Parts of the Building, and that being various in their Natures, they mu$t be
made of various Sorts.</I></P>
<P>The Covering for U$efulne$s far exceeds
any other Part of the Building. It
not only $ecures the Health of the Inhabitants
by defending them from the Night, from the
Rain, and e$pecially from the burning Rays of
the Sun; but it al$o pre$erves all the re$t of the
Edifice. Take away the Covering and the
Materials rot, the Wall moulders and $plits,
<foot>and</foot>
<p n=>16</p>
and in $hort the whole Structure falls to Ruin.
The very Foundations them$elves, which you
will hardly b&egrave;lieve, are $ecured by the Pro-
tection of the Covering: nor have $o many
Buildings been de$troyed by Fire, Sword, War,
by Multitude of Enemies, and all other Ca-
lamities put together, as have gone to Ruin
by being left naked and uncovered thro Negli-
gence. It is certain the Coverings are the de-
fen$ive Arms of the Building again$t the
A$$aults and Violence of Storms and Tempe$ts.
Wherefore our Ance$tors in this as in other
things acted very laudably, in a$cribing $o
much Honour to the Covering, that they
$pent their whole Art and Study in adorning
and beautifying it. For $ome of their Cover-
ings we $ee of Bra$s, others of Gla$s, $ome of
Gold with gilded Beams and Rafters, and
richly adorned with Corni$hes of Flowers and
Statues. Of Coverings $ome are open to the
Air, others not: the open are tho$e which are
not for walking upon, but only for receiving
the Rain. Tho$e not open to the Air, are
the Roofs and Coves that are between the
Covering and the Foundations, $o that one
Hou$e $eems to $tand upon another. By this
means it comes to pa$s that the $ame Work,
which is the Covering to the Apartments
below, is the <I>Ar&eacute;a</I> to tho$e above. Of the$e
Coverings tho$e above our Heads we call Roofs,
or Cielings; and tho$e which we tread upon
with our Feet, <I>Areas.</I> Whether the uppermoft
Covering, which lies to the open Air, is to be
reckoned as an <I>Area</I> or Pavement, we $hall
examine in another Place. But the Covering
to the open Air, tho' it be of a plain Super-
ficies, ought never to lie even with re$pect to
the <I>Area</I> which it covers below; but $hou'd
always incline of one Side to throw off the
Rain. But the Coverings within, that are of
a plain Superficies, $hould be in all Parts
equally di$tant from the Floor. All Coverings
mu$t an$wer in Lines and Angles to the Form
and Shape of the Platform and Wall which
they are to cover: And as tho$e are various,
$ome being all of curve Lines, others all of
$trait, and others of both mixed together, the
Coverings too are therefore various, and of
$everal kinds. But tho' they have this natural
Difference, and that $ome are hemi$pherical;
others made up of four Arches; others vaulted;
others con$i$ting of Parts of $everal Arches;
$ome $loping or ridged like ordinary mean
Hou$es: yet which-$oever of the$e Kinds we
chu$e it is ab$olutely nece$$ary, that all Cover-
ings $hou'd be $o di$po$ed as to $helter and
$hade the Pavement, and throw off all Water
and Rain, defending the whole Edifice upon
which it is placed for a Covering. For Rain
is always prepared to do Mi$chief, and where-
ever there is the lea$t Crack never fails to get
in and do $ome Hurt or other: By its Subtility it
penetrates and makes its way by its Humidity
rots and de$troys, by its Continuance loo$ens
and unknits all the Nerves of the Building, and
in the End ruins and lays Wa$te the whole
Structure to the very Foundations. And for
this Rea$on prudent Architects have always
taken care that the Rain $hould have a free
Slope to run off; and that the Water $hould
never be $top'd in any Place, or get into any
Part where it cou'd do Hurt. And therefore
they advi$ed, that in Places $ubject to much
Snow, the Coverings $hould have a very $teep
Slope, ri$ing even to an acute Angle, that the
Snow might never re$t and gather upon them,
but fall off ea$ily; but in more Summeri$h Cli-
mates (to u$e $uch an Expre$$ion) they laid
their Covering le$s oblique. La$tly we $hould
endeavour if po$$ible, without Prejudice to the
Lights or Wall, to have the whole Structure
overlaid with one equal Covering in a manner
all of one Piece, and $o far jutting out, that the
Water falling from the Gutters may not wet
or $oak into the Wall: and all the Coverings
$hould be $o di$po$ed, where there are more than
one, that one may not $pout upon the other.
The Space of Covering too that the Water is
to run over $hould never be too large, becau$e
upon Rains the Water gathering in the Gut-
ters in too great Abundance would wa$h back
again and flow into the Hou$e; which would
greatly prejudice the whole Work. Where
the <I>Area</I> therefore is very large, the Covering
$hould be divided into $everal Slopes, and the
Rain flow off in different Places; and this is
not only attended with Convenience, but Beauty
too. If you are obliged in any Place to have
$everal Coverings, let them join one to another
in $uch a Manner, that when you are once
under one, you may pa$s from that to all the
re$t always under $helter.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>17</p>
<head>CHAP. XII.</head>
<P><I>Of the Apertures in the Building, that is to $ay of the Windows and Doors,
and of tho$e which do not take up the whole Thickne$s of the Wall, and their
Number and Sizes.</I></P>
<P>We are now come to treat of the Aper-
tures, which are of two Sorts, the one
$erving for the Admi$$ion of Light and Air,
and the other for the Entrance and Pa$$age of
the Inhabitants, and of all Manner of Con-
veniencies all thro' the Hou$e. Tho$e for
Light are the Windows; tho$e for Pa$$age, the
Doors, Stairs, and the Spaces between the
Columns: Tho$e too which are for the carrying
away of Water and Smoak, as Wells, Sinks,
the Gullets, as we may call them of Chimneys,
the Mouths of Ovens and Furnaces are al$o
called Apertures. No Room ought to be
without a Window, by which the inclo$ed
Air may be let out and renew'd, becau$e el$e
it will corrupt and grow unwhole$ome. <I>Capi-
tolinus</I> the Hi$torian relates, that in the Tem-
ple of <I>Apollo</I> at <I>Babylon</I> there was found a lit-
tle Gold Casket of very great Antiquity, upon
opening of which there i$$ued a Steam of Air,
corrupted by Length of Time, and $o poi$onous,
that $preading it$elf abroad, it not only killed
every body that was near, but infected all <I>A$ia</I>
with a mo$t dreadful Plague quite as far as <I>Par-
thia.</I> In the Hi$tory of <I>Ammianus Marcellinus,</I>
we read, that in <I>Seleucia</I> in the Time of <I>Mark
Anthony</I> and <I>Verus,</I> after the Plunder and
Spoiling of the Temple, and carrying away
the Image of the <I>Conic Apollo</I> to <I>Rome,</I> they
di$covered a little Hole which had been formerly
$top'd up by the <I>Chaldean</I> Prie$ts: Which being
opened by the Soldiers, out of a greedy De$ire
of Plunder, $ent forth a Vapour $o dreadfully
pe$tilential and infectious, that from the Con-
fines of <I>Per$ia</I> quite to <I>Gaul,</I> the whole Coun-
try was tainted with a mortal and loath$ome
Di$temper. Every Room therefore $hould
have Windows, not only to let in the Light,
but to renew the Air; and they ought to be
$o accommodated to Convenience and the
Thickne$s of the Wall, as not to admit more
remote than U$e and Nece$$ity requires.
Morevover we are to take notice what Winds
our Windows are to $tand open to; becau$e
tho$e which look towards a healthy Air may
be allow'd to be large every Way; and it will not
be ami$s to open them in $uch Manner that the Air
may go clear round the Bodies of the Inhabitants;
which may ea$ily be contrived, if the Jambs of
the Windows are made $o low, that you may
both $ee and be $een $rom the In$ide into the
Street. But $uch Windows as are expo$ed to
Winds not altogether $o healthy, ought to be
$o proportion'd as to admit what Light is
requi$ite, but not any Thing larger than is ju$t
nece$$ary for that U$e; and they $hould like-
wife be $et high, that the Wall may break the
Winds before they reach us: Becau$e by this
means we $hall have Wind enough to renew
our Air, but $o interrupted as to take off from
the ill Effects of it. We $hould al$o ob$erve
what Suns our Hou$e $tands to, and according
to various Conveniencies make the Windows
larger or $maller. In Summer Apartments, if
the Windows are to the North, they $hould be
made large every Way; but if they are to the
South Sun, it will be proper to make them low
and $mall; $uch being be$t adapted for Re-
ception of the Air, and lea$t liable to be of-
fended by the Sun's Rays; and there is no
Danger $uch a Place $hould ever want Light,
when the Sun lies in a Manner continually
upon it; $o that Shade and not Light is what
is to be con$ulted there. On the contrary in
Apartments for Winter, the Windows will be
be$t contrived for admitting the Sun if they
are made large, and yet we may avoid being
troubled by the Winds at the $ame Time, if we
place them high, $o that the cold Air may not
blow directly upon the People within. La$tly
from whatever Side we take in the Light, we
ought to make $uch an Opening for it, as may
always give us a free Sight of the Sky, and the
Top of that Opening ought never to be too
low, becau$e we are to $ee the Light with our
Eyes; and not with our Heels; be$ides the In-
convenience, that if one Man gets between
nother and the Window, the Light is inter-
cepted, and all the re$t of the Room is
darken'd, which never happens when the Light
comes from above. The Doors $hould imitate
the Windows, that is, be larger or $maller,
more or fewer, according to the Frequency or
Nece$$ity of the Place. But I ob$erve, that
<foot>F the</foot>
<p n=>18</p>
the Ancients in their Publick Buildings always
eft a great many of both the afore-mention'd
Kinds of Apertures. This appears from their
Theatres, which if we ob$erve are extremely
full of Apertures, not only Stair-ca$es, but
Windows and Doors. And we ought $o to
order the Proportions of the$e Openings, as
not to make very little ones in great Walls,
nor too large in $mall ones. In the$e Sorts of
Apertures various De$igns have been com-
mended; but the be$t Architects have never
made U$e of any but Squares and $trait Lines.
However all have agreed in this, that let them
be of what Shape they will, they $hould be ac-
modated to the Bigne$s and Form of the
<marg><*> <I>Plate 2.
(facing
page 13)</I></marg>
Building. *The Doors, then they
fay $hould always be more high than
broad; and the highe$t be $uch as
are capable of receiving two Circles [A] one
upon t'other, and the lowe$t $hould be of
the Heighth of the Diagonal of a Square [B]
whereof the Ground$ell is one of the Sides. It
is al$o convenient to place the Doors in $uch a
Manner, that they may lead to as many Parts
of the Edifice as po$$ible: And in order to give
Beauty to $uch Apertures, Care mu$t be taken
that tho$e of like Dimen$ions corre$pond with
each other both on the Right and Left. It was
u$ual to leave the Windows and Doors in odd
Numbers, but $o as for the Side ones to an$wer
each other, and that in the Middle to be
$omewhat larger than the re$t. And particular
Regard was always had to the Strength of the
Building, for which Rea$on they contrived to
$et the Openings clear from the Corners and
from the Columns, in the weake$t Parts of the
Wall, but not $o weak as to be in$ufficient to
$upport the Weight: It being their Cu$tom
to rai$e as many Parts of the Wall as they
could plum, and as it were of one Piece
without any Interruption from the Foundation
quite up to the Covering. There is a certain
Kind of an Aperture, which in Form and
Po$ition imitates the Doors and Windows, but
which does not penetrate the whole Thickne$s
of the Wall, and $o, as Niches leave very
hand$ome and convenient Seats for Statues and
Paintings. But in what Parts the$e are to be
left, as al$o how frequent and large, will be
$hewn more di$tinctly when we come to treat
of the Ornaments of Edifices. We $hall only
ob$erve here, that they not only add to the
Beauty of the Work, but al$o $ave $ome Ex-
pence, as they make le$s Stone and Lime to
$erve for the Walling. This chiefly is to be
taken Care of, that you make the$e Niches in
convenient Numbers, not too big, and of a ju$t
Form; and $o as in their Order to imitate the
Windows. And let them be as you will, I
have remark'd in the Structures of the Ancients,
that they never u$ed to $uffer them to take up
above the $eventh Part of the Front, nor le$s
than the ninth. The Spaces between the
Columns are to be reckoned among the princi-
pal Apertures, and are to be le$t variou$ly ac-
cording to the Variety of Buildings. But we
$hall $peak of the$e more clearly in their
proper Place, and chie$ly when we treat of
Sacred Edifies. Let it be $ufficient to premi$e
here, that tho$e Openings $hould be left in $uch
a Manner, as to have particular Re$pect to the
Nature of the Columns, which are de$ign'd
for the Support of the Covering; and fir$t, that
tho$e Columns be not too $mall, nor $tand too
thin, $o as not to be duly able to bear the
Weight, nor too big, or $et $o thick as not to
leave open convenient Spaces for Pa$$age.
La$tly, the Apertures mu$t be different, when
the Columns are frequent from what they are
when they $tand thin, becau$e over frequent
Columns we lay an Architrave, and over the
others we turn an Arch. But in all Openings
over which we make Arches, we $hould con-
trive to have the Arch never le$s than a half
Circle, with an Addition of the $eventh Part
of half its Diameter: The mo$t experienced
Workmen having found that Arch to be by
much the be$t adapted for enduring in a
Manner to Perpetuity; all other Arches being
thought le$s $trong for $upporting the Weight,
and more liable to ruin. It is moreover imagi-
ned, that the half Circle is the only Arch
which has no Occa$ion either for Chain or any
other Fortification; and all others, if you
don't either chain them or place $ome Weight
again$t them for a Counterpoi$e, are found by
their own Weight to bur$t out and fall to ruin.
I will not omit here what I have taken Notice
of among the Ancients, a Contrivance certainly
very excellent and Prai$e-worthy: Their be$t
Architects placed the$e Apertures and the
Arches of the Roofs of their Temples in $uch
a Manner, that even tho' you took away every
Column from under them, yet they would
$till $tand firm and not fall down, the Arches
on which the Roof was placed being drawn
quite down to the Foundation with wonderful
Art, known but to few: So that the Work
upheld it$elf by being only $et upon Arches; for
tho$e Arches having the $olid Earth for their
Chain, no Wonder they $tood firm without any
other Support.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>19</p>
<head>CHAP. XIII.</head>
<P><I>Of the Stair ca$es, and their different Sorts, of the Steps of the Stairs which
ought to be in odd Numbers, and how many. Of the re$ting Places, of the
Tunnels for carrying away the Smoke. Of Pipes and Conduits for carrying
off the Water, and of the proper Placing of Wells and Sinks.</I></P>
<P>The placing of the Stairs is a Work of
$uch Nicety, that without deliberate
and mature Con$ideration you can never place
them well: For in a Stair-ca$e there meet
three Apertures: One, the Door by which you
enter upon the Stairs; another, the Window
that $upplies you with Light to $ee the Steps
by, and the third, the Opening in the Ceiling
which lets you into the <I>Area</I> above; and
therefore it is $aid to be no Wonder, that the
Stairs $hould perplex the De$ign of a Structure;
but let him that is de$irous to have the Stair
not hinder him, take Car&eacute; not to hinder the
Stair, but allow it a determinate and ju$t Por-
tion of the Platform, in order to give its free
Cour$e quite up to the Covering at the Top
of all. And do not let us repine that the
Stair-ca$e $hould take up $o much of the <I>Area,</I>
for it furni$hes us with very many Conve-
niencies, and is no Inconvenience to the other
Parts of the Building. Add to this, that
tho$e little Vaults and Spaces under the Stairs
are very $erviceable for a great many Purpo$es.
Our Stair-ca$es therefore are of two Sorts (for
as to tho$e Steps or Ladders which belong to
military Expeditions, I $hall not $peak of them
here.) The fir$t is that which has no Steps, but
is mounted by a $loping A$cent, and the other
is that which is mounted by Steps. The An-
cients u$ed to make the $loping one as ea$y
and as little $teep as po$$ible, and as I have
ob$erved from their Works, thought it a con-
venient A$cent when the highe$t Part of its
Perpendicular was rai$ed one $ixth Part of the
Line at Bottom. In making of Stair-ca$es
with Steps, they recommend the making of
the Steps in odd Numbers, and e$pecially in
their Temples: Becau$e they $aid that by this
Means we always $et our right Foot into the
Temple fir$t; which was accounted a Point
of Religion. And I have ob$erved, that the
be$t Architects never put above $even, or at
mo$t nine Steps together in one Flight; imita-
ting I $uppo$e, the Number either of the
Planets or of the Heavens; but at the End of
the$e $even or nine Steps, they very con$ider-
ately made a Plain, that $uch as were weak or
tired with the Fatigue of the A$cent, might
have Lei$ure to re$t them$elves, and that if they
$hould chance to $tumble, there might be a
Place to break their Fall, and give them Means
to recover them$elves. And I am thoroughly
of Opinion, that the Stairs ought to be
frequently interrupted by the$e landing Places,
and that they $hould be well lighted, and be
ample and $pacious according to the Dignity
of the Place. The Steps they never made
higher than nine Inches, nor lower than fix,
and in Breadth never le$s than a Foot and a
half, nor more than a Yard, The fewer Stair-
ca$es that are in a Hou$e, and the le$s Room
they take up, the more convenient they are
e$teem'd. The I$$ues for Smoak and Water
ought to be as direct as po$$ible, and $o built,
that they may not lie and gather within, or
$oil, or offend, or endanger the Building For
this Rea$on too the Tunnels of the Chimnies
$hould be carried quite clear from all Manner
of Wood-work, for fear $ome Spark, or their
meer Heat $hould $et Fire to the Beams or
Rafters that are near them. The Drains al$o
for carrying off the Water $hould be $o con-
trived, as to convey away all Super$luities, and
in their Pa$$age not to do any Harm to the
Hou$e, either by $apping or dirtying it. For
if any of the$e Things do Mi$chief, let it be
ever $o little, yet by Length of Time and con-
tinuation, they will in the End be of the utmo$t
ill Con$equence; and I have ob$erved, that
the be$t Architects have contrived either to
throw off the Rain by Spouts, $o as not to wet
any body that is going into the Hou$e, or car-
ried it thro Pipes into Ci$terns to $erve for U$e,
or el$e brought it together to $ome Place
where it might wa$h away all the Filth, $o that
the Eyes and No$es of the Inhabitants might
not be offended with it. Indeed they $eem
to have been particularly careful to throw the
Rain Water clear away from the Building,
that it might not $ap the Foundations, as well
<foot>as</foot>
<p n=>20</p>
as for $everal other Rea$ons. In a Word,
they were very ob$ervant to make all their
Apertures in the mo$t convenient Places, and
where they might be mo$t $erviceable. I am
particularly for having the Wells $et in the
mo$t publick and open Part of the Structure,
$o that they do not take off from the Dignity
of the Work, by being $et in a Place improper
for them; and the Naturali$ts affirm, that
Water mo$t expo$ed and open is be$t and mo$t
purified. But in whatever Part of the Building
you make either Wells or Drains, or any other
Conveyance for the Water, they ought to
have $uch Apertures, as to admit a good
Quantity of Air, that the Pavement may be
kept dry from the damp Exhalations, which
will be purged and carried off by the Pa$$age
of the Winds, and the Motion of the Air.
We have now taken a $ufficient Review of the
De$igns of Buildings, as far as they $eem to
relate to the Work in general, noting each Par-
ticular by it$elf that we intend to $peak of.
We are now to treat of the Work it$elf and
of the Structure of Edifies. But fir$t we will
con$ider of the Materials, and of the Prepara-
tions nece$$ary for the Materials.</P>
<head><I>End of the Fir$t Book.</I></head>
<fig>
<foot>THE</foot>
<pb>
<fig>
<head>THE
<B>ARCHITECTURE</B>
OF
<B><I>Leone Bati$ta Alberti.</I></B></head>
<head>BOOK II. CHAP. I.</head>
<P><I>Treating of the Materials. That no Man ought to begin a Building ha$tily
but $hould fir$t take a good deal of Time to con$ider, and revolve in his Min<*>
all the Qualities and Requi$ites of $uch a Work: And that he $hould careful<*>
review and examine, with the Advice of proper Judges, the whole Structuly
in it$elf, and the Proportions and Mea$ures of every di$tinct Part, not o re
in Draughts or Paintings, but in actual Models of Wood or $ome othe Sunly
$tance, that when he has fini$h'd his Building, he may not repent of his Labour.</I></P>
<P>I do not think the Labour and
Expence of a Building to be en-
ter'd upon in a hurry; as well
for $everal other Rea$ons, as
al$o becau$e a Man's Honour and
Reputation $uffers by it. For as a De$ign
well and compleatly fini$h'd brings Prai$e to
him that has employ'd his Pains and Study in
the Work; $o if in any particular the Author
$eems to have been wanting, either of Art or
Prudence, it detracts very much from that
Prai$e, and from his Reputation. And indeed
the Beauties or Faults of Edifices, e$pecially
publick ones, are in a Manner clear and mani-
fe$t to every body; and (I know not how it
happens) any Thing ami$s $ooner draws Con-
tempt, than any Thing hand$ome or well
fini$h'd does Commendation. It is really won-
derful, how, by a Kind of natural In$tinct, all
of us knowing or ignorant, immediately hit upon
what is right or wrong in the Contrivance or
Execution of Things, and what a $hrewd Judg-
ment the Eye has in Works of this Nature
above all the other Sen$es. Whence it happens,
that if any Thing offers it$elf to us that is
lame or too little, or unnece$$ary, or un-
graceful, we pre$ently find our$elves moved
and de$irous to have it hand$omer. The Rea-
$ons of tho$e Faults perhaps we may not all of
us be acquainted with, and yet if we were to
<foot>G be</foot>
<p n=>22</p>
be ask'd, there is none of us but would readily
$ay, that $uch a Thing might be remedied and
corrected. Indeed every one cannot propo$e
the Remedy, but only $uch as are well practi-
ced and experienced that Way. It is therefore
the Part of a wi$e Man to weigh and review
every particular thoroughly in his Mind: That
he may not afterwards be forced to $ay, either
in the Middle or at the End of this Work, I
wi$h this, or I wi$h that were otherwi$e. And
it is really $urprizing, what a hearty Puni$h-
ment a Man $uffers for a Work ill managed:
For in Proce$s of Time, he him$elf at Length
finds out the Mi$takes he fooli$hly made in the
Beginning for want of due Reflection: And
then, unle$s he pulls it to pieces and reforms
it, he is continually repenting and fretting at
the Eye-$ore; or if he pulls it down, he is
blamed upon Account of the Lo$s and Expence,
and accu$ed of Levity and In$tability of Mind.
<I>Suetonius</I> tells us, that <I>Julius C&aelig;$ar</I> having
begun a Structure at the Lake <I>Nemoren$is</I> from
the very Foundations, and compleated it at
va$t Expence, pull'd it all down again, becau$e
it was not exactly in all re$pects to his Mind.
For which he is certainly very much to be
blamed, even by us his Po$terity, either for
not $ufficiently con$idering what was requi$ite
at fir$t, or el$e afterwards for di$liking thro'
Levity what might really not be ami$s. I
therefore always highly commend the ancient
Cu$tom of Builders, who not only in Draughts
and Paintings, but in real Models of Wood or
other Sub$tance, examin'd and weigh'd over
and over again, with the Advice of Men of the
be$t Experience, the whole Work and the Ad-
mea$urements of all its Parts, before they put
them$elves to the Expence or Trouble. By
making a Model you will have an Opportunity,
thoroughly to weigh and con$ider the Form
and Situation of your Platform with re$pect to
the Region, what Extent is to be allow'd to
it, the Number and Order of the Parts, how
the Walls are to be made, and how $trong and
firm the Covering; and in a Word all tho$e
Particulars which we have $poken of in the
preceding Book: And there you may ea$ily
and freely add, retrench, alter, renew, and in
$hort change every Thing from one End to
t'other, till all and every one of the Parts are
ju$t as you would have them, and without Fault.
Add likewi$e, that you may then examine and
compute (what is by no means to be neglected)
the Particulars and Sum of your future Ex-
pence, the Size, Heighth, Thickne$s, Num-
ber, Extent, Form, Species and Quality of
all the Parts, how they are to be made, and
by what Artificers; becau$e you will thereby
have a clear and di$tinct Idea of the Numbers
and Forms of your Columns, Capitals, Ba$es,
Corni$hes, Pediments, Incru$tations, Pave-
ments, Statues and the like, that relates either
to the Strength or Ornament. I mu$t not
omit to ob$erve, that the making of curious,
poli$h'd Models, with the Delicacy of Painting,
is not required from an Architect that only
de$igns to $hew the real Thing it$elf; but is
rather the Part of a vain Architect, that makes
it his Bu$ine$s by charming the Eye and
$triking the Fancy of the Beholder, to divert
him from a rigorous Examination of the Parts
which he ought to make, and to draw him
into an Admiration of him$elf. For this Rea-
$on I would not have the Models too exactly
fini$h'd, nor too delicate and neat, but plain
and $imple, more to be admired for the Con-
trivance of the Inventor, than the Hand of
the Workman. Between the De$ign of the
Painter and that of the Architect, there is this
Difference, that the Painter by the Exactne$s
of his Shades, Lines and Angles, endeavours
to make the Parts $eem to ri$e from the Can-
va$s, whereas the Architect, without any Re-
gard to the Shades, makes his Relieves from
the De$ign of his Platform, as one that would
have his Work valued, not by the apparent
Per$pective, but by the real Compartments
founded upon Rea$on. In a Word, you ought
to make $uch Models, and con$ider them by
your$elf, and with others $o diligently, and
examine them over and over $o often, that
there $hall not be a $ingle Part in your whole
Structure, but what you are thoroughly ac-
quainted with, and know what Place and how
much Room it is to po$$e$s, and to what U$e to
be applied. But above all, nothing requires
our Attention $o much as the Covering, which
$eems in its Nature, if I mi$take not, beyond
any Thing el$e in Architecture to have been
of the greate$t and fir$t Convenience to Man-
kind; $o that indeed it mu$t be own'd, that
it was upon the Account of this Covering that
they invented not only the Wall and tho$e
other Parts which are carried up with the Wall
and nece$$arily accompany it, but al$o tho$e
Parts which are made under Ground, $uch as
Conduits, Channels, Receptacles of Rain
Water, Sewers and the like. For my Part,
that have had no $mall Experience in Things of
this Nature, I indeed know the Difficulty of
<foot>performing</foot>
<p n=>23</p>
performing a Work, wherein the Parts are
join'd with Dignity, Convenience and Beauty,
having not only other Things prai$e-worthy,
but al$o a Variety of Ornaments, $uch as
Decency and Proportion requires; and this no
Que$tion is a very great Matter; but to cover
all the$e with a proper, convenient and apt
Covering, is the Work of none but a very
great Ma$ter. To conclude, when the whole
Model and the Contrivance of all the Parts
greatly plea$es both your$elf and others of
good Experience, $o that you have not the
lea$t Doubt remaining within your$elf, and do
not know of any Thing that wants the lea$t
Re-examination; even then I would advi$e
you not to run furiou$ly to the Execution out
of a Pa$$ion for Building, demoli$hing old
Structures, or laying mighty Foundations of
the whole Work, which ra$h and incon$iderate
Men are apt to do; but if you will hearken
to me, lay the Thoughts of it a$ide for $ome
Time, till this favourite Invention grows old.
Then take a fre$h Review of every Thing,
when not being guided by a Fondne$s for your
Invention, but by the Truth and Rea$on of
Things you will be capable of judging more
clearly. Becau$e in many Ca$es Time will
di$cover a great many Things to you, worth
Con$ideration and Reflection, which, be you
ever $o accurate, might before e$cape you.</P>
<head>CHAP. II.</head>
<P><I>That we ought to undertake nothing above our Abilities, nor $trive again$t
Nature, and that we ought al$o not only to con$ider what we can do,
but what is $it for us to do, and in what Place it is that we are to
build.</I></P>
<P>On examining your Model, among other
Points to be con$ider'd, you mu$t take
Care not to forget the$e. Fir$t, not to under-
take a Thing, which is above the Power of
Man to do, and not to pretend to $trive directly
contrary to the Nature of Things. For Na-
ture, if you force or wre$t her out of her Way,
whatever Strength you may do it with, will
yet in the End overcome and break thro' all
Oppo$ition and Hindrance; and the mo$t ob-
$tinate Violence (to u$e $uch an Expre$$ion)
will at la$t be forced to yield to her daily and
continual Per$everence a$$i$ted by Length of
Time. How many of the mighty Works of
Men do we read of, and know our$elves to
have been de$troy'd by no other Cau$e than
that they contended again$t Nature? Who
does not laugh at him, that having made a
Bridge upon Ships, intended to ride over the
Sea? or rather, who does not hate him for his
Folly and In$olence? The Haven of <I>Claudius</I>
below <I>O$tia,</I> and that of <I>Hadrian</I> near <I>Terra-
cina,</I> Works in all other Re$pects likely to la$t
to Eternity, yet now having their Mouths
$top'd with Sand, and their Beds quite choak'd
up, they have been long $ince totally de$troy'd
by the continual A$$aults of the Sea, which in-
ce$$antly wa$hing again$t it gains from it daily.
What then think ye will happen in any Place,
where you pretend to oppo$e or entirely repel
the Violence of Water, or the enormous
Weight of Rocks tumbling down on you in
Ruins? This being con$ider'd, we ought never
to undertake any Thing that is not exactly
agreeable to Nature; and moreover we $hould
take Care not to enter upon a Work in which
we may be $o much wanting to our$elves as to
be forced to leave it imperfect. Who would
not have blamed <I>Tarquin,</I> King of the <I>Romans,</I>
if the Gods had not favoured the Greatne$s of
the City, and if by the Enlargement of the
Empire he had not received an Acce$$ion of
Wealth $ufficient to compleat the Magnificence
of his Beginning, for throwing away the whole
Expence of his future Work in laying the
Foundations of his Temple. Be$ides it is not
ami$s to con$ider, and that not in the la$t
Place, not only what you are able, but al$o
what is decent for you to do. I do not com-
mend <I>Rhodope</I> of <I>Thrace,</I> the famous Courtezan,
and the Wonder of her Days, for building her-
$elf a Sepulcher of incredible Expence: For
though $he might po$$ibly by her Whoredom
have acquired the Riches of a Queen, yet $he
was by no means worthy of a Royal Sepulcher.
But on the other Hand I do not blame <I>Arte-
mi$ia,</I> Queen of <I>Caria,</I> for having built her
beloved and worthy Con$ort a mo$t $tately
<foot><I>Mau$oleum</I></foot>
<p n=>24</p>
<I>Mau$oleum:</I> Though in Things of that Nature,
I think Mode$ty is be$t. <I>Horace</I> blamed
<I>M&aelig;cenas</I> for having too furious a Pa$$ion for
Building. I commend him, who according to
<I>Cornelius Tacitus,</I> built <I>Otho</I>'s Sepulcher, mode$t,
but extremely durable. And though it be
true that private Monuments require Mode$ty
and publick ones Magnificence; yet publick
ones too are $ometimes prai$ed for being as
mode$t as the others. We admire <I>Pompey</I>'s
Theatre for the $urprizing Greatne$s and Dig-
nity of the Work: A Work truly worthy of
<I>Pompey</I> and of <I>Rome</I> in the Mid$t of her
Victories: but <I>Nero</I>'s unadvi$edly Fondne$s for
Building, and mad Pa$$ion for Undertaking im-
men$e De$igns, is commended by nobody.
And be$ides, who would not rather have
wi$h'd, that he who employ'd $o many thou-
$and Men to bore through the Hill near <I>Poz-
zuolo,</I> had taken the $ame Pains, and be$towed
the $ame Expence upon $ome Work of greater
U$e? Who will not dete$t the mon$trous Folly
and Vanity of <I>Heliogabalus?</I> who had Thoughts
of erecting a huge Column with Stairs on the
In$ide of it to mount to the Top, whereon
<I>Heliogabalus</I> him$elf was to be $et as a God,
which he pretended to make him$elf. But not
being able to find a Stone of that Bigne$s, tho'
he $ought for it quite to <I>Thebais,</I> he de$i$ted
from his wild De$ign. Hereunto we may add,
that we ought not to begin a Thing, which
though in $ome Re$pects worthy and u$eful,
and not altogether $o difficult of Execution,
$ome particular Opportunity or Means $avouring
it at that Time, that yet is of a Nature to $all
$oon to decay, either thro' the Neglience of
Succe$$ors, or Di$like of the Inhabitants. I
therefore find Fault with the Canal which <I>Nero</I>
made navigable for Callies with five Rows of
Oars from <I>Avernus</I> to <I>O$tia,</I> as well <*>
other Accounts, as becau$e the Maintaining of
it $eem'd to require perpetual and e<*>ernal
Felicity of the Empire, and a Succe$$ion of
Princes all inclined to the $ame Works. The$e
Con$iderations being granted, we ought to re-
flect duly upon all the Particulars before-
mention'd, that is to $ay, what Work we un-
dertake, the Place we are to build in, and
what the Per$on is that is to build; and to con-
trive every Thing according to his Dignity and
Nece$$ities, is the Part of a di$creet and pru-
dent Architect.</P>
<head>CHAP. XII.</head>
<P><I>That having con$ider'd the whole Di$po$ition of the Building in all the Parts
of the Model, we ought to take the Advice of prudent and under$tanding Men,
and before we begin our Work, it will not only be proper to know how to
rai$e Money for the Expence, but al$o long before hand to provide all the
Materials for compleating $uch an Undertaking.</I></P>
<P>Having weigh'd and con$ider'd the$e
Things you mu$t proceed to the Ex-
amination of the Re$t, whether each of them
be perfectly contrived and conveniently di$-
po$ed in its proper Place. And to do this ef-
fectually, it is nece$$ary you $hould be full of
this Per$ua$ion, all the while you are medita-
ting upon the$e Things, that it will be a Scandal
to you, if as far as in you lies, you $uffer any
other Building with the $ame Expence or Ad-
vantages to gain more Prai$e and Approbation
than your own. Nor is it $ufficient in the$e
Ca$es to be only not de$pi$ed, unle$s you are
highly and principally commended, and then
imitated. Therefore we ought to be as $evere
and diligent as po$$ible in our Scrutiny of every
Particular, as well to $uffer nothing but what
is excellent and elegant, as to have all Things
mutually concur to make the whole Hand$ome
and Beautiful, in$omuch that whatever you at-
tempted to add, or retrench, or alter, $hould
be for the Wor$e and make a Defect. But
herein, I repeat my Advice, let your Mode-
rator be the Prudence and Coun$el of the mo$t
experienced Judges, who$e Approbation is
founded upon Knowledge and Sincerity: Be-
cau$e by their Skill and Directions you will be
much more likely, than by your own private
Will and Opinion, to attain to Perfection or
Something very near it. And be$ides, the
Prai$e of good Judges is the highe$t Satisfaction;
and as for others they prai$e you $ufficiently, and
indeed too much in not doing Something bet-
ter them$elves. So that you will be $ure of
<foot>the</foot>
<p n=>25</p>
the Plea$ure of having the Approbation of all
that under$tand the$e Matters. And you may
find your Advantage in hearkning to every
Body; for $ometimes it happens, that Per$ons
of no Skill make Ob$ervations by no Means to
be de$pi$ed. When therefore you have well
weigh'd, review'd, and examin'd all the Parts
of your Model, and all the Proportions of the
whole Building, $o that there is not the lea$t
Particular any where about it, which you have
not con$ider'd and reflected upon, and that
you are fully re$olved to build in that Man-
ner in every Re$pect, and can rai$e the Money
conveniently for bearing the Expence; then
prepare the other Things nece$$ary for the Ex-
ecution of your Work, that when you have
begun, nothing may be wanting $o as to pre-
vent your fini$hing your Structure expeditiou$ly.
For as you will have Occa$ion for a great Num-
ber of Things for carrying on the Bu$ine$s, and
as if but one is unprovided, it may $top or $poil
the whole Work, it is your Care to have every
Thing at Hand that may be of U$e to you, if
provided, or a Detriment, if wanting. The
Kings of <I>Judea, David</I> and <I>Solomon,</I> when
they had undertaken to build the Temple of
<I>Jeru$alem,</I> having ama$s'd great Quantities of
Gold, Silver, Bra$s, Timber, Stone and the
like Materials, that they might want Nothing
that could be $erviceable in the ea$y and $peedy
Execution of the Work (as <I>Eu$ebius Pamphilus</I>
tells us) $ent to the neighbouring Kings for
$everal Thou$ands of Workmen and Architects.
Which I highly commend: Becau$e it cer-
tainly adds Dignity to the Work, and encrea$es
the Glory of the Author; and Structures that
have been hand$omely contrived and $peedily
fini$h'd be$ides, have been very much celebra-
ted by ancient Writers. <I>Quintus Curtius</I> re-
lates that <I>Alexander</I> the Great, in Building a
City, and that no very $mall one, near the
<I>Tanais,</I> $pent but $even Days; and <I>Jo$ephus</I>
the Hi$torian tells us, that <I>Nebuchadnezzer</I>
built the Temple of <I>Belus</I> in fifteen, and in the
$ame Space of Time girt the City of <I>Babylon</I>
with three Circuits of Walls. That <I>Titus</I>
made a Wall little le$s than five Miles long,
and <I>Semiramis</I> near <I>Babylon</I> built the eighth
Part of a Mile of a prodigious Wall every
Day; and that $he erected another of above
five and twenty Miles in Length, very High
and Thick, to confine the Lake, and in no
more than $even Days. But of the$e in
another Place.</P>
<head>CHAP. VI.</head>
<P><I>What Materials are to be provided for the Building, what Workmen to be
cho$e, and in what Sea$ons, according to the Opinions of the Ancients, to cut
Timber.</I></P>
<P>The Things to be prepared are the$e,
Lime, Timber, Sand, Stone, as al$o
Iron, Bra$s, Lead, Gla$s and the like. But
the Thing of greate$t Con$equence is to
chu$e skilful Workmen, not light or incon-
$tant, whom you may tru$t with the Care
and Management of an Edifice well de$ign'd,
and who will compleat it with all Expedition.
And in fixing upon all the$e, it will be of U$e
to you to be $omewhat guided by the Con$idera-
tion of other Works already fini$h'd in your
Neighbourhood, and by the Information you
receive from them to determine what to do in
your own Ca$e. For by ob$erving the Faults
and Beauties in them, you will con$ider that
the $ame may happen in yours. <I>Nero</I> the
Emperor having form'd a De$ign of dedica-
cating a huge Statue of an hundred and twenty
Foot high in Honour of the Sun at <I>Rome,</I> ex-
ceeding any Thing that had been done before
in Greatne$s and Magnificence, as <I>Pliny</I> re-
lates, before he gave final Orders for the
Work to <I>Zenodarus,</I> a famous and excellent
Sculptor in tho$e Days, would fir$t $ee his Ca-
pacity for $uch a Work by a <I>Colo$$us</I> of ex-
traordinary Weight, which he had made in
the Country of <I>Auvergne</I> in <I>France.</I> The$e
Things duly con$ider'd, we proceed to the
others. We intend, then, in treating of the
Materials nece$$ary for Building, to repeat
tho$e Things which have been taught us by the
mo$t learned among the Ancients, and particu-
larly <I>Theophra$tus, Ari<*>otle, Cato, Varro,
Pliny</I> and <I>Virgil,</I> becau$e they have learned
more from long Ob$ervation than from any
Quickne$s of Genius; $o that they are be$t
gathered from tho$e who have ob$erved them
with the greate$t Diligence. We $hall there-
<foot>H for</foot>
<p n=>26</p>
fore go on to collect tho$e Rules which the
mo$t approved Ancients have left us in many
and various Places, and to the$e, according to
our Cu$tom, we $hall add whatever we our-
$elves have deduced from antique Works, or
the In$tructions of mo$t experienced Artificers,
if we happen to know any Thing that may be
$erviceable to our Purpo$e. And I believe it
will be the be$t Method, following Nature
her$elf, to begin with tho$e Things which were
$ir$t in U$e among Men in their Buildings;
which, if we mi$take not, were Timber Trees
which they fell'd in the Woods: Though
among Authors, I find, $ome are divided
upon this very Subject. Some will have it,
that Men at fir$t dwelt in Caves, and that
they and their Cattle were both $heltered
under the $ame Roof; and therefore they
believe what <I>Pliny</I> tells us, that one <I>Gellius
Texius</I> was the fir$t, that, in Imitation of Na-
ture built him$elf a Hou$e of Mud. <I>Diodorus</I>
$ays that <I>Ve$ta,</I> the Daughter of <I>Saturn,</I> was
the fir$t that invented Hou$es. <I>Eu$ebius
Pamphilus,</I> an excellent Searcher into Antiqui-
ty, tells us from the Te$timony of the Ancients,
that the Grand$ons of <I>Protogenes</I> fir$t taught
Men the Building of Hou$es, which they
patch'd up of Reeds and Bullru$hes: But to
return to our Subject. The Ancients, then,
and particularly <I>Theophra$tus,</I> inform us, that
mo$t Trees, and e$pecially the Fir, the Pitch-
tree and the Pine, ought to be cut immediately,
when they begin to put forth their young
Shoots, when through their abundance of Sap
you mo$t ea$ily $trip off the Bark. But that
there are $ome Trees, as the Maple, the Elm,
the A$h, and the Linden, which are be$t cut
after Vintage. The Oak if cut in Summer,
they ob$erve is apt to breed Worms; but if in
Winter, it will keep $ound and not $plit.
And it is not foreign to our Purpo$e what they
remark, that Wood which is cut in Winter, in
a North Wind, though it be green, will never-
thele$s burn extremely well, and in a Manner
without Smoak; which manife$tly $hews that
their Juices are not crude, but well dige$ted.
<I>Vitruvius</I> is for cutting Timber from the be-
ginning of Autumn, till $uch Time as the $oft
We$terly Winds begin to blow. And <I>He$iod</I>
$ays, that when the Sun darts his burning Rays
directly upon our Heads, and turns Mens Com-
plections to brown, then is the Time for Har-
ve$t, but that when the Trees drop their
Leaves, then is the Sea$on for cutting of Tim-
ber. <I>Cato</I> moderates the Matter thus; let the
Oak, $ays he, be felled during the Sol$tice, be-
cau$e in Winter it is always out of Sea$on; other
Woods that bear Seed may be cut when that
is mature; tho$e that bear none, when you
plea$e. Tho$e that have their Seeds green and
ripe at the $ame Time, $hould be cut when
that is fallen, but the Elm when the Leaves
drop. And they $ay it is of very great Im-
portance, what Age the Moon is of when you
fell your Timber: For they are all of Opini-
on, and e$pecially <I>Varro,</I> that the Influence of
the Moon is $o powerful over Things of this
Nature, that even they who cut their Heir in
the Wane of the Moon, $hall $oon grow bald;
and for this Rea$on, they tell us, <I>Tiberius</I> ob-
$erved certain Days for cutting his Hair. The
A$trologers affirm, that your Spirits will al-
ways be oppre$$ed with Melancholly, if you
cut your Nails or Hair while the Moon is op-
pre$$ed or ill di$po$ed. It is to our pre$ent
Purpo$e what they $ay, that $uch Things as
are de$igned in their U$es to be moveable,
ought to be cut and wrought when the Moon
is in <I>Libra</I> or <I>Cancer;</I> but $uch as are to be
fixed and immoveable, when $he is in <I>Leo,
Taurus,</I> or the like. But that Timber ought
to be cut in the Wane of the Moon, all the
Learned are agreed, becau$e they hold that the
flegmatick Moi$ture, $o very liable to immedi-
ate Putrefaction, is then almo$t quite dried up,
and it is certain, that when it is cut in $uch a
Moon, it is never apt to breed Worms. Hence
they $ay you ought to reap the Corn which
you intend to $ell, at full Moon; becau$e then
the Ears are full; but that which you intend
to keep in the Wane. It is al$o evident, that
the Leaves of Trees cropt in the Wane of the
Moon do not rot. <I>Columella</I> thinks it be$t to
fell Timber from the twentieth to the thirtieth
Day of the Moon's Age; <I>Vegetius,</I> from the
fifteenth to the two and twentieth; and hence
he $uppo$es the religious Ceremony to ari$e, of
celebrating all My$teries relating to Eternity
only on tho$e Days, becau$e Wood cut then
la$ted in a Manner for ever. They add, that
we $hould likewi$e ob$erve the Setting of the
Moon. But <I>Pliny</I> thinks it a proper Time to
fell Trees when the Dog-$tar reigns, and when
the Moon is in Conjunction with the Sun,
which Day is called an <I>Interlunium,</I> and $ays
it is good to wait for the Night of that Day
too, till the Moon is $et. The A$tronomers
$ay, the Rea$on of this is, becau$e the Action
of the Moon puts the Fluids of all Bodies into
Motion; and that therefore when tho$e Fluids
<foot>are</foot>
<p n=>27</p>
are drawn down, or left by the Moon in the
lowe$t Roots, the Re$t of the Timber is clearer
and $ounder. Moreover they think that the
Tree will be much more $erviceable, if it is not
cut quite down immediately, but chopt round
about, and $o left $tanding upon the Stump to
dry. And they $ay, that if the Fir (which is
not the mo$t unapt to $uffer by Moi$ture) be
barked in the Wane of the Moon, it will never
afterwards be liable to be rotted by Water.
There are $ome who affirm that if the Oak,
which is $o heavy a Wood that naturally it
$inks in the Water, be chopt round the Bot-
tom in the Beginning of Spring, and cut down
when it has lo$t its Leaves, it will have $uch
an Effect upon it, that it will float for the
Space of ninety Days and not $ink. Others
advi$e to chop the Trees which you leave thus
upon their Stumps, half way through, that the
Corruption and bad Juices may di$til through,
and be carried off. They add, that the Trees,
which are de$igned to be $awed or planed,
$hould not be cut down till they have brought
their Fruits and ripened their Seeds; and that
Trees $o cut, e$pecially Fruit-bearers, $hould
be barked, becau$e while they are covered with
the Bark, Corruption is very apt to gather be-
tween the Rind and the Tree.</P>
<head>CHAP. V.</head>
<P><I>Of pre$erving the Trees after they are cut, what to plai$ter or anoint them with,
of the Remedies again$t their Infirmities, and of allotting them their proper
Places in the Building.</I></P>
<P>After the Timber is cut, it mu$t be
laid where the $corching Heat of the
Sun or rude Bla$ts of Winds never come; and
e$pecially, that which falls of it$elf, ought to
be very well protected with Shade. And for
this Rea$on, the ancient Architects u$ed to
plai$ter it over with Ox-Dung; which <I>Theo-
phra$tus</I> $ays they did, becau$e by that Means
all the Pores being $topped up, the $uperfluous
Flegm and Humidity concreting within, di$-
tils and vents it$elf by Degrees through the
Heart, by which Means the Dryne$s of the
other Parts of the Wood is conden$ed by its
drying equally throughout. And they are of
Opinion that Trees dry better, if $et with their
Heads downward. Moreover, they pre$cribe
various Remedies again$t their decaying and
other Infirmities. <I>Theophra$tus</I> thinks that
burying of Timber hardens it extremely. <I>Cato</I>
advi$es to anoint it with Lees of Oil, to pre-
$erve it from all Manner of Worms; and we
all know that Pitch is a Defence to it again$t
Water. They $ay that Wood, which has been
$oaked in the Dregs of Oil, will burn without
the Offence of Smoak. <I>Pliny</I> writes, that in
the Labyrinth of <I>Egypt,</I> there are a great
many Beams made of the <I>Egyptian</I> Thorn
rubed over with Oil, and <I>Theophra$tus</I> $ays,
that Timber dawbed over with Glue will
not burn. Nor will I omit what we read in
<I>Aulus Gellius,</I> taken out of the Annals of <I>Quin-
tus Claudius,</I> that <I>Archelaus, Mithridates</I>'s Pr&aelig;-
fect, having thoroughly debawbed a wooden
Tower in the Pir&aelig;um with Allum, when
<I>Sylla</I> be$ieged it, it would not take Fire. Se-
veral Woods are hardened and $trengthened a-
gain$t the A$$aults of Storms in various Man-
ners. They bury the Citron-wood under
Ground, plai$tered over with Wax, for $even
Days, and after an Intermi$$ion of as many
more, lay it under Heaps of Corn for the $ame
Space of Time, whereby it becomes not only
$tronger but ea$ier to be wrought, becau$e it
takes away a very con$iderable Part of its
Weight; and they $ay too, that the $ame
Wood thus dryed, being afterwards laid $ome
time in the Sea, acquires a Hardne$s incredibly
$olid and incorruptible. It is certain the Che$-
nut Tree is purged by the Sea-water. <I>Pliny</I>
writes, the <I>&AElig;gyptian</I> Fig-tree is laid under
Water to dry and grow lighter, for at fir$t it
will $ink to the Bottom. We $ee that our
Workmen lay their Timber under Water or
Dung for thirty Days, e$pecially $uch as they
de$ign for turning, by which Means they think
it is better dried and more ea$ily worked for
all Manner of U$es. There are $ome who af-
firm, that all Manner of Woods agree in this,
that if you bury them in $ome moi$t Place
while they are green, they will endure for ever;
but whether you pre$erve it in Woods, or bury,
or anoint it, the Experienced are univer$ally of
this Opinion, that you mu$t not meddle with
it under three Months: The Timber mu$t have
<foot>Time</foot>
<p n=>28</p>
Time to harden and to get a Kind of Matu-
rity of Strength before it is applied to U$e.
After it is thus prepared, <I>Cato</I> directs, that it
mu$t not be brought out into the Air but in
the Wane of the Moon, and after Mid-day, and
even in the Wane of the Moon he condemns
the four Days next after the fi$teenth, and pre-
cautions us again$t bringing it out in a South
Wind. And when we bring it out, we mu$t
take Care not to draw it through the Dew,
nor to $aw or cut it when it is covered with
Dew or Fro$t, but only when it is perfectly dry
in all Re$pects.</P>
<head>CHAP. VI.</head>
<P><I>What Woods are mo$t proper for Building, their Natures and U$es, how they
are to be employed, and what Part of the Edifice each Kind is mo$t fit for.</I></P>
<P><I>Theophra$tus</I> thinks that Timber is not dry
enough for the making of Planks, e$peci-
ally for Doors, in le$s than three Years. The
Trees of mo$t U$e for Building were reckoned
to be the$e; the Holm, and all other Sorts of
Oaks, the Beech, the Poplar, the Linden, the
Willow, the Alder, the A$h, the Pine, the Cy-
pre$s, the Olive, both Wild and Garden, the
Che$nut, the Larch Tree, the Box, the Cedar,
the Ebony, and even the Vine: But all the$e
are various in their Natures, and therefore mu$t
be applied to various U$es. Some are better
than others to be expo$ed without Doors,
others mu$t be u$ed within; $ome delight in
the open Air, others harden in the Water, and
will endure almo$t for ever under Ground;
$ome are good to make nice Boards, and for
Sculptures, and all Manner of Joyner's Work;
$ome for Beams and Rafters; others are $tronger
for $upporting open Terra$$es, and Coverings;
and the Alder, for Piles to make a Foundation
in a River or mar$hy Ground, exceeds all other
Trees, and bears the Wet incomparably well,
but will not la$t at all in the Air or Sun. On
the contrary, the Beech will not endure the
Wet at all. The Elm, $et in the open Air,
hardens extremely; but el$e it $plits and will
not la$t. The Pitch Tree and Pine, if buried
under Ground, are wonderfully durable. But
the Oak, being hard, clo$e, and nervous, and
of the $malle$t Pores, not admitting any Moi$-
ture, is the propere$t of any for all Manner of
Works under Ground, capable of $upporting
the greate$t Weights, and is the $tronge$t of
Columns. But though Nature has endued it
with $o much Hardne$s that it cannot be bored
unle$s it be $oaked, yet above Ground it is
reckoned incon$tant, and to warp and grow
unmanageable, and in the Sea-water quickly
rots; which does not happen to the Olive, nor
Holm Oak, nor Wild Olive, though in other
Things they agree with the Oak. The Ma$t-
Holm never con$umes with Age, becau$e it's
In$ide is juicy, and as it were always green.
The Beech likewi$e and the Che$nut do not
rot in the Water, and are reckoned among the
principal Trees for Works under Ground. The
Cork Tree al$o, and the wild Pine, the Mul-
berry, the Maple, and the Elm are not ami$s
for Columns. <I>Theophra$tus</I> recommends the
<I>Negropont</I> Nut Tree for Beams and Rafters,
becau$e before it breaks it gives Notice by a
Crack, which formerly $aved the Lives of a
great many People, who, upon the falling of
the publick Baths at <I>Andros,</I> by Means of that
Warning had Time to make their E$cape. But
the Fir is much the Be$t for that U$e; for as it
is one of the Bigge$t and Thicke$t of Trees, $o
it is endued with a natural Stiffne$s, that will
not ea$ily give way to the Weight that is laid
upon it, but $tands firm and never yields. Add
be$ides, that it is ea$y to work, and does not
lie too heavy upon the Wall. In $hort, many
Perfections, and U$es, and great Prai$es are a$-
cribed to this $ingle Wood; neverthele$s we
cannot di$own that it has one Fault, which is,
that it is too apt to catch Fire. Not inferior
to this for Roofs, is the Cypre$s, a Tree, in
many other Re$pects $o u$eful, that it claims a
principal Rank among the mo$t excellent. The
Ancients reckoned it as one of the Be$t, and
not inferior to Cedar or Ebony. In <I>India</I> the
Cypre$s is valued almo$t equal with the Spice
Trees, and with good Rea$on; for whatever
Prai$es may be be$towed upon the Ammony or
Cirenaic Field Pine, which <I>Theophra$tus</I> $ays is
everla$ting, yet if you con$ult either Smell,
Beauty, Strength, Bigne$s, Straitne$s, or Du-
ration, or all the$e together, what Tree can you
put in Competition with the Cypre$s? It is
<foot>affirmed</foot>
<p n=>29</p>
affirmed that the Cypre$s never $uffers either
by Worms or Age, and never $plits of its own
accord. For this Rea$on <I>Plato</I> was of Opinion,
that the publick Laws and Statutes $hould be
carved in $acred Tables of Cypre$s, believing
they would be more la$ting than Tables of
Bra$s. This Topick naturally leads me to give
an Account of what I my$elf remember to
have read and ob$erv'd of this Wood. It is re-
lated that the Gates of the Temple of <I>Diana,</I>
at <I>Ephe$us,</I> being of Cypre$s, la$ted four hun-
dred Years, and pre$erved their Beauty in $uch
a Manner that they always $eemed to be new.
In the Church of St. <I>Peter</I> at <I>Rome,</I> upon the
repairing of the Gates by Pope <I>Eugenius,</I> I
found, that where they had not been injured
by the Violence of the Enemy in $tripping a-
way the Silver with which they were formerly
covered, they had continued whole and $ound
above five hundred and fifty Years; for if we
examing the Annals of the <I>Roman</I> Pontiffs, $o
long it is from the Time of <I>Hadrian</I> the Third,
who $et them up, to <I>Eugene</I> the Fourth. There-
fore, though the Fir is very much commended
for making Rafters, yet the Cypre$s is prefer-
red before it, perhaps only upon this one Ac-
count, namely, that it is more la$ting; but
then it is heavier than the Fir. The Pine and
Pitch Trees al$o are valued, for the Pine is
$uppo$ed to have the $ame Quality as the Fir,
of ri$ing again$t the Weight that is laid upon
it: But between the Fir and the Pine there is
this Difference, among others, that the Firs is
le$s injured by Worms, becau$e the Pine is of a
$weeter Juice than the Fir. I do not know
any Wood that is to be preferred to the Larch,
or Turpentine Tree, which, within my Ob$er-
vation, has $upported Buildings perfectly $trong,
and to a very great Age, in many Places, and
particularly in tho$e very ancient Structures in
the Market-place at <I>Venice,</I> and indeed this one
Tree is reckoned to be furni$hed with the Con-
veniences of all the Re$t; it is nervous, tena-
cious of its Strength, unmoveable in Storms,
not mole$ted with Worms; and it is an anci-
ent Opinion, that again$t the Injuries of Fire
it remains invincible, and in a Manner unhurt,
in$omuch that they advi$e us, on whatever Side
we are apprehen$ive of Fire, to place Beams of
Larch by Way of Security. It is true I have
$een it take Fire and burn, but yet in $uch a
Manner that it $eemed to di$dain the Flames,
and to threaten to drive them away. It has
indeed one Defect, which is, that in Sea-wa-
ter it is very apt to breed Worms. For Beams
the Oak and Olive are accounted improper,
becau$e of their Heavine$s, and that they give
Way beneath the Weight that is laid upon
them, and are apt to warp even of them$elves;
be$ides, all Trees that are more inclinable to
break into Shivers than to $plit, are unfit for
Beams; $uch are the Olive, the Fig, the Lin-
den, the Sallow, and the like. It is a $urpriz-
ing Property which they relate of the Palm
Tree, that it ri$es again$t the Weight that is
laid upon it, and bends upwards in $pite of all
Re$i$tance. For Beams and Coverings ex-
po$ed to the open Air, the Juniper is greatly
commended; and <I>Pliny</I> $ays it has the $ame
Properties as the Cedar, but is $ounder. The
Olive too is reckoned extreamly durable, and
the Box is e$teemed as one of the Be$t of all.
Nor is the Che$nut, though apt to cleave and
$plit, rejected for Works to the open Air. But
the wild Olive they particularly e$teem $or the
$ame Rea$on as the Cypre$s, becau$e it never
breeds Worms, which is the Advantage of all
Trees that have oily and gummy Juices, e$pe-
cially if tho$e Juices are bitter. The Worm
never enters into $uch Trees, and it is certain
they exclude all Moi$ture from without. Con-
trary to the$e are $uppo$ed to be all Woods
that have Juices of a $weet Ta$te, and which
ea$ily take Fire; out of which, neverthele$s,
they except the $weet as well as the wild Olive.
<I>Vitruvius</I> $ays, that the Holm Oak and Beech
are very weak in their Nature again$t Storms,
and do not endure to a great Age. <I>Pliny</I> $ays,
that the Ma$t-holm $oon rots. But the Fir,
and particularly that which grows in the <I>Alps,</I>
for U$es within Doors, as for Bed$teads, Ta-
bles, Doors, Benches, and the like, is excel-
lent; becau$e it is, in its Nature, very dry, and
very tenacious of the Glue. The Pitch-Tree
and Cypre$s al$o are very good for $uch U$es;
the Beech for other Service is too brittle, but
does mighty well for Coffers and Beds, and
will $aw into extreme thin Planks, as will like-
wi$e the Scarlet-Oak. The Che$nut, on the
Contrary, the Elm, and the A$h are reckoned
very unfit for Planks, becau$e they ea$ily $plit,
and though they $plit $lowly, they are very in-
clinable to it; though el$e the A$h is account-
ed very obedient in all Manner of Works. But
I am $urprized the Ancients have not celebra-
ted the Nut Tree; which, as Experience $hews
us, is extremely tractable, and good for mo$t
U$es, and e$pecially for Boards or Planks,
They commend the Mulberry-Tree, both for
its Durablene$s, and becau$e by Length of
<foot>I Time</foot>
<p n=>30</p>
it grows blacker and hand$omer. <I>Theophra$tus</I>
tells us, that the Rich u$ed to make their
Doors of the Lote-Tree, the Scarlet-Oak, and
of Box. The Elm, becau$e it firmly main-
tains its Strength, is $aid to be very proper for
Jambs of Doors, but it $hould be $et with its
Head downwards. <I>Cato</I> $ays, that Levers
ought to be made of Holly, Laurel, and Elm:
For Bars and Bolts, they recommend the Cor-
nel-Tree; for Stairs, the wild A$h or the
Maple. They hollowed the Pine, the Pitch-
Tree and the Elm for Aqueducts, but they $ay
unle$s they are buried under Ground they pre-
$ently decay. La$tly, the Female Larch-Tree,
which is almo$t of the Colour of Honey, for
the Ornaments of Edifices and for Tables for
Painting, they found to be in a Manner eternal
and never crack or $plit; and be$ides, as its
Veins run $hort, not long, they u$ed it for the
Images of their Gods, as they did al$o the
Lote, the Box, the Cedar, and the Cypre$s
too, and the large Roots of the Olive, and the
<I>Egyptian</I> Peach-Tree, which they $ay is like
the Lote-Tree.</P>
<P>IF they had Occa$ion to turn any Thing
long and round, they u$ed the Beech, the
Mulberry, the Tree that yields the Turpentine,
but e$pecially the mo$t clo$e bodied Box, mo$t
excellent for Turning; and for very curious
Works, the Ebony. Neither for Statues or
Pictures did they de$pi$e the Poplar, both
white and black, the Sallow, the Hornbeam,
the Service-Tree, the Elder, and the Fig;
which Woods, by their Dryne$s and Evenne$s,
are not only good for receiving and pre$erving
the Gums and Colours of the Painter, but are
wonderfully $oft and ea$y under the Carver's
Tool for expre$$ing all Manner of Forms.
Though it is certain that none of the$e for
Tractablene$s can compare with the Linden.
Some there are that for Statues chu$e the Jubol-
Tree. Contrary to the$e is the Oak, which
will never join either with it$elf or any other
Wood of the $ame Nature, and de$pi$es all
Manner of Glue: The $ame Defect is $uppos'd
to be in all Trees that are grained, and in-
clin'd to di$til. Wood that is ea$ily plain'd,
and has a clo$e Body, is never well to be
fa$ten'd with Glue; and tho$e al$o that are of
different Natures, as the Ivy, the Laurel and
the Linden, which are hot, if glued to tho$e
that grow in moi$t Places, which are all in
their Natures cold, never hold long together.
The Elm, the A$h, the Mulberry, and the
Cherry-Tree, being dry, do not agree with the
Plane Tree or the Alder, which are Moi$t.
Nay, the Ancients were $o far from joining
together Woods different in their Natures, that
they would not $o much as place them near
one another. And for this Rea$on <I>Vitruvius</I>
advi$es us again$t joining Planks of Beech and
Oak together.</P>
<head>CHAP. VII.</head>
<head><I>Of Trees more $ummarily.</I></head>
<P>But to $peak of all the$e more $um-
marily. All Authors are agreed that
Trees which do not bear Fruit are $tronger and
$ounder than tho$e which do; and that the
wild ones, which are not cultivated either with
Hand or Steel, are harder than the Dome$tick.
<I>Theophra$tus</I> $ays, that the wild ones never fall
into any Infirmities that kill them, whereas the
Dome$tick and Fruit-bearers are $ubject to
very con$iderable Infirmities; and among the
Fruit-bearers tho$e which bear early are
weaker than tho$e which bear late, and the
Sweet than the Tart; and among the tart ones,
$uch are accounted the Firme$t, that have the
Sharpe$t and the lea$t Fruit. Tho$e that bear Fruit
only once in two Years, and tho$e which are
entirely barren, have more Knots in them than
tho$e which bear every Year; the Shorte$t
likewi$e are the Harde$t, and the Barren grow
fa$ter than the Fruitful. They $ay likewi$e
that $uch Trees as grow in an open Place, un-
$helter'd either by Woods or Hills, but $haken
by frequent Storms and Winds, are $tronger
and thicker, but at the $ame Time $horter and
more knotty than $uch as grow down in a Val-
ley, or in any other Place defended from the
Winds. They al$o believe that Trees which
grow in moi$t $hady Places are more tender
than tho$e which grow in a dry open Situation,
and that tho$e which $tand expo$ed to the
North are more $erviceable than tho$e which
grow to the South. They reject, as abortive
all Trees that grow in Places not agreeable to
their Natures, and though $uch as $tand to the
<foot>South</foot>
<p n=>31</p>
South are very hard, yet they are apt to warp
in their Sap, $o that they are not $trait and
even enough for Service, Moreover, tho$e
which are in their Natures dry and $low growers,
are $tronger than tho$e which are moi$t and
fruitful; wherefore <I>Varro</I> $uppos'd that the
one were Male and the other Female, and that
white Timber was le$s clo$e and more tractable
than that which has any other Colour in it.
It is certain that heavy Wood is harder and
clo$er than light; and the Lighter it is, the
more Brittle; and the more Knotty the $tronger.
Trees likewi$e which Nature has endu'd with
the longe$t Life, $he has always endu'd with
the Property of keeping longe$t from Decay
when cut down, and the le$s Sap they have, $o
much they are the Stronger and more Hardy.
The Parts neare$t to the Sap are indeed
harder and clo$er than the re$t; but tho$e next
the Bark have more binding Nerves, for it is
$uppos'd, in Trees ju$t as in Animals, the Bark
is the Skin, the Parts next under the Bark are
the Fle$h, and that which enclo$es the Sap, the
Bone; and <I>Ari$totle</I> thought the Knots in Plants
were in the Nature of Nerves. Of all the Parts
of the Tree, the wor$t is the Alburnum, or
Juice, that nouri$hes it, both becau$e it is very
apt to breed Worms, and upon $everal other
Accounts. To the$e Ob$ervations we may
add, that the Part of the Tree which, while
it was $tanding, was towards the South, will
be dryer than the re$t, and thinner, and more
extenuated, but it will be firmer and clo$er;
and the Sap will be nearer to the Bark on that
Side than on the other. Tho$e Parts al$o
which are neare$t to the Ground and to the
Roots, will be heavier than any of the re$t; a
Proof whereof is that they will hardly float
upon the Water; and the Middle of all Trees
is the mo$t knotty. The Veins too, the nea-
rer they are to the Roots, the more they are
wreath'd and contorted; neverthele$s the
lower Parts are reckoned always $tronger and
more u$eful than the Upper. But I find in
good Authors $ome very remarkable Things
of $ome Trees; they $ay that the Vine exceeds
even the Eternity of Time it$elf. In <I>Popolonia,</I>
near <I>Piombino,</I> there was a Statue of <I>Jupiter</I>
made of that Wood to be $een in <I>C&oelig;$ar</I>'s Days,
which had la$ted for a va$t Number of Years
without the lea$t Decay; and indeed i<*> is uni-
ver$ally allow'd that there is no Wood what-
$oever more durable. In <I>Ariana,</I> a Province
of <I>India,</I> there are Vines $o large, as <I>Strabo</I>
informs us, that two Men can hardly embrace
its Trunk. They tell us of a Roof of Cedar
in <I>Utica</I> that la$ted twelve Hundred and
$eventy eight Years. In a Temple of <I>Diana</I>
in <I>Spain</I> they $peak of Rafters o<*> Juniper, that
la$ted from two Hundred Years before the
Siege of <I>Troy</I> quite to the Days of <I>Hanibal.</I>
The Cedar too is of a mo$t wonderful Nature,
if as they $ay it is the only Wood that will
not retain the Nails. In the Mountains near
the Lake <I>Benacus,</I> or the <I>Lago di Garda,</I>
grows a Kind of Fir, which, if you make
Ve$$els of it, will not hold the Wine, unle$s
you fir$t anoint them with Oil. Thus much
for Trees.</P>
<head>CHAP. VIII.</head>
<head><I>Of Stones in general, when they are to be dug, and when u$ed; which are the
$ofte$t and which the harde$t, and which be$t and mo$t durable.</I></head>
<P>We mu$t likewi$e make Provi$ion of the
Stone which is to be u$ed in our
Walls, and this is of two Sorts; the one proper
only $or making the Lime and the Cement,
the other for erecting the Building. Of
this latter we $hall treat fir$t, omitting many
Particulars, both for the Sake of Brevity, and
becau$e they are already $ufficiently known.
Neither $hall we $pend any Time here in phi-
lo$ophical Enquiries about the Principle and
Origin of Stones; as, whether their fir$t Par-
ticles, made vi$cous by a Mixture of Earth and
Water, harden fir$t into Slime, and afterwards
into Stone; or what is $aid of Gems, that
they are collected and concreted by the Heat
and Power of the Rays of the Sun, or rather
that there is in the Bo$om of the Earth certain
natural Seeds as of other Things, $o al$o of
Stones: And whether their Colour is owing
to a certain proper blending of the Particles of
Water with very minute ones of Earth; or to
$ome innate Quality of its own Seed, or to an
Impre$$ion receiv'd from the Sun's Rays. And
though the$e Di$qui$itions might perhaps help
<foot>to</foot>
<p n=>32</p>
to adorn our Work, I $hall omit them, and
proceed to treat of the Method of Building as
addre$$ing my$elf to Artificers approv'd for
Skill and Experience, with more Freedom
than perhaps would be allow'd by tho$e who
are $or more exact philo$ophi$ing. <I>Cato</I> advi$es
to dig the Stone in Summer, to let it lie in the
open Air, and not to u$e it under two Years:
In Summer, to the Intent that it may grow
accu$tom'd by Degrees to Wind, Rain, and
Fro$t, and other Inclemen<*>ies of the Weather,
which it had not felt before. For if Stone,
immediately upon its being dug out of the
Quarry, while it is full of its native Juice and
Humidity, is expos'd to $evere Winds and
$udden Fro$ts, it will $plit and break to Pieces.
It $hould be kept in the open Air, in order to
prove the Goodne$s of each particular Stone,
and how well it is able to re$i$t the Accidents
that injure it, making Experiment by this $mall
Trial, how long they are likely to hold again$t
the A$$aults of Time. They $hould not be
u$ed under two Years, to the Intent that you
may have Time to find out $uch among them
as are weak in their Nature, and likely to dam-
age the Work, and to $eperate them from the
good ones; for it is certain, in one and the
$ame Kind of Stones there is a Difference in
Goodne$s of any Sort of Stone, and its Fit-
ne$s for this or that particular Situation, is be$t
learnt from U$e and Experience; and you
may much $ooner come at their Values and
Properties from old Buildings, than from the
Writings and Precepts of Philo$phers. How-
ever, to $ay $omething briefly of Stones in ge-
neral, we will beg Leave to offer the follow-
ing Ob$ervations.</P>
<P>ALL white Stone is $ofter than red, the clear
is more ea$ily wrought than the Cloudy, and
the more like Salt it looks, the harder it is to
work. Stone that looks as if it were $trew'd
over with a bright $hining Sand, is har$h; if
little Sparks, as it were, of Gold are intermix'd,
it will be $tubborn; if it has a Kind of little
black Points in it, it will be hard to get out
of the Quarry: That which is $potted with
angular Drops is $tronger than that which has
round ones, and the $maller tho$e Drops are,
the harder it will be; and the finer and clearer
the Colour is, the longer it will la$t. The
Stone that has fewe$t Veins, will be mo$t
entire, and when the Veins come neare$t in
Colour to the adjoining Parts of the Stone, it
will prove mo$t equal throughout: The $maller
the Veins, the hand$omer; the more winding
they run, the more untoward; and the more
knotty, the wor$e, Of the$e Veins that is
mo$t apt to $plit which has in the Middle a
reddi$h Streak, or of the Colour of rotten
Oker. Much of the $ame Nature is that which
is $tain'd here and there with the Colour of
faded Gra$s, but the mo$t difficult of all is
$uch as looks like a cloudy Piece of Ice. A
Multitude of Veins $hews the Stone to be de-
ceitful and apt to crack; and the $traiter they
are, the more un$aithful. Upon breaking a
Stone, the more fine and poli$h'd the Frag-
ments appear, the clo$er bodied it is; and that
which when broken has its Out$ide the lea$t
rugged, will be more manageable than tho$e
which are rough. Of the Rough ones, tho$e
which are white$t will be wor$t for working;
whereas, on the Contrary, in brown Stones,
tho$e of the $malle$t and fine$t Grain are lea$t
obedient to the Tool. All mean ordinary
Stones are the Harder for being $pungy, and
that which being $prinkled with Water is long-
e$t in drying, is the mo$t crude.</P>
<P>ALL heavy Stones are more $olid and ea$ier
to poli$h than light ones, which upon rubbing
is much more apt to come off in Flakes than
$uch as are heavy. That which upon being
$truck gives the be$t Sound, is clo$er made than
that which $ounds dull; and that which upon
$trong Friction $mells of Sulphur, is $tronger
than that which yields no Smell at all. La$t-
ly, that which makes the mo$t Re$i$tance again$t
the Chizzel will be mo$t firm and rigid again$t
the Violence of Storms. They $ay, that tho$e
Stones which hold together in the large$t Scant-
lings at the Mouth of the Quarry, are firme$t
again$t the Weather. All Stone too is $ofter
when it is ju$t dug up, than after it has been
$ome Time in the Air, and when it is wetted,
or $o$tened with Water, is more yielding to the
Tool than when it is dry. Al$o $uch Stones as
are dug out of the moi$te$t Part of the Quarry,
will be the clo$e$t when they come to be dry;
and it is thought that Stones are ea$ier wrought
in a South-wind than in a North, and are more
apt to $plit in a North-wind than in a South.
But if you have a Mind to make an Experi-
ment how your Stone will hold out again$t
Time, you may judge from hence: If a Piece
of it, which you $oak in Water, increa$es much
of its Weight, it will be apt to be rotted by
Moi$ture; and that which flies to Pieces in
Fire, will bear neither Sun nor Heat. Neither
do I think that we ought to omit here $ome
Things worthy Memorial, which the Ancients
relate of $ome Stones.</P>
<foot>CHAP</foot>
<p n=>33</p>
<head>CHAP. IX.</head>
<head><I>Some Things worthy Memorial, relating to Stones, left us by the Ancients.</I></head>
<P>It will not be foreign to our Purpo$e to hear
what a Variety there is in Stones, and
what admirable Qualities $ome are endued
with, that we may be able to apply each to its
propere$t U$e. In the Territory of <I>Bol$ena</I> and
<I>Stratone,</I> they tell us there is a Stone extremely
proper for all Manner of Buildings, which nei-
ther Fire nor any Injuries of Weather ever af-
fects, and which pre$erves the Lineaments of
Statues beyond any other. <I>Tacitus</I> writes, that
when <I>Nero</I> repaired the City, which lay in
Ruins by the Flames, he made u$e of the <I>Al-
banian</I> and <I>Gabinian</I> Stone for Beams, becau$e
the Fire never hurts that Stone.</P>
<P>IN the Territory of the <I>Genoe$e</I> and of <I>Ve-
nice,</I> in the Dutchy of <I>Spoletto,</I> in the March
of <I>Anconia,</I> and near <I>Burgundy,</I> they find a
white Stone, which is ea$ily cut with a Saw
and poli$h'd, which if it were not for the
Weakne$s and Brittlene$s of its Nature, would
be u$ed by every body; but any thing of
Fro$t or Wet rots and breaks it, and it is not
$trong enough to re$i$t the Winds from the
Sea. <I>I$tria</I> produces a Stone very like Marble,
but if touch'd either by Flame or Vapour, it
immediately flies in Pieces, which indeed is
$aid to be the Ca$e of all Stones, e$pecially of
Flint both white and black, that they cannot
endure Fire.</P>
<P>IN the <I>Campagna di Roma</I> is a Stone of the
Colour of black A$hes, in which there $eems
to be Coals mix'd and inter$pers'd, which is
beyond Imagination ea$y to be wrought with
Iron, thoroughly $ound, and not weak again$t
Fire or Weather; but it is $o dry and thir$ty,
that it pre$ently drinks and burns up the Moi-
$ture of the Cement, and reduces it perfectly
into Powder, $o that the Junctures opening,
the Work pre$ently decays and falls to Ruins.
But round Stones, and e$pecially tho$e which
are found in Rivers, are of a Nature directly
contrary; for being always moi$t, they never
bind with the Cement. But what a $urprizing
Di$covery is this which has been made, name-
ly, that the Marble in the Quarry grows! in
the$e our Days they have found at <I>Rome</I> under
Ground a Number of $mall Pieces of <I>Trever-
tine</I> Stone, very porous and $pungy, which by
the Nouri$hment (if we may $o call it) given
it by the Earth and by Time, are grown to-
gether into one Piece.</P>
<P>IN the Lake <I>di pie di Luco,</I> in that Part
where the Water tumbles down a broken Pre-
cipice into the River <I>Nera,</I> you may perceive
that the upper Edge of the Bank has grown
continually, in$omuch that $ome have believ'd
that this Encrea$e and Growth of the Stone
has in Length of Time clo$ed up the Mouth
of the Valley and turn'd it into a Lake.</P>
<P>BELOW <I>la Ba$ilicata,</I> not far from the River
<I>Silari,</I> on that Side where the Water flows
from $ome high Rocks towards the Ea$t, there
are daily $een to grow huge Pieces of hanging
Stone, of $uch a Magnitude, that any one of
them would be a Load for $everal Carts. This
Stone while it is fre$h and moi$t with its natu-
ral Juices, is very $oft; but when it is dry, it
grows extremely hard, and very good for all
Manner of U$es. I have known the like hap-
pen in ancient Aqueducts, who$e Mouths,
having contracted a Kind of Gummine$s, have
$eem'd incru$ted all over with Stone. There
are two very remarkable Things to be $een at
this Day in <I>Romania:</I> In the Country of
<I>Imola</I> is a very $teep Torrent, which daily
throws out, $ometimes in one Place and $ome-
times in another, a great Number of round
Stones, generated within the Bowels of the
Earth: In the Territory of <I>Faenza,</I> on the
Banks of the River <I>Lamona,</I> there are found a
great many Stones, naturally long and large,
which continually throw out a con$iderable
Quantity of Salt, which in Proce$s of Time is
thought to grow into Stone too. In that of
<I>Florence,</I> near the River <I>Chiane,</I> there is a Piece
of Ground all $trew'd over with hard Stones,
which every $even Years di$$olve into Clods of
Earth.</P>
<P><I>Pliny</I> relates, that near <I>Cizicus,</I> and about
<I>Ca$$andra,</I> the Clods of Earth turn into Stone.
In <I>Pozzuolo</I> there is a Du$t which hardens into
Stone, if mix'd with Sea-water. All the Way
upon the Shore from <I>Oropus</I> to <I>Aulis,</I> every
thing that is wa$h'd by the Sea is petrified.
<I>Diodorus</I> writes, that in <I>Arabia</I> the Clods dug
out of the Ground have a $weet Smell, and
<foot>K will</foot>
<p n=>34</p>
will melt in Fire like Metal, and run into Stone;
and he adds, that this Stone is of $uch a Na-
ture, that when the Rain falls upon it in any
Building, the Cement all di$$olves, and the
Wall grows to be all of a Piece.</P>
<P>WE are told, that they find in <I>Troas,</I> a
Stone very apt to cleave, call'd the <I>Sarcopha-
gus,</I> in which any dead Corp$e buried, is in-
tirely con$um'd in le$s than forty Days, all
but the Teeth; and which is mo$t $urprizing,
all the Habits, and every Thing buryed with
the Body, turns into Stone. Of a contrary
Nature to this is the Stone called <I>Chernites,</I>
in which <I>Darius</I> was buried, for that pre$erves
the Body entire for a long Time. But of this
Subject enough.</P>
<head>CHAP. X.</head>
<P><I>Of the Origin of the U$e of Bricks, in what Sea$on they ought to be made,
aud in what Shapes, their different Sorts, and the U$efulne$s of triangular
Ones; and briefly, of all other Works made of baked Earth.</I></P>
<P>It is certain the Ancients were very fond of
u$ing Bricks in$tead of Stone. I confe$s,
I believe that at fir$t Men were put upon mak-
ing Bricks to $upply the Place of Stone in
their Buildings, thro' Scarcity and Want of it;
but afterwards finding how ready they were
in working, how well adapted both to U$e
and Beauty, how $trong and durable, they pro-
ceeded to make not only their ordinary Struc-
tures, but even their Palaces of Brick. At
la$t, either by Accident or Indu$try, di$cover-
ing what U$e Fire was of in hardening and
$trengthening them, they began in mo$t Places
to bake the Bricks they built with. And $rom
my own Ob$ervations upon the ancient Struc-
tures, I will be bold to $ay, that there is not a
better Material for any Sort of Edifice than
Brick, not crude but baked; provided a right
Method be u$ed in baking them. But we will
re$erve the Prai$es of Works make of Bricks
for another Place.</P>
<P>OUR Bu$ine$s is to ob$erve here, that a
whiti$h chalky Earth is very much recom-
mended for making them. The reddi$h al$o
is approved of, and that which is call'd male
Sand. That which is ab$olutely $andy and
gravelly is to be avoided, and the $tony mo$t
of all; becau$e in baking it is $ubject to warp
and crack, and if over baked will fret away of
it$elf. We are advi$ed not to make our Bricks
of Earth fre$h dug, but to dig it in the Au-
tumn, and leave it to dige$t all Winter, and to
make it into Brick early in the Spring; for if
you make it in Winter, it is obvious that the
Fro$t will crack it, and if you make it in the
Middle of Summer, the exce$$ive Heat will
make it $cale off in drying. But if Nece$$ity
obliges you to make it in Winter, in extreme
cold Weather, cover it immediately over with
very dry Sand, and if in Summer, with wet
Straw; for being $o kept, it will neither crack
nor warp. Some are for having their Bricks
glazed; if $o, you mu$t take Care not to make
them of Earth that is either $andy, or too lean
or dry; $or the$e will $uck and eat away the
Glazing: But you mu$t make them of a whiti$h
fat Clay, and you mu$t make them thin, for
if they are too thick they will not bake tho-
rowly, and it is a great Chance but they $plit;
if you are oblig'd to have them thick, you may
in a great Mea$ure prevent that Inconveniency,
if you make one or more little Holes in them
about half Way through, whereby the Damp
and Vapour having proper Vents, they will
both dry and bake the better.</P>
<P>THE Petters rub their Ve$$els over with
Chalk, by which Means, the Glazing, when
it is melted over it, makes an even Surface;
the $ame Method may be u$ed in making
Bricks. I have ob$erv'd in the Works of the
Ancients, that their Bricks have a Mixture of a
certain Proportion of Sand, and e$pecially of
the red Sort, and I find they al$o mix'd them
with red Earth, and even with Marble. I know
by Experience that the very $ame Earth will
make harder and $tronger Brick, if we take the
Pains to knead every Lump two or three Times
over, as if we were making of Bread, till it
grows like Wax, and is per$ectly clear of the
lea$t Particle of Stone. The$e, when they have
pa$s'd the Fire will attain the Hardne$s even
of a Flint, and whether owing to the Heat in
baking, or the Air in drying, will get a Sort
of a $trong Cru$t, as Bread does. It will there-
fore be be$t to make them thin, that they
may have the more Cru$t and the le$s Crum:
<foot>And</foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 3. <I>(Page 35)</I></cap>
<fig>
<cap><I>&ldquo;Muraglia etc.&rdquo; = wall of triangular bricks.</I></cap>
<p n=>35</p>
And we $hall find, that if they are well rubb'd
and poli$hed, they will defy the Fury of the
Weather. The $ame is true of Stones that are
poli$hed, which thereby e$cape being eaten
with Ru$t. And it is thought that Bricks
$hould be rubbed and ground either immedi-
ately upon their being taken out of the Kiln,
before they are wetted; or when they have
been wetted, before they are dry again; be-
cau$e when once they have been wetted and
afterwards dryed, they grow $o hard that they
will turn and break the Edge of the Tool;
but they are ea$ier to grind when they are new,
and hardly cold. There were three Sorts of
Bricks among the Ancients; the Fir$t was a
Foot and an Half Long, and a Foot Bread, the
Second fifteen Inches every Way, the Third a
Foot. We $ee in $ome of their Buildings, and
e$pecially in their Arches and <I>Mo$aick</I> Works,
Bricks two Foot every Way. We are told that
the Ancients did not u$e the $ame Sort of Brick
in their publick as in their private Edifices. I
have ob$erved in $everal of their Structures, and
particularly in the <I>Appian</I> Way, $everal dif-
ferent Sorts of Bricks, $ome bigger, $ome $mall-
er; $o that I $uppo$e they u$ed them indiffe-
rently, and put in Practice not only what was
ab$olutely nece$$ary for U$e, but any Thing
that came into their Fancy, or which they
thought would conduce to the Beauty of the
Work. But, not to mention others, I have
$een $ome not longer than $ix Inches, and not
thicker than one, nor broader than three; but
the$e they chiefly u$ed in their Pavements,
<marg>*</marg>
where they were laid edgeways. I am be$t
plea$ed with their triangular ones, which they
made in this Manner; they made one large
Brick, a Foot Square, and an Inch and an
Half Thick; and while it was fre$h they cut
it in two Lines cro$$ways from one Angle to
the other, which divided it into four equal
Triangles. The$e Bricks had the follow-
ing Advantages, they took up le$s Clay, they
were ea$ier to di$po$e in the Kiln and to take
out again, they were more convenient for
working, becau$e the Bricklayer could hold
four of them in one Hand, and with a $mail
Stroke divide the one $rom the other; when
placed in the Wall, with their Fronts $oremo$t
and their Angles inward, they appeared like
compleat Bricks of a Foot Long: This made
the Expence le$s, the Work more graceful, and
the Wall $tronger; for as there $eemed to be
none but entire Bricks in the Wall, the Angles
being $et like Teeth in the Rubbi$h that was
laid in the Middle, made it extremely $trong
and durable. After the Bricks are moulded,
they direct that they $hould not be put into the
Kiln till they are perfectly dry, and they $ay
they never are $o under two Years; and they
are reckoned to dry better in the Shade than in
the Sun: But of the$e too enough, unle$s we
will add that in all this Sort of Works, which
are called Pla$tick, they reckon excellent,
among others, the Earth that is called <I>Samian,</I>
the <I>Aretinian,</I> and the <I>Modeneze;</I> in <I>Spain,</I>
the <I>Saguntan;</I> and the <I>Pergamean</I> in <I>A$ia.</I>
Nor will I con$ult Brevity $o much as to omit,
that whatever I have here $aid of Bricks, will
hold good of all Sorts of Tiles for Roofs of
Hou$es or Gutters, and in a Word, of all Man-
ner of Works made of baked Earth. We have
treated of Stone, let us now proceed to $peak
of Lime.</P>
<head>CHAP. XI.</head>
<P><I>Of the Nature of Lime and Plai$ter of Paris, their U$es and Kinds, wherein
they agree and wherein they differ, and of $ome Things not unworthy of
Memory.</I></P>
<P><I>Cato</I> the Cen$or, condemns Lime made
of different Sorts of Stone, and takes that
which is made of Flint to be good for no Man-
ner of Work what$oever; be$ides, in making
of Lime all Stone is extremely improper that
is dry and exhau$ted, or rotten, and which in
burning has nothing in it for the Fire to con-
$ume, as all mouldering Stone, and the reddi$h
and pale ones, which are found near <I>Rome</I> in
the Country of the <I>Fidenates</I> and <I>Albanians.</I>
The Lime commended by the be$t Judges, is
that which lo$es a third Part of its Weight by
burning; be$ides, Stone that is too moi$t in its
Nature, is apt to vitrify in the Fire, $o as to be
of no U$e for making of Lime. <I>Pliny</I> $ays,
that the green, or <I>Serpentine</I>-$tone mightily
re$i$ts the Fire; but we know very well that
the <I>Porphiry</I> will not only not burn it$elf, but
<foot>will</foot>
<foot><I>* See Plate 3, facing page 34.</I></foot>
<p n=>36</p>
will hinder the other Stones that are near it
in the Kiln, from burning too. They al$o
di$like all carthy Stone, becau$e it makes the
Lime $oul. But the ancient Architects greatly
prai$e the Lime made of very hard clo$e Stone,
e$pecially white, which they $ay is not im-
proper for any Sort of Work, and is extremely
$trong in Arches. In the $econd Place, they
commend Lime made of Stone, not indeed
light or rotten, but $pungy; which they think
for plai$tering is better, and more tractable
than any other, and gives the be$t Varni$h to
the Work; and I have ob$erved the Architects
in <I>France,</I> to u$e no other Sort of Lime but
what was made of the common Stones they
found in Rivers or Torrents, blacki$h, and $o
very hard, that you would take them for
Flints; and yet it is certain, both in Stone
and Brickwork, it has pre$erved an extraordi-
nary Strength to a very great Age. We read
in <I>Pliny,</I> that Lime made of the Stone of
which they make Mill-$tones, is excellent for
all manner of U$es; but I find upon Experi-
ence, that $uch of them as $eem $potted with
Drops of Salt, being too rough and dry, will
not do for this U$e; but that which is not $o
$potted, but is clo$er, and when it is ground,
makes a finer Du$t, $ucceeds extremely well.
However, let the Nature of the Stone be what
it will, that of the Quarry will be much bet-
ter for making of Lime, than that which we
pick up; and that dug out of a $hady, moi$t
Quarry, better than out of a dry one; and
made of white Stone, more tractable than of
black. In <I>France,</I> near the Sea-$hore about
<I>Vannes,</I> for Want of Stone, they make their
Lime of Oy$ter and Cockle-Shells. There is
moreover a kind of Lime which we call Plai-
$ter of Paris, which too is made of burnt
Stone; tho' we are told that in <I>Cyprus,</I> and
about <I>Thebes,</I> this Sort of Plai$ter is dug out
of the Surface of the Earth, ready baked by
the Heat of the Sun. But the Stone that
makes the Plai$ter of Paris, is different from
that which makes the Lime; for it is very
$oft, and will ea$ily rub to Pieces, except one
found in <I>Syria,</I> which is very hard. It differs
likewi$e in this, that the Plai$ter of Paris
Stone requires but twenty Hours; and the
Lime Stone takes three$core Hours in burning.
I have ob$erved, that in <I>Italy</I> there are four
Sorts of Plai$ter of Paris, two of which are
tran$parent, and two which are not: Of the
tran$parent, one is like Lumps of Allum, or
rather of Alaba$ter, and they called it the
Scaly Sort, becau$e it con$i<*>s of extreme
thin Scales, one over the other, like the Coats
of an Onion. The other is $caly too, but is
more like a blacki$h Salt than Allum. The
Sorts that are not tran$parent are both like a
very clo$e Sort of Chalk, but one is pale and
whiti$h, and the other with that Palene$s has
a Tincture of red; which la$t is firmer and
clo$er than the fir$t. Of the la$t, the redde$t
is the mo$t tenacious. Of the fir$t, that which
is the cleare$t and white$t is u$ed in Stuc Work
for Figures and Corni$hes.</P>
<P>NEAR <I>Rimini</I> they find a Plai$ter of Paris $o
$olid that you would take it for Marble or Ala-
ba$ter, which I had had cut with a Saw into
large thin Pieces, extremely convenient for In-
cru$tations. That I may omit nothing that is
nece$$ary, all Plai$ter of Paris mu$t be broken
and pounded with wooden Mallets, till it is
reduced to Powder, and $o kept in Heaps in
$ome very dry Place, and as $oon as ever it is
brought out, it mu$t be watered and u$ed im-
mediately.</P>
<P>BUT Lime on the Contrary need not be
pounded, but may be $oak'd in the Lumps,
and mu$t be plentifully $oak'd with Water a
good while before you u$e it, e$pecially if it is
for Plai$tering; to the Intent that if there
$hould be any Lumps not enough burnt, it
may be di$$olv'd and liquify'd by long lying
in the Water: Becau$e, when it is u$ed too
$oon, before it is duly $oak'd, there will be $ome
$mall unconcocted Stones in it, which afterwards
coming to rot, throw out little Pu$tules, which
$poil the Neatne$s of the Work. Add here-
unto, that you need not give your Lime a
Flood, as I may call it, of Water at once, but
wet it by little and little, $prinkling it $everal
Times over, till it is in all Parts thoroughly
impregnated with it; afterwards it mu$t be
kept in $ome $hady Place, moderately moi$t,
clear from all Mixture, and only cover'd over
with a little Sand, till by Length of Time it is
better fermented; and it has been found that
Lime by this thorough Fermentation acquires
inconceivable Virtue. I have known $ome
found in an old neglected Ditch, that, as
plainly appear'd by the $tronge$t Conjectures,
was left there above five hundred Years;
which when it was di$cover'd was $o moi$t and
liquid, and, to u$e the Expre$$ion, $o mature,
that it far exceeded Honey or Marrow it$elf in
Softne$s; and nothing in Nature can be ima-
gin'd more $erviceable for all Manner of U$es.
It requires double the Sand if prepared thus,
<foot>than</foot>
<p n=>37</p>
than if you mix it immediately. In this,
therefore, Lime and Plai$ter of Paris do not
agree; but in other Things they do. Carry
your Lime, therefore, immediately out of the
Kiln into a $hady, dry Place, and water it; for
if you keep it either in the Kiln it$elf, or any
where el$e in the Air, or expos'd to the Moon
or Sun, e$pecially in Summer, it would $oon
crumble to Powder, and be totally u$ele$s.
But of this $ufficient. They advi$e us not to
put our Stone into the Kiln till we have bro-
ken it into Pieces, not $maller than the Clods;
for, not to mention that they will burn the
ea$ier, it has been ob$erved that in the middle
of $ome Stones, and e$pecially of round ones,
there are $ometimes certain Concavities, in
which the Air being inclo$ed often does a great
deal of Mi$chief: For when they come to
feel the Fire in the Kiln, this Air is either
compre$$ed by the cold retiring inwards, or
el$e when the Stone grows hot it turns to Va-
pour, which makes it $well till it bur$ts the
Pri$on wherein it is confined, and breaks out
with a dreadful Noi$e and irre$i$tible Force,
and blows up the whole Kiln. Some in the
middle of $uch Stones have $een living Crea-
tures, of various kinds, and particularly Worms
with a hairy Back, and a great Number of
Feet, which do a great deal of Harm to the
Kiln. And I will here add $ome Things worthy
to be recorded, which have been $een in our
Days, $ince I do not write only for the U$e of
Workmen, but al$o for all $uch as are $tudious
of curious Enquiries; for which Rea$on, I
$hall not $cruple, now and then, to intermix
any thing that is delightful, provided it is not
ab$olutely foreign to my Purpo$e.</P>
<P>THERE was brought to Pope <I>Martin</I> V. a
Serpent found by the Miners in a Quarry in
<I>la Romagna,</I> which lived pent up in the Hol-
low of a great Stone, without the lea$t Crack
or Hole in it for Admi$$ion of Air; in like
Manner Toads too have been found and Crabs,
but dead. I my$elf have been Witne$s to the
finding of the Leaves of Trees in the Middle
of a very white Piece of Marble. All the
Summit of Mount <I>Vellino,</I> one of tho$e which
divide the Country of <I>Abruzzo</I> from <I>Mar$i,</I>
and is higher than any of the re$t, is covered
over with a white Stone, $o that the very
Mountain looks white with it, among which,
e$pecially on that Side, which looks towards
<I>Abruzzo,</I> are a great many broken Pieces with
Figures upon them, exactly like Sea-$hells, not
bigger than the Palm of a Man's Hand. But,
what is more extraordinary, in the <I>Veroneze,</I>
they daily find Stones upon the Ground marked
with the Figure of the Cinquefoil, with every
Line and Vein drawn $o exactly and regularly,
by the Hand of Nature, that the nice$t Arti$t
cannot pretend to come up to it; and which
is mo$t curious of all, every one of the$e Stones
are found with the Impre$$ion turned down-
wards, and hid by the Stone, as if Nature had
not been at the Pains of $uch fine Sculptures
to gain the Approbation of Men, but for her
own Diver$ion. But to return to our Subject.</P>
<P>I SHALL not $pend Time here to $hew how
to make the Mouth of the Kiln, and its Co-
vering, and the inward Seat of the Fire, and
how to give Vent to the Flame when it grows
hot, and to keep it, as it were, within its
own Confines, $o as to direct the whole uni-
ted Strength and Power of the Fire to the
burning of the Lime. Nor will I proceed to
teach how the Fire is to be kindled by little
and little, and never left till the Flame burns
out at the Top of the Furnace perfectly clear,
and without the lea$t Smoke, and till the very
uppermo$t Stones are red hot; and that the
Stone is not burnt enough, till the Kiln,
which had been $welled and cracked by the
Fire, afterwards $ettles and clo$es it$elf again.
It is a $urprizing Thing to ob$erve the Nature
of this Element; for if you take away the Fire,
the Kiln will grow cooler and cooler by De-
grees at the Bottom, while it continues burn-
ing hot at Top. But as in Building, we have
Occa$ion not only for Lime, but Sand, we will
now $ay $omething about that.</P>
<head>CHAP. XII.</head>
<head><I>Of the three different Kinds of Sands, and of the various Materials in Build-
ing, in different Places.</I></head>
<P>There are three Sorts of Sand, Pit-
$and, River-$and, and Sea-$and; the
be$t of all the$e is the Pit-$and; and this is of
$everal Kinds; black, white, red, the car-
buncly, and the gritty. But if any $hould ask
what I take Sand to be, I might perhaps an-
<foot>L $wer</foot>
<p n=>38</p>
$wer, that it is nothing but a Compo$ition of
the $malle$t Stones, the large ones being all bro-
ken to Pieces; tho' it is <I>Vitruvius</I>'s Opinion,
that Sand, e$pecially that which in <I>Tu$ca<*>y</I>
they call the carbuncly Sort, is a Kind of
Earth burnt by the Fire inclo$ed by Nature
within the Hills, and made $omewhat harder
than Earth unburnt, but $ofter than any Stone.
Of all the$e they mo$t commend the carbuncly
Sort. I have ob$erved, that in the publick
Buildings in <I>Rome,</I> they u$ed the red as none
of the wor$t. Of all the Pit-$and the white is
the wor$t. The gritty is of U$e in filling up
of Foundations; but among the be$t, they
give the $econd Place to the fine$t of the
gritty, and e$pecially to the $harp angular Sort,
without the lea$t Mixture of Earth in it, as is
that which they find in the Territory of the
<I>Vilumbrians.</I> Next to this they e$teem the
River Sand, which is dug after the uppermo$t
Layer is taken off; and next to the River-
$and that of the Torrent, e$pecially of $uch
Torrents as run between Hills, where the
Water has the greate$t De$cent. In the la$t
Place comes the Sea-$and, and of this Sort,
the blacke$t and mo$t glazed is not wholly to
be de$pi$ed. In the Country, near <I>Salerno,</I>
they e$teem their Sea-$and not inferior to Pit-
$and, but they $ay it is not to be dug in all
Parts of the Shore alike; for they find it wor$t
of all where it is expo$ed to the South Wind;
but it is not bad in tho$e Places which look to
the South-we$t. But of Sea-$ands, it is certain
the be$t is that which lies under Rocks, and
which is of the coar$e$t Grain. There is a
great deal of Difference in Sands, for that of
the Sea is very $low in drying, and is continu-
ally moi$t and apt to di$$olve, by Rea$on of its
Salt, and is therefore very improper and un-
faithful in $upporting of great Weights. That
of the River too is $omewhat moi$ter than the
Pit-$and, and therefore is more tractable and
better for Plai$tering-work. The Pit-$and, by
means of its Fatne$s, is mo$t tenacious, but is
apt to crack, for which Rea$on they u$e it in
Vault-work, but not in plai$tering. But of
each Sort, that is always be$t, which being
rubbed with the Hand creeks the mo$t, and
being laid upon a white Cloth, makes the
lea$t Soil, and leaves the lea$t Earth behind it.
On the contrary, that is the wor$t, which feels
mealy in$tead of $harp, and which in Smell and
Colour re$embles red Earth, and being mixed
with Water makes it foul and muddy, and if
le$t abroad in the Air, pre$ently brings forth
Gra$s. Neither will that be good, which af-
ter it is dug, is left for any Time expo$ed to
the Sun, or Moon, or to Fro$ts; becau$e it
turns it in a Manner to Earth, and makes it
very apt to rot; or when it is inclined to
bring $orth Shrubs, or wild Figs, it is ex-
tremly bad for cementing of Walls. We have
now treated of Timber, Stone, Lime, and
Sand, $uch as are approved of by the Anci-
ents; but in all Places the$e Things are not
to be found with all the Qualifications which
we require. <I>Tully</I> $ays, that <I>A$ia,</I> by means
of its Abundance of Marble, always flouri$hed
in fine Buildings and Statues; but Marble is
not to be got every where. In $ome Places
there is either no Stone at all, or what there is,
is good for no manner of U$e. In all the
Southern Parts of <I>Italy,</I> they $ay there is no
Want of Sand-Pits, but on the other Side of
the <I>Appenine</I> there are none. <I>Pliny</I> $ays, the
<I>Babylonians</I> made U$e of Slime, and the <I>Car-
thaginians</I> of Mud. In $ome Places, not ha-
ving any Sort of Stone, they build with
Hurdles and Potters Earth. <I>Herodotus</I> tells us,
that the <I>Budini</I> make all their Structures, as
well publick as private, of nothing but Wood,
even to the Walls of their City, and the Sta-
tues of their Gods. <I>Mela</I> $ays, that the <I>Nervi</I>
have no Wood at all; and that for Want of it
they are obliged to make their Fires of Bones.
In <I>&AElig;gypt</I> their Fuel is the Dung of their Cat-
tle. For this Rea$on, the Habitations of Men
are different, according to the different Conve-
niencies of the Country. Among the <I>&AElig;gyp-
tians</I> there are Royal Palaces built of Ru$hes;
and in <I>India,</I> of the Ribs of Whales. In <I>Car-
r&aelig;,</I> a Town in <I>Arabia,</I> they build with Lumps
of Salt: But of the$e el$ewhere. So that as
we have already ob$erved, there is not the $ame
Plenty of Stone, Sand, and the like, every
where, but in different Places there are diffe-
rent Accommodations and Conveniencies:
Therefore we are to make U$e of $uch as of-
fer them$elves; and out of tho$e we $hould,
in the fir$t Place, make it our Bu$ine$s, always
to $elect and provide the be$t and propere$t,
and, $econdly, in building with them, we
$hould carefully allot to each its proper Place
and Situation.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>39</p>
<head>CHAP. XIII.</head>
<P><I>Whether the Ob$ervation of Times and Sea$ons is of any U$e in beginning a
Building; what Sea$on is mo$t convenient; as al$o, with what Auguries or
Prayers we ought to $et out upon our Work.</I></P>
<P>Having got ready the Materials before
$poken of, it remains now that we pro-
ceed to treat of the Work it$elf. For as to the
providing of Iron, Bra$s, Lead, Gla$s, and the
like, it requires no Care, but merely the Buy-
ing, and having them in Readine$s, that your
Building may not $tand $till for them; tho'
we $hall in due Time lay down $ome In$truc-
tions about the Choice and Di$tribution of
them, which is of Con$equence to the com-
pleating and adorning the Work. And we
$hall take and con$ider the Structure from the
Foundation, in the $ame Manner as if we were
actually about doing the Work our$elves. But
here I mu$t again admoni$h you to con$ider
the Times, both with Relation to the Publick,
and to your$elf and Family, whether they are
trouble$ome or peaceable, pro$perous or cala-
mitous, le$t we expo$e our$elve<I>s</I> to Envy, if we
go on with our Undertaking, or to Lo$s if we
give it over. We $hould al$o have a particu-
lar Regard to the Sea$on of the Year; for we
$ee that Buildings begun and pro$ecuted
in Winter, e$pecially in a cold Climate,
are taken with the Fro$t, or in Summer,
in a hot Climate, dry'd up with the Heat before
ever they have fa$ten'd. For this Rea$on it
was that <I>Frontinus,</I> the Architect, advis'd us
never to undertake $uch a Work but in a pro-
per Sea$on of the Year, which is from the Be-
ginning of <I>April</I> to the Beginning of <I>Novem-
ber,</I> re$ting, however, in the greate$t Heat
of Summer. But I am for ha$tening or delay-
ing the Work ju$t according to the Difference
of the Climate and of the Weather; and there-
fore if you are prepar'd with all the Things before
recited, and your Convenience $uits, you have
nothing to do but to mark out the Area of
your Structure in the Ground, with all its
Lines, Angles and Dimen$ions. But there are
$ome who tell us that in Building we $hould
ob$erve and wait for happy Au$pices, and that
it is of the utmo$t Importance from what par-
ticular Point of Time the Structure is to date
its Being. They relate, that <I>Lucius Tarutius</I>
found out the exact Nativity of <I>Rome,</I> only
by the Ob$ervation of the Turns in its For-
tune. The wi$e$t Men among the Ancients
had $uch an Opinion of the Con$equence of
the Moment of the Beginning a Thing might
have as to its future Succe$s, that <I>Julius Fer-
micus Maturnus</I> tells us of $ome Mathematici-
ans that pretended to have di$cover'd the very
in$tant when the World had its Beginning,
and that wrote very accurately about it: For
<I>&AElig;$culapius,</I> and <I>Anubius,</I> and <I>Peto$iris,</I> and
<I>Necep$o,</I> who only wrote from them, $ay that
it begun ju$t at the Ri$ing of the <I>Crab,</I> when
the Moon was fourteen Days old, the Sun
being in <I>Leo, Saturn</I> in <I>Capricorn, Jupiter</I> in
<I>Sagittary, Mars</I> in <I>Scorpio, Venus</I> in <I>Libra,</I>
and <I>Mercury</I> in <I>Virgo.</I> And indeed, if we
rightly con$ider them, the Times may have a
great Influence in Things. For how is it el$e,
that in the $horte$t Day of the Year, the
Penny-royal, tho' quite dry, $prouts and flou-
ri$hes; Bladders that are blown up bur$t; the
Leaves of Willows, and the Kernels of Apples
turn and change Sides; and that the $mall
Fibres of a Shell-fi$h corre$pond, increa$e and
decrea$e with the Increa$e and Decrea$e of
the Moon. I mu$t confe$s, though I have
not $o much Faith in the Profe$$ors of this
Science, and the Ob$ervers of Times and Sea-
$ons, as to believe their Art can influence the
Fortune of any Thing, yet I think they are not
to be de$pi$ed when they argue for the Happi-
ne$s or Adver$ity of $uch $tated Times as the$e
from the Di$po$ition of the Heavens. But let
this be as it will, the following their In$tructi-
ons may be of great Service, if true; and can
do little harm, if fal$e. I might here add $ome
ridiculous Circum$tances which the Ancients
ob$erved in the Beginning of their Undertakings;
but I would not have them interpreted in a
wrong Sen$e; and indeed they de$erve only to
be laughed at, who would per$wade us that
the very Marking out of the Platform ought
to be done under proper Au$pices. The An-
cients were $o governed by the$e Super$titions,
that in making out the Li$ts of their Armies,
<foot>ob$erved</foot>
<p n=>40</p>
they took great Care that the fir$t Soldier had
not an unlucky Name; which was a Rule they
al$o ob$erved in the Ceremony of purifying their
Soldiers and their Colonies, wherein, the Per-
$on that was to lead the Bea$t to the Sacrifice
mu$t have a fortunate Name. And the Cen-
$ors, in framing out the publick Revenues and
E$tates, always began with the Lake <I>Lucrinus,</I>
becau$e of the Lucrativene$s of its Name, So
likewi$e, being terrified with the di$mal Name
of <I>Epidamnus,</I> that $uch as went thither might
not be $aid to be gone a damnable Voyage,
they changed its Name into <I>Dyrraehium;</I> $o
likewi$e they $erved <I>Beneventum,</I> which before
was called <I>Maleventum.</I> Neither, on the other
Hand, can I forbear laughing at their Conceit,
that in beginning Undertakings of this Sort it
was good to repeat certain favourable Words
and Charms.</P>
<P>AND there are $ome that affirm, that Men's
Words are $o powerful, that they are obey'd
even by Bea$ts and Things inanimate. I omit
<I>Cato</I>'s Fancy, that Oxen when fatigued may
be refre$h'd by certain Words. They tell us
too, that they u$ed with certain Prayers and
Forms of Words to entreat and be$eech their
Mother Earth to give Nouri$hment to foreign
Trees, and $uch as $he was not accu$tom'd to
bear; and that the Trees al$o were to be
humbly pray'd to $uffer them$elves to be re-
mov'd, and to thrive in another Ground. And
$ince we are got into this fooli$h Strain of re-
cording the Follies of other Men, I will al$o
mention, for Diver$ion Sake, what they tell us,
that the Words of Mankind are of $uch Effect,
that Turnips will grow incredibly, if when we
$ow them we at the $ame Time pray them to
be gracious and lucky to us, our Families, and
our Neighbourhood. But if the$e be $o, I can't
imagine why the Ba$ilico-root $hould, as they
$ay, grow the fa$ter for being cur$t and abu$ed
when it is $own. But let us leave this idle Sub-
ject. It is undoubtedly proper, omitting all
the$e uncertain Super$titions, to $et about our
Work with a holy and religious Preparation.</P>
<P><I>Ab Jove principium, Mu$&aelig;;&mdash;
Jovis omnia plena.</I></P>
<P>We ought therefore to begin our Undertaking
with a clean Heart, and with devout Oblati-
ons, and with Prayers to Almighty God to
implore his A$$i$tance, and Ble$$ing upon the
Beginnings of our Labours, that it may have
a happy and pro$perous Ending, with Strength
and Happine$s to it and its Inhabitants, with
Content of Mind, Encrea$e of Fortune, Succe$s
of Indu$try, Acqui$ition of Glory, and a Suc-
ce$$ion and Continuance of all good Things.
So much for our Preparation.</P>
<head><I>The End of Book</I> II.</head>
<fig>
<foot>THE</foot>
<pb>
<fig>
<head>THE
ARCHITECTURE
OF
<I>Leone Bati$ta Alberti.</I></head>
<head>BOOK III. CHAP. I.</head>
<P><I>Of the Work. Wherein lies the Bu$ine$s of the Work; the different Parts of
the Wall, and what they require. That the Foundation is no Part of the
Wall; what Soil makes the be$t Foundation.</I></P>
<P>The whole Bu$ine$s of the working
Part of Building is this; by a re-
gular and artful Conjunction of
different Things, whether $quare
Stone, or uneven Scantlings, or
Timber, or any other $trong Material, to form
them as well as po$$ible into a $olid, regular,
and con$i$tent Structure. We call it regular
and con$i$tent when the Parts are not incon-
gruous and disjointed, but are di$po$ed in their
proper Places, and are an$werable one to the
other, and conformable to a right Ordinance of
Lines. We are therefore to con$ider what are
the principal e$$ential Parts in the Wall, and
what are only the Lines and Di$po$ition of
tho$e Parts. Nor are the Parts of the Wall
any Thing difficult to find out; for the Top,
the Bottom, the right Side, the Left, the re-
mote Parts, the Near, the Middle are obvious
of them$elves; but the particular Nature of
each of the$e, and wherein they differ, is not
$o ea$ily known. For the rai$ing a Building is
not, as the Ignorant imagine, merely laying
Stone upon Stone, or Brick upon Brick; but
as there is a great Diver$ity of Parts, $o there
requires a great Diver$ity of Materials and Con-
trivance. For one Thing is proper in the
Foundation, another in the naked Wall and in
the Corni$h, another for the Coins, and for the
Lips of the Apertures, one for the outward
Face of the Wall, another for the cramming
and filling up the middle Parts: Our Bu$ine$s
here is to $hew what is requi$ite in each of
the$e. In doing this, therefore, we $hall begin
at the Foundation, imitating, as we $aid before,
tho$e that are actually going to rai$e the Struc-
ture. The Foundation, if I mi$take not, is
not properly a Part of the Wall, but the Place
and Seat on which the Wall is reared. For
if we can find a Seat perfectly firm and $olid,
con$i$ting perhaps of nothing but Stone, what
Foundation are we obliged to make? None,
<foot>M certain-</foot>
<p n=>42</p>
certainly, but to begin immediately from
thence to erect our Wall. At <I>Siena</I> there are
huge Towers rai$ed immediately from the na-
ked Earth, becau$e the Hill is lined with a
$olid Rock. Making a Foundation, that is
to $ay, digging up the Ground, and making a
Trench, is nece$$ary in tho$e Places, where
you cannot find firm Ground without digging;
which, indeed, is the Ca$e almo$t every where,
as will appear hereafter. The Marks of a good
Soil for a Foundation are the$e; if it does not
produce any kind of Herb that u$ually grows
in moi$t Places; if it bears either no Tree at
all, or only $uch as delight in a very hard,
clo$e Earth; if every Thing round about is
extremely dry, and, as it were, quite parched
up; if the Place is $tony, not with $mall round
Pebbles, but large $harp Stones, and e$pecially
Flints; if there are no Springs nor Veins of
Water running under it; becau$e the Nature
of all Streams is either to be perpetually car-
rying away, or bringing $omething along with
them: And therefore it is that in all flat
Grounds, lying near any River, you can never
meet with any firm Soil, till you dig below
the Level of the Channel. Before you begin
to dig your Foundations, you $hould once
again carefully review and con$ider all the
Lines and Angles of your Platform, what Di-
men$ions they are to be of, and how they are
to di$po$ed. In making the$e Angles we mu$t
u$e a $quare Rule, not of a $mall but of a
very large Size, that our $trait Lines may be
the truer. The Ancients made their $quare
Rule of three $trait ones joined together in a
Triangle, whereof one was of three Cubits,
the other of four, and the third of five. The
Ignorant do not know how to make the$e
Angles till they have fir$t cleared away every
Thing that incumbers the Area, and have it
all per$ectly open, almo$t level before them:
For which Rea$on, laying furiou$ly hold of
their Tools, they fall like $o many Ravagers
to demoli$hing and levelling every Thing be-
fore them; which would become them much
better in the Country of an Enemy. But the
Error of the$e Men ought to be corrected;
for a Change of Fortune, or the Adver$ity of
the Times, or $ome unfore$een Accident, or
Nece$$ity, may po$$ibly oblige you to lay a$ide
the Thoughts of the Undertaking you have
begun. And it is certainly very un$eemly, in
the mean while, to have no Regard to the
Labours of your Ance$tors, or to the Conve-
niencies which your Fellow-Citizens find in
the$e paternal Habitations, which they have
been long accu$tomed to; and as for pulling
down and demoli$hing, that is in your Power
at any Time. I am therefore for pre$erving
the old Structures untouched, till $uch Time
as it is ab$olutely nece$$ary to remove them
to make Way for the new.</P>
<head>CHAP. II.</head>
<head><I>That the Foundation chiefly is to be marked out with Lines; and by what
Tokens we may know the Goodne$s of the Ground.</I></head>
<P>In marking out your Foundations, you are
to remember, that the $ir$t Ground-work
of your Wall, and the Soccles, which are
called Foundations too, mu$t be a determinate
Proportion broader than the Wall that is to be
erected upon it; in Imitation of tho$e who
walk over the Snow in the <I>Alps</I> of <I>Tu$cany,</I>
who wear upon their Feet Hurdles made of
Twigs and $mall Ropes, plaited together for
that very Purpo$e, the Broadne$s of which
keeps them from $inking in the Snow. How
to di$po$e the Angles, is not ea$y to teach
clearly with Words alone; becau$e the Method
of drawing them, is borrowed $rom the Ma-
thematicks, and $tands in Need of the Ex-
ample of Lines, a Thing $oreign to our De$ign
here, and which we have treated of in another
Place, in our Mathematical Commentaries.
However, I will endeavour, as far as is nece$-
$ary here, to $peak of them in $uch a Manner,
that if you have any Share of Ingenuity, you
may ea$ily comprehend many Things, by
Means of which you may afterwards make
your$elf Ma$ter of all the re$t. Whatever may
chance to $eem more ob$cure, if you have a
Mind to under$tand it thoroughly, you may
apply to tho$e Commentaries. My Method,
then, in de$cribing the Foundations, is to draw
<marg>* Plate 4.
<I>(facing
page 44)</I></marg>
$ome Lines, which I call radical ones,
in this Manner*. From the Middle
of the Fore-front of the Work, I draw a Line
quite thro' to the Back-front, in the Middle
<foot>of</foot>
<p n=>43</p>
of this Line I $ix a Nail in the Ground, from
which I rai$e, and let fall Perpendiculars, ac-
cording to the Method of the Geometers; and
to the$e two Lines I reduce every Thing
that I have Occa$ion to mea$ure; which $uc-
ceeds per$ectly well in all Re$pects; for the
Parallel Lines are obvious; you $ee exactly
where to make your Angles corre$pondent,
and to di$po$e every Part con$i$tently, and
agreeably, with the others. But if it $o hap-
pens, that any old Buildings ob$truct your
Sight from di$covering and fixing upon the
exact Seat of every Angle; your Bu$ine$s
then is to draw Lines, at equal Di$tances, in
tho$e Places which are clear and free; then
having marked the Point of Inter$ection, by
the A$$i$tance of the Diameter and Gnomon,
and by drawing other Lines at equal Di$tances,
fitted to the Square, we may compleatly effect
our Purpo$e: And it will be of no $mall Con-
venience to terminate the Ray of Sight with a
Line in tho$e Places which lie higher than the
re$t; whence letting fall a Perpendicular, we
may find the right Direction and Production of
our Lines. Having marked out the Lines
and Angles of our Trenches, we ought to
have, if po$$ible, as $harp and clear a Sight as
a certain <I>Spaniard</I> in our Days was fabulou$ly
$aid to have, who they tell us, could $ee the
lowe$t Veins of Water that run under Ground,
as plainly as if they were above Ground. So
the many Things happen under the Surface of
Earth, which we know nothing of, as makes it
un$afe to tru$t the Weight and Expence of a
Building to it. And, certainly, as in all the
re$t of the Structure, $o e$pecially in the Foun-
dations, we ought to neglect no Precaution
which it becomes an accurate and diligent
Architect to take; for an Error in any other
Part does le$s Mi$chief, and is more ea$ily re-
medied, or better borne, than in the Founda-
tion; in which, a Mi$take is inexcu$able. But
the Ancicnts u$ed to $ay, dig on, and good
Fortune attend you, till you find a $olid Bot-
tom; for the Earth has $everal Strata, and
tho$e of different Natures; $ome $andy, others
gravelly, $ome $tony, and the like; under
which, at certain Depths, is a hard, firm
Bank, fit to $upport the heavie$t Structure.
This al$o is various, and hardly like any thing of
its own kind in any Particular; in $ome Places
it is exce$$ively hard, and $carce penetrable with
Iron; in others, fatter and $ofter; in $ome
Places blacker, in others whiter; which la$t
is reckoned the weake$t of all; in $ome Places
chalky, in others, $tony; in others, a Kind
of Potters Clay mixed with Gravel; of all
which, no other certain Judgment can be
made, but that the be$t is reckoned to be that
which is harde$t to the Pick-axe, and which
when wetted does not di$$olve. And for this
Rea$on, none is thought firmer and $tronger,
or more durable, than that which $erves as a
Bottom to any Springs of Water in the Bowels
of the Earth. But it is my Opinion, that the
be$t Way is to take Coun$el with di$ereet and
experienced Men of the Country, and with
the neighbouring Architects; who, both from
the Example of old Structures, and from their
daily Practice in actual Building, mu$t be the
be$t Judges of the Nature of the Soil, and
what Weight it is able to bear. There are
al$o Methods of proving the Firmne$s of the
Soil. If you roll any great Weight along the
Ground, or let it fall down from any Heighth,
and it does not make the Earth $hake, nor
$tir the Water $et there on Purpo$e in a Ba$on;
you may $afely promi$e your$elf a good, $ound
Foundation in that Place. But in $ome Coun-
tries there is no $olid Bottom to be found any
where; as near the <I>Adriatic,</I> and about <I>Ve-
nice,</I> where, generally, there is nothing to be
met with but a loo$e, $oft Mud.</P>
<head>CHAP. III.</head>
<P><I>That the Nature of Places is various, and therefore we ought not to tru$t any
Place too ha$tily, till we have fir$t dug Wells, or Re$ervoirs; but that in
mar$hy Places, we mu$t make our Foundation with Piles burnt at the Ends,
and driven in with their Heads downward with light Beetles, and many
repeated Blows, till they are driven quite into the Head.</I></P>
<P>You mu$t therefore u$e different Me-
thods for your Foundations, according
to the Diver$ity of Places, whereof $ome are
lofty, $ome low, others between both, as the
Sides of Hills: Some again are parcht and
dry, as generally the Summits and Ridges of
<foot>Moun-</foot>
<p n=>44</p>
Mountains; others damp and wa$hy, as are
tho$e which lie near Seas or Lakes, or in Bot-
toms between Hills. Others are $o $ituated as
to be neither always dry nor always wet, which
is the Nature of ca$y A$cents, where the
Water does not lie and $oak, but runs gently
off. We mu$t never tru$t too ha$tily to any
Ground, tho' it does re$i$t the Pick-axe, for
it may be in a Plain, and be infirm, the Con-
$equence of which might be the Ruin of the
whole Work. I have $een a Tower at <I>Me$tri,</I>
a Place belonging to the <I>Venetians,</I> which in
a few Years after it was built, made its Way
thro' the Ground it $tood upon, which, as
the Fact evinced, was a loo$e weak Soil, and
bury'd it$elf in Earth, up to the very Battle-
ments. For this Rea$on they are very much
to be blamed, who not being provided by Na-
ture with a Soil fit to $upport the Weight of
an Edifice, and Lightning upon the Ruins or
Remains of $ome old Structure, do not take
the Pains to examine the Goodne$s of its Foun-
dation, but incon$iderately rai$e great Piles of
Building upon it, and out of the Avarice of
$aving a little Expence, throw away all the
Money they lay out in the Work. It is there-
fore excellent Advice, the fir$t Thing you do
to dig Wells, for $everal Rea$ons, and e$peci-
ally in order to get acquainted with the Strata
of the Earth, whether $ound enough to bear
the Super$tructure, or likely to give way. Add,
likewi$e, that the Water you find in them, and
the Stuff you dig out, will be of great Service
to you in $everal Parts of your Work; and
moreover, that the Opening $uch Vents will be
a great Security to the Firmne$s of the Build-
ing, and prevent its being injured by $ubter-
rancous Exhalations. Having therefore, either
by digging a Well, or a Ci$tern, or a Shoar, or
any other Hole of that Nature, made your$elf
thoroughly acquainted with the Veins or
Layers of the Earth, you are to make Choice
of that which you may mo$t $afely tru$t with
your Super$tructure. In Eminences, or where-
ever el$e the Water is running down wa$hes
away the Ground, the deeper you make your
Trench, the better. And that the Hills are
actually eaten and wa$h'd away, and wa$ted
more and more daily by continual Rains, is
evident $rom the Caverns and Rocks which
every Day grow more vi$ible, whereas at fir$t
they were $o cover'd with Earth that we could
hardly perceive them. Mount <I>Morello,</I> which
is about <I>Florence,</I> in the Days of our Fathers
was all over cover'd with Firs; and now it is
quite wild and naked; occa$ion'd, as I $up-
po$e, by the Wa$hing of the Rain In Situ-
ations upon Slopes, <I>Columella</I> directs us to be-
gin our Foundations at the lowe$t Part of the
Slope fir$t; which is certainly very right, for
be$ides that whatever you lay there will always
$tand firm and unmoveable in its Place, it will
al$o $erve as a Prop or Buttre$s, to whatever
you add to the upper Parts, if you aftewards
think fit to enlarge your Structure. You will
al$o thereby di$cover and provide again$t tho$e
Defects which $ometimes happen in $uch Tren-
ches by the cracking or falling in of the Earth. In
mar$hy Grounds, you $hould make your Trench
very wide, and fortify both Sides of it with
Stakes, Hurdles, Planks, Sea-weeds, and Clay,
$o $trongly that no Water may get in; then
you mu$t draw off every drop of Water that
happens to be left within your Frame-work,
and dig out the Sand, and clear away the Mud
from the Bottom till you have firm dry Ground
to $et your Foot upon. The $ame you are to
do in $andy Ground, as far as Nece$$ity requires.
Moreover, the Bottom of the Trench
mu$t be laid exactly level, not $loping on
either Side, that the Materials laid upon it may
be equally balanced. There is a natural in-
$tinct in all heavy Bodies to lean and pre$s
upon the lowe$t Parts. There are other
Things which they direct us to do in mar$hy
Situations, but they belong rather to the Wal-
ling than to the Foundations. They order us to
drive into the Ground a great Number of
Stakes and Piles burnt at the End, and $et
with their Heads downwards, $o as to have
a Surface of twice the Breadth that we intend
for our Wall; that the$e Piles $hould never be
le$s in length than the eighth Part of the
Heighth of the Wall to be built upon them,
and for their Thickne$s, it $hould be the
twel$th Part of their Length, and no le$s. La$tly
they $hould be drove in $o clo$e that their is
not room for one more. The In$trument we
u$e for driving in the$e Piles, whatever Sort it
it is of, $hould do its Bu$ine$s by a great many
repeated Strokes; for when it is too heavy,
coming down with an immen$e and intolerable
Force, it breaks and $plits the Timber; but the
continual Repetition of gentle Strokes wearies
and overcomes the greate$t Hardne$s and Ob$ti-
nacy of the Ground. You have an In$tance of this
when you go to drive a $mall Nail into a hard
Piece of Timber; if you u$e a great heavy
Hammer, it won't do; but if you work with
a manageable light one, it penetrates imme-</P>
<foot>diately</foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 4. <I>(Pages 42-43)</I></cap>
<fig>
<cap><I>Leoni delin.</I></cap>
<cap><I>&ldquo;Facciata di Dietro&rdquo; = back-front [rear facade]. &ldquo;Facciata d'Inanzi&rdquo; = fore-front.
&ldquo;Linea Prima&rdquo; = first line. &ldquo;Linea Seconda&rdquo; = second line. &ldquo;Chiodo&rdquo; = nail.</I></cap>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 5. <I>(A: Page 45; B: Page 47)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>45</p>
<P>What has been $aid may $uffice, with relation
to our Trench, unle$s we would add, that
$ometimes, either to $ave Money, or to avoid
an intermediate Piece of rotten Ground, it may
not be ami$s to make a Foundation not con-
tinued entire all the way, but with Intervals
left between, as if we were only making
<marg>*</marg>
Columns or Pila$ters, then turning Arches
<marg>* A. Plate 5.
<I>(facing page 45)</I></marg>
from one Pila$ter to the other, to
lay over them the re$t of the Wall
In the$e we are to ob$erve the $ame
Directions as we gave before; but the greater
Weight you are to rai$e upon them, the large.
and $tronger Pila$ters and Ba$es you mu$t
make. But of the$e enough.</P>
<head>CHAP. IV.</head>
<head><I>Of the Nature, Forms and Qualities of Stones, and of the Tempering of
Mortar.</I></head>
<P>We now come to begin our Wall; but
as the Workman's Art and Manner
of Building depends partly upon the Nature,
Form and Quality of his Stone, and partly
upon the Tempering of his Mortar, we are
therefore fir$t to treat briefly of the$e. Of
Stones, $ome are living, juicy, and $trong, $uch
as Flint, Marble, and the like, which by Na-
ture are heavy and $onorous; others are ex-
hau$ted, light, and dead $ounding, as are all
Stones that are $oft and $andy. Again, $ome
have even Superficies, $trait Lines, and equal
Angles, which are call'd Squared Stones;
others have uneven Superficies, of various
Lines, and unequal Angles, which we call
Rough. Of Stones al$o, $ome are big and
unweildy, $o that a Man's Hand cannot
manage them at Plea$ure, without the A$$i$tance
of Sleds, Leavers, Rowlers, Pullies, or the
like Engines; others $mall, $o as you may
rai$e and manage them with one $ingle Hand
ju$t as you plea$e. The third Sort is between
both, of a moderate Size and Weight, which
are call'd $izeable. All Stone $hould be En-
tire, not Muddy, and well wa$h'd; you may
know whether it is Entire or Crack'd, by the
Sound it gives when you Strike upon it. You
can wa$h them no where better than in a
River; and it is certain that the Middling
$izeable Sort are not $oak'd enough under nine
Days, and the large ones under more. That
which is fre$h dug out of the Quarry is better
than that which has been long kept; and that
which has been once cemented with Mortar
will not cement well again a $econd Time.
So much may $uffice as to Stone. As for
Lime, they condemn that which when it
comes from the Kiln is not in entire Lumps,
but in broken Pieces, and as it were in Pow-
der, and they $ay it will never prove $ervice-
able. They commend that which purges and
grows white in the Fire, and which is light
and $onorous, and when you water it, bur$ts,
and throws out a $trong thick Smoke high into
the Air. The former, being weak, mu$t of
Cour$e require le$s Sand; but this latter, being
$trong, requires more. <I>Cato</I> directs, that to
every two Foot of Work, we $hould allow one
Bu$hel of Lime and two of Sand: Others
pre$cribe different Proportions. <I>Vitruvius</I> and
<I>Pliny</I> are for mixing the Sand thus; namely
to give to each Bu$hel of Lime three of Pit-
$and, or two of River or Sea-$and. La$tly,
when the Quality and Nature of your Stone
requires your Mortar to be more liquid or
tractable (which we $hall $peak of more clearly
below) your Sand mu$t be $ifted through a
Sieve; but when it is to be $tiffer, then mix it
with half Gravel and broken Fragments of
Stone. All agree, that if you mix it with
one third of broken Tile or Brick pounded, it
will be much more tenacious. However, mix
it as you will, you mu$t $tir it about often, till
the $malle$t Pieces are incorparated; and $ome,
for this Purpo$e, and that it may be well
mingled together, $tir it about and beat it a
great while in a Mortar. But we $hall $ay
no more here of the Cement, only thus much,
that Lime takes better hold with Stone of its
own Kind, and e$pecially out of the $ame
Quarry, than with a Stranger.</P>
<foot>N</foot>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>46</p>
<head>CHAP. V.</head>
<head><I>Of the lower Cour$es or Foundations, according to the Precepts and Example
of the Ancients.</I></head>
<P>For making the lower Cour$es, that is to
$ay, rai$ing the Foundations up to the
Level of the Ground, I do not find any Precepts
among the Ancients, except this one, that all
Stones which, after being in the Air two Years,
di$cover any Defect, mu$t be bani$h'd into the
Foundation. For as in an Army, the $luggi$h
and weak who cannot endure the Sun and
Du$t, are $ent home with Marks of Infamy,
$o the$e $oft enervated Stones ought to be re-
jected, and left to an inglorious Repo$e in their
primitive Ob$curity. Indeed I find by Hi$torians,
that the Ancients took as much Care of the
Strength and Soundne$s of their Foundation in
all its Parts as of any other Part of the Wall.
<I>A$ithis,</I> the Son of <I>Nicerinus,</I> King of <I>&AElig;gypt,</I>
(the Author of the Law, that whoever was
$ued for Debt $hould give the Corp$e of his
Father in Pawn) when he built a Pyramid of
Bricks to make his Foundations, drove Piles
into the Mar$h, and laid his Bricks upon them.
And we are inform'd that <I>Cte$ipho,</I> the excel-
lent Architect that built the famous Temple
of <I>Diana</I> at <I>Ephe$us,</I> having made Choice of
a level Piece of Ground, thoroughly drain'd,
and likely to be free from Earthquakes; that
he might not lay the Foundations of $uch a
huge Pile in $o loo$e and unfaithful a Soil
without due Precautions, fir$t made a Bottom
of Coals pounded to Du$t; then drove in Piles
with Fleeces and Coals wedged in between
Pile and Pile; and over the$e a Cour$e of
Stone with very long Junctures.</P>
<P>WE find that about <I>Jeru$alem,</I> in the
Foundations of their Publick Works, they
$ometimes u$ed Stones thirty Feet long, and
not le$s than fifteen high. But I have ob-
$erved, that in other Places, the Ancients,
who were wonderfully expert in managing of
great Works, followed different Rules and
Methods in filling up the Foundations. In
the Sepulchre of the <I>Antonini</I> they filled them
up with little Pieces of very hard Stone, each
not bigger than a Handful, and which they
perfectly drowned in Mortar. In the <I>Forum
Argentarium,</I> with Fragments of all Sorts of
broken Stones; in the <I>Comitia,</I> with Bits of
the very wor$t Sort of $oft Stuff. But I am
mightily plea$ed with tho$e who in the <I>Tarpeia</I>
imitated Nature, in a Contrivance particularly
well adapted to Hills; for as $he, in the For-
mation of Mountains, mixes the $ofte$t Mate-
rials with the harde$t Stone, $o the$e Work-
men $ir$t laid a Cour$e of $quared Stone, as
$trong as they could get, to the Heighth of
two Feet; over the$e they made a Kind of
Plai$ter of Mortar, and broken Fragments,
then another Cour$e of Stone, and with another
of Plai$ter they fini$hed their Foundation. I
have known other In$tances, where the An-
cients have made much the $ame Sort of Foun-
dations and Structures too, of coar$e Pit-gra-
vel, and common Stone that they have picked
up by chance, which have la$ted many Ages.
Upon pulling down a very high and $trong
Tower at <I>Bologna,</I> they di$covered that the
Foundations were filled with nothing but
round Stones and Chalk, to the Heighth of
nine Feet; the other Parts were built with
Mortar. We find therefore that very different
Methods have been u$ed, and which to ap-
prove mo$t I confe$s my$elf at a Lo$s, all of
them have $o long endured firm and $ound.
So that I think we ought to chu$e that which
is lea$t expen$ive, provided we do not throw
in all manner of old Rubbi$h, and any thing
apt to moulder. There are al$o other Sorts
of Foundations; one belongs to Porticoes,
and all other Places where Rows of Columns
are to be $et; the other to Maritime Places,
where we cannot pick and chu$e the Good-
ne$s of our Bottom as we could wi$h. Of
the Maritime we will con$ider when we come
to treat of making of Ports, and running Moles
out into the Sea; becau$e the$e do not relate
to the general Work of all manner of Build-
ings, which is the Subject of our Di$cour$e here,
but only to one particular Part of the City,
which we $hall treat of together with other
Things of the like Nature, when we give an
Account of all Publick Works, Member by
Member. In laying Foundations under Rows
of Columns, there is no Occa$ion to draw an
even continued Line of Work all the Way
<foot>without</foot>
<p n=>47</p>
without Interruption; but only fir$t to
$trengthen the Places you intend for the Seats
or Beds of your Columns, and then from one
to the other draw Arches with their Backs
downwards, $o that the Plane or Level of the
Area will be the Chord of tho$e Arches; as
<marg>*</marg>
you may $ee by the Plate of the Page 41. let
B. For $tanding thus, they will be le$s apt to
force their Way into the Earth in any one
Place, the Weight being counterpos'd and
thrown equally on both Sides on the Props of
the Arches. And how apt Columns are to
drive into the Ground, by means of the great
Pre$$ure of the Weight laid upon them, is
manife$t from that Corner of the noble Tem-
ple of <I>Ve$pa$ian</I> that $tands to the North-
We$t. For being de$irous to leave the publick
Way, which was interrupted by that Angle, a
free and open Pa$$age underneath, they broke
the Area of their Platform and turn'd an Arch
again$t the Wall, leaving that Corner as a Sort
of Plai$ter on the other Side of the Pa$$age,
and fortifying it, as well as po$$ible, with $tout
Work, and with the A$$i$tance of a Buttre$s.
Yet this at la$t, by the va$t Weight of $o great
a Building, and the giving Way of the Earth,
became ruinous. But let this $uffice upon this
Head.</P>
<head>CHAP. VI.</head>
<P><I>That there ought to be Vents left open in thick Walls from the Bottom to the
Top; the Difference between the Wall and the Foundation; the principal
Parts of the Wall; the three Methods of Walling; the Materials and
Form of the fir$t Cour$e or Layer.</I></P>
<P>The Foundations being laid, we come
next to the Wall. But I will not omit
here a Precaution which belongs as well to the
Compleating of the Foundation as to the
Structure of the Wall. In large Buildings,
where the Wall is to be very thick, we ought
to leave Vents and Tunnels in the Body of the
Wall, at moderate Di$tances one from the other,
from the Foundation quite to the Top, through
which any Vapour or Damp that may happen
to engender or gather under Ground may have
free Pa$$age without damaging the Work. The
Ancients in $ome of the$e Vents were u$ed to
make winding Stairs, as well for the Sake of the
Beauty of the Contrivance it$elf, as for the
Convenience of pa$$ing up to the Top of the
Edifice, and perhaps too for the Saving of $ome
Expence. But to return to our Subject; be-
tween the Foundation and the naked Wall there
is this Difference, that the former having the
Support of the Sides of the Trench, may be made
of nothing but Rubbi$h, whereas the Latter con-
$i$ts of Variety of Parts, as we $hall hereafter
$hew. The principal Parts of the Wall are
the$e; fir$t, the bottom Part, which begins
immediately from the Level of the Foundati-
ons; this we call the fir$t Cour$e laid upon the
Level, or the Cour$e ri$ing from the Ground:
The middle Parts, which girt and $urround
the Wall, we $hall call the $econd Cour$e: The
highe$t Parts, la$tly, that is to $ay, tho$e which
$upport the top Roof, we call Cornices. Some
of the principal Parts or rather the prin-
cipal Parts of all are the Corners of the
Wall, and the Pila$ters, or Columns, or any
thing el$e in their $tead $et in the Wall to $up-
port the Beams and Arches of the Covering;
all which are comprized under the Name of
Bones or Ribs. Likewi$e the Jambs on each
Side of all Openings partake of the Nature both
of Corners and of Columns. Moreover, the
Coverings of Openings, that is to $ay, the Lin-
tels or Tran$oms, whether $trait or arched, are
al$o reckoned among the Bones. And indeed
I take an Arch to be nothing more than a Beam
bent, and the Beam or Tran$om to be only a
Column laid cro$$ways. Tho$e Parts which
interfere or lie between the$e principal Parts,
are very properly called Fillers up. There are
$ome Things throughout the whole Wall
which agree each with $ome one of the Parts
we have here $poken of; that is to $ay, the fill-
ing up or cramming of the Middle of the Wall,
and the two Barks or Shells of each Side,
whereof that without is to bear the Sun and
Weather, and that within is to give Shade and
Shelter to the In$ide of the Platform. The
Rules for the$e Shells and for their $tuffing are
various, according to the Variety of Structures.
The different Sorts of Structures are the$e; the
ordinary Sort, the chequer Sort and the Irregu-
lar: And here it may not be ami$s to take
<foot>Notice</foot>
<foot>* <I>Refers to Part B of Plate 5, facing page 45.</I></foot>
<p n=>48</p>
Notice of what <I>Varro</I> $ays, that the <I>Tu$cans</I>
u$ed to build their Country Hou$es of Stone,
but the <I>Gauls</I> of baked Brick, the <I>Sabines</I> of
Brick unbaked, the <I>Spaniards</I> of Mud and lit-
tle Stones mixed together. But of the$e we
$hall $peak el$ewhere. The ordinary Sort of
Structure, is that in which $quared Stones,
either the middling or rather the large Sort, are
placed with their Fronts exactly an$wering to
the $quare level and plumb Line; which is the
$tronge$t and mo$t la$ting Way of all. The
chequered Way is when $quared Stones, either
the middle $ized, or rather very $mall ones, are
placed not on their Sides, but on their Corners,
and lie with their Fronts an$wering to the
$quare and plumb Line. The irregular Way
is where ordinary rough Stones are placed with
their Sides an$wering, as well as the Inequality
of their Forms will permit, one to the other;
and this is the Method u$ed in the Pavement
of the publick Ways. But the$e Methods mu$t
be u$ed differently in different Places; for in
the Ba$es, or fir$t Cour$e above the Ground, we
mu$t make our Shell of nothing but very large
and very hard $quare Stones; for as we ought
to make the whole Wall as firm and entire as
po$$ible, $o there is no Part of it that requires
more Strength and Soundne$s than this; in$o-
much that if it were po$$ible for you to make
it all of one $ingle Stone you $hould do it, or
at lea$t make it only of $uch a Number as may
come as near as may be to the Firmne$s and
Durablene$s of one $ingle Stone. How the$e
great Stones are to be mov'd and manag'd,
belonging properly to the Article of Ornaments,
we $hall con$ider of it in another Place.</P>
<P>RAISE your Wall $ays <I>Cato,</I> of hard Stone
and good Mortar to at lea$t a Foot high above
the Ground, and it matters not if you build
the re$t even of Brick unbak'd. His Rea$on
for this Admonition is plainly becau$e the Rain-
Water falling from the Roof might not rot
this Part of the Wall. But when we examine
the Works of the Ancients, and find that not
only in our own Country the lower Parts of
all good Buildings are compos'd of the harde$t
Stone, but that even among tho$e Nations
which are under no Apprehen$ions from Rain,
as in <I>&AElig;gypt,</I> they u$ed to make the Ba$es of
their Pyramids of a black Stone of an extreme
Hardne$s; we are obliged to look more nearly
into this Matter. We $hould therefore con-
$ider that as Iron, Bra$s, and the like hard
Metals, if bent $everal Times fir$t this way
and then that, will at la$t crack and break; $o
other Bodies, if wearied with a repeated Change
of Injuries, will $poil and corruptinconceivably;
which is what I have ob$erved in Bridges,
e$pecially of Wood: Tho$e Parts of them
which $tand all the Changes of Weather, $ome-
times burnt with the Rays of the Sun, and
$harp Bla$ts of Wind, at other Times $oak'd
with Night-dews or Rains, very $oon decay
and are quite eaten away by the Worms. The
$ame holds good of tho$e Parts of the Wall
which are near to the Ground, which by theal-
ternate injuries of Du$t and Wet are very apt to
moulder and rot. I therefore lay it down as an
indi$pen$ible Rule, that all the fir$t Cour$e of
Work from the Level, $hould be compos'd of
the harde$t, $ounde$t, and large$t Stones, to
$ecure it again$t the frequent A$$aults of con-
trary Injuries: Which Stone is harde$t and be$t,
we have $hewn $ufficiently in the Second Book.</P>
<head>CHAP. VII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Generation of Stones; how they are to be di$pos'd and join'd together, as
al$o, which are the Stronge$t and which the Weake$t.</I></head>
<P>It is certainly of very great Con$equence in
what Manner we di$po$e and join our
Stone in the Work, either in this or any other
Part; for as in Wood $o al$o in Stone, there
are Veins and Knots, and other Parts, of
which $ome are weaker than others, in$omuch
that Marble it$elf will warp and $plit. There
is in Stones a Kind of Impo$tumes, or Collections
of putrid Matter, which in Time $well and
grow, by means, as I $uppo$e of the Humidity
of the Air, which they $uck in and imbibe
which breeds larger Pu$tules, and eats away
the Building. For be$ides what we have
already $aid of Stones in their proper Place, it
is nece$$ary to con$ider here that they are
created by Nature, lying flat as we $ee them
in the Ground, of a liquid and fluxible Sub-
$tance, which, as we are told, when it is af-
terwards harden'd and grown, re$erves in the
Ma$s the original Figure of its Parts. Hence
<foot>it</foot>
<p n=>49</p>
it proceeds, that the lower Part of Stones is of
a more $olid and weighty Con$i$tence than the
Upper, and that they interrupted with Veins,
ju$t according as their Sub$tances happened to
unite and conglutinate. That Matter which is
found within the Veins, whether it be the Scum
of the fir$t congealed Sub$tance mix'd with the
Dregs of the adventitious Matter, or whatever
el$e it be, as it is plainly of $o different a Con-
$i$tence, that Nature will not permit it to
unite with the re$t, it is no Wonder that it is
the Part in Stone which is apt to crack. And
indeed, as Experience teaches us, the Deva-
$tations of Time too evidently demon$trate,
without $earching into Cau$es more remote,
that all vegetative and compound Bodies con-
$ume and decay; $o in Stones, the Parts ex-
pos'd to the Weather are $oone$t rotted. This
being the Ca$e, we are advi$ed in Placing our
Stone to $et tho$e Parts of it which are the
$tronge$t, and lea$t apt to putrify, again$t the
Violence of the alternate Injuries of the Wea-
ther, e$pecially in tho$e Parts of the Building
where mo$t Strength is requir'd. For this Rea-
$on we $hould not $et the Veins upright, le$t
the Weather $hould make the Stone crack and
$cale off; but they $hould be laid flat down-
wards that the Pre$$ure of the incumbant
Weight may hinder them from opening. The
Side which in the Quarry lay mo$t hid, $hould
be placed again$t the Air; becau$e it is always
the $tronge$t and mo$t unctious. But of all
Stone, none will prove $o hardy as that which
has its Veins not running in parellel Lines with
tho$e of the Quarry, but cro$$way and directly
tran$ver$e. Moreover the Corners throughout
the whole Building, as they require the
greate$t Degree of Strength, ought to be par-
ticularly well fortify'd; and, if I mi$take not,
each Corner is in effect the half of the whole
Structure; for if one of them happens to fail,
it occa$ions the Ruin of both the Sides to
which it an$wers. And if you will take the
Pains to examine, I dare $ay you will find that
hardly any Building ever begins to decay, but
by the Fault of one of its Corners. It there-
fore $hew'd great Di$cretion in the Ancients,
to make their Corners much thicker than the
re$t of the Wall, and in Porticoes of Columns
to $trengthen their Angles in a particular Man-
ner. This Strength in the Corners is not re-
quired upon Account of its Supporting the
Covering (for that is rather the Bu$ine$s of the
Columns) but only to keep the Wall up to its
Duty, and hinder it from leaning any Way
from its perpendicular. Let the Corners there-
fore be of the harde$t and longe$t Stones,
which may embrace both Sides of the Wall, as
it were, like Arms; and let them be full as
broad as the Wall, that there may be no need
to $tuff the Middle with Rubbi$h. It is al$o
nece$$ary, that the Ribs in the Wall and the
Jambs or Sides of the Apertures, $hould be
fortify'd like the Corners, and made $trong in
proportion to the Weight they are de$ign'd to
$upport. And above all we $hould leave Bits,
that is to $ay, Stones left every other Row jut-
ting out at the Ends of the Wall, like Teeth,
for the Stones of the other Front of the Wall
to fa$ten and catch into.</P>
<head>CHAP. VIII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Parts of the Fini$hing; of the Shells, the Stuffing, and their different
Sorts.</I></head>
<P>The Parts of the Fini$hing are tho$e
which, as we $aid before, are common
to the whole Wall; that is, the Shell and the
Stuffing; but there are two Shells, one out-
ward and the other inward; if you make the
outward of the harde$t Stone you can get, the
Building will be the more durable. And indeed
in all Sorts of Fini$hing, let it be of what
Kind of Work you will, either chequer'd, or
of rough Stones, it is indifferent, provided you
$et again$t the continual mi$chievous Violence
either of Sun, or Wind, or of Fire, or Fro$t,
$uch Stones as are in their Nature be$t fitted
for re$i$ting either Force, Weight, or Injuries;
and we $hould take Care to let our Materials be
particularly Sound where-ever the Rain in its
Fall from the Roof or Gutters is driven by the
Wind again$t the Wall; $ince we often find in
old Buildings, that $uch Sprinklings will rot
and eat into Marble it$elf. Though all prudent
Architects, to provide again$t this Mi$chief,
have taken Care to bring all the Water on the
Roof together into Gutters and Pipes, and $o
carry it clear away. Moreover, the Ancients
<foot>O ob$erv'd</foot>
<p n=>50</p>
ob$erv'd that in Autumn the Leaves of Trees
always began to fall to the South-$ide $ir$t;
and in Buildings ruinated by Time, I have
taken Notice that they always began to decay
fir$t towards the South. The Rea$on of this
may perhaps be that the Heat and Force of the
Sun lying upon the Work while it was $till
in Hand might exhau$t the Strength of the
Cement; and the Stone it$elf being frequently
moi$ten'd by the South-wind, and then again
dry'd and burnt by the Rays of the Sun,
rots and moulders. Again$t the$e and the like
Injuries therefore, we $hould oppo$e our be$t
and $toute$t Materials. What I think too is
principally to be ob$erv'd, is to let every Row
or Cour$e of Stone throughout the Wall be
even and equally proportion'd, not patch'd up
of great Stones on the right Hand and little
ones on the left; becau$e we are told that the
Wall by the Addition of any new Weight is
$queezed clo$er together, and the Mortar in
drying is hinder'd by this Pre$$ure from taking
due hold, which mu$t of Cour$e make Cracks
and Defects in the Work. But you may be
$afely allow'd to make the inward Shell, and
all the Front of the Wall of that Side, of a
$ofter and weaker Stone; but whatever Shell
you make, whether inward or outward, it
mu$t be always perpendicular, and its Line
exactly even. Its Line mu$t always an$wer
ju$tly to the Line of the Platform, $o as not in
any Part to $well out or $ink in, or to be
wavy, or not exactly plum, and perfectly well
compacted and fini$hed. If you rough. Ca$t
your Wall as you build it, or while it is fre$h,
whatever Plai$tering or Whitening you do it
over with afterwards will la$t, in a Manner, for
ever. There are two Sorts of Stuffing; the
one is that with which we fill the Hollow that
is left between the two Shells, con$i$ting of
Mortar and broken Fragments of Stone thrown
in together without any Order; the other con-
$i$ting of ordinary rough Stone, with which
we may be $aid rather to wall than only to fill
up. Both plainly appears to have been in-
vented by good-husbandry, becau$e any $mall
Coar$e Stuff is u$ed in this Kind of Work.
But if there was Plenty of large $quare Stone
ea$ily to be had, who I wonder, would choo$e
to make U$e of $mall Fragments? And indeed
herein alone the Ribs of the Wall differ from
what we call the Fini$hing, that between the
two Shells of this latter we $tuff in coar$e Rub-
bi$h or broken Pieces that come to Hand;
whereas, in the Former we admit very $ew
or no unequal Stones, but make tho$e Parts of
the Wall quite through, of what we have
call'd the <I>ordinary</I> Sort of Work. If I were to
choo$e, I would have the Wall throughout
made of nothing but regularCour$es of $quared
Stone, that it might be as la$ting as po$$ible;
but whatever hollow you leave between the
Shells to be filled up with Rubbi$h, you $hould
take Care to let the Cour$es of each Side be
as even as po$$ible and it will be proper be-
$ides to lay a good many large Stones, at con-
venient Di$tances, that may go quite through
the Wall to both Shells, in order to bind and
gird them together, that the Rubbi$h you
$tuff them with may not bur$t them out.
The Ancients made it a Rule in $tuffing their
Walls, not to continue the Stuffing uninterrup-
ted to the Heigth of above five Foot, and then
they laid over it a Cour$e of whole Stone. This
fa$ten'd and bound the Wall, as it were, with
Nerves and Ligaments; $o that if any Part of
the Stuffing, either through the Fault of the
Workman, or by Accident, happen'd to $ink,
it could not pull every Thing el$e along with
it, but the Weight above had in a Manner
a new Ba$is to re$t upon. La$tly, we are
taught what I find con$tantly ob$erved
among the Ancients, never to admit any Stone
among our Stuffing that weighs above a Pound,
becau$e they $uppo$e that $mall ones unite
more ea$ily, and knit bettter with the Cement
than large ones.</P>
<P>IT is not altogether foreign to our Pur-
po$e, what we read in <I>Plutarch</I> of King <I>Minos,</I>
that he divided the Plebeans into $everal Cla$-
$es, according to their $everal Profe$$ions, upon
this Principle, that the $maller the Parts are
a Body is $plit into, the more ea$ily it may
be governed and managed. It is al$o of no
little Con$equence to have the Hollow com-
pletly fill'd up, and every the lea$t Crevice
clo$e $topt, not only upon the Account of
Strength, but likewi$e to hinder any Animals
from getting in and making their Ne$ts there,
and to prevent the Gathering of Dirt and
Seeds, which might make Weeds grow in the
Wall. It is almo$t incredible what huge
Weights of Stone, and what va$t Piles I have
known moved and opened by the $ingle Root
of one Plant. You mu$t take Care therefore
to let your whole Structure be girt and fill'd
compleatly.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>51</p>
<head>CHAP. IX.</head>
<head><I>Of the Girders of Stone, of the Ligament and Fortification of the Cornices,
and how to unite $everal Stones for the $trengthening of the Wall.</I></head>
<P>A mong the Girders we reckon tho$e Cour-
$es of large Stone which tie the out-
ward Shell to the Inward, and which bind the
Ribs one into the other, $uch as are tho$e
which we $aid in the la$t Chapter ought to be
made every five Foot. But there are other
Girders be$ides, and tho$e principal ones,
which run the whole Length of the Wall to
embrace the Corners and $trengthen the whole
Work: But the$e latter are not $o frequent,
and I do not remember ever to have $een
above two, or at mo$t three in one Wall.
Their Place is the Summit of the Wall, to be
as it were a Crown to the Whole, and to per-
form the $ame Service at the Top which the
other more frequent Girders at the Di$tance
of every five Foot do in the Middle, where
$maller Stones are allow'd; but in the$e other
Girders, which we call Cornices, as they are
fewer and of more Importance, $o much the
larger and the $tronger Stones they require. In
both according to their different Offices, the
be$t, the longe$t, and the thicke$t Stones are
nece$$ary. The $maller Girders are made to
an$wer to the Rule and Plum-line with the
re$t of the Shell of the Wall: but the$e great
ones, like a Crown, project $omewhat forwards.
The$e long, thick Stones mu$t be laid exactly
plum, and be well link'd with the under
Cour$es, $o as to make a Kind of Pavement
at Top to $hadow and protect the Sub$truc-
<marg>*</marg>
ture. The Way of placing the$e Stones one
upon the other, is to let the Middle of the
Stone above an$wer exactly to the Juncture of
the two in the Cour$e below, $o that its Weight
is equally pois'd upon them both; as (A.)
Which way of Working, as it ought not in-
deed to be neglected in any Part of the Wall,
ought to be particularly followed in the Gir-
ders. I have ob$erved that the Ancients in
their checquer'd Works u$ed to make their
Girders of five Cour$es of Bricks, or at lea$t of
three, and that all of them, or at lea$t one
Cour$e was of Stone, not thicker than the re$t,
but longer and broader; as (B.) But in their
ordinary Sort of Brick-work, I find they were
content for Girders to make at every five Foot
a Cour$e of Bricks two Foot thick as (C)</P>
<P>I KNOW $ome too have inter$pers'd Plates or
Cramps of Lead of a con$iderable Length,
and as broad as the Wall was thick, in order
to bind the Work. But when they built with
very large Stone, I find they were contented
with fewer Girders, or even only with the
Cornices. In making the Cornices, which are
to girt in the Wall with the $tronge$t Liga-
ture, we ought to neglect none of the Rules
which we have laid down about the Girders;
namely, we $hould u$e in them none but the
longe$t, thicke$t, and $tronge$t Stones, which
we $hould put together in the mo$t exact and
regular Order, each laid nicely even and level
by the Square and Plum-line. And we ought
to be more diligent and careful in this Part of
the Work, becau$e it is to gird in the Whole
Wall, which is more apt to ruinate in this Part
than in any other. The Covering too has its
Office with relation to the Wall; whence it
is laid down as a Rule, that to a Wall of crude
Bricks we are to make a Cornice of baked
ones, to the Intent that if any Water $hould
chance to fall from the End of the Covering,
or from the Gutters, it may be it may do no
Mi$chief, but that the Wall may be defended
by the Projecting of the Cornice. For which
Rea$on we ought to take Care that every Part
of the Wall have a Cornice over it for a
Covering to it, which ought to be firmly
wrought and well $tucco'd over to repel all the
Injuries of the Weather. We are here again
to con$ider in what Manner we are to unite
and con$olidate a Number of $eperate Stones
into one Body of Wall; and the principal
Thing that offers it$elf to our Thoughts as
nece$$ary, is good Lime; though I do not
take it to be the proper Cement for every Sort
of Stone: Marble, for In$tance, if touch'd
with Lime, will not only loo$e its Whitene$s,
but will contract foul bloody Spots. But Mar-
ble, is $o delicate and $o coy of its Whitene$s,
that it will hardly bear the Touch of any
Thing but it$elf; it di$dains Smoke; $mear'd
<foot>with</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 6, facing page 52.</I></foot>
<p n=>52</p>
with Oil, it grows pale; wa$h'd with Red
Wine, it turns of a dirty brown; with Water,
kept $ome time in Che$$nut-wood, it changes
quite thro' to black, and is $o totally $tain'd,
that no $craping will fetch out the Spots. For
this Rea$on the Ancients u$ed Marble in their
Works naked, and if po$$ible without the
lea$t Mortar: But of the$e hereafter.</P>
<head>CHAP. X.</head>
<head><I>Of the true Manner of Working the Wall, and of the Agreement there is be-
tween Stone and Sand.</I></head>
<P>Now as it is the Bu$ine$s of an expert
Workman, not $o much to make
Choice of the fitte$t Materials, as to put tho$e
which he is $upplied with to the be$t and
propere$t U$es; we will proceed on our Sub-
ject in this Manner. Lime is well burnt, when
after it has been water'd, and the Heat gone
out of it, it ri$es up like the Froth of Milk,
and $wells all the Clods. Its not having been
long enough $oak'd you may know by the little
Stones you will find in it when you mix the
Sand with it. If you put too much Sand to it,
it will be too $harp to cement well; if you
put le$s than its Nature and Strength requires,
it will be as $tiff as Glue, and is not to be
managed. Such as is not thoroughly $oak'd,
or that is weaker upon any other Account,
may be u$ed with le$s Danger in the Foundation
than in the Wall, and in the Stuffing than in
Shells. But the Corners, the Ribs, and the
Band-$tones mu$t be entirely free from Mortar
that has the lea$t Defect; and Arches e$peci-
ally require the very be$t of all. The Corners,
and Ribs, and the Band-$tones, and Cornices
require the fine$t, $malle$t and cleare$t Sand,
particularly when they are built of poli$hed
Stone. The Stuffing may be done with
coar$er Stone.</P>
<P>STONE in its Nature dry and thir$ty, agrees
not ill with River-$and. Stone in its Nature
moi$t and watery, delights in Pit-$and. I
would not have Sea-$and u$ed towards the
South; it may perhaps do better again$t the
Northern Winds. For $mall Stones, a thick
lean Mortar is be$t; to a dry exhau$ted Stone,
we $hould u$e a fat Sort; though the Ancients
were of Opinion that in all Parts of the Walls
the fatti$h Sort is more tenacious than the lean.
Great Stones they always lay upon a very $oft
fluid Mortar, $o that it rather $eems de$ign'd
to lubricate and make the Bed they are laid
upon $lippery, to the Intent, that while they
are fixing in their Places they may be ea$y to
move with the Hand, then to cement and
fa$ten them together. But it is certainly proper
to lay a $oft Stuff underneath in this Manner,
like a Pillow, to prevent the Stones, which
have a great Weight lying upon them, from
breaking. There are $ome, who ob$erving
here and there in the Works of the Ancients,
large Stones, which where they join $eem
dawb'd over with red Earth, imagine that the
Ancients u$ed that in$tead of Mortar. I do
not think this probable, becau$e we never find
both Sides, but only one of them, $mear'd
with this Sort of Stuff. There are $ome other
Rules concerning the Working of our Walls,
not to be neglected. We ought never to fall
upon our Work with a violent Ha$te, heaping
one Stone upon another, in a Kind tumul-
tuousHurry, without the lea$t Re$pite: Neither
ought we, after we have began to build, to
delay it with a $luggi$h Heavine$s, as if we had
no Stomach to what we are about; but we
ought to follow our Work with $uch a rea$on-
able Di$patch, that Speed and Con$ideration
may appear to go Hand in Hand together.
Experienced Workmen forewarn us again$t
rai$ing the Structure too high, before what we
have already done is thoroughly $ettled; be-
cau$e the Work, while it is fre$h and $oft, is
too weak and pliable to bear a Super$tructure.
We may take Example from the Swallows,
taught by Nature, which when they build
their Ne$ts, fir$t dawb or glue over the Beams
which are to be the Foundation and Ba$is of
their Edifice, and then are not too ha$ty to
lay the $econd dawbing over this, but inter-
mit the Work till the fir$t is $ufficiently dry'd;
after which they continue their Building rea$on-
ably and properly. They $ay the Mortar has
taken $ufficient hold when it puts forth a Kind
of Mo$s or little Flower well known to Ma$ons.
At what Di$tances it is proper to re$pite the
we may gather from the Thickne$s of the
Wall it$elf, and from the Temperature of the
<foot>Place</foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 6. <I>(Page 51)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 7. <I>(Page 56)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>53</p>
Place and of the Climate. When you think
it Time for a Re$pite, cover the Top of the
Wall over with Straw, that the Wind and Sun
may not exhau$t the Strength of the Cement,
and make it rather u$ele$s than dry and binding.
When you re$ume your Work, pour a con-
$iderable Quantity of clean Water upon it,
till it is thoroughly $oak'd and wa$h'd from
all Manner of Dirt, that no Seeds may be left
to engender Weeds. There is nothing that
makes the Work $tronger and more durable
than moi$tening the Stone $ufficiently with
Water; and they $ay the Stone is never
$oak'd as it $hould be, if upon breaking, the
In$ide all through is not moi$t and turned black.
Add to what has been $aid, that in erecting
our Wall we ought, in $uch Places where it
is po$$ible new Openings may afterwards be
wanting either for Conveniency or Plea$ure, to
turn Arches in the Wall, that if you after-
wards take out any of the Work from beneath
tho$e Arches, for the afore$aid Purpo$es, the
Wall may have a good Arch, built at the
$ame Time with it$elf, to re$t upon. It is
hardly to be conceiv'd how much the Strength
of a Building is impair'd only by taking out
one $ingle Stone, be it ever $o little; and
there is no $uch Thing as $etting a new Struc-
ture upon an old one, but that they will open
and part one from the other; and how much
$uch a Crack mu$t di$po$e the Wall to ruin,
need not be mention'd. A very thick Wall
has no need of Scaffolding, becau$e it is broad
enough for the Ma$on to $tand upon the Wall
it$elf.</P>
<head>CHAP. XI.</head>
<P><I>Of the Way of Working different Materials; of Plai$tering; of Cramps,
and how to pre$erve them; the mo$t ancient In$tructions of Architects; and
$ome Methods to prevent the Mi$chiefs of Lightening.</I></P>
<P>We have treated of the be$t Manner of
Building, what Stone we are to
choo$e, and how we are to prepare our Mor-
tar: But as we $hall $ometimes be obliged to
make u$e of other Sorts of Stone, whereof $ome
are not cemented with Mortar, but only with
Slime; and others which are join'd without
any Cement at all: And there are al$o Buildings
con$i$ting only of Stuffing, or rough Work,
and others again only of the Shells; of all
the$e we $hall $ay $omething as briefly as
po$$ible. Stones that are to be cemented with
Slime, ought to be $quared, and very arid; and
nothing is more proper for this than Bricks,
either burnt, or rather crude, but very well
dried. A Building made of crude Bricks is
extremely healthy to the Inhabitants, very
$ecure again$t Fire, and but little affected by
Earthquakes; But then if it is not of a good
Thickne$s, it will not $upport the Roof; for
which Rea$on <I>Cato</I> directs the Rai$ing of
Pila$ters of Stone to perform that Office. Some
tell us, that the Slime which is u$ed for
Cement ought to be like Pitch, and that the
be$t is that which being $teep'd in Water is
$lowe$t in di$$olving, and will not ea$ily rub
off from one's Hand, and which conden$es
mo$t in drying. Others commend the Sandy
as be$t, becau$e it is mo$t tractable. This Sort
of Work ought to be cloathed with a Cru$t of
Mortar on the Out$ide, and within, if you think
fit, with Plai$ter of <I>Paris,</I> or white Earth.
And for the better Sticking the$e on, you mu$t
in Building your Wall, $et little Pieces of Tile
here and there in the Cracks of the Joining,
jutting out like Teeth, for the Plai$ter to
cleave to. When the Structure is to be com-
po$ed of naked Stones, they ought to be
$quared and much bigger than the other,
and very $ound and $trong; and in this Sort
of Work we allow of no $tuffing; the Cour$es
mu$t be regular and even, the Junctures con-
trived with frequent Ligatures of Cramps and
Pins. Cramps are what fa$ten together with
two Stones $ideways that lie even with one
another, and unite them into a Row: Pins
are fix'd into an upper Stone and an under one,
to prevent the Row from being by any Violence
driven out from the re$t. Cramps and Pins
of Iron are not reckoned ami$s; but I have
ob$erved in the Works of the Ancients, that
Iron ru$ts, and will not la$t; But Bra$s will
almo$t endure for ever. Be$ides, I find that
Marble is tainted by the Ru$t of the Iron, and
breaks all round it. We likewi$e meet with
Cramps made of Wood in very ancientStructures;
<foot>P and</foot>
<p n=>54</p>
and indeed, I do not think them inferior to
tho$e of Iron. The Cramps of Bra$s and Iron
are $a$tened in with Lead: But tho$e of Wood
are $ufficiently $ecured by their Shape, which
is made in $uch Manner, that for Re$emblance,
they are called Swallow, or Dove-tailed. The
Cramps mu$t be $o placed that no Drops of
Rain may penetrate to them; and it is
Thought that the Bra$s ones are yet more
$trengthened again$t old Age, if in Ca$ting
they are mixed with one thirtieth Part of Tin:
They will be le$s liable to ru$t if they are
anointed with Pitch, or Oil. It is affirmed
that Iron may be $o tempered by White-lead,
Plai$ter, and Liquid Pitch, as not to ru$t.
Wooden Cramps done over with Maiden-wax
and Lees of Oil, will never rot. I have
known them pour $o much Lead upon Cramps,
and that $o boyling Hot, that it has bur$t the
Stones. In ancient Structures we often meet
with very $trong Walls made of nothing but
Rubbi$h and broken Stuff; the$e are built like
the Mud-Walls common in <I>Spain</I> and <I>Africa,</I>
by fa$tening on each Side Planks or Hurdles,
in$tead of Shells, to keep the Stuff together till
it is dry and $ettled: But herein they differ,
that the Ancients filled up their Work with
Mortar liquid, and in a Manner floating;
whereas, the other only took a clammy Sort
of Earth which they trod and rammed with
their Feet, and with Beetles, after having fir$t
made it tractable by thorough wetting and
kneading. The Ancients al$o in tho$e rough
Works of theirs, at the Di$tance of every three
Foot made a Kind of Band of Pieces of large
Stone, e$pecially of the ordinary Sort, or at
lea$t angular; becau$e round Stones, though
they are very hardy again$t all Sorts of Injuries,
yet if they are not $urrounded with $trong Sup-
ports, are very unfaithful in any Wall. In
the$e other Works, that is to $ay, in the <I>African</I>
Buildings of Earth, they mixed with their Clay
the <I>Spani$h</I>-Broom, or Sea-Bullru$h, which
made a Stuff admirably good for Working,
and which remained unhurt either by Wind or
Weather. In <I>Pliny</I>'s Time there was to be
$een upon the Ridges of Mountains $everal
little Towers for viewing the Country built of
Earth, which had endured quite from the Days
of <I>Hanibal.</I> We make this Sort of Cru$t
(which is a fitter Name for it than Shell) with
Hurdles and Mats, made of Reeds not fre$h
gathered; a Work indeed not very magni-
ficent, but generally u$ed by the Old <I>Plebeian
Romans.</I> They rough Ca$t the Hurdles over
with Clay, beat up for three Days running
with the Reeds, and then (as we $aid before)
cloath it with Mortar, or Plai$ter of <I>Paris,</I>
which they afterwards adorn with Painting
and Statues. If you mix your Plai$ter up with
a third Part of broken Tile, or Brick pounded,
it will be the le$s injured by wet: If you mix
it with Lime, it will be the Stronger: But in
damp Places, or $uch as are expo$ed to Cold and
Fro$t, Plai$ter of <I>Paris</I> is very un$erviceable.
I will now, by Way of Epilogue, give you a
Law of very great Antiquity among Arch-
itects, which in my Opinion ought no le$s to
be ob$erved than the An$wers of Oracles: And
it is this. Make your Foundation as $trong as
po$$ible: Let the Super$tructure lie exactly
plum to its Centre: Fortify the Corners and
Ribs of the Wall from the Bottom to the Top
with the large$t and the $tronge$t Stones: Soak
your Lime well: Do not u$e your Stone till
it is thoroughly watered: Set the harde$t Sort
to that Side which is mo$t expo$ed to Injuries:
Rai$e your Wall exactly by the Square, Level
and Plum-line: Let the Middle of the upper
Stone lie directly upon the Meeting of the two
below it: Lay the entire Stones in the Cour$es,
and fill up the Middle with the broken Pieces:
Bind the inward and out$ide Shells to one
another by frequent Cro$s or Band-$tones. Let
this $uffice with Relation to the Wall; we
come now to the Covering. But I will not
pa$s over one Thing which I find the Ancients
ob$erved very religiou$ly. There are $ome
Things in Nature which are endued with
Properties by no means to be neglected; par-
ticularly, that the Lawrel-tree, the Eagle, and
the Sea-calf, are never to be touched by
Lightening. There are $ome therefore who
$uppo$e that if the$e are inclo$ed in the Wall,
the Lightening will never hurt it. This I take
to be ju$t as probable as another wonderful
Thing which we are told, that the Land-toad,
or Rudduck, if $hut up in an earthen Pot,
and burned in a Field, will drive away the
Birds from devouring the Seeds; and that the
Tree <I>O$trys,</I> or <I>O$trya</I> brought into a Hou$e,
will ob$truct a Woman's Delivery; and that
the Leaves of the Lesbian Oemony kept but
under the Roof, will give a Flux of the Belly
and an Evacuation that will certainly prove
Mortal. Let us now return to our Subject,
for the better under$tanding of which, it will
be proper to look back to what we have
formerly $aid of the Lines of Building</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>55</p>
<head>CHAP. XII.</head>
<head><I>Of Coverings of $trait Lines; of the Beams and Rafters, and of the uniting
the Ribs.</I></head>
<P>Of Coverings, $ome are to the open Air,
and $ome are within; $ome con$i$t of
$trait Lines, others of curve, and $ome of both:
We may add, not improperly, that $ome are
of Wood, and $ome of Stone. We will fir$t,
according to our Cu$tom, mention one Ob$er-
vation which relates in general to all Sorts of
Coverings; which is this: That all manner of
Roofs, or Coverings have their Ribs, Nerves,
Fini$hings, and Shells, or Cru$ts, ju$t the $ame
as the Wall: Which will appear from the
Con$ideration of the Thing it$elf. To begin
with tho$e of Wood, and con$i$ting of $trait
Lines; it is nece$$ary for $upporting the Cover
to lay very $trong Beams acro$s from one Wall
to the other; which, as we took Notice be-
fore, are Columns laid tran$ver$e: The$e
Beams therefore, are a Sort of Ribs; and if
it were not for the Expences, who would not
wi$h to have the whole Building con$i$t, if we
may u$e the Expre$$ion, of nothing but Ribs
and $olid Work; that is to $ay, of continued
Columns and Beams clo$e compacted? but we
here con$ult Oeconomy, and $uppo$e every
Thing to be $uperfluous, that without Pre-
judice to the Strength of the Work, may be
po$$ibly retrenched; and for this Rea$on, we
leave Spaces between the Beams. Between
the$e we lay the Cro$s-beams, Rafters, and the
like; which may not at all improperly be
reckoned the Ligatures: To the$e we fit and
joyn Boards and Planks of greater Breadth,
which there is no Rea$on why we $hould not
call theFini$hing; and in the $ame Way of think-
ing, the Pavement and Tiling is the Outward
Shell, and the Ceiling, or Roof, which is over
our Head the Inward. If this be granted, let
us con$ider whether there is any Thing ne-
ce$$ary to be ob$erved with Relation to any of
the$e Parts, that having duly examined it, we
may the more ea$ily under$tand what belongs
to Coverings of Stone. We will $peak of them
therefore as briefly as po$$ible: Fir$t, taking
Notice of one Thing not foreign to our Pur-
po$e. There is a very vicious Practice among
our modern Architects; which is, that in
order to make their Ceilings, they leave great
Holes in the very Ribs of the Building to let
the Heads of the Beams into after the Wall is
fini$hed; which not only weakens the Struc-
ture, but al$o makes it more expo$ed to Fire;
becau$e by the$e Holes the Flames find a
Pa$$age from one Apartment to another. For
which Rea$on, I like the Method u$ed among
the Ancients, of $etting in the Wall $trong
Tables of Stone called Corbels, upon which
they laid the Heads of their Beams. If you
would bind the Wall, and the Beams together,
you have Bra$s Cramps, and Braces, and
Catches or Notches in the Corbel it$elf, which
will $erve for that Purpo$e. The Beams ought
to be perfectly $ound and clear; and e$peci-
ally about the Middle of its Length it ought
to be free from the lea$t Defect, placing your
Ear at one End of it while the other is $truck,
if the Sound come to you dead, and flat, it is
a Sign of $ome private Infirmity. Beams that
have Knots in them are ab$olutely to be re-
jected, e$pecially if there are many, or if they
are crouded together in a Clu$ter. The Side
of the Timber that lies neare$t the Heart,
mu$t be planed, and laid uppermo$t in the
Building; but the Part that is to lie under-
mo$t, mu$t be planed very $uperficially, only
the Bark, nay, and of that hardly any, or as
little as po$$ible. Which-$oever Side has a
Defect that runs cro$$ways of the Beam, lay
uppermo$t; if there is a Crak longways, ne-
&vring;er venture it of the Side, but lay it either
uppermo$t, or rather undermo$t. If you hap-
pen to have Occa$ion to bore a Hole in it, or
any Opening, never meddle with the Middle
of its length, nor its lower Superficies. If, as in
Churches, the Beams are to be laid in Couples;
leave a Space of $ome Inches between them,
that they may have Room to exhale, and not
be $poyled by heating one another: And it
will not be ami$s to lay the two Beams of the
$ame Couple different Ways, that both their
Heads may not lie upon the $ame Pillow;
but where one has its Head, the other may
have its Foot: For by this Means the Strength
of the one's Foot will a$$i$t the Weakne$s
of the other's Head; and $o <I>vice ver$a.</I> The
<foot>Beams</foot>
<p n=>56</p>
Beams ought al$o to be related to one another;
that is, they $hould be of the $ame Kind of
Timber, and rai$ed in the $ame Wood, ex-
po$ed if po$$ible to the $ame Winds, and fell'd
the $ame Day; that being endued with the
$ame natural Strength, they may bear their
Shares equally in the Service. Let the Beds for
the Beams be exactly level, and perfectly firm
and $trong; and in laying them take care
that the Timber does not touch any Lime,
and let it have clear and open Vents all about
it, that it may not be tainted by the Contact
of any other Materials, nor decay by being
too clo$e $hut up. For a Bed for the Beams,
$pread under them either Fern, a very dry
Kind of Herb, or A$hes, or rather Lees of
<marg>*</marg>
Oil with the brui$ed Olives. But if your Tim-
ber is $o $hort, that you cannot make a Beam
of one Piece, you mu$t join two or more to-
gether, in $uch a Manner as to give them the
Strength of an Arch; that is to $ay, $o that
the upper Line of the compacted Beam, can-
not po$$ibly by any Pre$$ure become $horter;
and on the contrary, that the lower Line can-
not grow longer: And there mu$t be a Sort
of Cord to bind the two Beams together,
which $hove one another with their Heads,
with a $trong Ligature. The Rafters, and all
the re$t of the Wood-work, depend upon the
Goodne$s and Soundne$s of the Beams; being
nothing el$e but Beams $plit. Boards or Planks
are thought to be inconvenient if too thick, be-
cau$e whenever they begin to warp they throw
out the Nails; and thin Boards, e$pecially in
Coverings expo$ed to the Air, they $ay, mu$t
be fa$tened with Nails in Pairs, $o as to $e-
cure the Corners, the Sides and the Middle.
They tell us, that $uch Nails as are to bear any
tran$ver$e Weight, mu$t be made thick; but as
for others, it matters not if they are thinner;
but then they mu$t be longer, and have
broader Heads.</P>
<P>BRASS Nails are mo$t durable in the Air, or
in wet; but I have found the Iron ones to be
$tronger under Cover. For fa<*>tening of the
Rafters together, wooden Pins are much u$ed.
Whatever we have here $aid of Coverings of
Wood, mu$t be ob$erved al$o with relation to
tho$e of Stone; for $uch Stones as have Veins,
or Faults running cro$$ways, mu$t be rejected
for the making of Beams, and u$ed in Columns;
or if there are any $mall incon$iderable Faults,
the Side of the Stone in which it appears,
when it is u$ed, mu$t be laid downwards,
Veins running longways in Beams of any Sort,
are more excu$able than tran$ver$e ones.
Tables, or Scantlings of Stones al$o, as well
for other Rea$ons, as upon Account of their
Weight, mu$t not be made too thick. La$tly,
the Beams, Rafters, and Planks that are u$ed
in Coverings, whether of Wood, or Stone,
mu$t be neither $o thin, nor $o few as not to
be $ufficient for upholding them$elves, and their
Burthens; nor $o thick, or $o crouded as to
take from the Beauty, and Symmetry of the
Work; but tho$e are things we $hall $peak of
el$ewhere. And thus much for Coverings of
$traight Lines; unle$s it may be proper to men-
tion one Thing which is in my Opinion tobe neg-
lected in no Sort of Structure. The Philo$ophers
have ob$erved, that Nature in forming the Bo-
dies of Animals, always takes care to fini$h her
Work in $uch a Manner, that the Bones $hould
all communicate, and never be $eperate one
from the other: So we al$o $hould connect the
Ribs togther, and fa$ten them together well
with Nerves and Ligatures; $o that the Com-
munication among the Ribs $hould be $o con-
tinued, that if all the re$t of the Structure
failed, the Frame of the Work $hould yet
$tand firm and $trong with all its Parts and
Members.</P>
<head>CHAP. XIII.</head>
<head><I>Of Coverings, or Roofs of Curve Lines; of Arches, their Difference and Con-
$truction, and how to $et the Stones in an Arch.</I></head>
<P>We come now to $peak of Roofs made
of Curve Lines, and we are fir$t to
con$ider tho$e Particulars wherein they exactly
agree with Coverings of $trait Lines. A curvili-
near Roof is compo$ed of Arches; and we have
already $aid that an Arch is nothing but a
Beam bent. We might al$o here mention the
Ligatures, and tho$e Things which mu$t be
u$ed for filling up the Vacuities; but I would
be under$tood more clearly, by explaining
what I take to be the Nature of an Arch, and
of what Parts it con$i$ts.</P>
<P>I SUPPOSE then, that Men learnt at fir$t to turn
Arches from this: They $aw that two Beams
<foot>$et</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 7, facing page 53.</I></foot>
<p n=>57</p>
$et with their Heads one again$t the other, and
their Feet $et wide, would, if fa$tened at Top,
$tand, very firm, by means of the Equalne$s
of their Weight: They were plea$ed with this
Invention, and began to make their Roofs
in the $ame Manner, to throw off the Rain,
both Ways. Afterwards, perhaps, not being
able to cover a wider Space for want of Beams
long enough, they put between the Heads of
the$e two Beams another cro$$ways at Top,
$o that they made a Figure much like that of
the Greek Letter <G>p,</G> and this middle Beam
they might call a Wedge; and as this $uc-
ceeded very well, they multiplyed the Wedges,
and thus made a Kind of Arch, who$e Figure
mightily delighted them. Then transferring
the $ame Method to their Works of Stone, con-
tinuing to multiply the Wedges, they made
an entire Arch, which mu$t be allowed to be
nothing el$e but a Conjunction of a Number
of Wedges, whereof $ome $tanding with their
Heads below the Arch, are called the Foot of
the Arch, tho$e in the Middle above, the Key
of the Arch, and tho$e on the Sides, the Turn,
or Ribs of the Arch. It will not be improper
here to repeat what we $aid in the fir$t Book
upon this Subject: There are different Sorts
of Arches, the Entire, is the full half of a
Circle, or that who$e Chord runs through the
Centre of the Circle; there is another which
approaches more to the Nature of a Beam than
of an Arch, which we call the Imperfect, or
dimini$hed Arch, becau$e it is not a compleat
Semi-circle; but a determinate Part le$s,
having its Chord above the Centre, and at
$ome Di$tance from it. There is al$o the
Compo$ite Arch, called by $ome the Angular,
and by others an Arch comp$ed of two Arches
le$s than Semi-circles; and its Chord has the
two Centres of two Curve Lines, which
mutually inter$ect each other. That the Entire
Arch is the Stronge$t of all, appears not only
from Experience, but Rea$on; for I do not
$ee how it can po$$ibly di$unite of it$elf, unle$s
one Wedge $hoves out another, which they are
$o far from doing, that they a$$i$t and $upport
one another. And indeed, if they were to go
about any $uch Violence, they would be pre-
vented by the very Nature of Pondero$ity, by
which they are pre$$ed downwards, either by
$ome Super$tructure, or by that which is in the
Wedges them$elves. This makes <I>Varro</I> $ay,
that in Arches, the Work on the right Hand
is keptup no le$s by that on the Left, than the
Work on the Left is by that on the Right. And
if we look only into the Thing it$elf; how is
it po$$ible for the middle Wedge at Top, which
is the Key-$tone to the Whole, to thru$t out
either of the two next Side Wedges, or how
can that be driven out of its Place by them?
The next Wedges al$o in the Turn of the
Arch, being ju$tly counterpoi$ed, will $urely
$tand to their Duty; and la$tly, how can the
two Wedges under the two Feet of the Arch,
ever be moved while the upper ones $tand firm?
Therefore we have no need of a Cord, or Bar
in an entire Arch, becau$e it $upports it$elf
by its own Strength; but in dimini$h'd
Arches there is Occa$ion either for an Iron
Chain or Bar, or for an Exten$ion of Wall on
both Sides, that may have the Effect of a Bar
to $upply the Want of Strength, that there is
in the dimini$h'd Arch, and make it equal to
the Entire. The ancient Architects always
u$e the$e Precautions, and where-ever it was
po$$ible, con$tantly $ecured their dimini$h'd
Arches, by $etting them in a good Body of
Wall. They al$o endeavour'd, if they had an
Opportunity, to turn their imperfect Arches
upon a $trait Beam; and over the$e imperfect
ones, they u$ed to turn entire Arches, which
protected the dimini$hed ones which were
within them, and took upon them$elves the
Burthen of the Super$tructure. As for Com-
po$ite Arches, we do not find any of them in
the Buildings of the Ancients; $ome think
them not ami$s for the Apertures in Towers;
becau$e they $uppo$e they will cleave
the great Weight that is laid upon
them, as the Prow of a Ship does the Water,
and that they are rather $trengthened than op-
pre$s'd by it.</P>
<P>THE Stones u$ed in Building an Arch,
$hould be every Way the bigge$t that can be
got; becau$e the Parts of any Body that are
united and compacted by Nature, are more
in$eparable than tho$e which are join'd and
cemented by Art. The Stones al$o ought to
be equal on both Sides, as if they were balan-
ced with re$pect to their Fronts, Sizes, Weight,
and the like. If you are to make a Portico, and
to draw $everal Arches over continued Aper-
tures, from the Capitals of Columns, never let
the Seat from which two or more Arches are
to ri$e, be made of two Pieces, or of as many
as there are to be Arches, but only of one
$ingle Stone, and that as $trong as may be, to
hold together the Feet of all the Arches. The
$econd Stones in the Arch, which ri$e next to
the$e, if they are large Pieces, mu$t be $et
<foot>Q with</foot>
<p n=>58</p>
with their Backs again$t each other, joining
perpendicularly. The third Stone which is
laid upon the$e $econd ones, mu$t be $et
by the Plum-lines, as we directed in rai$ing
the Wall, with even Joinings, $o that they
may $erve both the Arches, and be a Binding
to both their Wedges. Let the Lines of the
Joinings of all the Stones in the Arch point
exactly to the Centre of that Arch.</P>
<P>THE mo$t skillful Workmen always make
the Key-$tone of one $ingle Piece, very large
and $trong; and if the Breadth of the Top is
$o great, that no one Stone will $uffice, it will
then be no longer only an Arch, but a vaul-
ted Roof.</P>
<head>CHAP. XIV.</head>
<head><I>Of the $everal Sorts of Vaults, and wherein they differ; of what Lines they
are compo$ed, and the Method of letting them $ettle.</I></head>
<P>There are $everal Sorts of Vaults; $o
that it is our Bu$ine$s here to enquire
wherein they differ, and of what Lines they
are compo$ed; in doing of which, I $hall be
obliged to invent new Names, to make my$elf
clear and per$picuous, which is what I have
principally $tudied in the$e Books. I know
<I>Ennius</I> the Poet calls the Arch of the Heavens
the mighty Vaults; and <I>Servius</I> calls all Vaults
made like the Keel of a Ship, Caverns: But I
claim this Liberty; that whatever in this Work,
is expre$$ed aptly, clearly, and properly, $hall
be allowed to be expre$$ed right. The differ-
ent Sorts of Vaults are the$e, the plain Vault,
the Camerated, or mixed Vault, and the he-
mi$pherical Vault, or Cupola; be$ides tho$e
others which partake of the Kind of $ome of
the$e. The Cupola in its Nature is never
placed but upon Walls that ri$e from a cir-
cular Platform: The Camerated are proper for
a $quare one; the plain Vaults are made over
any quadrangular Platform, whether long or
$hort, as we $ee in all $ub<*>erraneous Porticoes.
Tho$e Vaults too which are like a Hill bored
through, we al$o call plain Vaults; the plain
Vault therefore, is like a Number of Arches
join'd together Sideways; or like a bent Beam
extended out in Breadth, $o as to make a Kind
of a Wall turn'd with a Sweep over our
Heads for a Covering. But if $uch a Vault
as this, running from North to South, hap-
pens to be cro$s'd by another which runs from
Ea$t to We$t, and inter$ects it with equal
Lines meeting at the Angles like crooked
Horns, this will make a Vault of the Camer-
ated Sort. But if a great Number of equal
Arches meet at the Top exactly in the Centre,
they con$titute a Vault like the Sky, which
therefore we call the Hemi$pherical, or com-
pleat Cupola. The Vaults made of Part of
the$e, are as follows: If Nature with an even
and perpendicular Section, were to divide the
Hemi$phere of the Heavens in two Parts, from
Ea$t to We$t, it would make two Vaults,
which would be proper Coverings for any
$emi-circular Building. But if from the Angle
at the Ea$t, to that at the South, and from the
South to the We$t, thence to the North, and
$o back again to the Ea$t, if Nature were to
break and interrupt this Hemi$phere by $o
many Arches turn'd from Angle to Angle,
$he would then leave a Vault in the Middle,
which for its Re$emblance to a $welling Sail,
we will venture to call a Velar Cupola. But
that Vault which con$i$ts of a Number of
plain Vaults meeting in a Point at Top, we
$hall call an Angular Cupola.</P>
<P>IN the Con$truction of Vaults, we mu$t
ob$erve the $ame Rules as in that of the Walls,
carrying on the Ribs of the Wall clear up to
the Summit of the Vault; and according to
the Method pre$cribed for the Former, ob$erv-
ing the $ame Proportions and Di$tances: From
Rib to Rib, we mu$t draw Ligatures cro$$ways,
and the Inter$paces we mu$t fill up with Stuf-
fing. But the Difference between the Work-
ing of a Vault and a Wall, lies in this; that
in the Wall the Cour$es of Stone are laid even
and perpendicular by the Square and Plum-
line; whereas, in the Vault the Cour$es are
laid by a curve Line, and the Joints all point
to the Centre of their Arch.</P>
<P>THE Ancients hardly ever made their Ribs
of any but burnt Bricks, and tho$e generally
about two Foot long, and advi$e to fill up the
Inter$paces of our Vaults with the lighte$t
Stone, that they might not oppre$s the Wall
with too great a Weight. But I have ob$erved
that $ome have not always thought them$elves
obliged to make continued $olid Ribs, but in
their $tead, have at certain Di$tances, $et Bricks
lying Sideways, with their Heads jointing into
<foot>each</foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 8. <I>(Page 59)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>59</p>
each other, like the Teeth of a Comb; as a Man
locks his right Hand Fingers into his left; and
the Inter$paces they filled up with any common
Stone, and e$pecially with Pumice Stone, which
is univer$ally agreed to be the propere$t of all,
for the $tuffing Work of Vaults. In building
either Arches or Vaults, we mu$t make u$e of
Centres. The$e are a Kind of Frames made
with the Sweep of an Arch of any rough Boards
ju$t clapt together for a $hort Service, and
covered either with Hurdles, Ru$hes, or any
$uch common Stuff, in order to $upport the
Work till it is $ettled and hardened. Yet there
is one $ort of Vault which $tands in no Need
of the$e Machines, and that is the <I>perfect
Cupola;</I> becau$e it is compo$ed not only of
Arches, but al$o, in a Manner, of Cornices.
And who can conceive the innumerable Liga-
tures that there are in the$e, which all wedge
together, and inter$ect one another both with
equal and unequal Angles? So that in what$o-
ever Part of the whole Cupola you lay a Stone,
or a Brick, you may be $aid at the $ame time
to have laid a Key-$tone to an infinite Number,
both of Arches, and Cornices. And when
the$e Cornices, or Arches are thus built one
upon the other, if the Work were inclined to
ruinate, where $hould it begin, when the Joints
of every Stone are directed to one Centre with
equal Force and pre$$ure? Some of the Ancients
tru$ted $o much to the Firmne$s of this Sort of
Structure, that they only made plain Cornices
of Brick at $tated Di$tances, and filled up the
Inter$paces with Rubble. But I think, tho$e
acted much more prudently, who in rai$ing
this Sort of Cupola, u$ed the $ame Methods as
in Walling, to cramp and fa$ten the under
Cornices to the next above, and the Arches
too in $everal Places, e$pecially if they had not
plenty of Pit Sand to make very good Cement,
or if the Building was expo$ed to South Winds,
or Bla$ts from the Sea. You may likewi$e
turn the Angular Cupolas without a Centre,
if you make a perfect one in the Middle of the
Thickne$s of the Work. But here you will
have particular Occa$ion for Ligatures to fa$ten
the weaker Parts of the outer one tightly to
the $tronger Parts of that within. Yet it will
be nece$$ary when you have laid one or two
Rows of Stone to make little light Stays, or
Catchers jutting out, on which, when tho$e
Rows are $ettled, you may $et ju$t Frame-work
enough to $upport the next Cour$es above, to
the Height of a few Feet, till they are $ufficiently
hardened; and then you may remove the$e
Frames, or Supports, higher and higher to
the other Cour$es till you have fini$h'd the
<marg>*</marg>
whole Work. The other Vaults, both plain and
mixed, or camerated, mu$t needs be turn'd
upon Centres. But I would have the fir$t
Cour$es, and the Heads of their Arches be
placed upon very $trong Seats; nor can I ap-
prove the Method of tho$e who carry the
Wall clear up fir$t, only leaving $ome Mould-
ings, or Corbels, upon which, after a Time,
they turn their Arches; which mu$t be a very
infirm and peri$hable Sort of Work. The
true Way is to turn the Arch immediately,
and equally with the Cour$es of the Wall
which is to $upport it, that the Work may
have the $tronge$t Ligatures that is po$$ible,
and grow in a Manner all of one Piece. The
Vacuities which are left between the Back of
the Sweep of the Arch, and the Upright of
the Wall it is turn'd from, call'd by Work-
men, the <I>Hips</I> of the Arch, $hould be fill'd
up, not with Dirt, or old Rubbi$h, but rather
with $trong ordinary Work, frequently knit
and jointed into the Wall.</P>
<P>I AM plea$ed with tho$e who, to avoid over-
burthening the Arch, have $tuffed up the$e
Vacuities with earthen Pots, turn'd with their
Mouths downwards, that they might not con-
tain any wet, if it $hould gather there, and
over the$e thrown in Fragments of Stone not
heavy, but perfecty $ound. La$tly, in all Man-
ner of Vaults, let them be of what Kind they
will, we ought to imitate Nature, who, when
$he has knit the Bones, fa$tens the Fle$h with
Nerves, interweaving it every where with Li-
gatures running in Breadth, Length, Height
and circularly. This artful Contexture is what
we ought to imitate in the joining of Stones
in Vaults. The$e Things being compleated,
the next, and la$t Bu$ine$s is to cover them
over; a Work of the greate$t Con$equence in
Building, and no le$s difficult than nece$$ary;
in effecting, and compleating of which, the
utmo$t Care and Study has been over and over
employed. Of this we are to treat; but fir$t,
it will be proper to mention $omething nece$-
$ary to be ob$erved in working of Vaults; for
different Methods are to be taken in the Exe-
cution of different Sorts: Tho$e which are
turn'd upon Centres mu$t be fini$h'd out of
hand, without Intermi$$ion; but tho$e which
are wrought without Centres mu$t be di$con-
tinued, and left to $ettle Cour$e by Cour$e,
left new Work being added to the fir$t before
it is dry, $hould ruin the Whole. As to tho$e
<foot>which</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 8, facing page 58.</I></foot>
<p n=>60</p>
which are turned upon Centres, when they are
clo$ed with their Key-$tones, it will be proper
immediately to ea$e the Props a little, that
tho$e Centres re$t upon; not only to prevent
the Stones fre$h laid from floating in the Beds
of Mortar they are $et in, but that the whole
Vault may $ink and clo$e by its own Weight
epually, into its right Seat: Otherwi$e in drying,
the Work would not compact it$elf as it ought,
but would be apt to leave Cracks when it came
afterwards to $ettle. And therefore you mu$t
not quite take away the Centre immediately,
but let it down ea$ily Day after Day, by little
and little, for Fear, if you $hould take it away
too $oon, the Building $hould never duly cement.
But after a certain Number of Days, according
to the Greatne$s of the Work, ea$eit a little, and
$o go on gradually, till the Wedges all compact
them$elves in their Places, and are perfectly
$ettled. The be$t Way of letting down the
Frame is this: When you place your Centre
upon the Pila$ters, or whatever el$e it is to
re$t upon, put under each of its Feet two
Wedges of Wood; aud when afterwards you
want to let it down, you may with a Ham-
mer $afely drive out the$e Wedges by little
and little, as you $hall judge proper.</P>
<P>LASTLY, it is my Opinion, that the Centres
ought not to be taken away till after Winter,
as well for other Rea$ons, as becau$e the
Wa$hing of the Rains may weaken and de-
moli$h the whole Structure; though el$e we
cannot do greater Service to a Vault than to
give it Water enough, and to let it be
thoroughly $oak'd, that it may never feel Thir$t.
But of this Subject we have $aid enough.</P>
<head>CHAP. XV.</head>
<head><I>Of the Shell of the Covering, and its U$efulne$s; the different Sorts and
Shapes of Tiles, and what to make them of.</I></head>
<P>I now come to cover the Roof. And cer-
tainly, if we weigh the Matter duly, there
is no Convenience in the whole Building
greater than the having Shelter from the burn-
ing Sun, and the inclement Sea$ons; and this
is a Benefit which you owe the Continuance
of, not to the Wall, nor to Area, nor any of
the$e; but principally to the outward Shell of
the Roof; which all the Art and Indu$try of
Man, though they have tried all Means, has
not yet been able to make $o $trong and im-
penetrable again$t the Weather as might be
wi$h'd: Nor do I think, it will be an ea$y
Matter to do it; for where, not only Rains,
but Extremes of Heat and Cold, and above
all, blu$tering Storms of Wind, are continu-
ally a$$aulting the $ame Place; what Mate-
rials are $trong enough to re$i$t $uch unwearied
and powerful Adver$aries? Hence it happens,
that $ome Coverings pre$ently rot, others open,
others oppre$s the Wall, $ome crack, or break,
others are wa$hed away; in$omuch, that even
Metals, which are $o hardy again$t the Wea-
ther, in other Places, are not here able to hold
out again$t $uch frequent A$$aults. But Men
not de$pi$ing $uch Materials as Nature furni$h-
ed them with in their re$pective Countries,
have provided again$t the$e Inconveniences as
well as they were able; and hence aro$e various
Methods of Covering in a Building. <I>Vitruvi-
us</I> tells us, that the <I>Pyrgen$es</I> covered their
Hou$es with Reeds, and the People of <I>Mar-
$eilles</I> with Clay kneaded, and mixed with
Straw. The <I>Chelonophagi,</I> near the <I>Garaman-
tes, Pliny</I> tells us, cover'd theirs with the
Shells of Tortoi$es. The greate$t Part of <I>Ger-
many</I> u$e Shingles. In <I>Flanders</I> and <I>Picardy,</I>
they cut a white Sort of Stone which they
have (which Saws ea$ier than Wood it$elf) in-
to their Scantlings, which they u$e in$tead of
Tiles. The <I>Genoueze,</I> and <I>Florentines</I> u$e thin
Pieces of a $caly Sort of Stone. Others have
tried the Pargets, which we $hall $peak of by
and by. But after having made Experiment of
every Thing, the Wit and Invention of Man
has found out nothing yet more convenient
than Tiles of baked Clay. For all Sorts of
Parget grow rugged in Fro$ts, and $o crack and
break: Lead is melted by the Sun's Heat:
Bra$s, if laid in thick Plates, is very co$tly;
and if it is thin, it is apt to warp, and to be
eaten and con$umed with Ru$t.</P>
<P>ONE <I>Grinias</I> of <I>Cyprus,</I> the Son of a Pea-
$ant, is $aid to be the Inventer of Tiles, which
are of two Sorts, the one broad and flat, one
Foot broad, and a Foot and a half long,
<foot>with</foot>
<p n=>61</p>
with Rims of each Side, a ninth Part of its
Breadth, which is call'd a Gutter-tile; the
other round, like Greaves, (a Piece of Armour
for the Legs,) which is called a Ridge-tile;
both broader in that Part which is to receive
the Rain, and narrower in that from which
they are to di$charge it. But the Plain, or
Gutter-tiles are the mo$t Commodius, pro-
vided they are laid exactly even, $o as not to
lean of either Side, nor to make either Vallies
or Hilocks to $top the Current of the Water,
or to let it $ettle in, nor to leave any Cranny
uncover'd. If the Superficies of the Roof is
very large, it requires bigger Gutter-tiles, that
the Rain may not overflow them for want of
a $ufficient Receptacle. To prevent the Fury
of the Wind from ripping off the Tiles, I
would have them all fa$tened with Mortar;
e$pecially in publick Buildings: But in private
Ones, it will be enough if you $ecure only the
Gutter-tiles from that Violence, becau$e what-
ever Mi$chief is done, is ea$ily repair'd. There
is another very convenient Way of Tiling, in
this Manner: If in Timber Roofs, in$tead of
Planks, you lay along the Girders Squares of
baked Clay, fa$ten'd with Plai$ter of <I>Paris,</I> and
over the$e Squares lay your Tiles with Mortar,
it will be a Covering very $ecure again$t Fire,
and very commodious to the Inhabitants; and
it will be le$s expen$ive, if, in$tead of Squares,
you underlay it with Reeds, bound with Mor-
tar. I would not have you u$e your Tiles,
and e$pecially tho$e which you lay with Mor-
tar, in publick Works, till they have $upported
the Fro$t and Sun two Years; becau$e, if you
happen to u$e any bad ones, there is no taking
them out again without a good deal of
Trouble and Expence. It may not be ami$s
here to mention what I have read in <I>Diodorus</I>
the Hi$torian, relating to the famous hanging
Gardens in <I>Syria,</I> which were contrived with
a new, and not unu$eful Invention: For upon
the Beams they laid Ru$hes dawb'd over with
Pitch, and on the$e two Rows of baked
Bricks, one above the other, cemented with
Mortar; and in the third Place, they laid
Plates of Lead $o di$po$ed, and fa$ten'd to-
gether, that not the lea$t wet could penetrate
to the Brick.</P>
<head>CHAP. XVI.</head>
<P><I>Of Pavements according to the Opinion of</I> Pliny <I>and</I> Vitruvius, <I>and the Works
of the Ancients; and of the proper Sea$ons for Beginning and Fini$hing
the $everal Parts of Building.</I></P>
<P>We come now to treat of Pavements,
which al$o partake $omewhat of the
Nature of Coverings. Of the$e, $ome are
open to the Air; others are laid upon Rafters
and Boards, others not: All require for their
Foundation a $olid, and even Superficies, laid
exactly according to their proper Lines. Tho$e
which are open to the Air ought to be rai$ed
in $uch a Manner, that every ten Foot may
have a Declivity of, at lea$t, two Inches, to
throw off the Water, which ought to be con-
veyed from thence either into Ci$terns or
Sinks. If from the$e Sinks you have not the
Conveniency of a Drain, either into the Sea,
or $ome River, dig Pits for the Soil in conve-
nient Places, $o deep as to come to $ome Spring
of Water, and then fill up tho$e Pits with
round Pebbles.</P>
<P>LASTLY, if you have no Opportunity to
do this, make good large Sinks, and fling
Coals into them, and then fill them up with
Sand, which will $uck up, and dry away the
$uperfluous Moi$ture. If the Superficies that
your Pavement is to be laid upon, is a $oft
loo$e Earth, ram it $oundly, and lay it over
with broken Fragments of Stone, well beat in
with the Rammer al$o: But if the Pavement
is to be upon Rafters, cover them over with
Boards, and upon them lay your Rubbi$h or
Fragments of Stone a Foot high, and beaten
together, and con$olidated with the Rammer.
Some are of Opinion, that under the$e we
ought to lay Fern, or Spart, to keep the Mor-
tar from rotting the Timber. If your Rub-
bi$h is of new Stone, allow one Part of Mortar
to three of Rubbi$h; if it is of old, you mu$t
allow two Parts in five; and when it is laid,
the Way to $tiffen it, is to pound it heartily
with the Rammer. Over the$e you lay a
Plai$ter $ix Inches high, made of broken
Tiles, or Bricks pounded, mix'd with one
fourth Part of Mortar; and upon this, la$tly,
you lay your Pavement, of what$oever Sort it
is, whether of Brick or Tile, exactly by Rule
<foot>R and</foot>
<p n=>62</p>
and Level. The Work will be more $ecure
$till, if between the Rubbi$h, and the Plai$ter
you lay a Row of plain Tiles cemented with
Mortar, mixed up with Oil. As for Pave-
ments which are not to be expo$ed to the open
Air. <I>Varro</I> directs us to make them in the
following Manner, which he tells us will be
very $erviceable by means of its extraordinary
Dryne$s: Dig two Foot deep into the Ground,
then ram the Bottom $oundly, and lay a Pave-
ment, either of Rubbi$h, or broken Brick,
leaving Vent-holes for the Vapours to di$charge
them$elves; over this lay Coals well levell'd,
and ramm'd down, and over all a Cru$t made
of Sand, Mortar, and A$hes. The$e Things
already mention'd, we have gathered from
<I>Pliny</I> and <I>Vitruvius</I> e$pecially: I will now $et
down what I have with great Pains and Labour
di$covered relating to Pavements from the
actual Works of the Ancients; from whence,
I con$e$s, I have learnt much more than from
their Writings. We will begin with the Out-
ward Shell, which it is very difficult to make,
$o as it $hall not rot, or crack: For when once
it has been thoroughly $oak'd with wet, and
comes to dry again, either by Sun, or Wind,
it dries by Scales, and as we $ee in Mud left
after Floods, the upper Coat $hrinks, and
leaves Cracks which cannot be filled up; for
tho$e Parts which are dried and hardened,
cannot be made to cohere again by any Art
what$oever, and tho$e which are $till moi$t,
yield and give Way to the lea$t Violence. I
find the Ancients made their Shell either of
baked Earth, or of Stone; and where Mens
Feet were not to tread, they made their Tiles
$ometimes a Foot and a half every Way, ce-
mented with Mortar mixed up with Oil; we
al$o $ometimes meet with $mall Bricks one
Inch in Thickne$s, two in Breadth, and four in
Length, join'd Sideways like a Fi$h's Back-
bone. We often find Pavements of very large
Slabs of Marble, and others again of $maller
Pieces, and little Squares. There are other An-
cient Pavements made all of one Piece, which
I $uppo$e, was a Mixture of Lime, Sand, and
pounded Brick, of each a third Part: which
may be made more $trong and la$ting yet, by
the Addition of one fourth Part of <I>Tyber</I>-
Stone, beat to Powder. Others in this Sort of
Plai$ter mightily commend the Sand of <I>Poz-
zuolo,</I> which they call <I>Rapillo.</I> Plai$ter that is
de$igned for Pavements mu$t be tried by con-
tinual beating, whereby it will daily acquire
greater Stiffne$s and Hardne$s, till it comes to be
in a Manner firmer than Stone it$elf<*> And it
is certain, that if this Plai$ter is $prinkled with
Lime-water, and Lin$eed-oil, it will grow
almo$t as hard as Gla$s, and de$y all Manner of
Weather. Mortar worked up with Oil, is $aid
in Pavements to keep out every Thing that is
noxious. Under the Shell I ob$erve they made
a Layer of Mortar, and $mall Pieces of broken
Brick, of the Thickne$s of two or three Inches.
Next to this we find a Cour$e of Rubbi$h, of
Bits of Bricks and Chippings of Stone, $uch as
the Ma$ons cut off with their Chizzel, and this
is about a Foot in Thickne$s. In $ome Places
betwixt the$e two Cour$es, we find a regular
one of baked Tile, or Brick, and at the Bottom
of all a Layer of Stones, none bigger than a
Man's Fi$t. The Stones found in Rivers,
which are called Male ones, as for In$tance,
tho$e round ones which partake of the Nature
of Flint, or Gla$s, grow dry immediately when
they are taken out of the Water, whereas Brick
and ordinary Stone retain Moi$ture a long
Time; for which Rea$on, many affirm that the
Damps which ari$e out of the Earth will never
be able to penetrate to the Shell of the Pave-
ment, if it is underlaid with tho$e Stones. We
$ometimes find that they made little $quare
Pila$ters a Foot and a half high next to the
Ground, $tanding about two Foot di$tance one
from the other, upon which they laid baked
Tiles, and upon the$e the Pavement above-
mention'd. But this Kind of Pavement belongs
chiefly to Baths; of which we $hall treat in
their proper Place. Pavements delight in
Damps, and a wet Air, while they are making,
and endure be$t and longe$t in moi$t and $hady
Places; and their chief Enemies are the Loo$e-
ne$s of the Earth, and $udden Droughts. For
as repeated Rains make the Ground clo$e and
firm, $o Pavements being heartily wetted, grow
compact, and hard as Iron. That Part of the
Pavement which is to receive the Water falling
from the Gutters, ought to be made of the
large$t and $ounde$t Stones, $uch as will not
ea$ily be worn away by the continual Malice
(if we may $o call it) of the Spouts that fall
upon them. In $uch Pavements as are laid
upon Timber-work, or Roofing, you mu$t take
Care that the Ribs upon which it re$ts are
$ufficiently $trong, and equal one to the other;
for if it $hould be otherwife, or one Wall, or
Rafter which it lies upon, $hould be $tronger
than another, the Pavement would decay and
$plit in that Part; for as Timber-work will
not always keep exactly in the $ame Condition,
<foot>but</foot>
<p n=>63</p>
but is affected and altered by the Variety of
Weather, being $well'd by wet, and dried and
$hrunk by Heat, it is no Wonder that the wea-
ker Parts $hould $ink under the Weight, and
$o crack the Pavement. But of this we have
$aid enough.</P>
<P>HOWEVER, I will not pa$s over one Thing
which is not at all foreign to our Purpo$e,
namely, that different Times and Sea$ons, and
Di$po$itions of the Air, are proper for digging
the Foundations, filling them up, rai$ing the
Wall, turning of Vaults, and fini$hing the
Shells. The Foundations are be$t dug while
the Sun is in <I>Leo,</I> and in <I>Autumn,</I> the Ground
being then thoroughly dry, which will keep
your Trench from being infe$ted with Water.
The Spring is very convenient for filling them
up, e$pecially if they are pretty deep; becau$e
they will be $ufficiently defended from the
Heat of the Summer, by means of the Ground
which $tands about them as their Protector;
though it will be $till more convenient to fill
them up in the Beginning of Winter, unle$s in
Countries near the Pole, or in $uch cold
Climates where they will be likely to freeze
before they are dry. The Wall too abhors
both exce$$ive Heat, exce$$ive Cold, and $ud-
den Fro$ts, and e$pecially Northerly Winds.
Vaults, till they are dry and $ettled, require
an equal and temperate Sea$on, more than
any other Sort of Structure. The be$t Time
for laying on the Coat is about the ri$ing of
the Stars, call'd the <I>Pleiadas,</I> (which is in
Spring) and particularly $uch Days as have
been $ufficiently moi$tened with $outherly
Breezes; for if the Work which you are to
plai$ter over, or white-wa$h, is not extreamly
moi$t, nothing that you lay on will $tick to it,
but it will part and crack, and always look
rough and $candalous. But of Plai$tering and
Stuc-work we $hall treat more largely in its
proper Place. Having now gone through the
general Con$ideration of our Subject, it remains
that we de$cend to Particulars; and accor-
dingly we de$ign to $hew fir$t the different
Sorts of Buildings, and the Qualities requi$ite
in each of them; then their Ornaments; and
la$tly, how to remedy $uch Defects in them as
are owing either to the Fault of the Workman,
or the Injury of Time.</P>
<head><I>The End of Book</I> III.</head>
<fig>
<pb>
<fig>
<head>THE
<B>ARCHITECTURE</B>
OF
<B><I>Leone Bati$ta Alberti.</I></B></head>
<head>BOOK IV. CHAP. I.</head>
<P><I>Of Works of a publick Nature. That all Buildings, whether contrived for
Nece$$ity, Conveniency or Plea$ure, were intended for the Service of Man-
kind. Of the $everal Divi$ions of humane Conditions, whence ari$es the
Diver$ity of Buildings.</I></P>
<P>It is plain that Building was in-
vented for the Service of Man-
kind; for if we con$ider the
Matter ever $o little, it is natural
to $uppo$e that their fir$t De$ign
was only to rai$e a Structure that might de-
fend them and theirs from the ill Qualities of
the Weather; afterwards they proceeded to
make not only every Thing that was ne-
ce$$ary to their Safety, but al$o every Thing
that might be convenient or u$eful to them.
At la$t, in$tructed and allured by the Oppor-
tunities that naturally offer'd them$elves, they
began to contrive how to make their Build-
ings $ub$ervient to their Plea$ures and Recre-
adons, and proceeded every Day further and
further in $o doing: So that if upon con$ider-
ing the various Sorts of Buildings, we
$hould $ay, that $ome were contrived by Ne-
ce$$ity, $ome by Convenience, and $ome by
Plea$ure, it might, perhaps, be no ill Defini-
tion of the Matter. Yet when we take a View
of the great Plenty and Variety of Buildings
all about us, we ea$ily perceive that all were
not erected merely upon tho$e Accounts, or
for one Occa$ion more than another, but that
this great Variety and Difference among them,
are owing principally to the Variety there is
among Mankind. So that, if according to
our Method we would make a careful Enquiry
into their Sorts and Parts, it is here that we
mu$t begin our Di$qui$ition, namely, from the
Nature of Mankind, and wherein they differ
from one another; $ince upon their Account
it is that Buildings are erected, and for their
U$es varied: So that having thoroughly con-
$idered the$e Things, we may treat of them
more clearly. For this Purpo$e, it will not
be ami$s to recollect the Opinions of the wi$e
Founders of ancient Republicks and Laws con-
<foot>cerning</foot>
<p n=>65</p>
cerning the Divi$ion of the People into differ-
ent Orders; in as much as they applied them-
$elves to the Con$ideration of the$e Things
with the greate$t Care, Diligence and Appli-
cation, and have received the highe$t Applau$es
for their Di$coveries.</P>
<P><I>Plutarch</I> tells us, that <I>The$eus</I> divided the
Commonwealth into two Ranks, one that made
and expounded the Laws, both Humane and
Divine, and the other that follow'd manual Oc-
cupations. <I>Solon</I> di$tingui$h'd his Citizens
according to their Wealth, and $uch as did not
rai$e from their Po$$e$$ions three hundred
Bu$hels of Grain every Year, he reckon'd $carce
worthy to be e$teem'd a Citizen. The <I>Athenians</I>
gave the fir$t Rank to Men of Learning and
Wi$dom; the $econd to the Orators, and the
la$t to Artificers. <I>Romul&ugrave;s</I> $eparated the Knights
and <I>Patricians</I> from the <I>Plebeians;</I> and <I>Numa</I>
divided the <I>Plebeians</I> according to their re-
$pective Employments. In <I>France</I> the <I>Plebeians</I>
were in a Manner Slaves; the re$t, $ays <I>C&aelig;$ar,</I>
were either Soldiers, or Profe$$ors of Religion,
or the Study of Wi$dom, whom they call'd
<I>Druids.</I> Among the <I>Panch&aelig;i</I> the fir$t were
the Prie$ts; the $econd, the Husbandmen,
and the la$t, the Soldiers, with whom were
reckon'd the Shepherds, and Tenders of Herds.
The <I>Britons</I> were divided into four Orders;
the fir$t were tho$e out of who$e Number
they cho$e their King; the $econd were the
Prie$ts; the third, the Soldiers, and the la$t
the common People. The <I>&AElig;gyptians</I> gave the
fir$t Rank to their Prie$ts; the $econd to their
King and Governours; the third to the Sol-
diers, and the re$t of the People were $ubdi-
vided into Husbandmen, Shepherds, and Ar-
tificers, and further, as <I>Herodotus</I> informs us,
into Mercenaries, and Seamen. We are told, that
<I>Hipodamus</I> divided his Republic into three Parts,
Artificers, Husbandmen, and Soldiers. <I>Ari$totle</I>
$eems not di$plea$ed with tho$e who $eparated
from the Multitude $ome Men of greate$t
Worth to manage their Coun$els, and exerci$e
their Office of Magi$tracy and Judicature, and
divided the Remainder of the People into
Husbandmen, Artificers, Merchants, Merce-
naries, Hor$e, Foot and Seamen. Not much
unlike this, according to <I>Diodorus</I> the Hi$to-
rian, was the Commonwealth of the <I>Indians,</I>
who were di$tingui$hed into Prie$ts, Husband-
men, Shepherds, Artificers, Soldiers, Ephori,
or Super-intendants, and tho$e who pre$ided
over the publick Coun$els.</P>
<P><I>Plato</I> ob$erves that a Nation is $ometimes
peaceable and de$irous of Quiet and Repo$e;
and at other Times re$tle$s and warlike, ac-
cording to the Temper of tho$e at the Helm;
and therefore he divides the Body of the Citi-
zens according to the Parts of the Mind of
Man; one to moderate every Thing with
Rea$on and Coun$el; another to re$ent and
repel Injuries with Force; and a third to
prepare and admini$ter Nouri$hment to all
the re$t. The$e Things I have thus briefly
recited out of numorous Writings of the An-
cients; and the natural Re$ult $eems to be
this, that all the$e which I have mentioned
are every one of them different Parts of the
Republick, and con$equently that each re-
quires a particular Kind of Building. But
that according to our Cu$tom we may be
able to treat of this Subject more di$tinctly, it
will not be ami$s to reflect upon the follow-
ing Con$iderations: If any one were to $epa-
rate the whole Number of Mankind into dif-
ferent Parts, the fir$t Thing that would offer
it$elf to his Thoughts would be this; that it
is not the $ame Thing to con$ider all the In-
habitants of any one Province all together
collectively, and to con$ider them $eparately
according to their re$pective Di$tinctions; and
the next Thing would be, that by a Contem-
plation of Nature it$elf, he would take Notice
in what Particular they differ'd mo$t from
one another, that from thence he might take
Occa$ion to $eparate them into their proper
Divi$ions. Now there is nothing wherein Men
differ more one from the other, than in the
very particular wherein they differ from
Brutes; namely, in Rea$on, and the Know-
ledge of u$eful Arts, to which, if you plea$e,
you may add Pro$perity of Fortune: In all
which Gifts there are very few that excel at
the $ame Time. This then opens to us our
fir$t Divi$ion, and in$tructs us to $elect from
the Multitude, a $mall Number, whereof $ome
are illu$trious for their Wi$dom, Experience
and Capacity; others for their Progre$s, and
Knowledge in u$eful Arts; and others, la$tly,
for their Riches, and Abundance in the Goods
of Fortune. And who will deny that the$e
are the mo$t fit to be intru$ted with the prin-
cipal Offices in the Commonwealth? The
mo$t excellent Per$ons, therefore, who are
endued with the greate$t Share of Wi$dom,
ought to be intru$ted with the chief Care and
Power of moderating in all Affairs. Such
<foot>S will</foot>
<p n=>66</p>
will order the $acred Ceremonies with religious
Minds, and frame Laws with Ju$tice and
Equity, and them$elves $et the Example of
Living orderly and happily. They will watch
continually for the Defence and Enlargement
of the Authority and Dignity of their Fellow-
Citizens. And when they have determined
upon any Thing convement, u$eful, or nece$-
$ary; being perhaps them$elves worn out
with Years, and fitter for Contemplation than
Action, they will commit the Execution of it
to $uch as they know to be well experienced,
and brisk and courageous to bring the Matter
to effect, to whom they will give an Oppor-
tunity of de$erving well of their Country, by
the Pro$ecution of their De$ign. Then the$e
others, having taken the Bu$ine$s upon them-
$elves, will faithfully perform their Parts at
home with Study and Application, and abroad
with Diligence and Labour, giving Judgment,
leading Armies, and exerci$ing their own In-
du$try, and that of tho$e who are under them.
And la$tly, as it is in vain to think of effecting
any Thing without Means, the next in Place
to tho$e already mentioned are $uch as $upply
the$e with their Wealth, either by Husbandry
or Merchandize. All the other Orders of
Men ought in Rea$on to obey and be $ub-
$ervient to the$e as chief. Now if any Thing
is to be gather'd from all this to our Purpo$e,
it is certainly that of the different Kinds of
Building, one Sort belongs to the Publick,
another to the principal Citizens, and another
to the Commonality.</P>
<P>AND again, among the principal Sort, one
is proper for tho$e who bear the Weight of
the publick Coun$els and Deliberations, an-
other for tho$e who are employ'd in the Exe-
cution, and another for $uch as apply them-
$elves to the ama$$ing of Wealth. Of all
which one Part, as we ob$erved before, having
Relation to Nece$$ity, and another to Con-
venience; it will be no Pre$umption in us
who are treating of Buildings to allow another
Part to Plca$ure, while in$tead of claiming
any Merit upon this Account to our$elves, we
confe$s that the Principles of this Divi$ion are
to be drawn from the fir$t Rudiments of the
Philo$ophers.</P>
<P>OF this, therefore, we are now to treat,
what belongs to a publick Building, what
to tho$e of the principal Citizens, and what
to tho$e of the common Sort. But where $hall
we begin $uch great Matters? Shall we follow
the gradual Cour$e of Mankind in their pro-
curing of all the$e, and $o beginning with the
mean Huts of poor People, go on by degrees
to tho$e va$t Structures which we $ee of Thea-
tres, Baths, and Temples. It is certain it was
a great while before Mankind enclo$ed their
Cities with Walls. Hi$torians tell us that
when <I>Bacchus</I> made his Progre$s thro' <I>India,</I>
he did not meet with one walled Town; and
<I>Thucydides</I> writes, that formerly there were
none in <I>Greece</I> it$elf: And in <I>Burgundy,</I> a
Province of <I>Gaul,</I> even in <I>C&aelig;$ar</I>'s Time, there
were no Towns encompa$s'd with Walls, but
the People dwelt up and down in Villages.
The fir$t City I find any Mention of is <I>Biblus,</I>
belonging to the <I>Ph&aelig;nicians,</I> which <I>Saturn</I>
girt in with a Wall drawn round all their
Hou$es: Whatever <I>Pomponius Mela</I> may $ay
of <I>Joppa</I> built even before the Flood. <I>Hero-
dotus</I> informs us, that while the <I>&AElig;thiopians</I>
had Po$$e$$ion of <I>&AElig;gypt,</I> they never puni$h'd
any Criminal with Death, but obliged him to
rai$e the Earth all round the Village he lived
in; and this, they $ay, was the fir$t Beginning
of Cities in <I>&AElig;gypt.</I> But we $hall $peak of
them in another Place. And though it mu$t
be confe$s'd that all humane Inventions take
their Ri$e from very $mall Beginnings, yet I
intend here to begin with the Works of the
greate$t Perfection.</P>
<head>CHAP. II.</head>
<P><I>Of the Region, Place, and Conveniencies and Inconveniencies of a Situation
for a City, according to the Opinion of the Ancients, and that of the
Author.</I></P>
<P>All the Citizens are concerned in every
Thing of a publick Nature that makes
Part of the City: And if we are convinced of
what the Philo$ophers teach, that the Occa$ion
and Rea$on of Building Cities is that the In-
habitants may dwell in them in Peace, and,
as far as po$$ibly may be, free from all Incon-
veniencies and Mole$tations, then certainly it
<foot>requires</foot>
<p n=>67</p>
requires the mo$t deliberate Con$ideration in
what Place or Situation, and with what Cir-
cuit of Lines i<*> ought to be fix'd. Concern-
ing the$e Things there have been various
Opinions.</P>
<P><I>C&aelig;$ar</I> writes, that the <I>Germans</I> accounted
it the greate$t Glory to have va$t uninhabited
De$arts for their Confines: Becau$e they
thought the$e De$arts $ecured them again$t
$udden Irruptions from their Enemies. The
Hi$torians $uppo$e that the only Thing which
deterr'd <I>Se$o$tris,</I> King of <I>&AElig;gypt,</I> from lead-
ing his Army into <I>&AElig;thiopia</I> was the Want of
Provi$ions, and the Difficulty of the Places
through which he mu$t march. The <I>A$$yrians</I>
being defended by their De$arts and Mar$hes,
never fell under the Dominion of any foreign
Prince. They $ay, that the <I>Arabians</I> too
wanting both Water and Fruits, never felt the
A$$aults, or Injuries of any Enemies. <I>Pliny</I>
$ays that <I>Italy</I> has been $o often infe$ted with
Armies of Barbarians only for the Sake of her
Wines and Figs: We may add that the too
great Plenty of $uch Things as $erve only to
Luxury, are very prejudicial, as <I>Crates</I> teaches,
both to Young and Old; becau$e it is apt to
make the Latter cruel, and the Former effe-
minate.</P>
<P><I>Livy</I> tells us, that among the <I>&AElig;merici</I> there
is a Region wonderfully fruitful, which as it
generally happens in rich Soils, engenders a
very cowardly weak Race of Men; whereas
on the contrary the <I>Ligii,</I> who dwelt in a
$tony Country, being forced to con$tant La-
bour, and to live with great Frugality, were
extremely robu$t and indu$trious. The State
of Things being $o, it is probable $ome may
not di$like the$e barren difficult Places for
fixing a City in; tho' others again may be of
a contrary Opinion, de$iring to enjoy all the
Benefits and Gifts of Nature, and to want no-
thing that may contribute either to Nece$$ity
or Plea$ure; and for the right u$ing of the$e
Benefits, the Fathers may provide by Laws
and Statutes. And they think the Conveni-
encies of Life are much more plea$ing when
they may be had at home, than when they are
obliged to fetch them from abroad: for which
Rea$on, they de$ire $uch a Soil as <I>Varro</I> tells us
is to be found near <I>Memphis,</I> which enjoys $o
favourable a Climate, that all the Trees even
the Vines them$elves, never drop their Leaves
the whole Year round: or $uch a one as is
under Mount <I>Taurus</I> in tho$e Parts which look
to the North, where <I>Strabo</I> $ays the Bunches of
Grapes are three Foot long, and that every
$ingle Vine Tree yields half a Barrel of Wine,
and one Fig Tree an hundred and forty
Pound Weight of Figs; or $uch a one as is
in <I>India,</I> or the <I>Hyperborean</I> I$land in the
Ocean, where <I>Herodotus</I> tells us they gather
their Fruits twice every Year; or like that of <I>Por-
tugal,</I> where the Seeds that fall by chance
yields $everal Harve$ts, or rather like <I>Talge,</I> in
the <I>Ca$pian</I> Mountains, where the Earth
brings forth Corn without Tillage. But the$e
Things are uncommon, and rather to be with'd
for than had. And therefore the wife An-
cients who have written upon this Subject,
either from their own Ob$ervations, or the
Books of others, are of Opinion, that a City
ought to be $o placed as to have all $ufficient
Nece$$aries within its own Territory (as far as
the Condition of human Affairs will permit)
without being obliged to $eek them abroad;
and that the Circuit of its Confines ought to
be fortified, that no Enemy can ea$ily make
an Irruption upon them, though at the $ame
time they may $end out Armies into the Coun-
tries of their Neighbours, whatever the Enemy
can do to prevent it; which is a Situation that
they tell us will enable a City not only to
defend its Liberty, but al$o to enlarge the
Bounds of its Dominion. But after all, what
$hall we $ay? No Place ever had tho$e Ad-
vantages more than <I>&AElig;gypt,</I> which was $o
$trongly fortified in all its Parts, as to be in a
Manner inacce$$ible, having on one Side, the
Sea, and on the other a va$t De$art; on the
right Hand $teep Mountains; and on the
Left, huge Mar$hes; be$ides, the Fruitfulne$s
of the Soil is $o great, that the Ancients u$ed
to call <I>Egypt</I> the Granary of the World, and
fabled that the Gods made it their common
Retreat either for Safety or Plea$ure; and yet
even this Country, though $o $trong, and $o
abounding in all Manner of Plenty, that it
could boa$t of feeding the Univer$e, and of
entertaining and harbouring the Gods them-
$elves, could not, as <I>Jo$ephus</I> informs us, al-
ways pre$erve its Liberty.</P>
<P>THOSE therefore are entirely in the Right,
who teach us, though in Fables, that human
Affairs are never per$ectly $ecure though laid
in the Lap of <I>Jupiter</I> him$elf. Upon which
Occa$ion we may not improperly make u$e of
the $ame An$wer that <I>Plato</I> made when he
was ask'd where that perfect Commonwealth
was to be found, which he had made $o fine
a De$cription of; that, $ays he, was not the
<foot>Thing</foot>
<p n=>68</p>
Thing I troubled my$elf about; all I $tudied
was how to frame the be$t that po$$ibly could
be, and that which deviates lea$t from a Re-
$emblance of this, ought to be preferred above
all the re$t. So our De$ign is to de$cribe and
illu$trate by Examples $uch a City as the wi$e$t
Men judge to be in all Re$pects the mo$t con-
venient; and in other Re$pects accommodat-
ing our$elves to Time and Nece$$ity, we $hall
follow the Opinion of <I>Socrates,</I> that whatever
cannot be alter'd but for the wor$e, is really
be$t. I lay it down therefore for granted, that
our City ought to be contrived as to $uffer
none of the Inconveniencies $poken of in the
fir$t Book, nor to want any of the Nece$$aries
of Life. Its Territory $hall be healthy, wide,
plea$ant, various, fruitful, $ecure, and abound-
ing with Plenty of Fruits, and great Quantities
of Water. It mu$t not want Rivers, Lakes,
and an open Pa$$age to the Sea for the con-
venient bringing in of $uch Things as are
wanted, and carrying out $uch as may be
$pared. All Things, in a Word, mu$t con-
tribute to the e$tabli$hing and improving all
Affairs both civil and military, whereby the
Commonwealth may be a Defence to its Sub-
jects, an Ornament to it$elf, a Plea$ure to its
Friends, and a Terror to its Enemies. I take
it to be a great Happine$s to any City, to be
able to cultivate a good hand$ome Part of its
Territory, in Spite of any Enemy what$oever.
Moreover your City ought to $tand in the
Middle of its Territory, in a Place from
whence it can have a View all round its Coun-
try, and watch its Opportunities, and be ready
where-ever Nece$$ity calls, which may lie con-
venient for the Farmer, and Ploughman to go
out to his daily Labour, and return with Ea$e
laden with Grain and Fruits. But the Situation
is one of the Things of greate$t Importance,
whether it $hould be upon an open Plain, or
upon the Shore, or on a Hill: becau$e each of
the$e have $ome particular Qualities that are
u$eful, and others on the contrary that are not
$o agreeable.</P>
<P>WHEN <I>Bacchus</I> led his Army through <I>India,</I>
the exce$$ive Heat bred Di$tempers among
them; whereupon he carried them up to the
Hills, where the Whole$omne$s of the Air im-
mediately cured them. Tho$e that fir$t built
Cites upon Hills, $eem to have done it upon Ac-
count of the Security of $uch a Situation; but
then they generally want Water. The Plains af-
ford great Conveniencies of Water, and of
Rivers; but the Air is more gro$s, which
makes the Summer exce$$ively hot, and the
Winter as cold; be$ides, being le$s defended
again$t any Violence.</P>
<P>THE Sea-$hore is mighty convenient for the
Importation of Merchandizes; but all Sea-
towns are reckoned too fond and greedy of
Novelties, and to $uffer perpetual Commo-
tions from the too great Concour$e, and the
Broils of Strangers, and are expo$ed to very
dangerous In$ults and Revolutions from foreign
Fleets. In which $oever of the$e Situations
therefore you build your City, you $hould en-
deavour to contrive that it may partake of all
the Advantages, and be liable to none of
the Di$advantages. Upon a Hill I would
make the Ground level, and upon a Plain I
would rai$e it to an Eminence in that Part
where my City was to be placed. And if we
cannot effect this ju$t according to our Wi$h,
by rea$on of the great Variety of Places, let
us make u$e of the following Methods to ob-
tain at lea$t every Thing that is nece$$ary:
On a maritime Coa$t, if it is a Plain, do not
let the City $tand too near the Sea; nor too
far from it, if it is hilly. We are told that
the Shores of the Sea are liable to Alteration;
and that $everal Towns, and particularly
<I>Bai&aelig;</I> in <I>Italy,</I> have been $wallow'd up by the
Waves.</P>
<P><I>Pharos</I> in <I>&AElig;gypt,</I> which anciently was $ur-
rounded by the Sea, is now become a <I>Cher$o-
ne$us,</I> or Neck of Land. <I>Strabo</I> writes, that
<I>Tyre</I> and <I>Clazomene</I> underwent the $ame
Change: Nay they tell us that the Temple
of <I>Jupiter Hammon</I> $tood once upon the Sea-
$hore, though now the Sea has left it, and it
$tands far within the Land. They advi$e us
to build our City either clo$e to the Shore, or
el$e at a pretty good Di$tance from the Sea:
for we find that the Winds from the Sea are
heavy and $harp, by rea$on of their Saltne$s:
And therefore, when they arrive at $ome Place
at a middling Di$tance from the Sea, e$pecially
if it is a Plain, you will find the Air there ex-
tremely moi$t through the di$$olving of the
Salt which it took from the Sea, which makes
it thick and heavy, and perfectly ropy; $o
that in $uch Places you $hall $ometimes $ee a
Sort of Strings flying about in the Air like
Cobwebs; And they tell us, that a Mixture
of Salt has the $ame Effect upon the Air as it
has upon Water, which it will corrupt to
$uch a Degree as to make it $tink very offen-
$ively. The Ancients, and chiefly <I>Plato,</I> are
for having a City $tand at ten Miles Di$tance
<foot>from</foot>
<p n=>69</p>
from the Sea; but if you cannot place it $o
far off, let it be at lea$t in $ome Situation where
the above-mention'd Winds cannot reach it,
otherwi$e than broken, tired and purified;
placing it $o, that between it and the Sea there
may $tand $ome Hill to interrupt any noxi-
ous Vapour from thence. A Pro$pect of the
Sea from the Shore is wonderfully plea$ant, and
is generally attended with a whole$ome Air;
and <I>Ari$totle</I> thinks tho$e Countries are mo$t
healthy where the Winds keep the Atmo$phere
in continual Motion: but then the Sea there
mu$t not be weedy, with a low Beach $carce
covered with Water; but deep with a high
bold Shore of a living craggy Rock. The
placing a City upon the proud Shoulders of a
Mountain (if we may be allowed $o florid an
Expre$$ion) contributes greatly not only to
Dignity and Plea$ure, but yet more to Health.
In tho$e Places where the Hills over$hadow the
Sea, the Water is always deep; be$ides that if
any gro$s Vapours do ari$e from the Sea, they
$pend them$elves before they reach $o high;
and if any $udden Attack is made upon you from
an Enemy, you lie le$s liable to be $urprized,
and more advantageou$ly for defending your-
$elf. The Ancients commend a Situation upon
the Ea$t Side of a Hill, and in hot Countries,
that Side which lies open to Northern Winds.
Others perhaps may rather chu$e the We$t Side,
from this Inducement, that manured Ground
lying to that A$pect is the mo$t fruitful: And
indeed it is certain Hi$torians tell us, that under
Mount <I>Taurus,</I> the Side which looks to the
North, is much more healthy than the others,
for the very $ame Rea$on that it is al$o more
fruitful. La$tly, if we build our City upon a
Hill, we $hould take particular Care that we are
not expo$ed to one great Inconvenience which
generally happens in $uch a Situation, e$pecially
if there are other Hills near, which rai$e their
Heads above us; namely, that there is not a
$ettled heavy Body of Clouds to darken and
eclip$e the Day and infect the Air. We ought,
be$ides, to have a Care that this Situation is
not expo$ed to the raging Fury and Violence
of Winds, and e$pecially of the North-wind;
which, as <I>He$iod</I> tells us, $hrinks up and bends
every Body, and particularly old People. It
will make the Situation very bad if there is
any neighbouring Rock $tanding above the
City, $o as to throw upon it the Vapours
rai$ed by the Sun, or any very deep Valley
reaking with unwhole$ome Steams. Others ad-
vi$e that the Circuit of the Town $hould ter-
minate in Clifts and Precipices; but that the$e
are not always $afe again$t Earthquakes, or
Storms, is $ufficiently evident from very many
Towns, and particularly <I>Voltera</I> in <I>Tu$cany;</I>
for the very Ground it$elf falls away in $uch
Places, and brings down after it what$oever is
built upon it.</P>
<P>YOU ought al$o to take particular Care that
$uch a Situation has no Hill near that ri$es
above it, which falling into the Hands of an
Enemy, may enable him to give you continual
Trouble; nor any Plain laying under it big
enough to conceal an Army in Safety, and
give it Time to make Lodgments and open
Trenches, or to range its Forces in Order of
Battle to attack you. We read that <I>Dedalus</I>
built the Town of <I>Agrigentum,</I> now called
<I>Gergento,</I> upon a very $teep Rock, with a very
difficult Pa$$age to it, in$omuch that only
three Men were $ufficient to defend it; a Fort-
re$s certainly very convenient, provided your
Pa$$age out cannot be $topt by the $ame Num-
ber of Men that can $ecure the Pa$$age in.
Men of Experience in military Affairs greatly
commend the Town of <I>Cingoli,</I> built by <I>Labi-
enus</I> in the Mark of <I>Ancona;</I> becau$e, be$ides
$everal other Advantages that it has, it will not
allow of one Thing common in mountainous
Situations, which is that when once you have
climbed up to the Top, you then can fight
upon an equal Foot; for here you are repul$ed
by a very high $teep Precipice: Neither can the
Enemy here wa$te and de$troy the Country
round with one $ingle Excur$ion, nor $ecure
all the Ways at one Time, nor make a $ecure
Retreat to their Camp, nor $end out to For-
age, or to get Wood or Water without Dan-
ger; whereas tho$e in the Town enjoy all the
contrary Advantages; for by Means of the
Hills that lie beneath them all running one
into another with a great Number of little
Vallies between, they can at any Time i$$ue
out of a $udden to attack the Enemy una-
wares, and $urprize them whenever any im-
mediate Opportunity offers it$elf. Nor are
they le$s plea$ed with <I>Bi$$eium,</I> a Town of the
<I>Mar$ians,</I> prodigiou$ly $ecured by the three
Rivers which meet there from different Quar-
ters, and very difficult of Acce$s thro' the
narrow Pa$$es of the Vallies guarded all round
with $teep and unpa$$able Mountains: $o that
the Enemy can find no Place to fix a Camp
for a Siege, and can never guard all the Pa$$es,
which are va$tly convenient to tho$e in the
Place for bringing in Provi$ions and Succours,
<foot>T and</foot>
<p n=>70</p>
and making Sallies. But let this $uffice as to
mountainous Situations. But if you build your
City in a Plain, and according to the general
Practice on the Banks of a River, $o perhaps as
to have the Stream run through the Middle of
the Town, you mu$t have a Care that this
River does not come from the South, nor run
towards that Point: Becau$e on one Side the
Damps, and on the other the Cold being en-
crea$ed by the Vapours of the Water, will
come to you with double Violence and Un-
whole$omene$s. But if the River flows with-
out the Compa$s of the Walls, you mu$t take
a View of the Country round about, and con-
$ider on which Side the Winds have the free$t
Pa$$age, that you may there erect a $ufficient
Wall to re$train the River within its Limits.
As for other Precautions, it may not be ami$s
to con$ider what the Mariners tell us; to
wit, that the Winds are naturally inclined to
follow the Sun and the Ea$tern Breezes, when
the Phy$icians ob$erve, that tho$e of the Morn-
ing are the pure$t, and tho$e of the Evening
the mo$t damp: Whereas on the Contrary when
they blow from the We$t they are heavie$t at
Sun-ri$e, and lighte$t at Sun-$et. For the$e
Rea$ons the be$t Po$ition for a City will be to
have the River come in from the Ea$t, and
go out towards the We$t; becau$e then that
Breeze or gentle Wind which ri$es with the
Sun, will carry the Vapours out of the City,
if any noxious ones $hould ari$e, or at lea$t it
will not encrea$e them it$elf: However, I
would rather have a River, Lake, or any other
Water extend to the North than to the South,
provided the Town do not $tand under the Sha-
dow of a Mountain, which is the wor$t Situation
in the World. I will not repeat what we have
$aid before, and we know that the South Wind
is very heavy and $low in its Nature, in$omuch
that when the Sails of a Ship are filled with
it, the Ve$$el $eems oppre$$ed with its Weight,
and draws more Water; whereas, the
North Wind on the contrary $eems to lighten
the Ship and the Sea too: however, it is better
to keep both the$e at a Di$tance, than to have
them continually beating again$t the Wall.
Nothing is more condemned than a River flow-
ing under high $teep Banks, with a very deep
$tony Channel, and always $haded; becau$e its
Water is unwhol$ome to drink, and the Air upon
it dangerous: And to avoid $ettling near Bogs
and Mar$hes, or $tanding muddy Waters is the
Part of every prudent con$iderate Builder. I
need not mention here the Di$ea$es occa$ion'd
by $uch Neighbourhoods: We need only ob-
$erve of the$e Places, that be$ides the common
Nui$ances in Summer of ill Smells, Fleas and
other na$ty Vermin, they are liable to one
great Inconvenience be$ides, when you imagine
the Air to be whole$ome$t and cleare$t (which
we al$o took Notice of in relation to all
Plains) that they are Subject to exce$$ive Colds
in Winter and exce$$ive Heats in Summer.
La$tly, we mu$t be very $ure that none of the$e,
whether Hill, Rock, Lake, Bog, River or Well,
or the like, may be $o di$po$ed as to be likely
to $trengthen or $upport an Enemy, or to bring
any Manner of Inconveniencies upon your own
Citizens. And this is as much as is nece$$ary
with Regard to the Region and Situation.</P>
<head>CHAP. III.</head>
<P><I>Of the Compa$s, Space and Bigne$s of the City, of the Form and Di$po$ition
of the Walls and Fortifications, and of the Cu$toms and Ceremonies ob-
$erved by the Ancients in marking them out.</I></P>
<P>It is certain the Form of the City and the
Di$tribution of its Parts mu$t be various
according to the Variety of Places; $ince we
$ee it is impo$$ible upon a Hill to lay out an
Area whether round or $quare, or of any other
regular Form, with that Ea$e, that you may
upon an open Plain. The ancient Architects
in encompa$$ing their Towns with Walls, con-
demn'd all Angles jutting out from the naked
of the Wall, as thinking they help the Enemy
more in their A$$ault than the Inhabitants in
their Defence; and that they were very weak
again$t the Shocks of military Engines; and
indeed for Treacheries, and for the $afer
throwing their Darts they are of $ome Ad-
vantage to the Enemy, e$pecially where they
can run up to the Walls, and withdraw again
immediately to their Camp; but yet they are
$ometimes of very great Service in Towns
$eated upon Hills, if they are $et ju$t an$wering
<foot>to</foot>
<p n=>71</p>
to the Streets. At the famous City <I>Peru$ia,</I>
which has $everal little Towers placed here
and there upon the Hills, like the Fingers of
a Man's Hand extending out, if the Enemy
offers to attack one of the Angles with a good
Number of Men, he can find no Place to be-
gin his A$$ault, and being obliged to march
under tho$e Towers, is not able to with$tand
the Weapons that will be ca$t, and the Sallies
made upon him. So that the $ame Method
for walling of Towns will not $erve in all Pla-
ces. Moreover the Ancients lay it down for
a Rule, that Cities and Ships $hould by no
means be either $o big as to look empty, nor
$o little as to be crowded. Others are for hav-
ing their Towns full and clo$e, believing that
it adds to their Safety: Others, feeding them-
$elves with great Hopes of Times to come, de-
light in having a va$t deal of Room: Others,
perhaps, have an Eye to the Fame and Ho-
nour of Po$terity. The City of the <I>Sun,</I> built
by <I>Bu$iris,</I> and call'd <I>Thebes,</I> as Hi$tories in-
form us, was twenty Miles in Circuit; <I>Mem-
phis,</I> eighteen Miles, $ix Furlongs; <I>Babylon,</I>
three and forty Miles, $ix Furlong; <I>Nineveh,</I>
three$core Miles; and $ome Towns enclo$ed
$o much Ground, that even within the Walls
they could rai$e Provi$ions for the whole Year.
But, I think, there is a great deal of Wi$dom
in the old Proverb, which tells us, that we
ought in all Things to avoid exce$s; though
if I were to commit an Error of either Side,
I $hould rather chu$e that Proportion which
would allow of an Encrea$e of Citizens, than that
which is hardly $ufficient to contain the pre$ent
Inhabitants. Add to this, that a City is not
built wholly for the Sake of Shelter, but ought
to be $o contrived, that be$ides mere civil
Conveniencies there may be hand$ome Spaces
left for Squares, Cour$es for Chariots, Gardens,
Places to take the Air in, for Swimming, and
the like, both for Ornament and Recreation.</P>
<P>WE read in the Ancients <I>Varro, Plutarch</I>
and others, that their Forefathers us'd to
de$ign the Walls of their Town with abundance
of religious Rites and Ceremonies. After the
repeated taking of Au$pices they yoked a Bull
and a Cow together to draw a brazen Plough,
with which they traced out the Line that was
to be the Circuit of the Wall, the Cow being
placed on the In$ide, and the Bull without.
The Fathers and Elders that were to dwell in
the Town followed the Plough, laying all the
Clods of Earth into the Furrow again inward,
$o that none might lie $cattering outward, and
when they came to tho$e Places where the Gates
were to be, they lifted up the Plough and car-
ried it in their Hands, that the Ground$ell of
the Gates might remain untouch'd; and for
this Rea$on they e$teem'd the whole Circle of
the Wall to be $acred, all except the Gates,
which were by no means to be called $o.</P>
<P>In the Days of <I>Romulus, Diony$ius</I> of <I>Hali-
carna$$us,</I> tells us, that the Fathers in Beginning
their Towns, u$ed, after performing a Sacri$ice,
to kindle Fires before their Tents, and to
make the People pa$s through them, believing
that they were purged and purified by the
Flame; and they held it unlawful to admit
any Body to this Ceremony that was polluted
or unclean. This is what we find to have
been the Cu$tom of tho$e Nations. In other
Places they u$ed to mark out the Foundation
of their Walls by $trowing all the Way a Du$t
made of white Earth, which they called <I>pure;</I>
and <I>Alexander,</I> upon laying out the Town of
<I>Pharos,</I> for want of this Earth made u$e of
Meal. From the$e Ceremonies the Diviners
took Occa$ion to foretell what $hould happen
in Times to come; for noting the Nativity, as
we may call it, of the City, and $ome Events
that $eemed to have $ome Connection with it,
they imagined they might thence draw Pre-
dictions of its future Succe$$es. The <I>Hetrurians</I>
too in the Books of their Ceremonies taught
this Art of foretelling the Fortune of Towns
from the Day of their Nativities; and this not
from the Ob$ervation of the Heavens, which
we mentioned in the Second Book, but from
Principles and Conjectures founded upon
pre$ent Circum$tances. <I>Cen$orinus</I> informs us,
that the Method they taught was this: Such
Men as happened to be born the very $ame
Day that the City was begun, and lived the
Longe$t of any one born on that Day, were
reckoned by their Death to put a Period to the
fir$t Age of that City; next, the longe$t Liver
of tho$e that dwelt in the City; at that Time,
when they died concluded the $econd Age;
and $o for the other Ages. Then they $up-
po$ed that the Gods generally $ent Omens to
point out the Conclu$ion of each particular
Age. The$e were the Super$titions which
they taught; and they add that the <I>Hetrurians</I>
by the$e Progno$ticks could certainly fix every
Age of their City, which they determined to
to be as follows; their fir$t four Ages they
made an hundred Years each; the Fifth, an
hundred and Twenty-three; the Sixth, an
hundred and Twenty, and as many the
<foot>Seventh;</foot>
<p n=>72</p>
Seventh; the Eighth was the Time they then
lived in under the Emperors, and the Ninth
was to come; and by the$e Progno$ticks they
thought it no hard Matter to di$cover even the
Events of future Ages. They conjectured that
<I>Rome</I> $hould come to be Mi$tre$s of the World,
from this Symptom, namely, becau$e a Man
born on the Day of her Foundation became in
Time her Ma$ter. And this Man, I find, was
<I>Numa:</I> for <I>Plutarch</I> in$orms us, that on the
Nineteenth of <I>April, Rome</I> was begun, and
<I>Numa</I> born. But the <I>Spartans</I> gloried in ha-
ving no Walls at all about their City; for con-
fiding in the Valour and Fortitude of their
Citizens, they thought there was no Occa$ion
for any Fortification be$ides good Laws. The
<I>&AElig;gyptians</I> and <I>Per$ians,</I> on the contrary, en-
clo$ed their Cities with the $tronge$t Walls;
for not to mention others, <I>Nineveh</I> and <I>Semi-
ramis</I> made the Walls of their Towns $o thick,
that two Chariots might pa$s upon the Top
abrea$t, and $o high, that they were above an
hundred Cubits. <I>Arrian</I> relates that the Walls
of <I>Tyre</I> were an hundred and Fifty Foot high.
Some again have not been $atisfied with one
Wall: The <I>Carthaginians</I> enclo$ed their City
with Three; and <I>Herodotus</I> writes that <I>Deioces</I>
forti$ied his Town of <I>Ecbatana,</I> though it
was $eated upon an Hill with Seven. Now
as it is certain that Walls are a very
powerful Defence both of our Per$ons and
Liberties, when the Enemy happens to be
$uperior either in Number or Fortune, I can-
not join in with tho$e who are for having their
City quite naked without any Wall, neither
with $uch as $eem to place all their Hopes of
Defence in their Wallalone. I agree with what
<I>Plato</I> ob$erves, that every City $tands con-
tinually expo$ed to the Danger of being brought
under Subjection; $ince, whether it be owing
to Nature or Cu$tom, neither publick Bodies
nor private Per$ons can ever $et Bounds to their
in$atiable De$ire of getting and po$$e$$ing $till
more and more; from which one Source
ari$es all the Mi$chiefs of War. So that what
is there to be $aid again$t adding Security to
Security, and Fortification to Fortification?
From what has been already $aid, we may
conclude that of all Cities, the mo$t Capacious
is the round One; and the mo$t Secure, that
which is encompa$$ed with Walls broken here
and there into Angles or Ba$tions jutting out at
certain Di$tances, as <I>Tacitus</I> in$orms us <I>Jeru-
$alem</I> was: Becau$e it is certain, the Enemy
cannot come up to the Wall between two
Angles jutting out, without expo$ing them-
$elves to very great Danger; nor can their
military Engines attack the Heads of tho$e
Angles with any Hopes of Succe$s. But,
however, we $hould be $ure to make u$e of all
the natural Advantages that offer them$elves
for the Security of our Town or Fortification;
as we may ob$erve the Ancients did, accor-
ding to the Opportunity or Nece$$ity of the
Situation. Thus <I>Antium,</I> an ancient City of
the <I>Latins,</I> in order to embrace the Winding
of the Shore, appears from the old Ruins
which are left, to have been built of a very
great Length. <I>Cairo,</I> upon the <I>Nile,</I> is $aid
al$o to be a very long City. <I>Palimbrota,</I> a
City of <I>India,</I> belonging to the <I>Gra$ii,</I> as
<I>Meta$thenes</I> informs us, was $ixteen Miles long,
and three broad, running along the Side of the
River. We read that the Walls of <I>Babylon</I>
were $quare; and tho$e of <I>Memphis</I> built in
Shape of a D. But whatever Shape is cho$en
for the Walls, <I>Vegetius</I> thinks it $ufficient for
Service, if they are $o broad, that two armed
Soldiers po$ted there for Defence, may ea$ily
pa$s without being in one anothers Way; and
$o high, that they cannot be $caled with Lad-
ders; and built $o firm and $trong, as not to
yield to the battering Rams and other En-
gines. The military Engines are of two Sorts;
one Sort are tho$e which break and demoli$h
the Wall by Battery; the other are $uch as
attack and undermine the Foundation, and $o
bring down the Super$tructure. Now the
greate$t Security again$t both the$e, is not $o
much a Wall as a good Ditch. The Wall is
of no U$e in the la$t Ca$e, unle$s its Founda-
tion lies under Water, or upon a $olid Rock.
The Ditch ought to be very broad and very deep;
for then it will hinder the moveable Tortoi$e-
$hell, Towers, or other $uch Machines from ap-
proaching the Wall; and when the Founda-
tion is under Water, or on a Rock, it will be in
vain to think of undermining it. It is a Di$-
pute among the military Men, whether it is
be$t for the Ditch to be full of Water, or to
be kept dry; but it is allow'd, that the fir$t
Thing to be con$ulted is, which is mo$t for
the Health of the Inhabitants; and then $ome
$ay tho$e Ditches are certainly be$t which are
$o contrived, that if by the Force of Battery
any Part of the Wall is beaten into them, it
may be $oon removed, and the Ditch kept
clear, that it may not be filled up, and $o
make a Path for the Enemy.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>73</p>
<head>CHAP. IV.</head>
<head><I>Of the IV alls, Battlements, Towers, Corni$hes and Gates, and the Timber-work
belonging to them.</I></head>
<P>But to return to the Walls. The Ancients
advi$e us to build them after this Man-
ner. Rai$e two Walls one within the other,
leaving between them a Space of twenty Foot,
which Space is to be fill'd up with the Earth
dug out of the Ditch, and well ramm'd in;
and let the$e Walls be built in $uch a Manner,
that you may mount from the Level of the
City quite to the Top of the Battlements, by
an ea$y A$cent, as it were by Steps. Others
$ay, that the Earth which is dug out of the
Ditch, ought to be thrown without the Wall,
on the other Side of the Ditch, and there ca$t
up into a Rampart, and from the Bottom of
the Ditch a Wall $hould be run up, thick
and $trong enough to $upport the Weight of the
afore$aid Earth which bears upon it. At a
Di$tance from this another Wall $hould be
rai$ed in the Town, higher than the other, and
as far from it, as to leave Space enough for
the Soldiers to be drawn up, and to have
Room to fight in. Be$ides this, you $hould
between the principal Walls, and tho$e within,
erect other Walls cro$$ways from one to the
other, by the Help whereof, the principal
Walls may unite with tho$e behind, and more
ea$ily $upport the Weight of the Earth ca$t in
between them. But indeed for my Part, I am
be$t plea$ed with tho$e Walls which are $o
$ituated, that if they happen to be at length
demoli$hed by the Force of Battery, they have
$omewhat of a Plain at the Foot of them,
where they may lie and form a Kind of Ram-
part, and $o be kept from filling up the Ditch
with their Ruins. In other Re$pects I am
very well plea$ed with <I>Vitruvius,</I> who $ays
the Wall ought to be built thus: Within the
Body of the Wall we $hould lay a good many
Timbers of Olive-wood burnt, to the Intent
that the two Sides of the Walls being fa$tened
together by the$e wooden Bracers, the Work
may be the more durable. Such a Wall as this,
we are told by <I>Thucydides,</I> was made by the
<I>Plat&aelig;ans,</I> to defend them$elves again$t the
People of the <I>Morea,</I> by whom they were be-
$ieged; ina$much as they mixed Timbers a-
mong their Brick-work, and made a very $tout
Fortification of it. And <I>C&aelig;$ar</I> informs us,
that in <I>France</I> mo$t of their Walls were built
in this Manner: They laid Beams within the
Wall, and braced them together at equal Di-
$tances, filling up the Vacancies with huge
Stones, $o that one Beam never touched the
other; and $o proceeded with $everal Cour$es
of Work in the $ame Method, till they rai$ed
a Wall of a good con$iderable Height. This
Kind of Work was not unhand$ome to the
Sight, and was a very $trong Fortification, be-
cau$e the Stones $ecured it again$t Fire, and
the Timbers again$t the Battering Rams. But
this mix'd Work others di$approve of; becau$e
they $ay the Lime and the Wood will not
long agree together, for Timber is eaten and
burnt up both by the Saltne$s and Heat of the
Lime. Be$ides that, if the Wall $hould hap-
pen to be demoli$h'd by Battery, they $ay,
that as it is thus made in a Manner all of one
Piece, the whole Wall will be apt to go all
together at once. In my Opinion one very
good Way of Building a $trong Wall, capable
to $tand the Shocks of Engines, is this: make tri-
angular Projections out from the naked of the
Wall, with one Angle facing the Enemy, at the
Di$tance of every ten Cubits, and turn Arches
from one Projection to the other; then fill up the
Vacancies between them with Straw and Earth,
well rammed down together. By this Means
the Force and Violence of the Shocks of the
Engines, will be deadened by the Softne$s of the
Earth, and the Wall will not be weakned by
the Battery, only here and there, and tho$e
$mall Breaches, or rather Holes, that are made
in it, will pre$ently be $topt up again. In <I>Sicily,</I>
their Pumice-$tones, which they have in great
Plenty, will do extreamly well for this Kind of
Work: But in other Places, for want of Pu-
mice-$tones and Earth, any $oft Stone may
be made u$e of; nor is Terra$s ami$s for this
Purpo$e. La$tly, if any Part of $uch a Struc-
ture $tands expo$ed to the mo$t $outherly
Winds, or nocturnal Vapours, cloath and face
it with a Shell of Stone. And particularly it
will be of great Service to let the outer Bank
of the Ditch have a good Slope, and lie a
<foot>U pretty</foot>
<p n=>74</p>
pretty deal higher than the Ground beyond
it: For this will baulk the Aim of the mili-
tary Engines, and make them throw over the
Wall. And $ome think no Wall is $o $afe
again$t Battery, as tho$e which are built in un-
even Lines, like the Teeth of a Saw.</P>
<P>I AM very well plea$ed with tho$e Walls in
<I>Rome,</I> which at about half Way up to the
Top have a Walk with little private Holes,
out of which, the Archers may privately annoy
the Enemy, as he moves about the Field in
Security; and at the Di$tance of every fifty
Cubits are Towers, adjoining to the Wall like
Buttre$$es, projecting out in a round Figure
forwards, and $omewhat higher than the Wall
it$elf; $o that whoever offers to approach be-
tween the$e Towers, is expo$ed to be taken in
Flank and $lain; and thus the Wall is de-
fended by the$e Towers, and the Towers
mutually by one another. The Back of the
Towers, which look into the Town, ought to
have no Wall, but $hould be left quite open
and naked; that if the Enemy $hould get
Po$$e$$ion of them, they may not be $afe in
them from the A$$aults of the Inhabitants.</P>
<P>THE Corni$hes of the Towers and Walls,
be$ides that they add to their Beauty, and are
a Ligature to $trengthen their Work, do al$o
by their Projection hinder the getting into the
Town from $caling Ladders. Some are for
leaving Precipices of deep Holes here and there
along the Side of the Wall, and e$pecially near
the Towers, $ortified with wooden Bridges
which may be pre$ently rai$ed or let down, as
Occa$ion requires.</P>
<P>THE Ancients u$ed on each Side of their
Gates to erect two Towers, larger than the
re$t, and $trongly fortified on all Sides, to $e-
cure and protect the Entrance into the Town.
There ought to be no Rooms with vaulted
Roofs in the Towers, but only wooden Floors,
that upon any Emergency may ea$ily be re-
moved or burnt; and tho$e Floors $hould not
be fa$tened with Nails, that if the Enemy gets
the better, they may be taken away without
Difficulty. All that is nece$$ary is to have a
Covering to $helter the Centinels from the
Storms and Injuries of the Weather. The
Battlements over the Gate $hould have Holes
through the Bottom of them, through which,
Stones and Firebrands may be thrown down
upon the Enemy's Heads, or even Water, if
they have $et Fire to the Gate; which for its
Security again$t $uch a Misfortune, they tell us
ought to be covered over with Leather and
Plates of Iron. But of this, enough.</P>
<head>CHAP. V.</head>
<head><I>Of the Proportion, Fa$hion and Con$truction of great Ways, and private Ones.</I></head>
<P>In making our Gates we should ob$erve, that
they ought to be ju$t as many in Num-
ber as the Highways, or Streets; for $ome we
$hall call High Streets, and others, private ones.
Not that I intend to trouble my $elf about the
Di$tinction of the Lawyers, who $ay that the
Road for Bea$ts, and the Way for Men, ought
to be called by different Names: But by the
Name of Way, I $hall under$tand them all.
The Highways are properly tho$e by which
we go into the Provinces, with our Armies
and all their Baggage; for which Rea$on the
Highways ought to be much broader than
others, and I find the Ancients $eldom u$ed
to make them le$s than eight Cubits in any
Part. By a Law in the twelve Tables it was
ordained, that the Ways which ran $trait
$hould be twelve Foot broad, and tho$e which
were crooked or winding, not le$s than $ixteen.
The private Ways are tho$e which leaving the
publick ones, lead us to $ome Town or Ca$tle,
or el$e into $ome other Highway, as Lanes in
Cities, and cro$s Roads in the Country. There
are another Kind of publick Ways, which may
not improperly be called High Streets, as are
$uch which are de$igned for $ome certain Pur-
po$e, e$pecially any publick one; as for In-
$tance, tho$e which lead to $ome Temple, or
to the Cour$e for Races, or to a Place of
Ju$tice. The Ways are not to be made in the
$ame Manner in the Country, that they are in
the City. In the Country they ought to be
$pacious and open, $o as a Man may $ee all
about him; free and clear from all Manner
of Impediments, either of Water or Ruins;
without lurking Places or Retreats of any Sort
for Rogues to hide them$elves in, nor too
many cro$s Roads to favour their Villanies:
La$tly, they ought to be as $trait, and as $hort as
po$$ible: I do not reckon the $horte$t Way to be
<foot>always</foot>
<p n=>75</p>
always that which is the $traite$t, but that which
is the $a$e$t: I would rather chu$e to have it
$omewhat the longer, than to have it inconveni-
ent. Some think the Country of <I>Piperno</I> the
mo$t $ecure of any, becau$e it is cut through
with deep Roads almo$t like Pits, doubtful at
the Entrance, uncertain in their Pa$$age, and
un$afe upon Account of the Ground which lies
above them, from whence any Enemy may be
prodigiou$ly in$e$ted.</P>
<P>THE Men of be$t Experience think that
Way the mo$t $ecure, which is carried over
the Backs of $mall Hills, made level. Next
to this are $uch as are made through the Fields
upon a high rai$ed Bank, according to the
Manner of the Ancients, who indeed upon
that Account gave them the Name of <I>Aggeres,</I>
or <I>Highways.</I> And it is certain $uch rai$ed
Cau$eys have a va$t many Conveniences: It
relieves the Traveller from the Fatigue and
Vexation of his Journey, to enjoy a fine Pro$-
pect from the Heighth of the Cau$ey all the
Way as he travels; be$ides that, it is a great
Convenience to be able to perceive an Enemy
at a good Di$tance, and to have $uch an Ad-
vantage as either to be able to repel them
with a $mall Force, or to retire without Lo$s,
if you find they are the $tronger. There is a
great Convenience, not at all foreign to our
Purpo$e, which I have ob$erved in the Road
that goes to the Port of <I>O$tia.</I> As there is a
va$t Concour$e of People, and great Quantities
of Merchandize brought thither from <I>&AElig;gypt,
Africa, Lybia, Spain, Germany,</I> and the I$l-
ands, the Road is made double, and in the
Middle of it is a Row of Stones, $tanding up
a Foot high like Terms to direct the Pa$$en-
gers to go on one Side, and return on the other,
$o to avoid the Inconvenience of meeting one
another.</P>
<P>To conclude, $uch $hould be the Ways out
of the City; $hort, $trait, and $ecure. When
they come to the Town, if the City is noble
and powerful, the Streets $hould be $trait and
broad, which carries an Air of Greatne$s and
Maje$ty; but if it is only a $mall Town or a
Fortification, it will be better, and as $afe, not
for the Streets to run $trait to the Gates; but
to have them wind about $ometimes to the
Right, $ometimes to the Left, near the Wall,
and e$pecially under the Towers upon the
Wall; and within the Heart of the Town, it
will be hand$omer not to have them $trait,
but winding about $everal Ways, backwards
and $orwards, like the Coar$e of a River. For
thus, be$ides that by appearing $o much the lon-
ger, they will add to the Idea of the Greatne$s
of the Town, they will likewi$e conduce very
much to Beauty and Convenience, and be a
greater Security again$t all Accidents and
Emergencies. Moreover, this winding of the
Streets will make the Pa$$enger at every Step
di$cover a new Structure, and the Front and
Door of every Hou$e will directly face the
Middle of the Street; and whereas in larger
Towns even too much Breadth is unhand$ome
and unhealthy, in a $mall one it will be both
healthy and plea$ant, to have $uch an open
View from every Hou$e by Means of the
Turn of the Street.</P>
<P><I>Cornelius Tacitus</I> writes, that <I>Nero</I> having
widened the Streets of <I>Rome,</I> thereby made the
City hotter, and therefore le$s healthy; but in
other Places, where the Streets are narrow, the
Air is crude and raw, and there is a continual
Shade even in Summer. But further; in our
winding Streets there will be no Hou$e but
what, in $ome Part of the Day, will enjoy
$ome Sun; nor will they ever be without
gentle Breezes, which whatever Corner they
come from, will never want a free and clear
Pa$$age; and yet they will not be mole$ted
by $tormy Bla$ts, becau$e $uch will be broken
by the turning of the Streets. Add to all
the$e Advantages, that if the Enemy gets into
the Town, he will be in Danger on every Side,
in Front, in Flank, and in Rear, from A$$aults
from the Hou$es. So much for the publick
Streets. The private ones $hould be like the
publick; unle$s there be this Difference, that
they be built exactly in $trait Lines, which will
an$wer better to the Corners of the Building,
and the Divi$ions and Parts of the Hou$es.
The Ancients in all Towns were for having
$ome intricate Ways and turn-again Streets,
without any Pa$$age through them, that if an
Enemy comes into them, he may be at a Lo$s,
and be in Confu$ion and Su$pence; or if he
pu$hes on daringly, may be ea$ily de$troyed.
It is al$o proper to have $maller $hort Streets,
running cro$s from one great Street to another;
not to be as a direct publick Way, but only
as a Pa$$age to $ome Hou$e that fronts it;
which will both give Light to the Hou$es, and
make it more difficult for an Enemy to over-
run all Parts of the Town.</P>
<P><I>Q. Curtius</I> writes that <I>Babylon</I> was divided
into a great Number of $eparate Quarters, and
<foot>that</foot>
<p n=>76</p>
that the Buildings there did not joyn one to
ano her. <I>Plato,</I> on the contrary, is $o far from
approving of tho$e Separations, that he would
have the Hou$es all clo$e contiguous, and
that the joyning together of their Walls $hould
make a Wall to the City.</P>
<head>CHAP. VI.</head>
<head><I>Of Bridges both of Wood and Stone, their proper Situation, their Peers,
Arches, Angles, Feet, Key-$tones, Cramps, Pavements, and Slopes.</I></head>
<P>The Bridge, no doubt, is a main Part
of the Street; nor is every Part of the
City proper for a Bridge; for be$ides that it
is inconvenient to place it in a remote Corner
of the Town, where it can be of U$e but to
few, and that it ought to be in the very Heart
of the City, to lie at hand for every body; it
ought certainly to be contrived in a Place
where it may ea$ily be erected, and without
too great an Expence, and where it is likely
to be the mo$t durable. We $hould therefore
chu$e a Ford where the Water is not too deep;
where the Shore is not too $teep; which is
not uncertain and moveable, but con$tant
and la$ting. We $hould avoid all Whirl-
pools, Eddies, Gulphs, and the like Inconve-
niences common in bad Rivers. We $hould
al$o mo$t carefully avoid all Elbows, where the
Water takes a Turn; for very many Rea$ons;
the Banks in $uch Places being very liable to
be broken, as we $ee by Experience, and be-
cau$e Pieces of Timber, Trunks of Trees, and
the like, brought down from the Country by
Storms and Floods, cannot $wim down $uch
Elbows in a $trait Line, but turn a$lant, meet
and hinder one another, and lodging again$t
the Piles grow into a great Heap, which $tops
up the Arches, and with the additional
Weight of the Water at length quite breaks
them down.</P>
<P>OF Bridges, $ome are of Stone, others of
Wood. We $hall $peak fir$t of tho$e which
are of Wood, as the mo$t ea$y of Execution;
next we $hall treat of tho$e which are built of
Stone. Both ought to be as $trong as po$$ible;
that therefore which is built of Wood, mu$t
be fortified with a good Quantity of the
<marg>*</marg>
$tronge$t Timbers. We cannot give a better
Example of this Sort of Bridges than that built
by <I>fulius C&aelig;$ar,</I> which he gives us a De$crip-
tion of him$elf, as follows: He fa$tened to-
gether two Timbers, leaving a Di$tance be-
tween them of two Foot; their Length was
proportioned to the Depth of the River, and
they were a Foot and an half thick, and cut
$harp at the Ends. The$e he let down into
the River with Cranes, and drove them well in
with a Sort of Rammers, not perpendicularly
down like Piles, but $lanting upwards, and
giving Way according to the Current of the
River. Then, oppo$ite to the$e, he drove in
two others, fa$tened together in the $ame Man-
ner, with a Di$tance between them at Bottom
of forty Foot, $lanting contrary to the Force
and Current of the Stream. When the$e were
thus fixed, he laid acro$s from one to the other,
Beams of the Thickne$s of two Foot, which
was the Di$tance left between the Timbers
drove down; and fa$tened the$e Beams at the
End, each with two Braces, which being
bound round and fa$tened of oppo$ite Sides,
the Strength of the whole Work was $o great
and of $uch a Nature, that the greatcr the
Force of Water was which bore again$t it,
the clo$er and firmer the Beams united. Over
the$e other Beams were laid acro$s and fa$tened
to them, and a Floor, as we may call it, made
over them with Poles and Hurdles. At the
$ame Time, in the lower Part of the River,
below the Bridge, other Timbers, or $loping
Piles, were driven down, which being fa$tened
to the re$t of the Structure, $hould be a Kind
of Buttre$s to re$i$t the Force of the Stream;
and other Piles were al$o driven in at a $mall
Di$tance above the Bridge, and $tanding $ome-
what above the Water, that if the Enemy
$hould $end Trunks of Trees, or Ve$$els, down
the Stream, in order to break the Bridge, tho$e
Piles might receive and intercept their Vio-
lence, and prevent their doing any Prejudice
to the Work. All this we learn from <I>C&aelig;$ar.</I>
Nor is it foreign to our Purpo$e to take Notice
of what is practiced at <I>Verona,</I> where they
pave their wooden Bridges with Bars of Iron,
e$pecially where the Wheels of Carts and Wag-
gons are to pa$s. It remains now that we
<foot>treat</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 9, facing.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 9. <I>(Page 76)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>77</p>
treat of the Stone-Bridge, the Parts whereof
are the$e: The Banks of the Shore, the Piers,
the Arches, and the Pavement. Between the
Banks of the Shore and the Piers, is this Diffe-
rence, that the Banks ought to be by much the
$tronge$t, ina$much as they are not only to $up-
port the Weight of the Arches like the Piers,
but are al$o to bear the Foot of the Bridge, and
to bear again$t the Weight of the Arches, to
keep them from opening in any Part. We
ought therefore to be very careful in the Choice
of our Shore, and to find out, if po$$ible, a
Rock of $olid Stone, $ince nothing can be too
$trong that we are to intru$t with the Feet of
the Bridge; and as to the Piers, they mu$t be
more or le$s numerous in Proportion to the
Breadth of the River. An odd Number of Ar-
ches is both mo$t plea$ant to the Sight, and
conduces al$o to Strength; for the farther the
Current of the River lies from the Shore, the
freer it is from Impediment, and the freer
it is the $wifter and ea$ier it flows away;
for this therefore we ought to leave a Pa$$age
perfectly free and open, that it may not $hake
and prejudice the Piers by $truggling with the
Re$i$tance which it meets with from them.
The Piers ought to be placed in tho$e Parts of
the River, where the Water flows the mo$t
$lowly, and (to u$e $uch an Expre$$ion) the
mo$t lazily: And tho$e Parts you may ea$ily
find out by means of the Tides: Otherwi$e
you may di$cover them in the following Man-
ner: Imitate tho$e who threw Nuts into a
River, whereby the Inhabitants of a Town be-
$ieged, gathering them up, were pre$erved
from $tarving; $trew the whole Breadth of the
River, about fifteen hundred Paces above the
Place which you intend for your Bridge, and
e$pecially when the River is fulle$t, with $ome
$uch light Stuff that will ea$ily float: And in
tho$e Places where the Things you have
thrown in Clu$ters thicke$t together, you may
be $ure the Current is $tronge$t. In the Situ-
ation of your Piers therefore avoid tho$e Places,
and chu$e tho$e others to which the Things
you throw in come the $lowe$t and thinne$t.</P>
<P>KING <I>Mina,</I> when he intended to build the
Bridge of <I>Memphis,</I> turned the <I>Nile</I> out of its
Channel, and carried it another Way among
$ome Hills, and when he had fini$hed his Build-
ing brought it back again into its old Bed.
<I>Nicore</I> Queen of the <I>A$$yrians,</I> having pre-
pared all the Materials for building a Bridge,
dug a great Lake, and into that turned the
River; and as the Channel grew dry as the
Lake filled, $he took that Time to build her
Piers. The$e mighty Things were done by
tho$e great Princes: As for us, we are to pro-
ceed in the following Manner: Make the
Foundations of your Piers in Autumn, when
the Water is lowe$t, having fir$t rai$ed an In-
clo$ure to keep off the Water, which you may
do in this Manner: Drive in a double Row of
Stakes, very clo$e and thick $et, with their
Heads above the Top of the Water, like a
Trench; then put Hurdles within this double
Row of Stakes, clo$e to that Side of the Row
which is next the intended Pier, and fill up
the Hollow between the two Rows with Ru$hes
and Mud, ramming them together $o hard
that no Water can po$$ibly get through. Then
whatever you find within this Inclo$ure, Water,
Mud, Sand, and whatever el$e is a Hindrance
to you, throw out. For the re$t of your Work,
you mu$t ob$erve the Rules we have laid down
in the preceding Book. Dig till you come to
a $olid Foundation, or rather make one of
Piles burnt at the End, and driven in as clo$e
together as ever they can $tick. And here I
have ob$erved that the be$t Architects u$ed to
make a continued Foundation of the whole
Length of the Bridge, and not only under each
Pier; and this they did, not by $hutting out
the whole River at once by one $ingle Inclo-
$ure, but by fir$t making one Part, then another,
and $o joyning the whole together by degrees;
for it would be impo$$ible to with$tand and
repul$e the whole Force of the Water at once;
we mu$t therefore, while we are at work with
one Part, leave another Part open, for a Pa$-
$age for the Stream.</P>
<P>YOU may leave the$e Pa$$ages either in the
Channel it$elf, or if you think it more conve-
nient, you may frame wooden Dams, or hang-
ing Channels, by which the $uperfluous Wa-
ter may run off. But if you find the Expence
of a continued Foundation for the whole Bridge
too great, you may only make a $eparate Foun-
dation for every particular Pier, in the Form
of a Ship with one Angle in the Stern, and an-
other in the Head, lying directly even with the
Current of the Water, that the Force of the
Water may be broken by the Angle. We are
to remember that the Water is much more
dangerous to the Stern, than to the Head of
the Piers, which appears from this, that at
the Stern the Water is in a more violent Mo-
tion than at the Head, and forms Eddies,
which turn up the Ground at the Bottom;
while the Head $tands firm and $afe, being
guarded and defended by the Banks of Sand
thrown up before it by the Channel. Now
<foot>X this</foot>
<p n=>78</p>
this being $o, this Part ought of the whole
Structure to be be$t fortified again$t the
Violence of the Waters; and nothing will
conduce more to this, than to make the Pile-
work deep and broad every Way, and e$peci-
ally at the Stern, that if any Accidents $hould
carry away any of the Piles, there may be enow
le$t to $u$tain the Weight of the Pier. It will
be al$o extremely proper to begin your Foun-
dation at the upper Part of the Channel, and
to make it with an ea$y De$cent, that the
Water which runs over it may not fall upon
it violently as into a Precipice, but glide over
gently, with an ea$y Slope; becau$e the Water
that ru$hes down precipitately, routs up the
Bottom, and $o being made $till rougher carries
away every Thing that it can loo$en, and is
every Moment undermining the Work.</P>
<P>BUILD the Piers of the bigge$t and longe$t
Stones, and of $uch as in their Nature are be$t
adapted for $upporting of Fro$ts, and as do
not decay in Water, nor are ea$ily $oftened by
any Accident, and will not crack and $plit
under a great Weight; and build them ex-
actly according to the Square, Level and Plum-
line, omitting no Sort of Ligature Length-
ways, and placing the Stones Breadth-ways in
alternate Order, $o as to be a Binding one to
another; ab$olutely rejecting any $tuffing with
$mall Pieces of Stone. You mu$t al$o fa$ten
your Work with a good Number of Bra$s
Cramps and Pins, $o well fitted in, that the
Joynts of the Structure may not $eparate, but
be kept tight and firm. Rai$e both the Fronts
of the Building angular, both Head and Stern,
and let the Top of the Pier be $ure to be
higher than the fulle$t Tide; and let the Thick-
ne$s of the Pier be one fourth of the Heighth
of the Bridge. There have been $ome that
have not terminated the Head and Stern of
their Piers with an Angle, but with an half
Circle; induced thereto, I $uppo$e, by the
Beautifulne$s of that Figure. But though I
have $aid el$ewhere, that the Circle has the
$ame Strength as an Angle, yet here I approve
better of an Angle, provided it be not $o $harp
as to be broken and defaced by every little Acci-
dent: Nor am I altogether di$plea$ed with tho$e
which end in a Curve, provided it be very much
lengthened out, and not left $o obtu$e as to re-
$i$t the Force and Weight of the Water. The
Angle of the Pier is of a good Sharpne$s, if it
is three Quarters of a Right Angle, or if you
like it better, you may make it two thirds.
And thus much may $uffice as to the Piers. If
the Nature of your Situation is $uch, that the
Sides or Banks of the Shore are not as you
could wi$h; make them good in the $ome Man-
ner as you build your Piers, and indeed make
other Piers upon the Shore, and turn $ome
Arches even upon the dry Ground; to the
Intent, that if in Proce$s of Time, by the con-
tinual wa$hing of the Water, and the Force of
the Tides, any Part of the Bank $hould be
carried away, your Pa$$age may $till be pre-
$erved $afe, by the Production of the Bridge
into the Land. The Arches ought upon all
Accounts, and particularly becau$e of the con-
tinual violent $haking and Concu$$ion of Carts
and other Carriages, to be extreamly $tout and
$trong. Be$ides, as $ometimes you may be
obliged to draw immen$e Weights over them,
$uch as a Colo$$us, an Obelisk or the like; you
$hould provide again$t the Inconvenience which
happened to <I>Scaurus,</I> who when he was re-
moving that great Boundary Stone, alarmed all
the publick Officers, upon Account of the
Mi$chief that might en$ue. For the$e Rea$ons,
a Bridge both in its De$ign, and in its whole
Execution, $hould be well fitted to bear the
continual and violent Jars which it is to re-
ceive from Carriages. That Bridges ought to
be built of very large and $tout Stones, is very
manife$t by the Example of an Anvil, which,
if is large and heavy, $tands the Blows of the
Hammer unmoved; but if it is light, rebounds
and trembles at every Stroke. We have al-
ready $aid, that all vaulted Work con$i$ts of
Arches and Stuffing, and that the $tronge$t of
all Arches is the Semi-circle. But if by the
Di$po$ition of the Piers, the Semi-circle $hould
ri$e $o high as to be inconvenient, we may
make u$e of the Scheme Arch, only taking
Care to make the la$t Piers on the Shore the
$tronger and thicker. But whatever Sort of
Arch you vault your Bridge with, it mu$t be
built of the harde$t and large$t Stones, $uch as
you u$e in your Piers; and there $hould not
be a $ingle Stone in the Arch but what is in
Thickne$s at lea$t one tenth Part of the Chord
of that Arch; nor $hould the Chord it$elf be
longer than $ix Times the Thickne$s of the
Pier, nor $horter than four Times. The Stones
al$o $hould be $trongly fa$tened together with
Pins and Cramps of Bra$s. And the la$t Wedge,
which is called the Key-$tone, $hould be cut
according to the Lines of the other Wedges,
but left a $mall Matter bigger at the Top, $o
that it may not be got into its Place without
$ome Strokes of a light Beetle; which will
<foot>drive</foot>
<p n=>79</p>
drive the lower Wedges clo$er together, and
$o keep them tight to their Duty. The filling
up, or $tuffing between the Arches $hould be
wrought with the $tronge$t Stone, and with the
clo$e$t Joynts that can po$$ibly be made, But
if you have not a $ufficient Plenty of $trong
Stone to make your Stuffing of it, you may in
Ca$e of Nece$$ity make u$e of a weaker Sort;
$till provided that the whole Turn of the Arch,
and the Cour$e of Work behind both the Sides
of it, be built entirely of $trong Stone.</P>
<P>THE next Work it to pave the Bridge; and
here we $hould ob$erve, that we ought to
make the Ground upon a Bridge as firm and
$olid as the mo$t durable Roads; we $hould
rai$e it with Gravel or coar$e Sand, to the
Heighth of a Cubit, and then pave it with
Stone, filling up the Joints either with River
or Sea-$and. But the Sub$trature or Layer
under the Pavement of a Bridge ought fir$t to
be levelled and rai$ed quite to the Top of the
Arches; with regular Ma$onry, and then the
Pavement it$elf $hould be cemented with Mor-
tar. In all other Re$pects we $hould ob$erve
the $ame Rules in paving a Bridge, as in pav-
ing a Road. The Sides $hould be made firm
with the $tronge$t Work, and the re$t paved
with Stones, neither $o $mall as to be ea$ily
rai$ed and thrown out upon the lea$t Strain;
nor $o large, that the Bea$ts of Burden $hould
$lide upon them as upon Ice, and fall before
they meet with any Catch for their Foot. And
certainly we mu$t own it to be of very great
Importance what Kind of Stone we u$e in our
Pavements, if we con$ider how much they
mu$t be worn by the continual grinding of
the Wheels, and the Hoofs of all Manner of
Cattle, when we $ee that even $uch $mall Ani-
mals as Ants, with con$tant pa$$ing up and
down, will wear Traces even in Flints.</P>
<P>I HAVE ob$erved that the Ancients in many
Places, and particularly in the Way to <I>Tivoli,</I>
paved the Middle of the Road with Flints, and
only covered the Sides with $mall Gravel. This
they did, that the Wheels might make the le$s
Impre$$ion, and that the Hor$es Hoofs might
not want $ufficient Hold. In other Places, and
e$pecially over Bridges, there was a rai$ed Way
on each Side, with Stone Steps, for Foot Pa$-
$engers; and the Middle of the Way was le$t
for Bea$ts and Carriages. La$tly, the Ancients,
for this Sort of Work greatly commend Flints,
and e$pecially tho$e which are fulle$t of Holes;
not becau$e $uch are the $tronge$t, but becau$e
they are the lea$t $lippery. But we may make
u$e of any Sort of Stone, according to what
we have in greate$t Plenty, provided we only
u$e the $tronge$t we can get, and with tho$e
pave at lea$t that Part of the Way which is
mo$t beaten by Cattle; and the Part mo$t
beaten by them is always mo$t level, becau$e
they always avoid all $loping Ground as much
as they can. Let the Middle and highe$t Part
of the Way be laid with Flints, or whatever
other Stone you u$e, of the Thickne$s of a
Foot and an half, and the Breadth of at lea$t
a Foot, with the upper Face even, and $o clo$e
compacted together that there are no Grevices
left in order to throw off the Rain. There
are three different Slopes for all Streets; either
towards the Middle, which is proper for a
broad Street, or to the Sides, which is lea$t
Hindrance to a narrow one; or el$e Length-
ways. But in this we are to govern our$elves
according to the Conveniences and Advanta-
ges of our Drains and Currents, whether into
the Sea, Lake or River. A very good Ri$e
for a Slope is half an Inch in every three Foot.
I have ob$erved that the Ri$e with which the
Ancients u$ed to build their Bridges, was one
Foot in every thirty; and in $ome Parts, as
particularly at the Summit of the Bridge, four
Inches in every Cubit or Foot and an half;
but this was only for $o little a Way, that a
Bea$t heavy loaden could get over it at one
Strain.</P>
<head>CHAP. VII.</head>
<head><I>Of Drains or Sewers, their different Sorts and U$es; and of Rivers and
Canals for Ships.</I></head>
<P>Drains or Sewers are look'd upon as
a Part of the Street, ina$much as they
are to be made under the Street, thro' the
Middle of it; and are of great Service, as well
in the paving and levelling, as in cleaning the
Streets; for which Rea$on they are by no
means to be neglected here. And indeed, may
we not very properly $ay that a Drain is a
<foot>Bridge,</foot>
<p n=>80</p>
Bridge, or rather a very long Arch; $o that
in the Con$truction of it we ought to ob$erve
all the $ame Rules that we have ju$t now been
laying down concerning Bridges. The Anci-
ents had $o high a Notion of the Serviceable-
ne$s of Drains and Sewers, that they be$towed
no greater Care and Expence upon any Struc-
ture what$oever, than they did upon them; and
among all the wonderful Buildings in the City
of <I>Rome,</I> the Drains are accounted the noble$t.
I $hall not $pend Time to $hew how many Con-
veniences ari$e from good Drains; how clean
they keep the City, and how neat all Buildings
both publick and private, or how much they
conduce to the Clearne$s and Healthine$s of
the Air.</P>
<P>THE City of <I>Smyrna,</I> where <I>Trebonius</I> was
be$ieged and relieved by <I>Dolabella,</I> is $aid to have
been extremely beautiful, both for the Straitne$s
of the Streets, and its many noble Structures;
but not having Drains to receive and carry away
its own Filth, it offended the Inhabitants abo-
minable with ill Smells. <I>Siena,</I> a City in <I>Tu$-
cany,</I> not having Drains wants a very great
Help to Cleanline$s; by which Means the
Town not only $tinks every Night and Morn-
ing, when People throw their Na$tine$s out of
the Windows, but even in the Day Time it is
$een lying about the Streets. Drains are of
two Sorts; one carries away the Filth into
$ome River, Lake or Sea; the other is a deep
Hole dug in the Ground, where the Na$tine$s
lies till it is con$umed in the Bowels of the
Earth. That which carries it away, ought
to have a $mooth $loping Pavement, $trong
compacted, that the Ordure may run off freely,
and that the Structure it$elf may not be rotted
by the Moi$ture lying continually $oaking
upon it. It $hould al$o lie $o high above the
River, that no Floods or Tides may fill it with
Mud and choak it up. A Drain that is to
lie open and uncover'd to the Air, need have
no other Pavement but the Ground it$elf; for
the Poets call the Earth <I>Cerberus,</I> and the Phi-
lo$ophers, the <I>Woolf of the Gods,</I> becau$e it de-
vours and con$umes every Thing. So that
whatever Filth and Na$tine$s is brought into
it, the Earth rots and de$troys it, and prevents
its emitting ill Steams. Sinks for the Recep-
tion of Urine, $hould be as far from the Hou$e
as po$$ible; becau$e the Heat of the Sun makes
it rot and $mell intolerably. Moreover, I can-
not help thinking that Rivers and Canals, e$-
pecially $uch as are for the Pa$$age of Ships,
ought to be included under the Denomination
of Roads; $ince many are of Opinion, that
Ships are nothing but a Sort of Carriages, and
the Sea it$elf no more than a huge Road. But
there is no Nece$$ity to $ay any thing more of
the$e in this Place. And if it happens that
the Conveniences we have here treated of, are
not found $ufficient, our Bu$ine$s is to $tudy
how to mend the Faults, and make whatever
other Additions are needful: The Method of
doing which, we $hall $peak of in due Time.</P>
<head>CHAP. VIII.</head>
<head><I>Of the proper Structure for a Haven, and of making convenient Squares in
the City.</I></head>
<P>Now if there is any other Part of the
City that falls in properly with the Sub-
ject of this Book, it is certainly the Haven,
which may be defined a Goal or proper Place
from whence you may begin a Voyage, or
where having performed it you may put an
End to the Fatigue of it, and take Repo$e.
Others perhaps would $ay that a Haven is a Sta-
ble for Ships; but let it be what you will, ei-
ther a Goal, a Stable, or a Receptacle, it is cer-
tain that if the Bu$ine$s of a Haven is to give a
Reception to Ships out of the Violence of Storms,
it ought to be made in $uch a Manner as to be
a $ufficient Shelter for that Purpo$e: Let its
Sid<*> be $trong and high, and let there be
Room enough for large Ve$$els heavy laden to
come in and lie quiet in it. Which Conveni-
ences, if they are offered to you by the natu-
ral Situation of the Place, you have nothing
more to wi$h for; unle$s, as at <I>Athens</I> where
<I>Thucidides</I> $ays there were three Havens made
by Nature, it $hould happen that you are
doubtful among $uch a Number, which to
chu$e. But it is evident from what we have
already $aid in the fir$t Book, that there are
$ome Places where all the Winds cannot be,
and others where $ome actually are continually
trouble$ome and dangerous. Let us therefore
<foot>make</foot>
<p n=>81</p>
make Choice of that Haven into who$e Mouth
none blow but the mo$t gentle and temperate
Winds, and where you may enter or go out,
with the mo$t ea$y Breezes, without being
forced to wait too long for them.</P>
<P>THEY $ay, that of all Winds the North is
the gentle$t; and that when the Sea is di-
$turbed by this Wind, as $oon as ever the
Wind cea$es, it is calm again: But if a South-
wind rai$es a Storm, the Sea continues turbu-
lent a long while. But as Places are various,
our Bu$ine$s is to chu$e $uch a one as is be$t
provided with all Conveniencies for Shipping:
we mu$t be $ure to have $uch a Depth, in the
Mouth, Bo$em and Sides of the Haven, as
will nor refu$e Ships of Burthen, though
ever $o deep laden; the Bottom too ought to
be clear, and not $ull of any Sort of Weeds:
Though, $ometimes, thick entangled Weeds
are of a good deal of U$e in fa$tening the An-
chor. Yet I $hould rather chu$e an Haven
that does not produce any thing which can
contaminate the Purity of the Air, or preju-
dice the Ships, as Ru$hes and Weeds which
grow in the Water really do; for they en-
gender a great many Kinds of Worms which
get into the Timbers of the Ve$$el, and the
rotting of the Weeds rai$es unwhole$ome Va-
pours. There is another Thing which makes
an Haven noi$ome and unhealthy, and that is
a Mixture of fre$h Water; e$pecially Rain-
water that runs down from Hills: Though I
would be $ure to have Streams and Springs in
the Neighbourhood, from whence, fre$h Water
that will keep may be brought for the U$e of
the Ve$$els. A Port al$o ought to have a clear,
$trait and $afe Pa$$age outwards, with a Bot-
tom not often $hifting, free from all Impedi-
ments, and $ecure from the Ambu$hes of Ene-
mies and Pirates. Moreover, I would have
it covered with $ome high $teep Hill, that may
be $een a great Way off, and $erve as a Land-
mark for the Sailors to $teer their Cour$e by.
Within the Port we $hould make a Key and
a Bridge for the more ea$y unlading of the
Shipping. The$e Works the Ancients rai$ed
in different Ways, which it is not yet our
Time to $peak of; and we $hall come to it
more properly when we $peak of the Method
of improving a Haven and running up a Pier.
Be$ides all this, a good Haven $hould have
Places to walk in, and a Portico and Temple,
for the Reception of Per$ons that are ju$t
landed; nor $hould it want Pillars, Bars and
Rings to fa$ten Ships to; and there $hould al$o
be a good Number of Warehou$es or Vaults
for the laying up of Goods. We $hould al$o
at the Mouth erect high and $trong Towers,
from the Lanterns of which we may $py what
Sails approach, and by Fires give Directions to
the Mariners, and which by their Fortificati-
ons may defend the Ve$$els of our Friends, and
lay Chains acro$s the Port to keep out an
Enemy. And from the Port $trait thro' the
Heart of the City ought to run a large Street,
in which $everal other Quarters of the Town
$hould center, that the Inhabitants may pre-
$ently run thither from all Parts to repul$e any
In$ult from an Enemy. Within the Bo$om of
the Haven likewi$e, $hould be $everal $maller
Docks, where battered Ve$$els may refit. But
there is one Thing which we ought not to
omit, $ince it relates entirely to the Haven;
which is, that there have been, and now are,
many famous Cities, who$e greate$t Security
has lain in the un$afe and uncertain Entrance
of their Harbours, and from the Variety of its
Channels made almo$t hourly for the con-
tinual Alteration of the Bottom. Thus much
we thought proper to $ay of publick Works in
the univer$al Acceptation; and I cannot tell
whether there is any Occa$ion to add what
$ome in$i$t upon, that there ought to be $e-
veral Squares laid out in different Parts of the
City, $ome for the expo$ing of Merchandizes
to $ale in Time of Peace; others for the Exer-
ci$es proper for Youth; and others for laying
up Stores in Time of War, of Timber, For-
age, and the like Provi$ions nece$$ary for the
$u$taining of a Siege. As for Temples, Cha-
pels, Halls for the Admini$tration of Ju$tice,
and Places for Shows, they are Buildings that,
tho' for publick U$e, are yet the Property of
only a few Per$ons; which are the Prie$ts
and Magi$trates; and therefore we $hall treat
of them in their proper Places.</P>
<head><I>The End of Book</I> IV.</head>
<foot>Y THE</foot>
<pb>
<fig>
<head>THE
ARCHITECTURE
OF
<I>Leone Bati$ta Alberti.</I></head>
<head>BOOK V. CHAP. I.</head>
<head><I>Of Buildings for particular Per$ons. Of the Ca$tles or Habitations of a
King or a Tyrant; their different Properties and Parts.</I></head>
<P>We $hewed in the la$t Book, that
Buildings ought to be variou$ly ac-
commodated, both in City and
Country, according to the Nece$$i-
ties of the Citizens and Inhabitants; and that
$ome belong'd to the Citizens in common,
others to tho$e of greater Quality, and others
to the meaner Sort; and fini$h'd our Account
of tho$e of the fir$t Kind. The De$ign of this
fifth Book is to con$ider of the $upplying the
Nece$$aries and Conveniencies for particular
Per$ons. And in this copious and difficult
Subject we $hall make it our Study, to the ut-
mo$t of our Ability and Indu$try, to omit
nothing really material or in$tructive, and not
to $ay any thing more for the Embelli$hment
of our Di$cour$e than for the nece$$ary Expla-
nation of our Subject. Let us begin therefore
with the noble$t. The noble$t are certainly
tho$e who are entru$ted with the $upreme Au-
thority and Moderation in publick Affairs.
This is $ometimes a $ingle Per$on, and $ome-
times Many. If it is a $ingle Per$on, that Per-
$on ought certainly to be him that has the
greate$t Merit. We $hall therefore fir$t con-
$ider what is nece$$ary to be done for one that
has the $ole Power in him$elf. But we mu$t
previou$ly enquire into one very material Dif-
$erence; what Kind of a Governour this is;
whether one that with Ju$tice and Integrity
rules over willing Subjects; one not guided $o
much by his own Intere$t, as the Good and
Welfare of his People: or $uch a one as would
have Things $o contrived with Relation to his
Subjects, that he may be able to continue his
Dominion over them, let them be ever $o unea$y
under it. For the Generality of particular
Buildings, and the City it$elf ought to be laid
out differently for a Tyrant, from what they
are for tho$e who enjoy and protect a Govern-
ment as if it were a Magi$tracy voluntarily put
into their Hands. A good King takes Care to
have his City $trongly fortified in tho$e Parts,
which are mo$t liable to be a$$aulted by a foreign
Enemy: a Tyrant, having no le$s Danger to
fear from his Subjects than from Strangers, mu$t
fortify his City no le$s again$t his own People,
than again$t Foreigners: and his Fortifications
mu$t be $o contrived, that upon Occa$ion he
may employ the A$$i$tance of Strangers again$t
his own People, and of one Part of his People
again$t the other. In the preceding Book, we
$hewed how a City ought to be fortified again$t
foreign Enemies: Let us here con$ider how it is
to be provided again$t the Inhabitants them-
$elves.</P>
<P><I>Euripides</I> thinks the Multitude is naturally a
very powerful Enemy, and that if they added
<foot>Cunning</foot>
<p n=>83</p>
Cunning and Fraud to their Strength, they
would be irre$i$tible. The politick Kings of
<I>Cairo</I> in <I>&AElig;gypt,</I> a City $o populous that they
thought it was extremely healthy and flouri$h-
ing, when no more than a thou$and People died
in a Day, divided it by $o many Cuts and Chan-
nels, that it $eemed not to be one $ingle City,
but a great Number of $mall Towns lying toge-
ther. This I $uppo$e they did, not $o much
that the Conveniencies of the River might be
equally di$tributed, as to $ecure them$elves
again$t the popular Commotions of a great
Multitude, and that if any $uch $hould happen,
they might the more ca$ily $uppre$s them: ju$t
as if a Man out of one huge Colo$$us, $hould
make two or more Statues, that he might be better
able to manage or remove them. The <I>Romans</I>
never u$ed to $end a Senator into <I>&AElig;gypt,</I> with
Procon$ular Authority, to govern the whole
Province; but only $ome Knights, with Com-
mi$$ion to govern $eparate Parts of it. And
this they did, as we are informed by <I>Arrian,</I> to
Intent that a Province $o inclined to Tumults
and Innovations, might not be under the Care
of a $ingle Per$on: and they ob$erved that no
City was more exempt from Di$cord, than tho$e
which were divided by Nature, either by a Ri-
ver flowing thro' the Middle of it, or by a Num-
ber of little $eparate Hills; or by being built
one Part upon a Hill, and the other upon a
Plain, with a Wall between them. And this
Wall or Divi$ion, I think, ought not to bedrawn
like a Diameter clear thro'the Area, but ought
rather to be made to enclo$e one Circle within
another: for the richer Sort, de$iring a more
open Space and more Room, will ea$ily con$ent
to be $hut out of the inner Circle, and will be
very willing to leave the Middle of the Town,
to Cooks, Victuallers and other $uch Trades;
and all the $coundrel Rabble belonging to <I>Te-
rence's</I> Para$ite, Cooks, Bakers, Butchers and
the like, will be le$s dangerous there than if
they were not to live $eparate from the nobler
Citizens. Nor is it $oreign to our Purpo$e
what we read in <I>Fe$tus,</I> that <I>Servius Tullius</I>
commanded the <I>Patricians</I> to dwell in a cer-
tain Part of the Town, where if they offered
at any Di$turbance, he was immediately ready
to quell them from a $uperior Situation. This
Wall within the City ought to run thro' every
Di$trict of the Town; and it $hould be built $o
$trong and thick in all Re$pects, and be rai$ed
$o high (as indeed $o ought all the other City
Walls) that it may overlook all the private
Hou$es. It $hould al$o be fortified with Bat-
tlements and Towers; and a good Ditch on
both Sides would not be ami$s; that your Men
may the more ea$ily defend it on any Side.
The Towers upon this Wall ought not to be
open on the In$ide, but walled up quite round;
and they $hould be $o $eated as not only to re-
pul$e the A$$aults of a foreign Enemy, but of
Dome$tick one too upon Occa$ion; and particu-
larly they ought to command the great Streets,
and the Tops of all high Temples. I would
have no Pa$$age into the$e Towers but from off
the Wall it$elf; nor any Way up to the
Wall but what is entirely in the Power of the
Prince. There $hould be no Arches nor Tow-
ers in the Streets that lead from the Fortre$s
into the City; nor Leads or Terra$$es from
whence the Soldiers may be mole$ted with
Stones or Darts as they pa$s to their Duty. In
a Word, the whole $hould be $o contrived that
every Place, which any Way commands the
Town, $hould be in the Hands of the Prince;
and that it $hould not be in the Power of any
Per$on what$oever, to prevent his Men from
over-running the whole City as he plea$es.
And herein the City of a Tyrant differs from
that of a King; and perhaps they differ too in
this, that a Town in a Plain is mo$t conveni-
ent for a free People; but one upon a Hill the
$afe$t $or a Tyrant. The other Edifices for
the Habitation both for King and Tyrant, are
not only the $ame in mo$t re$pects, but al$o
differ very little from the Hou$es of private
Per$ons: And in $ome Particulars they differ
both from one another, and from the$e latter
too. We $hall $peak fir$t of tho$e Things
wherein they agree; and of their Peculiarities
afterwards. This Sort of Buildings is $aid to
have been invented only for Nece$$ity: Yet
there are $ome Parts of them which $erve be-
$ides to Conveniency, that by U$e and Habit
$eem to be grown as nece$$ary as any: Such as
Porticoes, Places for taking the Air in, and the
like: Which, though Method may $eem to re-
quire it, I $hall not di$tingui$h $o nicely, as to
divide what is convenient from what is nece$-
$ary: But $hall only $ay, that as in the City it-
$elf, $o in the$e Particular Structures, $ome
Parts belong to the whole Hou$hold, $ome to
the U$es of a few, and others to that of a $ingle
Per$on.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>84</p>
<head>CHAP. II.</head>
<P><I>Of the Portico, Ve$tibule, Court-yard, Hall, Stairs, Lobbies, Apertures, Back-
doors, concealed Pa$$ages and private Apartments; and wherein the Hou$es
of Princes differ from tho$e of private Men; as al$o of the $eparate and
common Apartments for the Prince and his Spou$e.</I></P>
<P>I do not think the Portico and Ve$tibule
were made only for the Conveniency of
Servants, as <I>Diodorus</I> $ays; but rather for the
common U$e of the Citizens: But Places for
walking in within the Hou$e, the inner Court-
yard, the Hall (which I believe took its Name
from Dancing, becau$e Nuptials and Fea$ts
are celebrated in it) do not belong at all to the
Publick, but entirely to the Inhabitants. Par-
lours for eating in are of two Sorts, $ome for
the Ma$ter, and others for the Servants: Bed-
chambers are for the Matrons, Virgins, Gue$ts,
and are to be $eparate for each. Of the uni-
ver$al Divi$ion of the$e, we have already treat-
ed in our fir$t Book of De$igns, as far as was
nece$$ary under a general Title: We $hall now
proceed to $hew the Number of all the$e, their
Proportions, and proper Situations for the great-
e$t Convenience of the Inhabitants. The Por-
tico and Ve$tibule are adorned by the Noble-
ne$s of Entrance; the Entrance is adorned by
the View which it has before it, and by the
Magnificence of its Workman$hip. Then the
inner Rooms for eating, laying up all Manner
of Nece$$aries, and the like, ought to be $o
contrived and $ituated, that the Things pre-
$erved in them may be well kept, that there be
no want of Sun or Air, and that they have all
Manner of proper Conveniencies, and be kept
di$tinct, $o that too great Familarity may not
le$$en the Dignity, Conveniency or Plea$ure of
Gue$ts, nor encourage the Impertinence of
Per$ons that pay their Attendance to you.
And indeed Ve$tibules, Halls, and the like
Places of publick Reception in Hou$es, ought
to be like Squares and other open Places in
Cities; not in a remote private Corner, but in
the Center and the mo$t publick Place, where all
the other Members may readily meet: For here
all Lobbies and Stair-ca$es are to terminate;
here you meet and receive your Gue$ts. More-
over, the Hou$e $hould not have above one
Entrance, to the Intent that nobody may come
in, nor any thing be carried out, without the
Knowledge of the Porter. Take Care too,
that the Windows and Doors do not lie handy
for Thieves, nor be $o open to the Neighbours
that they can interrupt, or $ee or hear what is
$aid or done in the Hou$e. The <I>&AElig;gyptians</I>
built their private Hou$es without any Win-
dows outwards. Some perhaps may be for
having a Back-gate to which the Fruits of the
Harve$t may be brought home, either in Carts
or on Hor$es, and not make a Na$tine$s before
the principal Entrance; as al$o a $maller pri-
vate Door, at which the Ma$ter of the Hou$e,
without the Knowledge of any of his Family,
may receive any private Me$$ages or Advices,
and go out him$elf, as his Occa$ions call him.
I have nothing to $ay again$t the$e: And I am
entirely for having concealed Pa$$ages and pri-
vate and hidden Apartments, barely known to
the Ma$ter him$elf; where, upon any Misfor-
tune, he may hide his Plate and other Wealth,
or by which, if need be, he may e$cape him-
$elf. In <I>David's</I> Sepulchre there were $everal
private Places made for concealing the King's
Hereditary Trea$ures; and they were contriv-
ed $o cunningly, that it was hardly po$$ible to
find them out. Out of one of the$e Places,
<I>Jo$ephus</I> informs us, that <I>Hircanus,</I> the High
Prie$t, thirteen hundred Years afterwards. took
three thou$and Talents of Gold (which makes
eighteen hundred thou$and <I>Italian</I> Crowns) to
free the City from <I>Antiochus's</I> Siege: And out
of another of them, <I>Herod,</I> a long Time after
that, got a va$t Quantity of Gold. In the$e
Things therefore the Hou$es of Princes agree
with tho$e of private Per$ons. The chief Dif-
ference between private Hou$es and Palaces is,
that there is a particular Air $uitable to each:
In the Latter the Rooms de$igned for the Re-
ception of Company $hould be more numerous
and $pacious; tho$e which are intended only
for the U$e of a Few, or only of one Per$on,
$hould be rather neat than large: But here
again a Palace $hould differ from the Hou$e
of a private Per$on, and even the$e private A-
partments $hould be made more $pacious and
large, becau$e all Parts of a Prince's Palace are
<foot>generally</foot>
<p n=>85</p>
generally crowded. In private Hou$es, tho$e
Parts which are for the Reception of many,
$hould not be made at all different from tho$e
of a Prince; and the Apartments $hould be
kept di$tinct for the Wife, for the Hu$band,
and for the Servants; and every thing is not
to be contrived merely for Conveniency, but
for Grandeur too, and $o, that the Number of
Servants may not breed any Confu$ion. All
this indeed is very difficult, and hardly po$$i-
ble to be done under a $ingle Roof: therefore
every Member of the Hou$e mu$t have its par-
ticular Area and Platform, and have a di$tinct
Covering and Wall of its own: but then all
the Members $hould be $o joined together by
the Roof and by Lobbies, that the Servants,
when they are wanted about their Bu$ine$s,
may not be called, as it were, out of another
Hou$e, but be always ready at Hand. Children
and Maids, among whom there is an eternal
Chattering, $hould be entirely $eparated from
the Ma$ter's Apartment, and $o $hould the
Dirtine$s of the Servants. The Apartments
where Princes are to eat $hould be in the no-
ble$t Part of the Palace; it $hould $tand high,
and command a fine Pro$pect of Sea, Hills,
and wide Views, which gives it an Air of
Greatne$s. The Hou$e for his Spou$e $hould
be entirely $eparated from that of the Prince
her Husband, except only in the la$t Apart-
ment or Bed-chamber, which $hould be in
common between both; but then a $ingle Gate,
under the Care of the $ame Porter, $hould
$erve both their Hou$es. The other Particu-
lars wherein the Hou$es of Princes differ from
tho$e of private Per$ons, are $uch as are in a
Manner peculiar to the$e latter; and therefore
we $hall $peak of them in their Place. The
Hou$es of Princes agree with one another in an-
other Re$pect; which is, that be$ides tho$e
Conveniencies which they ought to have for
their private U$e, they $hould have an Entrance
from the Ma$ter Way, and e$pecially from the
Sea or River; and in$tead of a Ve$tibule, they
$hould have a large open Area, big enough to
receive the Train of an Amba$$ador, or any
other Great Man, whether they come in
Coaches, in Barks, or on Hor$eback.</P>
<head>CHAP. III.</head>
<P><I>Of the Properties of the Portico, Lobby, Halls, both for Summer and Winter,
Watch-Towers, and the Difference between the Ca$tle for a Tyrant, and the
Palace for a King.</I></P>
<P>I would have the Portico be not only a con-
venient Covering for Men, but for Bea$ts
al$o, to $helter them from Sun or Rain. Ju$t
before the Ve$tibule nothing can be nobler
than a hand$ome Portico, where the Youth,
waiting till their old Gentlemen return from
tran$acting Bu$ine$s with the Prince, may em-
ploy them$elves in all Manner of Exerci$e,
Leaping, Tennis, Throwing of Stones, or
Wre$tling. Next within $hould be a hand$ome
Lobby, or a large Hall; where the Clients
waiting for their Patrons, may conver$e toge-
ther; and where the Prince's Seat may be pre-
pared for his giving his Decrees. Wherein this
there mu$t be another Hall, where the principal
Men in the State may a$$emble them$elves to-
gether in order to $alute their Prince, and to give
their Thoughts concerning what$oever he que$ti-
ons them about: Perhaps it may not be ami$s to
have two of tho$e, one for Summer and ano-
ther for Winter; and in the Contrivance of them,
particular Regard mu$t be had to the great Age
of the Fathers that are to meet in them, that
there be no Inconveniencies in them which may
any way endanger their Health, and that they
may $tay in them as long as their Bu$ine$s re-
quires, with Safety and Plea$ure. We are told
by <I>Seneca,</I> that <I>Gracchus</I> fir$t, and afterwards
<I>Dru$us,</I> contrived not to give Audience to
every body in the $ame Place, but to make
proper Di$tinctions among the Crowd, and to
receive $ome in private, others in $elect Num-
bers, and the Re$t in publick, to $hew which
had the fir$t, and which only the $econd Share
in their Friend$hip. If you are in the $ame
high Rank of Fortune, and this Manner of
Proceeding either becomes or plea$es you, the
be$t Way will be to have $everal Doors to re-
ceive your Friends at, by which you may di$-
mi$s tho$e that have had Audience, and keep
out $uch as you don't care to grant it to, with-
out giving them too much Offence. At the
Top of the Hou$e there $hould be a high
Watch-Tower, from whence you may at any
<foot>Z Time</foot>
<p n=>86</p>
Time $ee any Commotion in the City. In the$e
Particulars the Palace of a King and of a Ty-
rant agree; but then they differ in the$e
other. The Palace of a King $hould $tand in
the Heart of a City, it $hould be ea$y of Acce$s,
beauti$ully adorned, and rather delicate and
polite than proud or $tately: But a Tyrant
$hould have rather a Ca$tle than a Palace, and
it $hould $tand in a Manner out of the City and
in it at the $ame Time. It looks noble to have
the Palace of a King be near adjoyning to the
Theatre, the Temple, and $ome Noblemens
hand$ome Hou$es: The Tyrant mu$t have his
Ca$tle entirely $eparated from all other Build-
ings. Both $hould be built in a hand$ome and
noble Manner, but yet $o that the Palace may
not be $o large and rambling as to be not ea$ily
defended again$t any In$ult; nor the Ca$tle $o
clo$e and $o crampt up, as to look more like a
Jail than the Re$idence of a great Prince.
We $hould not omit one Contrivance very con-
venient for a Tyrant, which is to have $ome
private Pipes concealed within the Body of the
Wall, by which he may $ecretly hear every
Thing that is $aid either by Strangers or Ser-
vants. But as a Royal Hou$e is different from
a Fortre$s in almo$t all Re$pects, and e$pecial-
ly in the main Ones, the be$t Way is to let the
Palace join to the Fortre$s. The Ancients
u$ed to build their Fortre$s in the City, that to
they or their King might have a Place to fly
to in any Time of Adver$ity, and where the Vir-
tue of their Virgins and Matrons might be
protected by the Holine$s of a Sanctuary: For
<I>Fe$tus</I> tells us, that the Ancients u$ed to con-
$ecrate their Fortre$$es to Religion, upon which
Account they were called <I>Auguriales,</I> and that
in them a certain Sacrifice u$ed to be perform-
ed by Virgins, which was extremely $ecret and
entirely remote from the Knowledge of the
Vulgar. Accordingly you $eldom meet with
an ancient Fortre$s without its Temple. But
Tyrants afterwards u$urped the Fortre$s to
them$elves, and overthrew the Piety and Reli-
gion of the Place, converting it to their cruel
and wicked Purpo$es, and $o made what was
de$igned as a Refuge to the Mi$erable, a Source
of Mi$eries. But, to return. The Fortre$s be-
longing to the Temple of <I>Jupiter Hammon</I>
was encompa$$ed with three Walls; the fir$t
Fortification was for the Prince, the $econd for
his Spou$e and her Children, and the la$t was
the Po$t of the Soldiers. A Stucture very well
contrived, only that it was much better adapt-
ed for Defence than Offence. I mu$t confe$s
that as I cannot $ay much for the Valour of a
Soldier that only knows how to repul$e an E-
nemy that a$$aults him, $o I cannot much
commend a Fort that, be$ides being able to
defend it$elf, is not al$o well di$po$ed for of-
fending its Enemies. But yet you $hould con-
trive the Matter $o, that though you have both
tho$e Advantages, you $hould $eem to have had
an Eye only to one of them, namely, your own
Defence; that it may be thought the other
happened only from the Situation and Nature
of the Building.</P>
<head>CHAP. IV.</head>
<P><I>Of the proper Situation, Structure and Fortification of a Fortre$s, whether in
a Plain, or upon a Hill, its Inclo$ure, Area, Walls, Ditches, Bridges, and
Towers.</I></P>
<P>I find that even Men of good Experience in
military Affairs, are in Doubt which is the
be$t and $tronge$t Manner of building a For-
tre$s, either upon a Hill or Plain. There is
$carce any Hill but what may be either at-
tacked or undermined; nor any Plain but
what may be $o well fortified that it $hall be
impo$$ible to a$$ault it without great Danger.
But I $hall not di$pute about this Que$tion.
Our Bu$ine$s is to contrive every Thing $uita-
bly to the Nature of the Place; and indeed all
the Rules which we have laid down for the
building a City, $hould be ob$erved in the
building a Fortre$s. The Fortre$s particular-
ly $hould be $ure to have even and direct
Streets, by which the Garri$on may march to
attack an Enemy, or in Ca$e of Sedition or
Treachery, their own Citizens and Inhabitants,
and bring in Succours, either out of their own
Country or from Abroad, without Impedi-
ment, by Land, River, Lake, or Sea. One
very good Form for the Area of a Fortre$s, is
that of a C joining to all the City Walls as to
a round O with bending Horns, but not en-
<foot>com-</foot>
<p n=>87</p>
compa$$ing them quite round; as is al$o that
which is $haped like a Star with Rays running
out to the Circumference; and thus the For-
tre$s will be, as we before ob$erved it ought,
neither within nor without the City. If we
were to give a brief De$cription of the Fortre$s,
or Citadel, it might perhaps be not ami$s to
$ay that it is the Back-door to the City $trong-
ly $ortified on all Sides. But let it be what it
will, whether the Crown of the Wall, or the
Key to the City, it ought to look fierce, ter-
rible, rugged, dangerous, and unconquerable;
and the le$s it is, the $tronger it will be. A
$mall one will require the Fidelity only of a
few, but a large one that of a great many:
And, as <I>Euripides</I> $ays, there never was a Mul-
titude without a great many dangerous Spirits
in it; $o that in the Ca$e before us, the Fewer
we have occa$ion to tru$t, the Safer we $hall be.
The outward Wall, or Inclo$ure of the For-
tre$s $hould be built very $trong, of large
Stone, with a good Slope on the Out$ide, that
the Ladders $et again$t it may be weakened by
their $tanding too oblique; and that the Ene-
my who A$$aults it and endeavours to $cale it,
may lie entirely open to the Stones thrown
down upon him; and that Things ca$t at the
Wall by the military Engines may not $trike
it full, but be thrown off a$lant. The Ground
or Area on the In$ide $hould be all paved with
two or even three Layers of very large Stones,
that the Be$iegers may not get in upon you by
Mines run under the Wall. All the Re$t of
the Walls $hould be made very high, and very
$trong and thick quite to the uppermo$t Cor-
ni$h, that they may $toutly re$i$t all Manner of
Battery, and not ea$ily be mounted by Ladders,
nor commanded by Intrenchments ca$t up on
the Out$ide. In other Re$pects the $ame
Rules are to be ob$erved that we have given
for the Walls of the City. The greate$t De-
fence to the Walls either of a City or Fortre$s
is to be $o provided, that the Enemy cannot
approach you on any Side without being ex-
po$ed to imminent Danger. This is done both
by making very broad and deep Ditches, as
we $aid before; and al$o by leaving private
Loop-Holes almo$t at the very Bottom of the
Wall, by which, while the Enemy is covering
him$elf with his Shield from the Be$ieged above,
he may be taken in his Flank which lies un-
guarded. And indeed, there is no Kind of
Defence $o $erviceable as this. You gaul the
Enemy from the$e Loop-Holes with the greate$t
Safety to your$elf, you have a nearer Aim at
him, and you are $ure to do mo$t Execution,
$ince it is impo$$ible he $hould defend all Parts
of his Body at the $ame Time: And if your
Weapon pa$$es by the fir$t Man without hurt-
ing him, it meets another, and $ometimes
wounds two or three at a Time. On the
Contrary, when the be$ieged throws Things
down from the Top of the Wall, they mu$t
$tand expo$ed to a good Deal of Danger, and
it is a great Chance whether they hit $o much
as one Man, who may ea$ily $ee what is com-
ing upon him, and avoid it, or turn it a$ide
with his Buckler. If the Fortre$s $tands upon
the Sea-$ide, you $hould fix Piles and Heaps of
Stone $cattered up and down about the Coa$t
to make it un$afe, and prevent any Batteries in
Shipping from coming too near. If it is upon
a Plain it $hould be $urrounded with a Ditch
filled with Water; but then to prevent its
$tinking and infecting the Air, you $hould d<*>g
for it till you come to a living Spring. If it is upon
a Hill, it $hould be encompa$$ed with broken
Precipices; and where we have an Opportuni-
ty we $hould make u$e of all the$e Advantages
together. Tho$e Parts which are expo$ed to
battery, $hould be made Semi-circular, or ra-
ther with a $harp Angle like the Head of a
Ship. I am not to learn that $ome People of
good Experience in military Matters, are of
Opinion that very high Walls are dangerous in
Ca$e of Battery; becau$e their Ruins fill up the
Ditch, and make a Way in it for the Enemy to
approach and a$$ault the Place. But we $hall
avoid this Inconvenience, if we ob$erve all the
Rules before laid down. But to return. With-
in the Fortre$s ought to be one principal Tower,
built in the $toute$t Manner, and $ortified as
$trongly as po$$ible, higher than any other Part
of the Ca$tle, and not acce$$ible by more than
one Way, to which there $hould be no other
Entrance but by a Draw-bridge. Draw-
bridges are of two Sorts; one which is lifted up
and $tops up the Entrance; the other, which
$lides out and in, as you have occa$ion for it.
In a Place expo$ed to boi$terous Winds, this
la$t is the mo$t Convenient. Any Tower that
may po$$ibly infe$t this principal One, ought
to be left quite open and naked on that Side
which $tands towards it, or faced only with a
very thin weak Wall.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>88</p>
<head>CHAP. V.</head>
<P><I>Of tho$e Parts of the Fortre$s where the Soldiers are to $tand either to keep
centinel, or to fight. Of the Covering or Roof of the Fortre$s, and in what
Manner it is to be made $trong, and of the other Conveniencies nece$$ary in the
Ca$tle, either of a King or a Tyrant.</I></P>
<P>The Place where the Soldiers are to $tand
to keep centinel, and to defend the
Wall, $hould be $o laid out, that $ome may
guard the lower Parts of the Fortre$s, others
the upper, thus being all di$tributed into vari-
ous Po$ts and Employments. In a Word, the
Entrance in, and Pa$$age out, and every $epa-
rate Part $hould be $o contrived and $ecured,
that it may be expo$ed neither to the Treach-
ery of Friends, nor the Force or Fraud of Ene-
mies. The Roofs in a Fortre$s $hould be built
with an acute Angle, and very $trong, that
they may not ea$ily be demoli$hed by the
Weight of what is thrown from the military
Engines; the Rafters in them mu$t $tand very
clo$e together, and a Covering over them, and
then lay the Gutters for carrying off the Rain,
but entirely without Lime or Mortar. Then
make a Covering over the Whole of Pieces of
Tile, or rather of Pumice-$tones, to the Heighth
of three Foot: Thus it will neither be in
Danger from any Weight falling upon it, nor
from Fire. In $hort, a Fortre$s is to be built
like a little Town: It $hould be fortified with
the $ame Care and Art, and if po$$ible, pro-
vided with all the Conveniencies that a Town
$hould be. It mu$t not want Water, nor $uf-
ficient room for lodging the Soldiers, and laying
up Stores of Arms, Corn, Salted-meat, Vine-
gar, and particularly Wood. And within this
Fortre$s too, that which we called the princi-
pal Tower, ought to be a little Fortre$s within
it$elf, and $hould want none of the Conveni-
encies required in a great one. It $hould have
its own Ci$terns, and Store-rooms for all Pro-
vi$ions nece$$ary, either for its Maintenance or
Defence. It $hould have Pa$$ages, by which
it may upon Occa$ion attack even its own
Friends, and for the Admi$$ion of Succours. I
will not omit one Circum$tance, which is, that
Ca$tles have $ometimes been defended by
Means of their private Pa$$ages for Water, and
Towns taken by Means of their Drains. Both
the$e may be of U$e for $ending out private
Me$$engers. But you $hould be $ure to con-
trive them $o, that they may do you more Ser-
vice than Prejudice. Let them therefore be
made but ju$t big enough; let them run wind-
ing $everal Ways, and let them end in $ome
very deep Place, that there may not be room
enough for a Man with his Arms, and that
even one unarmed may not get into the Ca$tle
without being permitted or called. The
Mouths of them may end very conveniently
in $ome common Drain, or rather in $ome un-
known de$art Place, or in a private Chapel, or
a Tomb in $ome Church. We $hould like-
wi$e never be unprovided again$t human Acci-
dents and Calamities; and therefore it will be
very proper to have $ome Pa$$age into the very
Heart of the Fortre$s, known to nobody but
your$elf; by which if you $hould ever happen
to be $hut out, you may immediately get in
with an armed Force: And perhaps one good
Way to do this may be to have $ome very pri-
vate Part of the Wall built only of Earth or
Chalk, and not of Stone and Mortar. Thus
much may $uffice for what is nece$$ary to be
done for a $ingle Per$on that is po$$e$$ed of the
Government, whether King or Tyrant.</P>
<head>CHAP. VI.</head>
<P><I>Of the $everal Parts of which the Republick con$i$ts. The proper Situation and
Building for the Hou$es of tho$e that govern the Republick, and of the Prie$ts.
Of Temples, as well large as $mall, Chapels and Oratories.</I></P>
<P>We are now to treat of tho$e Things
which are proper to $uch as are at the
Head not of a Monarchy but of a Common-
wealth; and here the Power is lodged either
in the Hands of $ome one $ingle Magi$trate,
or el$e is divided among a certain Number.
<foot>The</foot>
<p n=>89</p>
The Republick con$i$ts of Things $acred,
which appertain to the publick Wor$hip: The
Care of which is in the Prie$ts; and of Things
profane, which regard the Welfare and good of
the Society; the Care of which is in the Sena-
tors and Judges at Home, and in the Generals
of Armies and Fleets Abroad. To each of
the$e belong two Kinds of Building, one upon
account of the Per$on's Office, the other for
the U$e of his own private Family. Every
Man's Hou$e $hould certainly be $uited to the
Condition of Life which he is in, whether he
is a King, a Tyrant, or a private Per$on. There
are $ome Circum$tances which in a particular
Manner become Men in high Stations. <I>Virgil</I>
very judiciou$ly makes <I>Anchi$es</I> have his Hou$e
in a private Part of the City, and $haded with
Trees; knowing very well that the Habitati-
ons of great Men, for the Dignity and Quiet
both of them$elves and Families, $hould be re-
mote from the Concour$e of the Vulgar, and
from the Noi$e of Trades; and this not only
for the Plea$ure and Conveniency of having
Room for Gardens, Groves, or the like, but
al$o that $o large a Family, con$i$ting of diffe-
rent Sorts of People, may not lie in the Way
to be corrupted and debauched by an ill
Neighbourhood, $ince (as is rightly ob$erved)
more Mi$chief is done by Wine Abroad than at
Home: And moreover, in order to avoid the
eternal Torment of numerous Vi$itors and At-
tendants. I have indeed ob$erved that wi$e
Princes have not only placed them$elves out of
the Way of the Crowd, but even out of the
City it$elf, that the common People might not
be trouble$ome to them, but when they were
in $ome particular Want of their Protection:
And, in Reality, what $ignifies all their Wealth
and Greatne$s, if they can never enjoy a few
Hours of Repo$e and Lei$ure? However, their
Hou$es, let them $tand where they will, ought
to have large $pacious Apartments to receive
tho$e that come to attend them, and the Street
which leads from them to the Places where the
publick Affairs are tran$acted, $hould be of a
good Breadth, that their Servants, Clients,
Suitors and Followers crowding to attend their
Patron, may not $top up the Way, and breed
Confu$ion. The different Places where the
Magi$trates are to exerci$e their Offices, are
known to every Body: The Bu$ine$s of the
Senator, is in the Senate-hou$e; of the Judge,
in the Tribunal, or Court of Ju$tice; of the
General in the Army; of the Admiral on board
the Fleet. But what $hall we $ay of the Prie$ts?
to whom belongs not only the Temple, but
al$o the Cloy$ter, which might be called a
Lodgement, or Camp for Soldiers, $ince the
chief Prie$ts, and all his inferior Mini$ters, are
employed in a $tubborn and laborious Warfare,
(as we have $hewed in the Book called <I>The
Prie$t</I>) namely, that of Virtue again$t Vice.
Of Temples, $ome are principal, as is that
wherein the chief Prie$t upon $tated Sea$ons ce-
lebrates $ome $olemn Rites and Sacrifices:
Others are under the Guardian$hip of inferior
Prie$ts, as all Chapels in Town, and Oratories
in the Country. Perhaps the mo$t convenient
Situation for the principal Temple may be in
the Middle of the City; but it is more Decent
to have it $omewhat remote from the Crowd:
A Hill gives it an Air of Dignity, but it is more
$ecure from Earthquakes in a Plain. In a
Word, the Temple is to be placed where it
may appear with mo$t Maje$ty and Reverence:
For which Rea$on it $hould lie entirely out of
the Way of all Filth and Indecency, to the In-
tent that Fathers, Matrons and Virgins, who
come to offer up their Prayers, may not be
$hocked and offended, or perverted from their
intended Devotions. <I>Nigrigeneus</I> the Archi-
tect, who wrote about the <I>Termini,</I> informs us,
that the ancient Architects were for having the
Fronts of their Temples facing the We$t: But
this Cu$tom was afterwards quite altered, and
it was thought better to have the Temples and
the <I>Termini</I> look to the Ea$t, that they might
have a View of the ri$ing Sun. But I have ob-
$erved my$elf that the Ancients in the $ituating
of their $maller Temples or Chapels, generally
turned their Fronts $o as they might be $een
from the Sea, or $ome River or great Road.
To conclude, a Structure of this Kind ought
to be $o built as to entice tho$e who are ab$ent
to come and $ee it, and to charm and detain
tho$e that are pre$ent by the Beauty and Curi-
o$ity of its Workman$hip. An arched Roof
will $ecure it mo$t again$t Fire, and a flat one
again$t Earthquakes; but the former will be
the lea$t liable to Decay by the Injury of Time.
And this may $uffice as to the Temples, be-
cau$e many Things which $eem nece$$ary to be
$aid here, belong more properly to their Orna-
ment than to their real U$e: And therefore of
tho$e we $hall treat el$ewhere. Smaller Tem-
ples and Chaples mu$t imitate the Greater, ac-
cording to the Dignity of their Situation and
U$es.</P>
<foot>A a CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>90</p>
<head>CHAP. VII.</head>
<head><I>That the Prie$t's Camp is the Cloy$ter; the Duty of the Prie$t; the various
Sorts of Cloy$ters and their proper Situations.</I></head>
<P>The Prie$t's Camp is the Cloy$ter, in
which a certain Number of Per$ons $hut
them$elves up together in order to devote them-
$elves either to Religion or Virtue; $uch are tho$e
who have dedicated them$elves to the $acred
Functions, or who have taken upon them$elves
a Vow of Cha$tity. Be$ides this Cloy$ter is a
Place where Per$ons of $tudious Di$po$itions
employ them$elves about the Knowledge of
Things as well Divine as Human; for as the
Prie$t's Duty is as far as in him lies to lead
Mankind into a Cour$e of Life as near to Per-
fection as po$$ible, this can never be done more
effectually than by Philo$ophy. For as there
are two Things in the Nature of Man to which
this mu$t be owing, Virtue and Truth; when
the former has taught us to calm and govern
our Pa$$ions, and the latter to know the Prin-
ciples and Secrets of Nature, which will purge
the Mind from Ignorance and the Contagion of
the Body; we may then be qualified to enter
into a happy Cour$e of Life, and to have $ome
Re$emblance with the divine Nature it$elf. Add
to this, that it is the Duty of all good Men, as
the Prie$ts ought and would be thought to be,
to exerci$e them$elves in all tho$e Offices of
Humanity which are due from every Man to
his Neighbour, namely, to a$$i$t and relieve the
Poor, the Di$tre$$ed and the Infirm, to the ut-
mo$t of their Power. The$e are the Things
in which the Prie$t is to employ him$elf and
all tho$e under his Direction. Of the Struc-
tures proper for the$e Purpo$es, whether be-
longing to the $uperior or inferior Rank of
Prie$ts, we are now to treat; and fir$t we $hall
begin with the Cloy$ter. Cloy$ters are of $e-
veral Sorts, either for $uch Per$ons as are to be
$o $trictly confined that they mu$t never ap-
pear in publick at all, unle$s at Church or in
Proce$$ions; or for tho$e who are to be allow-
ed a little more Liberty. Of the$e again $ome
are for Men, others for Women. Tho$e for
Women $hould, in my Opinion, be neither too
much in the City, nor too much out of it: For
though in a Solitude they may not be $o much
$requented, yet any one that has a De$ign may
have more Opportunity to execute any villan-
ous Enterprize where there are $o few Wit-
ne$$es, than where there are a great many both
to $hame and di$$wade him from $uch an At-
tempt. It is our Bu$ine$s in both to take Care
not that they have no Inclinations to be un-
cha$te, but no means. For this Purpo$e every
Entrance mu$t be $o $ecured, that nobody can
po$$ibly get in; and $o well watched, that no-
body may loyter about in order to attempt it
without in$tant Su$picion and Shame. No
Camp for an Army $hould be $o well guarded
by Intrenchments and Pali$adoes, as a Mona$-
tery ought to be by high Walls, without either
Doors or Windows in them, or the lea$t Hole
by which not only no Violator of Cha$tity, but
not $o much as the lea$t Temptation either by
the Eye or Ear, may po$$ibly get in to di$order,
or pollute the Minds of the Reclu$e. Let them
receive their Light from an open Court on the
In$ide. Round this Court the Portico, Cells,
Refectory, Chapter-hou$e and the like Conve-
niencies $hould be di$po$ed according to their
various U$es, in the $ame Manner as in private
Hou$es. Nor $hould Space be wanting for
Gardens and Meadows, for the moderate Re-
creation of the Mind, but not for admini$tring
to Plea$ure. If all the$e Precautions are ta-
ken, it will be be$t to have them out of the
Way of a Concour$e of People. The Cloy$ters
for both Sexes therefore cannot be better placed
than without the City; that the Attention of
their Thoughts which are entirely dedicated to
Holine$s, and the calm and $ettled Religion of
their Minds may not be di$turbed by too many
Vi$itors. But then I would have their Hou$es,
whether they are for Men or Women, $ituated
in the mo$t healthy Air that can be found out;
that the Reclu$e, while they are wholly intent
upon the Care of their Souls, may not have
their Bodies, already impared, by con$tant fa$t-
ing and watching, oppre$$ed likewi$e with
Weakne$s and Di$ea$es. Tho$e who are with-
out the City $hould be placed in a Situation
naturally $trong, that neither Robbers nor any
plundering Enemy with a $mall Force, may
be able at every turn to $ack it; and I would
have it moreover fortified with a Trench and a
<foot>Wall,</foot>
<p n=>91</p>
Wall, nor would it be ami$s to add a Tower,
which is not at all incon$i$tent with a religious
Edifice. The Mona$tery for tho$e Reclu$e
who to Religion join the Study of the liberal
Arts, that they may be the more ready to pro-
mote the Good of Mankind, according to the
Obligation of their Character, ought to be nei-
ther within the Noi$e and Hurry of Trade$-
men, nor too far remote from the Acce$s of the
Citizens. And as they are a great many in
Family, and there is generally a great Con-
cour$e of People to hear them Preach and Di$-
pute concerning $acred Things; they require a
very large Hou$e. They can be placed no where
better than among $ome publick Buildings,
$uch as Theatres, Circu$$es, or Squares, where
the Multitude going for their Plea$ure may
more ea$ily by the Exhortations, Example and
Admonition of the Religious, be drawn from
Vice to Virtue, and from Ignorance to Know-
ledge.</P>
<head>CHAP. VIII.</head>
<head><I>Of Places for Exerci$e, publick Schools, and Ho$pitals both for Men and
Women.</I></head>
<P>The Ancients, and e$pecially the <I>Greeks,</I>
u$ed in the very Middle of their Cities
to erect tho$e Edifices which they called
<I>Pal&aelig;$tr&aelig;,</I> where tho$e who applied them$elves
to Philo$ophy, attended publick Di$putations.
They were large $pacious Places full of Win-
dows, with a free Pro$pect on all Sides, and
rai$ed Seats, and Porticoes running round $ome
green flowery Meadow. Such a Structure is
extremely proper for the$e Per$ons, who may
be reckoned a Kind of Religious; and I would
have tho$e who delight in the Study of Learn-
ing, be provided with every Thing that may
induce them to $tay with their Tutors with
Plea$ure, and without Unea$ine$s or Satiety.
For this Rea$on, I would have the Meadow,
the Portico, and every Thing el$e $o laid out,
that nothing what$oever could be better con-
trived for Recreation. In Winter let them re-
ceive the kindly Beams of the Sun, and in Sum-
mer be $hady and open to gentle refre$hing
Breezes. But of the Delicacies of this Kind of
Structures we $hall $peak more particularly in
another Place. Only if you do re$olve to erect
publick Schools, where the Learned may meet
and conver$e, place them in that Situation
which may be mo$t convenient and plea$ant for
them. Let there be no Noi$es of working Trades,
no noi$ome ill Smells; and do not let it be a
Place for idle People to loyter in; but let it
have more the Air of a Solitude, $uch as be-
comes Men of Gravity employed about the no-
ble$t and mo$t curious Enquiries: In a Word,
it $hould have more of Maje$ty than Nicety.
As for Ho$pitals where the Prie$t is to exerci$e
his Charity towards the Poor and Di$tre$$ed,
they are to be built with much Thought, and
a good Deal of Variety; for one Place is pro-
per for harbouring the Di$tre$$ed, and another
for curing and fo$tering the Sick and Infirm:
Among the$e la$t too we $hould take Care to
make a good Deal of Di$tinction, that while
we are providing for a few u$ele$s People, we
do not neglect more that might really be of
Service. There have been $ome Princes in <I>Italy</I>
that would never $uffer any tattered Cripples
to go about their Cities begging Charity from
Door to Door; but as $oon as ever they came,
an Order was brought to them not to be $een
in that City without working at $ome Trade
above three Days: For there is hardly any $o
maimed but what may do $ome Work or other;
and even a blind Man may turn a Rope-
maker's Wheel, if he can do nothing el$e. As
for tho$e who are entirely oppre$$ed and dif-
abled by $ome heavier Infirmity, they were
taken care of by Magi$trates appointed on pur-
po$e to provide for $ick Strangers, and di$tri-
buted regularly to inferior Ho$pitlers, to be
looked after. And by this Means the$e poor
Wretches did not wander about begging Re-
lief, perhaps in vain; and the City was not of-
fended by mi$erable and filthy Objects. In
<I>Tu$cany,</I> always famous for Religion and Pie-
ty, there are noble Ho$pitals, built at a va$t
Expence; where as well Strangers as Natives,
are furni$hed plentifully with all Manner of
Nece$$aries for their Cure. But as the Sick are
of various Sorts, $ome afflicted with Lepro$y or
Plague, with which they might infect tho$e who
are in Health, and others, if $uch an Expre$-
$ion may be allowed, with more whol$ome
<foot>Di$tempers:</foot>
<p n=>92</p>
Di$tempers: They ought to have Places en-
tirely $eperate. The Ancients dedicated their
Buildings of this Nature to <I>&AElig;culapius, Apollo,</I>
and <I>Health,</I> Gods among them to whom they
a$cribed the Cure of Sickne$s and Pre$ervation
Health, and $ituated them in the be$t Air they
could find out, and near Plenty of the cleare$t
Water, where the Sick might recover their
Health, not $o much by the A$$i$tanc of tho$e
Gods, as the natural Healthine$s of the Place:
And certainly nothing can be more rea$onable
than to carry the Sick, whether under a private
or a publick Cure, into the mo$t healthy Places;
and perhaps none are more $o, than tho$e which
are very dry and $tony, fanned with continual
Breezes, not burnt up by the Sun, but cool and
temperate: Since we find that all Moi$ture is
the Mother of Corruption. We $ee that Na-
ture in every Thing loves a Medium; and even
Health it$elf is nothing but a due Moderation
of the Qualities of the Body; and indeed no-
thing that is in Extreams can plea$e. For the
Re$t, tho$e who are $eized with Di$ea$es which
are contagious, $hould be taken Care of not on-
ly without the City, but remote even from any
high Road; the others may be kept in the
City. The Apartments for all the$e $hould be
$o laid out and di$tributed, that there may be
di$tinct Places for tho$e who are curable, and
tho$e whom you take in rather to maintain
them for the Remainder of their unhappy
Days, than to cure them: Of this Sort are the
Superannuated, and tho$e who want their
Sen$es. Add further, that the Men and Wo-
men, as well the Patients, as the Per$ons that
attend them, $hould have Apartments $eparate
from one another; and as $ome Parts of the
Building $hould be for Particulars, others $hould
be in common, according as it $hall be found
nece$$ary for the Management of the Patients,
and the more ea$y cohabiting together: Of
which there is no Occa$ion to $ay more in this
Place. We $hall only ob$erve that all the$e
Conveniencies are to be contrived according to
the Rules hereafter to be laid down for the
Hou$es of private Per$ons. We $hall there-
fore now proceed according to the Method
which we have pre$cribed to our$elves.</P>
<head>CHAP. IX.</head>
<head><I>Of the Senate-hou$e, the Temple, and the Tribunals for the Admini$tration of
Ju$tice.</I></head>
<P>Having already ob$erved that the Re-
publick con$i$ts of two Parts, the Sacred
and the Profane, and having treated of the
Sacred as much as was requi$ite, and in a good
Mea$ure too of the Profane, where we took
Notice of the Place in the Palace of the Prince
where the Senate was to meet, and where
Cau$es were to be heard; we $hall now very
briefly $peak of tho$e Things which $eem nece$-
$ary to be further added, then proceed to In-
campments and Fleets, and la$tly treat of
Things relating to the U$es of private Per$ons.
The Ancients u$ed to call their Senates together
in Temples, and afterwards it grew a Cu$tom
for them to meet $omewhere out of the City.
But at length, both for greater Dignity and
Conveniency in tran$acting the publick Affairs,
it was found nece$$ary to rai$e Structures for
<*>his Purpo$e only; where neither the Length
of the Way, nor any Inconveniency in the
Place it$elf, might deter the aged Fathers from
meeting often, and continuing a good while
together; and for this Rea$on they placed the
Senate-hou$e in the Middle of the City, with
the Place for the Admini$tration of Ju$tice and
the Temple near adjoining, that not only tho$e
who made Intere$t for Offices, or were obliged
to attend Law-$uits, might with greater Con-
venience, and without lo$ing their Time or
Opportunity, look after their Affairs of both
Natures; but al$o that the Fathers (as Men are
generally mo$t devoted to Religion in their old
Age) might fir$t pay their Devotions in the
Temple, and afterwards repair immediately to
the Tran$action of the publick Bu$ine$s. Add
to all this, that when any Amba$$ador or fo-
reign Prince de$ires Audience of the Senate, it
becomes the Republick to have a Place $uitable
to the Dignity both of the Stranger and of the
City, to receive them in, while they wait for
Introduction. La$tly, in publick Buildings of
this Sort, you mu$t neglect none of tho$e Rules
which belong to the convenient and honoura-
ble Reception of a Multitude of Citizens, and
their ea$y Di$mi$$ion: And above all you mu$t
take particular Care, that there is not the lea$t
<foot>Want</foot>
<p n=>93</p>
Want of $uf$icient Pa$$ages, Lights, open Areas,
and the like. But in the Hall for the Admi-
ni$tration of Ju$tice, where Numbers of Peo-
ple re$ort about various Contentions, the A-
pertures mu$t be more and larger, and more
direct than either in the Temple or Senate-
hou$e. The Entrance into the Senate-hou$e
ought to be made no le$s $trong than hand-
$ome, for very many Rea$ons, and particularly
to the Intent that no fooli$h head$trong Rab-
ble, at the In$tigation of any $editious Ring-
leader, may be able at any Time to attack and
in$ult the Senators: For which Rea$on, more
than for any other, there ought to be Porti-
coes, Ve$tibules, and the like, where Servants,
Clients and Attendants, waiting for their Pa-
trons, may be ready at Hand to defend them
in Ca$e of any $udden Commotion. I will not
omit one Ob$ervation, namely, that no Place
where we are to hear the Voices of Per$ons
either $peaking, $inging, or di$puting, $hould
ever be vaulted becau$e $uch Roofs confound
the Voice with Ecchoes: Whereas a flat Ceil-
ing made of Timbers renders the Sound more
clear and di$tinct.</P>
<head>CHAP. X.</head>
<P><I>That Incampments, or Lodgments for Soldiers by Land are of three Sorts; in
what Manner they are to be fortified; and the various Methods u$ed by
different Nations.</I></P>
<P>In laying down a Camp we ought to review
and re-con$ider all tho$e Rules which we
gave in the la$t Book for the Situation of a Ci-
ty; for, indeed, Camps are as it were the Seeds
of Cities, and you will find that not a few Ci-
ties have been built in tho$e very Places, where
excellent Generals had before incamped with
their Armies. In making a Camp, the chief
Matter is to know to what Intent it is de$ign-
ed. There would not be the lea$t Occa$ion
for a Camp if it were not for unfore$een Acci-
dents in War, and for the Apprehen$ion of A$-
$aults from a $uperior Force: And therefore
we are to con$ider the Nature of the Enemy.
Of Enemies $ome are inferior as to Valour and
Number; $ome equal, $ome $uperior. For this
Rea$on we $hall determine the different Sorts
of Incampments to be three; the Fir$t is that
which is made only for a Time, and is move-
able every Moment, which is proper for with-
$tanding and managing an Enemy equal to
your$elf, and is de$igned partly for keeping the
Soldier $afe from $udden Attacks, and partly
for watching and obtaining Opportunities of
effecting your De$igns. The $econd Sort of
Incampment is $tationary, in which you wait
to oppre$s and $ubdue an Enemy, who, di$-
tru$ting his own Forces, $huts him$elf up in
$ome $trong Hold. The third Sort is that in
which you $hut up your$elf, to receive and re-
pul$e the Attacks of a $uperior Force, $o as to
be able to $end the Enemy away weary of the
Fatigues and Lo$s in be$ieging you. In all
the$e you mu$t take great Care that every
Thing be $o ordered, that not the lea$t Parti-
cular be wanting which can be of Service to
your own Security and Welfare, and to the
$u$taining, repul$ing and breaking the Enemy;
and on the Contrary, that the Enemy, as far as
lies in your Power, may have no Conveniency
what$oever, by means of which he may either
hurt you, or $ecure him$elf. For this Rea$on,
the fir$t Thing to be con$ulted, is the Nature
of the Situation, that it be in a Country well
furni$hed with all Manner of Provi$ions, and
lie convenient for the ea$y bringing in either of
Convoys or Supplies upon all Occa$ions. Let
Water by no means be wanting, and let Wood
and Pa$ture be not far off. Take care to have
a free Communication with your own Terri-
tory, and an open Pa$$age at plea$ure into the
Enemy's. Let the Enemy on the Contrary, have
nothing but Difficulties and Ob$tacles. I am
for having a Camp placed on a Situation $o
high, as to have an open View of the Enemy's
Country all round; $o that they may not be-
gin or attempt any Thing what$oever, without
your being immediately aware of it. Let it be
$ecured all round with $teep Slopes, difficult
A$cents, and broken Precipices; that the Ene-
my may not be able to $urround you with
Multitudes, nor to attack you on any Side,
without expo$ing him$elf to imminent Danger;
or that if he $hould come clo$e up to you, he
may not conveniently u$e his Engines, or make
any $ecure Lodgments for him$elf near you.
<foot>B b If</foot>
<p n=>94</p>
If the Situation offers all the$e Advantages, be
$ure to be the Fir$t to lay hold of them; if
not, we mu$t then con$ider what Sort of Camp,
and what Kind of Situation will be$t an$wer
your Purpo$e. A $tationary Camp ought to
be much better fortified than a Flying one:
And a Plain requires more Art and Diligence
to $trengthen it, than a Hill. We $hall begin
with the moveable, or flying Camp, becau$e it
is much more frequently u$ed than a $tationary
one: And indeed, the frequent moving the
Camp, has very often conduced extremely to
the Health of the Army. In placing a Camp,
it is a Que$tion that naturally ari$es in the
Mind, whether it is be$t to fix it upon our
own Territory, or upon that of the Enemy.
<I>Xenophon</I> $ays, that by frequent changing our
Camp, our Enemy is oppre$$ed, but our Friends
ea$ed. Without doubt, it is honourable and
brave to lie upon the Enemy's Country; but
it is convenient and $afe to be upon our own.
But indeed a Camp is, with regard to all the
Territory which is $ubject to it, what a Citadel
is to a City; which ought to have a $hort and
ea$y Retreat towards its Friends, and an open
and ready Pa$$age upon its Enemies. La$tly,
in the fortifying of Camps various Methods
have been u$ed. The <I>Britains</I> u$ed to make a
Fence round their Camps with Stakes ten foot
long, $harpened and burnt at the Ends, with
one End fixed in the Ground, and the other
$tanding up to keep off the Enemy. <I>C<*>$ar</I>
tells us, that the <I>Gauls</I> u$ed to make a Ram-
part of their Waggons, as he $ays the <I>Thraci-
ans</I> al$o did again$t <I>Alexander.</I> The <I>Nervii</I>
(or People of <I>Tournay</I>) u$ed to cut down young
Trees, and binding and interlacing the Boughs
together made them into a $trong Hedge,
which $erved chiefly for keeping off the Hor$e.
<I>Arrian</I> relates that when <I>Nearchus, Alexan-
der</I>'s Admiral, $ailed along the <I>Ind<*>an</I> Sea, ha-
ving Occa$ion to land, he $urrounded his Camp
with a Wall to $ecure him$elf again$t the <I>Bar-
barians.</I> The <I>Romans</I> were always $o well
provided, and had $o much Fore$ight, that
whatever happened they took care it $hould
never be by their own Fault; and they u$ed to
exerci$e their Soldiers no le$s in making In-
campments, than in the other Parts of the Mi-
litary Duty. Nor did they think there was $o
much Merit in offending their Enemies, as in
$ecuring their own Men; and they accounted
it no $mall Part of the Victory, to be able to
with$tand the Enemy, and to repul$e him $o
$toutly as to make him De$pair of Succe$s. For
which Rea$on they never neglected any Means
of De$ence that they could learn or invent for
their own Safety: And if high Hills or Preci-
pices were not to be had, they imitated them
as well as they could with very deep Ditches
and high Ramparts, emcompa$$ed with $trong
Fences of Stakes and Hurdles.</P>
<head>CHAP. XI.</head>
<P><I>The mo$t convenient Situation for a Camp, and its Size, Form and various
Parts; together with the different Methods of attacking and defending a
Camp or other Fortification.</I></P>
<P>We $hall here proceed further upon this
Subject of Camps according to the
Methods of the aforementioned Ancients. We
mu$t take Care to pitch upon a Place not only
convenient, but $o well adapted for whatever
Purpo$e we have in Hand, that none could be
found more $uitable. And be$ides the other
Advantages before recited, let the Soil be dry,
not muddy nor liable at any Time to be over-
flowed; but let the Situation be $uch that it
may be always clear and free for your own
Men, and unfafe for the Enemy. Let there
be no foul Puddle in the Neighbourhood, and
let there be good Water at an ea$y Di$tance.
Contrive, if po$$ible, to have $ome clear Springs
within the Camp it$elf, or to have the Fo$s
filled with $ome River or running Stream. The
Camp ought not to be $o large, out of Propor-
tion to the Number of your Soldiers, that they
cannot be able to keep $ufficient Centry about
it, $o as to give the Watch-word round one to
another; or to relieve one another $o often as
may be requi$ite in defending the Ramparts:
Nor, on the Contrary, ought it to be $o crampt
up and confined, as not to afford $ufficient
room for all proper Conveniencies. <I>Lycurgus</I>
was of Opinion that Angles were u$ele$s in a
Camp, and therefore he always laid out his in
a Circle, unle$s he had $ome Hill, River or For-
tification at his Back. Others commend a
<foot>$quare</foot>
<p n=>95</p>
$quare Area for Incampments: But indeed in
$ituating a Camp we mu$t accommodate our-
$elves to the Nece$$ity of the Time, and the
Nature of the Place, according to the Purpo$e
which we have in Hand, whether it be to op-
pre$s the Enemy or to re$i$t him. Let us
make our Fo$s $o big, that it may not be filled
up without great Labour, and a long Space of
Time; or rather let us have two Fo$$es, with
$ome intermediate Space between them. The
Ancients, in Works of this Nature al$o, held it
a Point of Religion to make u$e of odd Num-
bers; for which Rea$on it was their Cu$tom to
make their Ditches fifteent Foot wide, and nine
deep. Let the Sides of the Ditch be Perpen-
dicular, $o that it may be as broad at the Bot-
tom as the Top; but where the Soil is loo$e,
you may allow a $mall Slope, running $ome-
what narrower towards the Bottom. In a
Plain, or a low Situation, fill your Ditch with
Water brought from $ome River, Lake, or Sea:
But if this cannot be effected $trew all the Bot-
tom with $harp Points of Steel and Caltrops,
and fix up and down a good Number of Stakes
with their Ends $moothed and $harpened, to
keep off the Enemy. Having compleated your
Ditch, make your Rampart $o thick, that it
may not be to be $haken by every little mili-
tary Engine, and $o high as to be above the
Reach of the grappling Hooks, and even of
Darts thrown by the Hand. The Earth dug
out of the Fo$s lies very convenient and ready
at Hand for making up the Rampart. The
Ancients for that Work very much commend-
ed Turfs dug out of the Meadows with the
Gra$s upon them, the Roots whereof fa$ten
them very $trongly together. Others intermix
them with Twigs of green Oziers, which $trike
their Roots into the Rampart, and by the Con-
texture of their Fibres $trengthen the whole
Work. Along the inward Edge of the Fo$s
and the Out$ide of the Rampart $et Thorns,
Spikes, Tenter-hooks and the like, to retard
the Enemy in his A$cent. Let the Top of the
Rampart be girt with a $trong Frame of Tim-
bers joyned to one another cro$$ways like a
Corni$h, with Hurdles and Earth well rammed
in together between them; and upon the$e
rai$e your Battlements, and $tick in forked Pa-
li$adoes like Stag's Horns. In a Word, let
every Thing be $o contrived in this Kind of
Structure, as to make it difficult to be either
undermined, thrown down, or mounted; and
to protect the Soldier who is to defend it.
Upon the Edge of this Rampart erect Towers
at the Di$tance of every hundred Feet, and
e$pecially in $uch Parts as are mo$t likely to be
attacked, where they ought to $tand clo$er and
be built higher that they may the more effec-
tually annoy the Enemy, when he attempts to
make his Way into the Camp. Let the <I>Pr&aelig;-
torium,</I> or General's Tent, and the Gate look-
ing towards the Enemy, as al$o that in the
Back of the Camp, which two Gates u$ed
formerly to be called the <I>porta Quintana,</I> and
the <I>porta Decumana,</I> be placed in the $trong-
e$t Parts of the Camp, and lie convenient for
making any $udden Sally with the Army, or
bringing in of Provi$ions, or giving a ready
Retreat to your own Men. All the$e Con-
veniencies belong more particularly to a $tati-
onary Camp, than to a flying one: But as we
ought to be provided again$t all Accidents that
either Fortune or the Calamity of the Times
can produce, we $hould not, even in a flying
Camp, neglect any of tho$e Particulars which
we have <*>$poken of, as far as may be nece$$ary.
Tho$e Things which belong to a $tationary
Camp, e$pecially one that is to expect a Siege,
are very nearly the $ame with tho$e which we
$poke of with Relation to the Citadel of a Ty-
rant. A Citadel is a Structure purpo$ely de-
$igned for the Su$taining a Siege, $ince the Ci-
tizens always look upon it with an irreconcile-
able Hatred: And it is indeed the mo$t cruel
Kind of Siege that can be imagined, to be con-
tinually watching it, and to be always upon the
Catch for an Opportunity that may offer, by
Means of which you may $atisfy the $trong De-
$ire you have to de$troy it: And for this Rea-
$on, as we ob$erved before, we $hould take the
greate$t Care to make it $trong, $tout, durable,
well provided for its own Defence, and for
weakening and repul$ing the Enemy, and able
to defy the mo$t ob$tinate and violent Attacks.
On the other Hand in tho$e Camps, where you
are to be $hut up and mole$t an Enemy, all the
$ame Things are to be ob$erved with the $ame
Care: For it is indeed a ju$t Ob$ervation, that
the Nature of War is $uch, that he who be-
$ieges is in a great Mea$ure be$ieged him$elf.
For this Rea$on you are to con$ider not only
how you may take the Place, but al$o how
you may keep your$elf from being oppre$$ed,
either by the Boldne$s or Diligence of the E-
nemy, or by the Carele$$ne$s of your own Men.
In order to take the Place, you mu$t proceed
either by Siege or by A$$ault: And to keep
your$elf from being oppre$$ed, there are al$o
two Methods, which are, being $toutly fortified,
<foot>and</foot>
<p n=>96</p>
and making a brave Defence. The whole Pur-
po$e of an A$$ault is to break in either upon a
Town or a Fortification. I $hall not $peak here
either of Scaling-ladders, by Means whereof
you mount the Wall in $pite of the Enemy;
nor of Mines, moveable Towers, Engines for
Battery, nor of any other Methods of Offence
either by Fire, Water, or any other Force: In-
a$much as we intend to treat of the$e military
Engines more clearly in another Place. Thus
much it may be proper here to mention, that
again$t the Violence of Battery we $hould op-
po$e Beams, Planks, Parapets of $trong Tim-
ber, Hurdles, Ropes, Fa$cines, Sacks $tuffed
with Wool, Ru$hes, or Earth; and they $hould
be $o contrived as to hang loo$e and pliable.
Again$t Fire the$e Things ought to be wetted,
and e$pecially with Vinegar, or Mud, and co-
vered with Brick unbaked; again$t Water, to
prevent the Bricks from being wa$hed away,
they $hould be covered over with the Hides of
Bea$ts; and la$tly, again$t Battery, that the
Hides may not be broken through or torn
away, add any coar$e Cloths or Tarpawlins
thoroughly wetted and $oaked. Circumvalla-
tions or Trenches round the Place be$ieged,
ought for $everal Rea$ons to be drawn pretty
near it; for by that Means their Circuit will
be le$s, they will require fewer Hands, Ex-
pence and Materials, to fini$h them, and when
fini$hed, the fewer Men will be nece$$ary to
defend them: But they mu$t not run $o clo$e
under the Wall, that the Be$ieged may an-
noy your Men within their Trenches by En-
gines upon the Wall. If the Circumvallation
be only intended to cut off from the Be$ieged
all Manner of Supplies, either of Men or Pro-
vi$ions from without; you may do this by
$topping up all the Ways and Pa$$ages, either
by barracading the Bridges, and Fords, and
blocking up the Roads with $trong Fences of
Wood or Stones; or by running up a continu-
ed Rampart to joyn together the Lakes, Bogs,
Mar$hes, Rivers and Hills; or if you can any
Ways lay the Country under Water. To the$e
Precautions we $hould add tho$e which relate
to the Defence of our own Camp: For the
Trenches, Ramparts, Towers and the like
ought to be $o well fortified both towards the
Place be$ieged, and on the Side of any Coun-
try that might throw in Succours, that the
former may not be able to annoy you by Sallies,
nor the Latter by Incur$ions. Moreover, in
convenient Places erect Watch-towers and
Forts, that your Men may go out to forage for
Wood, Water and Provi$ions with Safety and
Freedom. But do not let your Troops be di$-
per$ed up and down in Places $o remote from
one another, that they cannot obey the Orders
of a $ingle General, nor fight with united
Forces, nor be ready at Hand to a$$i$t one an-
other upon any $udden Emergency. It will
not be foreign to our Purpo$e to $et down here
an Account of a Fortification out of <I>Appian,</I>
well worthy to be remembered. He tells us,
that when <I>Octavianus Augu$tus</I> be$ieged <I>Lu-
cius Antonius</I> in <I>Peru$ia,</I> he made a Trench
quite to the <I>Tyber,</I> $even Miles long, thirty
Foot broad, and as many deep: Which he for-
tified with a high Wall, and with a thou$and
and fifty wooden Towers $tanding up, each
three$core Foot above the Wall, and made the
Whole $o $trong, that the Be$ieged were not
more $traitened in by it, than they were ex-
cluded from annoying the Enemy in any Part.
And thus much may $uffice for Incampments
or Stations by Land, unle$s it may be thought
nece$$ary to add, that we ought to chu$e out a
Place of the greate$t Dignity and Honour,
wherein to plant the Standard of the Com-
monwealth with befitting Maje$ty, where the
Rites of Religion may be performed with all
due Reverence, and where the Generals and
other chief Officers may meet either in Coun-
cil or for the Admini$tration of Ju$tice.</P>
<head>CHAP. XII.</head>
<head><I>Of Incampments or Stations at Sea, which are Fleets; of Ships and their
Parts; as al$o of Havens and their proper Fortification.</I></head>
<P>Some perhaps will not allow that Fleets
are Sea Incampments; but will be rather
for $aying, that we u$e Ships like a Kind of
Water Elephant, which we direct as we plea$e
by its Bridle; and that the Haven is much
more like a Sea Incampment, than the Fleet.
Others on the Contrary, will $ay, that a Ship
is no other than a travelling Fortre$s. We $hall
<foot>pa$s</foot>
<p n=>97</p>
pa$s by the$e Di$putes, and proceed to $hew
that there are two Things by Means of which
the Art of Building may contribute to the
Sa$ety and Victory of Generals of Fleets and
their Forces: The Fir$t con$i$ts in the right
Con$truction and Rigging of the Ve$$els, and
the Second in the proper fortifying the Haven;
whether you are to go to attack the Enemy,
or to $tay to defend your$elf. The primary
U$e of Shipping is to convey you and yours:
The Second, is to fight without Danger. The
Danger mu$t ari$e either from the Ships them-
$elves, in which Ca$e it $eems to be innate and
incorporate with them; or el$e mu$t happen to
them from without. That from without, is
from the Force and Violence of Winds and
Waves, from Rocks and Shelves; all which are
to be avoided by Experience in Sea-affairs, and
a thorough Knowledge of Places and Winds:
But the Danger incorporate and innate with
the Ve$$el it$elf, ari$es either from the De$ign,
or the Timbers; again$t which Defects it falls
under our Province to provide. We $hould
reject all Timber that is brittle, or apt to $plit,
too heavy or liable to rot $oon. Nails and Pins
of Bra$s or Copper, are reckoned better than
tho$e of Iron. I have ob$erved by Means of
<I>Trajan</I>'s Ship, which while I was writing this
Treati$e was dug up out of the <I>lago di Nemi,</I>
where it had lain under Water above thirteen
hundred Years, that the Pine and Cypre$s
Wood which was in it had remained $urpriz-
ingly $ound. It was covered on the Out$ide
with double Planks, done over with <I>Greek</I>
Pitch, to which $tuck a Coat of Linen Cloth,
and that again was plated over with Sheets of
Lead fa$tened on with bra$s Nails. The anci-
ent Architects took the Model of their Ships
from the Shape of a Fi$h; that Part which
was the Back of the Fi$h, in the Ship was the
Keel; that which in the Fi$h was the Head,
in the Ship was the Prow; the Tail was the
Helm, and in$tead of Fins and Gills, they made
Oars. Ships are of two Sorts, and are built
either for Burthen or for Speed: A long Ve$-
$el cuts its Way quicke$t through the Water,
e$pecially when it Sails before the Wind; but
a $hort one is mo$t obedient to the Helm. I
would not have the Length of a Ve$$el of Bur-
then le$s than three Times its Breadth; nor
that of a Ve$$el for Speed, more than nine
Times. We have treated more particularly of
every Thing relating to a Ve$$el in a Book in-
tended wholly for that Purpo$e, called the
Ship; and therefore $hall have Occa$ion to $ay
no more of it here, than what is ju$t nece$$ary.
The Parts of a Ship are the$e, the Keel, the
Poop, the Prow, the two Sides, to which you
may, if you plea$e, add the Sail, the Helm,
and the Re$t of the Parts that belong to the
Cour$e of the Ship. The Hollow of the Ve$$el
will bear any Weight that is equal to the
Weight of Water that would fill it quite up to
the Top. The Keel mu$t be $traight, but all
the other Parts made with curve Lines. The
broader the Keel is, the greater Weight the
Ve$$el will carry, but then it will be the $low-
er; the narrower the Keel is, the Swi$ter will
be the Ship, but then it will be un$teady, un-
le$s you fill it with Balla$t. The broad Keel is
mo$t convenient in $hallow Water; but in deep
Seas the narrow one will be more $ecure. The
Sides and Prow built high will make the $tout-
e$t Re$i$tance again$t the Waves, but then
they are more expo$ed to Danger from the
Winds; the Sharper the Head is, the Swifter
the Ship will make its Way; and the Thinner
the Stern, the more Steady will be the Ve$$el
in its Cour$e. The Sides of the Ship towards
the Head ought to be very $tout, and a little
Swelling outwards to throw off the Waves
when it ploughs through the Water both with
Sails and Oars; but towards the Stern they
$hould grow narrower, in order to $lip through
the Waves with the more Ea$e. A Number
of Helms adds Firmne$s to the Ve$$el, but takes
off from i<*>s Swiftne$s. The Ma$t $hould be as
long as the whole Ship. We $hall not here
de$cend to other minute Particulars nece$$ary
both to the Way and Defence of the Ve$$el,
$uch as Oars, Ropes, $harp Beaks, Towers,
Bridges and the like; but $hall only ob$erve,
that the Planks and Timbers which hang
down by the Sides and $tick out by the Beak
of the Ve$$el, will $erve in$tead of a Fortifica-
tion again$t the Attacks of the Enemy as will
Poles $tuck upright, in$tead of Towers, and
the Boom, or the Skiff laid over the Boom, in-
$tead of Bridges. The Ancients u$ed in the
Prow of their Ships to place a military En-
gine, which they called a <I>Corvus:</I> But our
Mariners now in the Head and Stem of their
Ve$$els near the Ma$ts have learnt to $et up
Towers, which they fence round with old
coar$e Cloths, Ropes, Sacks, and the like, to
deaden the Force of any Violence that might
attack them; and to keep off any Enemy that
$hould attempt to board them, they $et up a
Fence of Net-work. I have in another Place
contrived and $hewn how the Floor of the Ship
<foot>C c may</foot>
<p n=>98</p>
may in a Moment, in the mid$t of an Engage-
ment, be filled with $harp Points $ticking up
clo$e to one another, $o that an Enemy can
never $et his Foot any where without a Wound;
and on the other Hand when there is Occa$ion,
how all the$e may in le$s Space of Time be all
removed and cleared away; but this is not a
proper Place for repeating it again, and it is
$ufficient to have given the Hint to an ingeni-
ous Mind. Moreover I have found a Way how,
with a $light Stroke of a Hammer, to throw
down the whole Floor, with all the Men that
have boarded the Ve$$el and $tand upon it, and
then again with very little Labour to replace
it as it was before, whenever it is thought ne-
ce$$ary $o to do. Neither is this a proper Place
to relate the Methods which I have invented
to $ink and burn the Enemy's Ships and de-
$troy their Crews by mi$erable Deaths. We
may perhaps $peak of them el$ewhere. One
Thing mu$t not be omitted, namely, that Ve$-
$els of different Heights and Sizes are requi-
$ite in different Places. In the <I>Mare Mag-
giore,</I> in the Narrows among the I$lands, a
large Ship, that cannot be managed with-
out a great Number of Hands, is very un-
$afe when the Winds are any thing boi$terous:
On the Contrary out of the Strait's Mouth, in
the wide Ocean, a little Ve$$el will not be able
to live. To this Head of maritime Affairs al$o
belong the Defending and Blocking up a Ha-
ven. This may be done by $inking any great
Body, or by Moles, Piers, Chains and the like,
whereof we have treated in the preceding
Book. Drive in Piles, block the Port up with
huge Stones, and $ink large hollow Frames
made either of Planks or Oziers and filled
with any heavy Stuff. But if the Nature of
the Place, or the Greatne$s of the Expence will
not allow of this, as for In$tance, if the Bot-
tom be a Sand or Mud continually moving, or
the Water be of too great a Depth, you may
then block up the Haven in the following
Manner. Make a Float of great Barrels fa$ten-
ed together, with Planks and Timbers joyned
cro$s-ways to one another, and with large
Spikes and $harp Beaks $ticking out from the
Float, and Piles with Points of Iron, $uch as
are called $hod Piles, to the Intent that none
of the Enemy's light Ships may dare to drive
again$t the Float with full Sails, in order to
endeavour to break or pa$s it. Dawb the Float
over with Mud to $ecure it again$t Fire, and
fortify it with a Pali$ado of Hurdles or $trong
Boards, and in convenient Places with wooden
Towers, fa$tening the whole Work again$t the
Fury of the Waves with a good Number of
Anchors concealed from the Enemy. It would
not be ami$s to make $uch a Work $inuous or
wavy, with the Backs of the Arches turned
again$t the Stre$s of the Weather, that the
Float may bear the lefs upon its Anchors.
But upon this Subject, thus much may $uffice.</P>
<head>CHAP. XIII.</head>
<P><I>Of the Commi$$aries, Chamberlains, publick Receivers and the like Magi$trates,
who$e Bu$ine$s is to $upply and pre$ide over the publick Granaries, Chambers
of Accompts, Ar$enals, Marts, Docks and Stables; as al$o of the three Sorts
of Pri$ons, their Structures, Situations and Compartitions.</I></P>
<P>Now as the Execution of all the$e
Things requires good Store of Provi$i-
ons, and of Trea$ures to $upply the Expence;
it will be nece$$ary to $ay $omething of the Ma-
gi$trates who have the Care of this Part of the
Bu$ine$s; as for In$tance, Commi$$aries, Cham-
berlains, publick Receivers, and the like, for
whom the following Structures mu$t Be erect-
ed: The Granary, the Chamber for keeping
the Trea$ures, the Ar$enal, the Mart or Place
for the tran$acting Commerce, the Dock and
the publick Stables for Hor$es. We $hall have
but little to $ay here upon the$e Heads, but
that little mu$t not be neglected. It is evident
to every Man's Rea$on, that the Granary, the
Chamber of Accompts, and the Ar$enal or
Magazine for Arms ought to be placed in the
Heart of the City, and in the Place of great-
e$t Honour, for the greater Security and Con-
veniency. The Docks or Ar$enals for Ship-
ping $hould be placed at a Di$tance from the
Hou$es of the Citizens, for fear of Fire. We
$hould al$o be $ure, in this la$t Sort of Struc-
ture, to raife a good many entire Party-walls
<foot>in</foot>
<p n=>99</p>
in different Places, running from the Ground
quite up above the Roof, to confine the Flame,
if any $hould happen, and prevent it catching
from one Roof to another. Marts ought to be
fixed by the Sea-$id&eacute;, upon the Mouths of Ri-
vers, and the Meeting of $everal great Roads.
The Docks or Ar$enals for Shipping $hould
have large Ba$ons or Canals of Water, wherein
to receive $uch Ve$$els as want refitting, and
from which they may be conveniently launched
out again to Sea; but we $hould take Care
that this Water be not a $tanding one, but be
kept in con$tant Motion. Shipping is very
much rotted by $outherly Winds, and cracked
by the mid-day Heat; but the A$pect of the
ri$ing Sun pre$erves it. All Granaries, or other
Structures built for the laying up of Stores, ab-
$olutely require a Drine$s both of Air and Si-
tuation. But we $hall $peak more fully of
the Particulars, when we come to the Conve-
niencies belonging to private Per$ons, to who$e
u$e they are indeed referred; only we $hall $ay
$omething here of the Places for laying up Salt.
A Storehou$e for Salt ought to be made in the
following Manner. Make up the Ground
with a Layer of Coal to the Height of one
Cubit or Foot and an half, and $tamp it down
very tight; then $trew it with Sand pounded
together with clean Chalk, to the Height of
three Hands breadths, and lay it exactly level;
and then pave it with $quare Bricks baked till
they are quite black. The Face of the Walls
on the In$ide ought to be made of the $ame
Sort of Bricks; but if you have not a $ufficient
Quantity of them, you may build it with $quare
Stone, not either with $oft Stone or Flint, but
with $ome Stone of a middle Nature between
tho$e two, only very hard; and let this Sort of
Work go the Thickne$s of a Cubit into the
Wall; and then let the whole In$ide be lined
with Planks of Wood, fa$tened with bra$s Nails,
or rather joynted together without any Nails
at all, and fill up the intermediate Space be-
tween the Lining and the Wall, with Reeds.
It would al$o have a mighty good Effect to
dawb over the Planks with Chalk $teeped in
Lees of Oil, and mixed with Spart and Ru$hes
$hred $mall. La$tly, all publick Buildings of
this Nature ought to be well fortified with
$tout Walls, Towers, and Ammunition, again$t
all Manner of Force, Malice, or Fraud either
of Robbers, Enemies or $editious Citizens. I
think I have now $aid enough of publick
Structures, unle$s it may be thought nece$$ary
to con$ider of one Particular more which con-
cerns the Magi$trate, and that not a little;
namely, that it is nece$$ary he $hould have
Places for the Confinement of $uch as he has
condemned either for Contumacy, Treachery
or Villany. I ob$erve that the Ancients had
three Sorts of Pri$ons. The fir$t was that
wherein they kept the Di$orderly and the Igno-
rant, to the Intent that every Night they might
be doctored and in$tructed by learned and able
Profe$$ors of the be$t Arts, in tho$e Points
which related to good Manners and an hone$t
Life. The Second was for the Confinement
of Debtors, and for the Reformation of $uch
as were got into a licentious Way of Living.
The la$t was for the mo$t wicked Wretches and
horrid Profligates, unworthy of the Light of the
Sun or the Society of Mankind, and $oon to be
delivered over to capital Puni$hment or perpe-
tual Impri$onment and Mi$ery. If any Man is
of Opinion that this la$t Sort of Pri$on ought
to be made like $ome $ubterraneous Cavern, or
frightful Sepulchre, he has certainly a greater
Regard to the Puni$hment of the Criminal than
is agreeable either to the De$ign of the Law or
to Humanity; and though wicked Men do by
their Crimes de$erve the highe$t Puni$hment,
yet the Prince or Commonwealth ought never
to forget Mercy in the Mid$t of Ju$tice. There-
fore let it be $ufficient to make this Sort of
Buildings very $trong and $ecure, with $tout
Walls, Roofs and Apertures, that the Per$on
confined may have no Means of making his
E$cape; which may in a great Mea$ure be ob-
tained, by the Thickne$s, Depth and Height of
the Walls, and their being built with very hard
and large Stones, joyned together with Pins of
Iron or Bra$s. To this you may, if you plea$e,
add Windows grated with $trong Bars of Iron
or Wood; though in reality nothing of this Sort
what$oever can fully $ecure a Pri$oner always
thoughtful of his Liberty and Safety, nor pre-
vent his making his E$cape, if you let him u$e
the Strength which Nature and Cunning have
be$towed upon him, and on which Account
there is an excellent Admonition contained in
this Saying, that the vigilant Eye of a Goaler is
a Pri$on of Adamant. But in other Re$pects,
let us follow the Method and Cu$toms of the
Ancients. We mu$t remember that in a Pri-
$on there mu$t be Privies and Hearths for Fire,
which ought to be contrived to be without
either Smoake or ill Smells. the following
Plan of an entire Pri$on may an$wer all the a-
forementioned Purpo$es. Enclo$e with very
high and $trong Walls, without any Apertures,
<foot>a Space</foot>
<p n=>100</p>
a Space of Ground in $ome $ecure and not un-
frequented Part of the City, and fortify it with
Towers and Galleries. From this Wall in-
wards the Apartments where the Pri$oners are
to be confined, let there be an open Walk
about four Foot and an half wide, where the
Keepers may take their Rounds every Night
to prevent any E$capes by Con$piracy among the
Pri$oners. The Space remaining in the Mid-
dle of this Circuit divide in the following Man-
ner. In$tead of a Ve$tibule make a good plea-
$ant Hall, where tho$e may be in$tructed who
are $ent thither in order to be forced to learn
how to demean them$elves. Next to this Hall,
make Habitations for the Goalers and Places
for them to keep guard in, within an Enclo$ure
of Lattices and Cro$s-bars. Next let there be
an open Court, with Porticoes on each Side of
it, with Windows in them, through which you
may $ee into all the Cells within; in which
Cells Bankrupts and Debtors are to be confin-
ed, not all together, but in different Apart-
ments. In the Front of this Court there mu$t
be a clo$er Pri$on, for $uch as are guilty of
$mall Offences, and beyond that a Place where
Pri$oners for capital Crimes may be confined
with yet greater Strictne$s and Privacy.</P>
<head>CHAP. XIV.</head>
<head><I>Of private Hou$es and their Differences; as al$o of the Country Hou$e, and
the Rules to be ob$erved in its Situation and Structure.</I></head>
<P>I now come to treat of private Edifices. I
have already ob$erved el$ewhere, that a
Hou$e is a little City. We are therefore in the
building of it, to have an Eye almo$t to every
Thing that relates to the Building of a City;
that it be healthy, furni$hed with all Manner
of Nece$$aries, not defficient in any of the Con-
veniencies that conduce to the Repo$e, Tran-
quility or Delicacy of Life. What tho$e are
and how they are to be obtained, I think I have
already, in a great Mea$ure, $hewn in the pre-
ceding Books. However, as the Occa$ion here
is different, we $hall con$ider them over again
in the following Manner. A private Hou$e is
manife$tly de$igned for the U$e of a Family,
to which it ought to be a u$eful and conveni-
ent Abode. It will not be $o convenient as it
ought, if it has not every Thing within it$elf
that the Family has Occa$ion for. There is a
great Number of Per$ons and Things in a Fa-
mily, which you cannot di$tribute as you would
in a City $o well as you can in the Country.
In building a Hou$e in Town, your Neigh-
bour's Wall, a common Gutter, a publick
Square or Street, and the like, $hall all hinder
you from contriving it ju$t to your own Mind;
which is not $o in the Country, where you have
as much Freedom as you have Ob$truction in
Town. For this, and other Rea$ons, there-
fore, I $hall di$tingui$h the Matter thus: That
the Habitation for a private Per$on mu$t be
different in Town from what it is in the Coun-
try. In both the$e there mu$t again be a Dif-
ference between tho$e which are for the meaner
Sort of Citizens, and tho$e which are for the
Rich. The meaner Sort build only for Ne-
ce$$ity; but the Rich for Plea$ure and Delight.
I $hall $et down $uch Rules as the Mode$ty of
the wi$e$t Men may approve of in all Sorts of
Buildings, and for that Purpo$e $hall begin
with tho$e which are mo$t ea$y. Habitations
in the Country are the free$t from all Ob$truc-
tions, and therefore People are more inclined to
be$tow their Expence in the Country than in
Town. We $hall therefore fir$t take a Review
of $ome Ob$ervations which we have already
made, and which are very material with Re-
lation to the chief U$es of a Country Hou$e.
They are as follows: We $hould carefully avoid
a bad Air and an ill Soil. We $hould build
in the Middle of an open Champian, under the
Shelter of $ome Hill, where there is Plenty of
Water, and plea$ant Pro$pects, and in the
healthie$t Part of a healthy Country. A heavy
unhealthy Air is $aid to be occa$ioned not on-
ly by tho$e Inconveniencies which we mention-
ed in the fir$t Book, but al$o by thick Woods,
e$pecially if they are full of Trees with bitter
Leaves; becau$e the Air in $uch Places being
not kept in Motion either by Sun or Winds,
wants its due Concoction; it is al$o occa$ioned
by a barren and unwhol$ome Soil, which will
never produce any Thing but Woods. A
Country Hou$e ought to $tand in $uch a Place
as may lie mo$t convenient for the Owner's
Hou$e in Town. <I>Xenophon</I> would have a Man
<foot>go</foot>
<p n=>101</p>
go to his Country Hou$e on Foot, for the Sake
of Exerci$e, and return on Hor$eback. It ought
not therefore to lie far from the City, and the
Way to it $hould be both good and clear, $o as
he may go it either in Summer or Winter, either
in a Coach, or on Foot, and if po$$ible by
Water. It will be al$o very convenient to have
your Way to it lie through a Gate of the City
that is not far from your Town Hou$e, but as
near it as may be, that you may go backwards
and forwards from Town to Country, and from
Country to Town, with your Wife and Fami-
ly, as often as you plea$e, without being too
much ob$erved by the People, or being obliged
in the lea$t to con$ult your Dre$s. It is not
ami$s to have a Villa $o placed, that when you
go to it in a Morning the Rays of the ri$ing
Sun may not be trouble$ome to your Eyes, nor
tho$e of the $etting Sun in the Evening when
you return to the City. Neither $hould a Coun-
try Hou$e $tand in a remote, de$art, mean Cor-
ner, di$tant from a rea$onable Neighbourhood<*>
but in a Situation where you may have Peo-
ple to conver$e with, drawn to the $ame Place
by the Fruitfulne$s of the Soil, the Plea$antne$s
of the Air, the Plentifulne$s of the Country,
the Sweetne$s of the Fields, and the Security of
the Neighbourhood. Nor $hould a Villa be
$eated in a Place of too much Re$ort, near ad-
joyning either to the City, or any great Road,
or to a Port where great Numbers of Ve$$els
and Boats are continually putting in; but in
$uch a Situation, as though none of tho$e Plea-
$ures may be wanting, yet your Family may
not be eternally mole$ted with the Vi$its of
Strangers and Pa$$engers. The Ancients $ay
that in windy Places Things are never $poilt
by Ru$t or Mildew; but in moi$t Places, and
low Vallies, where the Winds have not a free
Cour$e, they are very much expo$ed to them.
I cannot approve of one general Rule which is
laid down for all Places, namely, that a Coun-
try Hou$e ought to be built $o as to look to-
wards the ri$ing of the Sun when it is in the
Equinox: For nothing can be $aid relating to
the Sun and Winds but what mu$t alter accord-
ing to the Difference of the Climate, $ince the
North Wind is not light and the South un-
healthy in all Places. <I>Cel$us,</I> the Phy$ician,
very well ob$erved that all Winds which blow
from the Sea, are gro$$er than tho$e which
blow over Land, which are always lighter.
Upon this Account of the Winds we ought to
avoid the Mouths of all Vallies, becau$e in $uch
Places the Winds are too cold if they come in
the Night, or too hot, if in the Day, being
over-heated by the too great Reflection of the
Sun's Rays.</P>
<head>CHAP. XV.</head>
<P><I>That Country Hou$es are of two Sorts; the proper Di$po$ition of all their
Members whether for the Lodging of Men, Animals, or Tools of Agricul-
ture and other nece$$ary In$truments.</I></P>
<P>But as of Habitations in the Country $ome
are de$igned for Gentlemen, others for
Hu$bandmen, $ome invented for U$e, others
perhaps for Plea$ure; we $hall begin with tho$e
which belong to Husbandmen. The Habita-
tions of the$e ought not to be far from their
Ma$ter's Hou$e, that he may be at Hand to
over-look them every now and then, to $ee
what they are doing, and what Orders it is
nece$$ary for him to give. The peculiar Bu$i-
ne$s of the$e Structures is for the getting in,
ordering and pre$erving the Fruits of the Earth:
Unle$s you will $ay that this la$t Office, name-
ly, of pre$erving the Grain, belongs rather to
the Hou$e of the Ma$ter, and even rather to his
Hou$e in the City than to that in the Country.
This Bu$ine$s is to be done by a Number of
Hands and a good Quantity of Tools, but mo$t
of all by the Diligence and Indu$try of the
Farmer or Over$eer. The Ancients comput-
ed the nece$$ary Family of a Farmer to be
about fifteen Per$ons; for the$e therefore you
mu$t have convenient Places where they may
warm them$elves when they are cold, or retire
for Shelter when they are driven from their
Labour by foul Weather, where they may eat
their Meals, re$t them$elves and prepare the
Things they will want in their Bu$ine$s. Make
therefore a large Kitchen, not ob$cure, nor li-
able to Danger from Fire, with an Oven, Stove,
Pump and Sink. Beyond the Kitchen let there
be a Room where the better Sort among your
People may lie, and a Larder for pre$erving all
Sorts of Provi$ions for daily U$e. Let all the
<foot>D d other</foot>
<p n=>102</p>
other People be $o di$tributed, that every one
may be near tho$e Things which are under his
particular Care. Let the Over$eer lie near the
principal Gate, that nobody may pa$s and re-
pa$s or carry any Thing out in the Night with-
out his Knowledge. Let tho$e who have the
Care of the Cattle, lie near the Stable, that
they may be always at Hand to keep every
Thing in good Order. And this may be $uf-
ficient with Relation to your People. Of
Tools or In$truments, $ome are animate, as
Cattle; and $ome inanimate, as Carts, all Sorts
of iron Tools, and the like; for the$e erect on
one Side of the Kitchen a large Shed under
which you may $et your Cart, Plough, Har-
row, Yoke, Hay-baskets, and the like Uten$ils;
and let this Shed have a South A$pect, that in
Winter Time the Family may divert them$elves
under it on Holydays. Make a very large
and neat Place for your Pre$$es both of Wine
and Oil. Let there be al$o a Store-hou$e for
the laying up and pre$erving your Mea$ures,
Hampers, Baskets, Cordage, Houghs, Pitch-
forks and $o forth. Over the Rafters that run
acro$s within the Shed, you may $pread Hur-
dles, and upon them you may lay up Poles,
Rods, Staves, Boughs, Leaves and Fodder for
your Oxen, Hemp and Flax unwrought, and
$uch like Stores. Cattle is of two Sorts; one,
for Labour; as Oxen and Hor$es; the other,
for Profit, as Hogs, Sheep, Goats, and all Sorts
of Herds. We $hall $peak fir$t of the labour-
ing Sort, becau$e they $eem to come under the
Head of In$truments; and afterwards we $hall
$ay $omething of tho$e which are for Profit,
which belong properly to the Indu$try of your
Over$eer or Farmer. Let the Stables for Hor$es,
and for Oxen, and all other black Cattle, be
warm in Winter, and let their Racks be $trong
and well fenced, that they may not $catter their
Meat. Let the Hay for the Hor$es be above
them, that they may not reach it without $ome
Pains, and that they may be forced to rai$e
their Heads high for it, which makes their
Heads drier and their Shoulders lighter. On
the Contrary, let their Oats and other Grain
lie $o as they may be forced to $toop low for
it; which will prevent their taking too large
Mouthfuls, and $wallowing too much whole;
be$ides that it will $trengthen their Brea$t and
Mu$cles. But above all you mu$t take parti-
cular Care that the Wall behind the Manger,
again$t which the Hor$e's Head is to $tand, be
not damp. The Bone which covers the Hor$e's
Brain is $o thin, that it will bear neither Damp
nor Cold; and therefore take Care al$o that the
Moon's Beams do not come in at the Win-
dows; which are very apt to make him Wall-
eyed and to give him grievous Coughs; and
indeed the Moon's Beams are as bad as a Pe$-
tilence to any Cattle that are infirm. Let the
Oxe's Manger be $et lower, that he may eat as
he lyes. If Hor$es $ee the Fire, they are pro-
digiou$ly frightened and will grow rugged.
Oxen are plea$ed with the Sight of Men. If a
Mule is $et up in a hot or dark Place, $he runs
Mad. Some think the Mule does not want $o
much as the lea$t Shelter for any other Part
but her Head, and that it is not at all the
Wor$e if her other Parts are expo$ed to Dews
and Colds. Let the Ground under the Oxen
be paved with Stone, that the Filth and Dung
may not rot their Hoofs. Under Hor$es, make
a Trench in the Pavement, and cover it with
Planks of Holm or Oak, that their Urine may
not $ettle under them, and that by their pawing
they may not $poil both their Hoofs and the
Pavement.</P>
<head>CHAP. XVI.</head>
<P><I>That the Indu$try of the Farmer or Over$eer ought to be employed as well about
all Sorts of Animals, as about the Fruits of the Earth; as al$o of the Con-
$truction of the Thre$hing-floor.</I></P>
<P>We $hall ju$t briefly mention that the
Indu$try of the Over$eer, is not only
to be employed about gathering in the Fruits
of the Earth, but al$o about the Management
and Improvement of Cattle, Fowls, Fi$h and
other Animals. Set the Stalls for Cattle in a
dry Place, and never in a Damp one; clear
away every little Stone from under them, and
make them with a Slope, that you may ea$ily
$weep and clean them; let one Part of them
be covered, and the other open, and take Care
that no $outherly or other moi$t Wind can af-
fect the Cattle in the Night, and that they be
$heltered from all other trouble$ome Bla$ts.
<foot>For</foot>
<p n=>103</p>
For a Place to keep Rabbits in, build a Wall
of $quare Stone, with its Foundations dug $o
low as to be in Water; within the Space en-
clo$ed make a Floor of male Sand, with little
Hillocks here and there of Fuller's Earth. Let
your Poultry have a Shed in the Yard facing
the South, and thick $trewed with A$hes, and
over this Places for them to lay their Eggs,
and Perches to roo$t upon in the Night. Some
are for keeping their Poultry in large Coops in
$ome hand$ome inclofed Area facing the Ea$t;
but tho$e that are defigned for laying and
hatching of Eggs, as they are more cheerful,
having their Liberty, $o too they are more
fruitful; whereas, tho$e which are kept in a
dark confined Place, $eldom bring their Eggs
to any Thing. Place your Dove-hou$e $o as
to be in View of Water, and do not make it
too lofty, but of $uch an ea$y Heigth, that the
Pidgeons wearied with flying, or after $porting
about in the Air with one another, may gent-
ly glide down upon it with Ea$e and Plea$ure.
Some there are who $ay that when the Pidgeon
has found her Meat in the Field, the farther $he
has it to carry to her Young, the Fatter $he
makes them with it; and the Rea$on they give
is, becau$e the Meat which they carry Home
to feed their Young in their Crop, by $taying
there a good While is half concocted; and up-
on this Account, they are for placing the Dove-
hou$e on $ome very high $teep Situation. They
think too, that it is be$t for the Dove-hou$e to
be at a pretty good Di$tance from its Water,
that the Pidgeons may not chill their Eggs by
coming to them with their Feet wet. If in
one Corner of the Tower you enclo$e a Ka$trel,
it will $ecure your Dove-hou$e from Birds of
Prey. If under the Door you bury the Head
of a Wolf $trewed over with Cummin-$eed, in
an earthen Ve$$el full of Holes for the Smell to
get out, it will bring you an infinite Number
of Pidgeons. If you make your Dove-hou$e
Floor of Chalk, and wet it thoroughly with
Man's Urine, you will bring Multitudes of
Pidgeons from the Seats of their Ance$tors, to
take up their Abode with you. Before the
Windows let there be Cornices of Stone, or of
Olive-wood, projecting out a Cubit, for the
Pidgeons to light upon at their coming Home,
and to take their Flight from at their going
Abroad. If the Young ones which are con-
fined have a View of Trees and the Sky before
they can fly, it will make them Droop and
Pine away. Other $maller Birds which you
have a De$ire to breed, ought to have their
Ne$ts and Apartments made for them in $ome
warm Place. Tho$e which walk more than
they fly, $hould have them low, and upon the
Ground it$elf; for others they $hould be made
higher. Each $hould have a $eparate Apart-
ment, divided by Partitions on each Side to
keep their Eggs or Young from falling out of
the Ne$t. Clay is better to make the Ne$ts of
than Lime, and Lime than Terra$s. All Sort
of old Stone new cut is bad; Bricks are better
than Turf, if not too much baked. The Wood
either of Poplar or Fir is very u$eful. All the
Apartments for Birds ought to be $mooth, clean
and $weet, and e$pecially $or Pidgeons. Even
four footed Bea$ts, if kept na$ty, will grow
Scabby. Let every Part, therefore, be well
done over with Rough-ca$t, and plai$tered and
white wa$hed, not leaving the lea$t Cranny un-
$topped, that Pole-cats, Weezels, Newts, or the
like Vermin may not de$troy the Eggs, or the
Young, or prejudice the Wall; and be $ure to
make convenient Places to keep their Meat and
Water in. It will be very Convenient for this
Purpo$e to have a Moat quite round your Hou$e,
wherein your Gee$e, Ducks, Hogs and Cows
may water and wa$h them$elves, and near
which, in all Weathers, they may have as much
Meat lying ready for them as they will eat.
Let the Water and Meat for your $maller
Fowls be kept in Tunnels along the Wall, $o
that they may not $eatter or dirty it with their
Feet; and you may have Pipes into the$e Tun-
nels from without, through which you may
convey their Food into them. In the Middle,
let there be a Place for them to wa$h in, with
a con$tant $upply of clean Water. Make your
Pi$h-pond in a chalky Soil, and dig it $o deep
that the Water may neither be over heated by
the Rays of the Sun, nor too ea$ily frozen up
by the Cold. Moreover, make $ome Caverns
in the Sides, for the Fi$h to run into upon any
$udden Di$turbance of the Water, that they
may not be wa$ted and worn away by conti-
nual Alarms. Fi$h are nouri$hed by the Juices
of the Earth; great Heat torments them, and
extreme Fro$t kills them; but they are very
much plea$ed and delighted by the Mid-day
Sun. It is thought not ami$s to have the tur-
bid Floods after Rains flow into the Pond $ome-
times; but never upon the fir$t Rain after the
Dog-days; becau$e they then have a $trong
Tincture of Lime, and will kill the Fi$h; and
afterwards too they $hould be admitted but
rarely, becau$e their $tinking Slime is apt to
prejudice both the Fi$h and Water too; but
<foot>$till</foot>
<p n=>104</p>
$till there ought to be a continual Flux and
Reflux of Water, either from $ome Spring,
River, Lake or Sea. But concerning Fi$h-
ponds which are to be $upplied by the Sea-wa-
ter, the Ancients have given us fuller In$truc-
tions, in the following Manner. A muddy Soil
affords the be$t Nourithment for flat Fi$h, $uch
as Soals and the like, and a $andy is be$t for
$hell Fi$h. The Sea it$elf is be$t for others, as
the Dory and Shark; and the Sea-thru$t and
Whiting feed be$t among the Rocks where
they are naturally bred La$tly, they $ay that
there can be no better Pond for keeping Fi$h
in, than one $o $ituated that the Waves of the
Sea which flow into it are continually remov-
ing tho$e which were in it before, not $uffering
the Water ever to $tagnate, and that the $lower
the Water is in renewing, the le$s whole$ome
it is. And thus much may $uffice as to the
Care and Indu$try of the Farmer or Over$eer,
in the Affairs abovementioned. But we mu$t
not here omit the chief Thing needful with Re-
lation to the gathering together and $toring up
the Fruits of the Harve$t, and that is the
Thre$hing-floor which ought to lie open to the
Sun and Air, and not far from the Shed men-
tioned before, that upon any $udden Rain you
may immediately remove both your Grain and
Workmen into Shelter. In order to make your
Floor, you need not give your$elf the Trouble
to lay the Ground exactly level; but only
plain it pretty even, and then dig it up and
throw a good Quantity of Lees of Oil upon it,
and let it $oak in thoroughly; then break the
Clods very $mall and lay them down even,
either with a Roller or a Harrow, and beat it
down clo$e with a Rammer; then pour $ome
more Lees of Oil upon it, and when this is
dried into it, neither Mice, nor Ants will come
a-near it, neither will it ever grow poachy or
produce Gra$s or Weeds. Chalk likewi$e adds
a good Deal of Firmne$s to a Work of this
Nature. And thus much for the Habitation
of the Labourers.</P>
<head>CHAP. XVII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Country Hou$e for a Gentleman; its various Parts, and the proper
Di$po$ition of each of tho$e Parts.</I></head>
<P>Some are of Opinion that a Gentleman's
Country Hou$e $hould have quite diffe-
rent Conveniencies for Summer and for Win-
ter; and the Rules they give for this Purpo$e
are the$e: The Bed-chambers for the Winter
$hould look towards the Point at which the
Sun ri$es in Winter, and the Parlour, towards
the Equinoctial Sun-$etting; whereas the Bed-
chambers for Summer $hould look to the South,
the Parlours, to the Winter Sun-ri$ing, and the
Portico or Place for walking in, to the South.
But, in my Opinion, all the$e Conveniencies
ought to be varied according to the Difference
of the Country and Climate, $o as to temper
Heat by Cold and Dry by Moi$t. I do not
think it nece$$ary for the Gentleman's Hou$e
to $tand in the mo$t fruitful Part of his whole
E$tate, but rather in the mo$t Honourable,
where he can uncontrolled enjoy all the Plea$ures
and Conveniencies of Air, Sun, and fine Pro-
$pects, go down ea$ily at any Time into his
E$tate, receive Strangers hand$omely and $paci-
ou$ly, be $een by Pa$$engers for a good Way
round, and have a View of $ome City, Towns,
the Sea, an open Plain, and the Tops of $ome
known Hills and Mountains. Let him have
the Delights of Gardens, and the Diver$ions of
Fi$hing and Hunting clo$e under his Eye. We
have in another Place ob$erved, that of the dif-
ferent Members of a Hou$e, $ome belong to the
whole Family in general, other to a certain
Number of Per$ons in it, and others again on-
ly to one or more Per$ons $eparately. In our
Country Hou$e, with Regard to tho$e Members
which belong to the whole Family in general,
let us imitate the Prince's Palace. Before the
Door let there be a large open Space, for the
Exerci$es either of Chariot or Hor$e Racing,
much longer than a Youth can either draw a
Bow or throw a Dart. Within the Hou$e,
with Regard to tho$e Conveniencies nece$$ary
for a Number of Per$ons in the Family, let
there not be wanting open Places for Walking,
Swimming, and other Diver$ions, Court-yards,
Gra$s-plots and Porticoes, where the old Men
may chat together in the kindly Warmth of
the Sun in Winter, and where the Family may
divert them$elves and enjoy the Shade in Sum-
mer. It is manife$t $ome Parts of the Hou$e
are for the Family them$elves, and others for
<foot>the</foot>
<p n=>105</p>
the Things nece$$ary and u$eful to the Family.
The Family con$i$ts of the following Per$ons:
The Husband, the Wife, their Children and
Relations, and all the different Sorts of Ser-
vants attendant upon the$e; be$ides which,
Gue$ts too are to be reckoned as Part of the
Family. The Things u$e$ul to the Family are
Provi$ions and all Manner of Nece$$aries, $uch
as Cloths, Arms, Books, and Hor$es al$o. The
principal Member of the whole Building, is
that which (whatever Names others may give
it) I $hall call the Court-yard with its Portico;
next to this is the Parlour, within this the Bed-
chambers, and la$tly, the private Rooms for
the particular U$es of each Per$on in the Fa-
mily. The other Members of the Hou$e are
$ufficiently known by their U$es. The Court-
yard therefore is the principal Member, to
which all the other $maller Members mu$t cor-
re$pond, as being in a Manner a publick Mar-
ket-place to the whole Hou$e, which from this
Court-yard derives all the Advantages of Com-
munication and Light. For this Rea$on every
one de$ires to have his Court-yard as $pacious,
large, open, hand$ome and convenient as po$-
$ible. Some content them$elves with one Court-
yard, others are for having more, and for en-
clo$ing them all with very high Walls, or $ome
with higher and $ome with lower; and they
are for having them $ome covered and others
open, and others again half covered and half
uncovered; in $ome they would have a Portico
only on one Side, in others on two or more,
and in others all round; and the$e Porticoes,
la$tly, $ome would build with flat, others with
arched Roo$s. Upon the$e Heads I have no-
thing more to $ay, but that Regard mu$t be had
to the Climate and Sea$on, and to Nece$$ity
and Convenience; $o as in cold Countries to
ward again$t the bleak North-wind, and the
Severity of the Air and Soil; and in hot Cli-
mates, to avoid the trouble$ome and $corching
Rays of the Sun. Admit the plea$ante$t
Breezes on all Sides, and $uch a grate$ul Quan-
tity of Light as is nece$$ary; but do not let
your Court-yard be expo$ed to any noxious
Vapours exhaled from any damp Place, nor to
frequent ha$ty Showers from $ome overlooking
Hill in the Neighbourhood. Exactly an$wer-
ing the Middle of your Court-yard place your
Entrance, with a hand$ome Ve$tibule, neither
narrow, difficult or ob$cure. Let the fir$t Room
that offers it$elf be a Chapel dedicated to God,
with its Altar, where Strangers and Gue$ts may
offer their Devotions, beginning their Friend-
$hip by Religion; and where the Father of the
Family may put up his Prayers for the Peace
of his Hou$e and the Welfare of his Relations.
Here let him embrace tho$e who come to vi$it
him, and if any Cau$e be referred to him by his
Friends, or he has any other $erious Bu$ine$s
of that Nature to tran$act, let him do it in this
Place. Nothing is hand$omer in the Middle
of the Portico, than Windows of Gla$s, through
which you may receive the Plea$ure either of
Sun or Air, according to the Sea$on. <I>Martial</I>
$ays, that Windows looking to the South, re-
ceive a pure Sun and a clear Light; and the
Ancients thought it be$t to place their Porti-
coes fronting the South, becau$e the Sun in
Summer running his Cour$e higher, did not
throw in his Rays, where they would enter in
Winter. The Pro$pect of Hills to the South,
when tho$e Hills, on the Side which you have
a View of, are continually covered with Clouds
and Vapours, is not very plea$ant, if they are
at a great Di$tance; and if they are near, and
in a Manner ju$t over your Head, they will
incommode you with chill Shadows and cold
Rimes; but if they are at a convenient Dif-
tance, they are both plea$ant and convenient,
becau$e they defend you from the $outhern
Winds. Hills towards the North reverberating
the Rays of the Sun, encrea$e the Heat; but at
a pretty good Di$tance, they are very delight-
ful, becau$e the Clearne$s of the Air, which is
always $erene in $uch a Situation, and the
Brightne$s of the Sun, which it always enjoys,
is extremely chearful to the Sight. Hills to the
Ea$t and $o likewi$e to the We$t, will make
your Mornings cold and the Dews plenti$ul,
if they are near you; but both, if at $ome toler-
able Di$tance, are wonderfully Plea$ant. So
too, Rivers and Lakes are inconvenient if too
near, and afford no Delight, if too far off:
Whereas, on the Contrary, the Sea, if it is at
a large Di$tance, makes both your Air and Sun
unhealthy; but when it is clo$e to you, it does
you le$s Harm, becau$e then you have always
an Equality in your Air. Indeed there is this
to be $aid, that when it is at a great Di$tance,
it encrea$es the De$ire we have to $ee it. There
is a good Deal too in the Point to which we
lie open to it: For if you are expo$ed to the
Sea towards the South, it $corches you; if to-
wards the Ea$t, it infe$ts you with Damps; if
to the We$t, it makes your Air cloudy and full
of Vapours; and if to the North, it chills you
with exce$$ive Cold. From the Court-yard
we proceed to the Parlours, which mu$t be
<foot>E e contrived</foot>
<p n=>106</p>
contrived for different Sea$ons, $ome to be u$ed
n Summer, others in Winter; and others as we
may $ay in the middle Sea$ons. Parlours for
Summer require Water and the Verdure of
Gardens; tho$e for Winter, mu$t be warm and
have good Fire-places. Both $hould be large,
plea$ant and delicate. There are many Ar-
guments to convince us that Chimnies were in
U$e among the Ancients; but not $uch as ours
are now. One of the Ancients $ays, the Tops
of the Hou$es $moke, <I>Et fumant culmina tecti:</I>
And we find it continues the $ame all over
<I>Italy</I> to this Day, except in <I>Lombardy</I> and
<I>Tu$cany,</I> and that the Mouths of none of the
Chimnies ri$e higher than the Tops of the
Hou$es. <I>Vitruvius</I> $ays, that in Winter Par-
lours it is ridiculous to adorn the Ceiling with
hand$ome Painting, becau$e it will be pre$ent-
ly $poilt by the con$tant Smoke and continual
Fires; for which Rea$on the Ancients u$ed to
paint tho$e Ceilings with Black, that it might
$eem to be done by the Smoke it$elf. I find
too, that they made U$e of a purified Sort of
Wood, that was quite clear of Smoke, like our
Charcoal, upon which Account it was a Di$-
pute among the Lawyers, whether or no Coal
was to come under the Denomination of Wood;
and therefore it is probable they generally u$ed
moveable Hearths or Chafing-pans either of
Bra$s or Iron, which they carried from Place to
Place where-everthey had Occa$ion to make a
Fire. And perhaps that warlike Race of Men,
hardened by continual Incampments, did not
make $o much U$e of Fire as we do now; and
Phy$icians will not allow it whole$ome, to be
too much by the Fire-$ide. <I>Ari$totle</I> $ays,
that the Fle$h of Animals gains its Firmne$s
and Solidity from Cold; and tho$e who$e Bu$i-
ne$s it is to take Notice of Things of this Na-
ture have ob$erved, that tho$e working Men
who are continually employed about the Fur-
nace have generally dry wrinkled Skins; the
Rea$on of which they $ay is, becau$e the Jui-
ces, of which the Fle$h is formed, are exhau$t-
ed by the Fire, and evaporate in Steam. In
<I>Germany, Colchos,</I> and other Places, where Fire
is ab$olutely nece$$ary again$t the extreme
Cold, they make U$e of Stoves; of which we
$hall $peak el$ewhere. Let us return to the
Chimney, which may be be$t made $erviceable
in the following Manner. It mu$t be as direct
as po$$ible, capacious, not too far from the
Light, it mu$t not draw the Wind too much,
but enough however to carry up the Smoke,
which el$e would not go up the Tunnel. For
the$e Rea$ons do not make it ju$t in a Corner,
nor too far within the Wall, nor let it take up
the be$t Part of the Room where your chief
Gue$ts ought to $it. Do not let it be in-
commoded by the Air either of Doors or Win-
dows, nor $hould it project too $ar out into the
Room. Let its Tunnel be very wide and car-
ried up perpendicular, and let the Top of it
ri$e above the highe$t Part of the whole Build-
ing; and this not only upon Account of the
Danger of Fire, but al$o to prevent the Smoke
from being driven down the Chimney again by
any Eddy of Wind on the Top of the Hou$e.
Smoke being hot naturally mounts, and the
Heat of the Flame quickens its A$cent: When
it comes therefore into the Tunnel of the
Chimney, it is compre$$ed and $traitened as in
a Channel, and being pu$hed on by the Heat
of the Fire, is thru$t out in the $ame Manner
as the Sound is out of a Trumpet. And as a
Trumpet, if it is too big, does not give a clear
Sound, becau$e the Air has Room to rowl about
in it; the $ame will hold good with Relation
to the Smoke in a Chimney. Let the Top of
the Chimney be covered to keep out Rain, and
all round the Sides let there be wide Holes for
the Pa$$age of the Smoke, with Breaks projec-
ting out between each Hole to keep off the
Violence of the Wind. Where this is not $o
convenient, erect an upright Pin, and on it hang
a bra$s Cover broad enough to take in the
whole Mouth of the Chimney, and let this Co-
ver have a Vane at the Top like a Sort of
Cre$t, which like a Helm may turn it round
according to the Wind. Another very good
Method al$o is to $et on the Chimney Top $ome
Spire like a Hunter's Horn, either of Bra$s or
baked Earth, broader at one End than the
other, with the broad End turned downwards
to the Mouth of the Chimney; by which
means the Smoke being received in at the
broad End, will force its Way out at the Nar-
row, in Spite of the Wind. To the Parlours
we mu$t accommodate the Kitchen, and the
Pantry for $etting by what is left after Meals,
together with all Manner of Ve$$els and Linen.
The Kitchen ought to be neither ju$t under the
No$es of the Gue$ts, nor at too great a Di$-
tance; but $o that the Victuals may be brought
in neither too hot nor too cold, and that the
Noi$e of the Scullions, with the Clatter of
their Pans, Di$hes and other Uten$ils, may not
be trouble$ome. The Pa$$age through which
the Victuals are to be carried, $hould be hand-
$ome and convenient, not open to the Weather,
<foot>nor</foot>
<p n=>107</p>
nor di$honoured by any Filth that may offend
the Stomachs of the Gue$ts. From the Par-
lour the next Step is to the Bed-chamber; and
for a Man of Figure and Elegance, there $hould
be different o<*>es of the$e latter, as well as of
the former, for Summer and for Winter. This
puts me in Mind of <I>Lucullus</I>'s Saying, that it
is not fit a great Man $hould be wor$e lodged
than a Swallow or a Crane. However I $hall
only $et down $uch Rules, with Relation to
the$e Apartments, as are compatible with the
greate$t Mode$ty and Moderation. I remem-
ber to have read in <I>&AElig;milius Probus</I> the Hi$to-
rian, that among the <I>Greeks</I> it was never u$ual
for the Wife to appear at Table, if any body
was there be$ides Relations; and that the A-
partments for the Women, were Parts of the
Hou$e where no Men ever $et his Foot except
the neare$t Kindred. And indeed I mu$t own
I think the Apartments for the Ladies, ought
to be $acred like Places dedicated to Religion
and Cha$tity. I am be$ides for having the
Rooms particularly de$igned for Virgins and
young Ladies, fitted up in the neate$t and mo$t
delicate Manner, that their tender Minds may
pa$s their Time in them with le$s Regret and
be as little weary of them$elves as po$$ible. The
Mi$tre$s of the Family $hould have an Apart-
ment, in which $he may ea$ily hear every
Thing that is done in the Hou$e. However,
in the$e Particulars, the Cu$toms of every
Country are always to be principally ob$erved.
The Husband and the Wife $hould each have
a $eparate Chamber, not only that the Wife,
either when $he lies in, or in Ca$e of any other
Indi$po$ition, may not be trouble$ome to her
Husband; but al$o that in Summer Time,
either of them may lie alone whenever they
think fit. Each of the$e Chambers $hould have
its $eparate Door, be$ides which there $hould
be a common Pa$$age between them both, that
one may go to the other without being ob$erv-
ed by any body. The Wife's Chamber $hould
go into the Wardrobe; the Husband's into the
Library. Their ancient Mother, who requires
Tranquility and Repo$e, $hould have a warm
Chamber, well $ecured again$t the Cold, and
out of the Way of all Noi$es either from with-
in or without. Be $ure particularly to let it
have a good Fire-place, and all other Conve-
niencies nece$$ary for an infirm Per$on, to com-
fort and cheer both the Body and Mind. Out
of this Chamber let there be a Pa$$age to the
Place where you keep your Trea$ure. Here
place the Boys; and by the Wardrobe the
Girls, and near them the Lodgings for the
Nur$es. Strangers and Gue$ts $hould be lodged
in Chambers near the Ve$tibule or Fore-gate;
that they may have full Freedom both in their
own Actions, and in receiving Vi$its from their
Friends, without di$turbing the Re$t of the Fa-
mily. The Sons of fixteen or $eventeen Years
old, $hould have Apartments oppo$ite to the
Gue$ts, or at lea$t not far from them, that
they may have an Opportunity to conver$e and
grow familiar with them. The Strangers too
$hould have $ome Place to them$elves, where
they may lock up any Thing private or valu-
able, and take it out again whenever they
think fit. Next to the Lodgings of the young
Gentlemen, $hould be the Place where the
Arms are kept. Stewards, Officers and Ser-
vants $hould be $o lodged a$under from the
Gentlemen, that each may have a convenient
Place, $uitable to his re$pective Bu$ine$s. The
Maid-$ervants and Valets $hould always be
within ea$y Call, to be ready upon any Occa-
$ion that they are wanted for. The Butler's
Lodging $hould be near both to the Vault and
Pantry. The Grooms $hould lie near the Stable.
The Saddle-hor$es ought not to be kept in the
$ame Place with tho$e of Draught or Burthen;
and they $hould be placed where they cannot
offend the Hou$e with any Smells, nor pre-
judice it by their Kicking, and out of all Danger
of Fire. Corn and all Manner of Grain is $poilt
by Moi$ture, tarni$hed and turned pale by
Heat, $hrunk by Wind, and rotted by the
Touch of Lime. Where-ever therefore you in-
tend to lay it, whether in a Cave, Pit, Vault,
or on an open Area, be $ure that the Place be
thoroughly dry and perfectly clean and new
made. <I>Jo$ephus</I> affirms, that there was Corn
dug up near <I>Siboli</I> perfectly good and $ound,
though it had lain hid above an hundred
Years. Some $ay, that Barley laid in a warm
Place, will not $poil; but it will keep very
little above a Year. The Philo$ophers tell us,
that Bodies are prepared $or Corruption by
Moi$ture, but are a$terwards actually corrupt-
ed by Heat. If you make a Floor in your
Granary of Lees of Oil mixed with Potter's
Clay and Spart or Straw chopt $mall, and beat
well together, your Grain will keep $ound up-
on it a great While, and be neither $poilt by
Weevil nor $tolen by the Ant. Granaries de-
$igned only for Seeds are be$t built of unbaked
Bricks. The North-wind is le$s prejudicial
than the South to all Stores of Seeds and Fruits;
but any Wind what$oever blowing from damp
<foot>Places</foot>
<p n=>108</p>
Places will fill them with Maggots and Worms;
andany con$tant impetuous Wind willmake them
$hrivelled and withered. For Pul$e and e$pe-
cially Beans make a Floor of A$hes mixed with
Lees and Oil. Keep Apples in $ome very clo$e,
but cool boarded Room. <I>Ari$totle</I> is of Opi-
nion, that they will keep the whole Year round
in Bladders blown up and tied clo$e. The In-
con$tancy of the Air is what $poils every
Thing; and therefore keep every Breath of it
from your Apples, if po$$ible; and particularly
the North-wind, which is thought to $hrivel
them up. We are told that Vaults for Wine
$hould lie deep under Ground, and be very clo$e
$topt up; and yet there are $ome Wines which
decay in the Shade. Wine is $poilt by the
Ea$tern, Southern and We$tern Winds, and
e$pecially in the Winter or the Spring. If it is
touched even by the North-wind in the Dog-
days, it will receive Injury. The Rays of the
Sun make it heady; tho$e of the Moon, thick.
If it is in the lea$t $tirred, it lo$es its Spirit and
grows weak. Wine will take any Smell that
is near it, and will grow dead near a Stink.
When it is kept in a dry cool Place, always
equally tempered, it will remain good for many
Years. Wine, $ays <I>Columella,</I> $o long as it is
kept cool, $o long it will keep good. Make
your Vault for Wine therefore in a $teady
Place, never $haken by any Sort of Carriages;
and its Sides and Lights $hould be towards the
North. All Manner of Filth and ill Smells,
Damps, Vapours, Smoke, the Stinks of all
Sorts of rotten Garden-$tuff, Onions, Cabbage,
wild or dome$tick Figs, $hould by all Means
be quite $hut out. Let the Floor of your Vault
be pargetted, and in the Middle make a little
Trench, to $ave any Wine that may be $pilt by
the Fault of the Ve$$els. Some make their
Ve$$els them$elves of Stue or Stone. The big-
ger the Ve$$el is, the more Spirit and Strength
will be in the Wine. Oil delights in a warm
Shade, and cannot endure any cold Wind; and
is $poilt by Smoke or any other Steam. We
$hall not dwell upon coar$er Matters; namely,
how there ought to be two Places for keeping
Dung in, one for the Old, and another for the
New; that it loves the Sun and Moi$ture, and
is dried up and exhau$ted by the Wind; but
$hall only give this general Rule, that tho$e
Places which are mo$t liable to Danger by Fire,
as Hay-lofts and the like, and tho$e which are
unplea$ant either to the Sight or Smell, ought
to be $et out of the Way and $eparated by
them$elves. It may not be ami$s ju$t to men-
tion here, that the Dung of Oxen will not
breed Scrpents. But there is one filthy Prac-
ti$e which I cannot help taking Notice of. We
take Care in the Country to $et the Dunghill
out of the Way in $ome remote Corner, that
the Smell may not offend our Ploughmen;
and yet in our own Hou$es, in our be$t Cham-
bers (where we our$elves are to re$t) and as it
were at our very Bol$ters, we are $o unpolite as
to make $ecret Privies, or rather Store-rooms of
Stink. If a Man is Sick, let him make u$e of
a Clo$e-$tool; but when he is in Health, $ure-
ly $uch Na$tine$s cannot be too far off. It is
worth ob$erving how careful Birds are, and par-
ticularly Swallows, to keep their Ne$ts clean
and neat for their young ones. The Example
Nature herein $ets us is wonderful. Even the
young Swallows, as $oon as ever Time has
$trengthened their Limbs will never Mute, but
out of the Ne$t; and the old ones, to keep the
Filth at a $till greater Di$tance, will catch it
in their Bills as it is falling, to carry it further
off from their own Ne$t. Since Nature has
given us this excellent In$truction, I think we
ought by no means to neglect it.</P>
<head>CHAP. XVIII.</head>
<P><I>The Difference between the Country Hou$e and Town Hou$e for the Rich.
The Habitations of the middling Sort ought to re$emble tho$e of the Rich;
at lea$t in Proportion to their Circum$tances. Buildings $hould be contrived
more for Summer, than for Winter.</I></P>
<P>The Country Hou$e and Town Hou$e
for the Rich differ in this Circum-
$tance; that they u$e their Country Hou$e
chiefly for a Habitation in the Summer, and
their Town Hou$e as a convenient Place of
Shelter in the Winter. In their Country Hou$e
therefore they enjoy the Plea$ures of Light,
Air, $pacious Walks and fine Pro$pects; in
<foot>Town,</foot>
<p n=>109</p>
Town, there are but few Plea$ures, but tho$e
of Luxury and the Night. It is $ufficient there-
fore if in Town they can have an Abode that
does not want any Conveniencies for living
with Health, Dignity and Politene$s: But yet,
as far as the Want of Room and Pro$pect will
admit, our Habitation in Town $hould not be
without any of the Delicacies of that in the
Country. We $hould be $ure to have a good
Court-yard, Portico, Places for Exerci$e, and
$ome Garden. If you are crampt for Room,
and cannot make all your Conveniencies upon
one Floor, make $everal Stories, by which
means you may make the Members of your
Hou$e as large as is nece$$ary; and if the Na-
ture of your Foundation will allow it, dig
Places under Ground for your Wines, Oil, Wood,
and even $ome Part of your Family, and $uch
a Ba$ement will add Maje$ty to your whole
Structure. Thus you may build as many Stories
as you plea$e, till you have fully provided for
all the Occa$ions of your Family. The prin-
cipal Parts may be allotted to the principal Oc-
ca$ions; and the mo$t Honourable, to the mo$t
Honourable. No Store-rooms $hould be want-
ing for laying up Corn, Fruits, and all Manner
of Tools, Implements and Hou$hold-$tuff;
nor Places for divine Wor$hip; nor Wardrobes
for the Women. Nor mu$t you be without
convenient Store-rooms for laying up Cloaths
de$igned for your Family to wear only on Ho-
lidays, and Arms both de$en$ive and offen$ive,
Implements for all Sorts of Works in Wool,
Preparations for the Entertainment of Gue$ts,
and all Manner of Nece$$aries for any extraor-
dinary Occa$ions. There $hould be different
Places for tho$e Things that are not wanted
above once a Month, or perhaps once a Year,
and for tho$e that are in U$e every Day. Every
one of which, though they cannot be always
kept lockt up in Store-rooms, ought however
to be kept in $ome Place where they may be
con$tantly in Sight; and e$pecially $uch Things
as are $eldome$t in U$e; becau$e tho$e Things
which are mo$t in Sight, are lea$t in Danger
of Thieves. The Habitations of middling Peo-
ple ought to re$emble the Delicacy of tho$e of
the richer Sort, in Proportion to their Circum-
$tances; $till imitating them with $uch Mode-
ration, as not to run into a greater Expence
than they can well $upport. The Country
Hou$es for the$e, therefore, $hould be contrived
with little le$s Regard to their Flocks and
Herds, than to their Wives. Their Dove-
hou$e, Fi$h-ponds, and the like $hould be le$s
for Plea$ure, than for Pro$it: But yet their
Country Hou$e $hould be built in $uch a Man-
ner, that the Wife may like the Abode, and
look after her Bu$ine$s in it with Plea$ure; nor
$hould we have our Eye $o entirely upon Pro-
fit, as to neglect the Health of the Inhabitants.
Whenever we have Occa$ion for Change of
Air, <I>Cel$us</I> advi$es us to take it in Winter; for
our Bodies will grow accu$tomed to Winter
Colds, with le$s Danger of our Health than to
Summer Heats. But we, on the Contrary, are
fond of going to our Country Hou$es chiefly
in Summer; we ought therefore to take Care
to have that the mo$t Healthy. As for the
Town Hou$e for a Trade$man, more Regard
mu$t be had to the Conveniency of his Shop,
from whence his Gain and Livelihood is to
ari$e than to the Beauty of his Parlour; the
be$t Situation for this is, in Cro$s-ways, at a
Corner; in a Market-place or Square, in the
Middle of the Place; in a High-$treet, $ome
remarkable jutting out; ina$much as his chief
De$ign is to draw the Eyes of Cu$tomers. In
the middle Parts of his Hou$e he need have no
Partitions but of unbaked Bricks and common
Plai$ter; but in the Front and Sides, as he can-
not always be $ure of having hone$t Neighbours,
he mu$t make his Walls $tronger again$t the
A$$aults both of Men and Weather. He $hould
al$o build his Hou$e either at $uch a proper
Di$tance from his next Neighbour's, that there
may be room for the Air to dry the Walls af-
ter any Rain; or $o clo$e, that the Water may
run off from both in the $ame Gutter; and let
the Top of the Hou$e, and the Gutters parti-
cularly, have a very good Slope, that the Rain
may neither lie $oaking too long, nor da$h back
into the Hou$e; but be carried away as quick
and as clear as po$$ible. There remains no-
thing now but to recollect $ome few Rules laid
down in the fir$t Book, and which $eem to be-
long to this Head. Let tho$e Parts of the
Building which are to be particularly $ecure
again$t Fire, and the Injuries of the Weather,
or which are to be clo$er or freer from Noi$e,
be all vaulted; $o likewi$e $hould all Places un-
der Ground: But for Rooms above Ground,
flat Ceilings are whole$omer. Tho$e which
require the cleare$t Light, $uch as the common
Parlour, the Portico, and e$pecially the Library,
$hould be $ituated full Ea$t? Tho$e Things
which are injured by Moths, Ru$t or Milldew,
$uch as Cloaths, Books, Arms, and all Manner
<foot>F f of</foot>
<p n=>110</p>
of Provi$ions, $hould be kept towards the
South or We$t. If there be Occa$ion for an
equal con$tant Light, $uch as is nece$$ary for
Painters, Writers, Sculptors and the like, let
them have it from the North. La$tly, let all
Summer Apartments $tand open to the Northern
Winds, all Winter ones to the South, and all
tho$e for Spring and Autumn to the Ea$t. Baths
and $upper Parlours for the Spring Sea$on $hould
be towards the We$t. And if you cannot po$-
$ibly have all the$e exactly according to your
Wi$h, at lea$t chu$e out the mo$t convenient
Places for your Summer Apartments: For in-
deed, in my Opinion, a wi$e Man $hould build
rather for Summer than for Winter. We may
ea$ily arm our$elves again$t the Cold by ma-
king all clo$e, and keeping good Fires; but
many more Things are requi$ite again$t Heat,
and even all will $ometimes be no great Re-
lief. Let Winter Rooms therefore be $mall,
low and little Windows, and Summer ones, on
the Contrary, large, $pacious, and open to cool
Breezes, but not to the Sun or the hot Air
that comes from it. A great Quantity of Air
inclo$ed in a large Room, is like a great Quan-
tity of Water, not ea$ily heated.</P>
<head><I>The End of Book</I> V.</head>
<fig>
<foot>THE</foot>
<pb>
<fig>
<head>THE
<B>ARCHITECTURE</B>
OF
<B><I>Leone Bati$ta Alberti.</I></B></head>
<head>BOOK VI. CHAP. I.</head>
<P><I>Of the Rea$on and Difficulty of the Author's Undertaking, whereby it appears
how much Pains, Study and Application he has employed in writing upon
the$e Matters.</I></P>
<P>In the five preceding Books we have
treated of the De$igns, of the Ma-
terials for the Work, of the Work-
men, and of every Thing el$e that
appeared nece$$ary to the Con-
$truction of an Edi$ice, whether publick or
private, $acred or profane, $o far as related to
its being made $trong again$t all Injuries of
Weather, and convenient for its re$pective U$e,
as to Times Places, Men and Things: With
how much Care we have treated of all the$e
Matters, you may $ee by the Books them$elves,
from whence you may judge whether it was
po$$ible to do it with much greater. The La-
bour indeed was much more than I could have
fore$een at the Beginning of this Undertaking.
Continual Difficulties every Moment aro$e
either in explaining the Matter, or inventing
Names, or methodizing the Subject, which per-
$ectly con$ounded me, and di$heartened me
from my Undertaking. On the other Hand,
the $ame Rea$ons which induced me to be be-
gin this Work, pre$$ed and encouraged me to
proceed. It grieved me that $o many great
and noble In$tructions of ancient Authors
$hould be lo$t by the Injury of Time, $o that
$carce any but <I>Vitruvius</I> has e$caped this ge-
neral Wreek: A Writer indeed of univer$al
Knowledge, but $o maimed by Age, that in
many Places there are great Cha$ms, and many
Things imperfect in others. Be$ides this, his
Style is ab$olutely void of all Ornaments, and
he wrote in $uch a Manner, that to the <I>Latins</I>
he $eems to write <I>Greek,</I> and to the <I>Greeks,
Latin:</I> But indeed it is plain from the Book
it$elf, that he wrote neither <I>Greek</I> nor <I>Latin,</I>
and he might almo$t as well have never
wrote at all, at lea$t with Regard to us, $ince
we cannot under$tand him. There remained
many Examples of the ancient Works, Temples
and Theatres, from whence, as from the mo$t
skilful Ma$ters, a great deal was to be learn-
ed; but the$e I $aw, and with Tears I $aw it,
mouldering away daily. I ob$erved too that
tho$e who in the$e Days happen to undertake
any new Structure, generally ran after the
Whims of the Moderns, in$tead of being de-
lighted and directed by the Ju$tne$s of more
noble Works. By this Means it was plain, that
this Part of Knowledge, and in a Manner of
Life it$elf, was likely in a $hort Time to be
wholly lo$t. In this unhappy State of Things,
I could not help having it long, and often, in
my Thoughts to write upon this Subject my-
$elf. At the $ame Time I con$idered that in
the Examination of $o many noble and u$eful
<foot>Matters,</foot>
<p n=>112</p>
Matters, and $o nece$$ary to Mankind; it would
be a Shame to neglect any of tho$e Ob$ervati-
ons which voluntarily offered them$elves to me;
and I thought it the Duty of an hone$t and
$tudious Mind, to endeavour to free this Sci-
ence, for which the mo$t Learned among the
Ancients had always a very great E$teem, from
its pre$ent Ruin and Oppre$$ion. Thus I $tood
doubtful, and knew not how to re$olve, whe-
ther I $hould drop my De$ign, or go on. At
length my Love and Inclination for the$e Stu-
dies prevailed; and what I wanted in Capacity,
I made up in Diligence and Application. There
was not the lea$t Remain of any ancient Struc-
ture, that had any Merit in it, but what I went
and examined, to $ee if any Thing was to be
learned from it. Thus I was continually $earch-
ing, con$idering, mea$uring and making
Draughts of every Thing I could hear of, till
$uch Time as I had made my$elf perfect Ma-
$ter of every Contrivance or Invention that had
been u$ed in tho$e ancient Remains; and thus
I alleviated the Fatigue of writing, by the
Thir$t and Plea$ure of gaining Information.
And indeed the Collecting together, rehear$ing
without Meanne$s, reducing into a ju$t Method,
writing in an accurate Style, and explaining
per$picuou$ly $o many various Matters, $o un-
equal, $o di$per$ed, and $o remote from the
common U$e and Knowledge of Mankind,
certainly required a greater Genius, and more
Learning than I can pretend to. But $till I
$hall not repent of my Labour, if I have only
effected what I chiefly propo$ed to my$elf,
namely, to be clear and intelligible to the
Reader, rather than Eloquent. How difficult
a Thing this is, in handling Subjects of this
Nature, is better known to tho$e who have
attempted it, then believed by tho$e who never
tried it. And I flatter my$elf, it will at lea$t
be allowed me, that I have wrote according to
the Rules of this Language, and in no ob$cure
Style. We $hall endeavour to do the $ame in
the remaining Parts of this Work. Of the
three Properties required in all Manner of
Buildings, namely, that they be accommoda-
ted to their re$pective Purpo$es, $tout and
$trong for Duration, and plea$ant and delight-
ful to the Sight, we have di$patched the two
fir$t, and are now to treat of the third, which
is by much the mo$t Noble of all, and very
nece$$ary be$ides.</P>
<head>CHAP. II.</head>
<P><I>Of Beauty and Ornament, their Effects and Difference, that they are owing
to Art and Exactne$s of Proportion; as al$o of the Birth and Progre$s
of Arts.</I></P>
<P>It is generally allowed, that the Plea$ure and
Delight which we feel on the View of any
Building, ari$e from nothing el$e but Beauty
and Ornament, $ince there is hardly any Man
$o melancholy or $tupid, $o rough or unpoli$h-
ed, but what is very much plea$ed with what
is beautiful, and pur$ues tho$e Things which
are mo$t adorned, and rejects the unadorned
and neglected; and if in any Thing that he
Views he perceives any Ornament is wanting,
he declares that there is $omething deficient
which would make the Work more delightful
and noble. We $hould therefore con$ult Beauty
as one of the main and principal Requi$ites in
any Thing which we have a Mind $hould plea$e
others. How nece$$ary our Forefathers, Men
remarkable for their Wi$dom, looked upon this
to be, appears, as indeed from almo$t every
thing they did, $o particularly from their Laws,
their Militia, their $acred and all other pub-
lick Ceremonies; which it is almo$t incredible
what Pains they took to adorn; in$omuch that
one would almo$t imagine they had a Mind to
have it thought, that all the$e Things ($o ab-
$olutely nece$$ary to the Life of Mankind) if
$tript of their Pomp and Ornament, would be
$omewhat $tupid and in$ipid. When we lift
up our Eyes to Heaven, and view the wonder-
ful Works of God, we admire him more for
the Beauties which we $ee, than for the Con-
veniencies which we feel and derive from
them. But what Occa$ion is there to in$i$t upon
this? When we$ee that Nature con$ults Beauty
in a Manner to exce$s, in every Thing $he does,
even in painting the Flowers of the Field. If
Beauty therefore is nece$$ary in any Thing, it
is $o particularly in Building, which can never
be without it, without giving Offence both to
the Skilful and the Ignorant. How are we
moved by a huge $hapele$s ill-contrived Pile
<foot>of</foot>
<p n=>113</p>
of Stones? the greater it is, the more we blame
the Folly of the Expence, and condemn the
Builder's incon$iderate Lu$t of heaping up Stone
upon Stone without Contrivance. The having
$atisfied Nece$$ity is a very $mall Matter, and
the having provided for Conveniency affords
no Manner of Plea$ure, where you are $hocked
by the Deformity of the Work. Add to this,
that the very Thing we $peak of is it$elf no
$mall help to Conveniency and Duration: For
who will deny that it is much more convenient
to be lodged in a neat hand$ome Structure,
than in a na$ty ill-contrived Hole? or can any
Building be made $o $trong by all the Contri-
vance of Art, as to be $afe from Violence and
Force? But Beauty will have $uch an Effect
even upon an enraged Enemy, that it will di$-
arm his Anger, and prevent him from offering
it any Injury: In$omuch that I will be bold to
$ay, there can be no greater Security to any
Work again$t Violence and Injury, than Beau-
ty and Dignity. Your whole Care, Diligence
and Expence, therefore $hould all tend to this,
that whatever you build may be not only u$e-
ful and convenient, but al$o hand$omely
adorned, and by that means delightful to the
Sight, that whoever views it may own the Ex-
pence could never have been better be$towed.
But what Beauty and Ornament are in them-
$elves, and what Difference there is between
them, may perhaps be ea$ier for the Reader to
conceive in his Mind, than for me to explain
by Words. In order therefore to be as brief
as po$$ible, I $hall define Beauty to be a Har-
mony of all the Parts, in what$oever Subject it
appears, fitted together with $uch Proportion
and Connection, that nothing could be added,
dimini$hed or altered, but for the Wor$e. A
Quality $o Noble and Divine, that the whole
Force of Wit and Art has been $pent to pro-
cure it; and it is but very rarely granted to any
one, or even to Nature her$elf, to produce any
Thing every Way perfect and compleat. How
extraordinary a Thing ($ays the Per$on intro-
duced in <I>Tully</I>) is a hand$ome Youth in <I>Athens!</I>
This Critick in Beauty found that there was
$omething deficient or $uperfluous, in the Per-
$ons he di$liked, which was not compatible
with the Perfection of Beauty, which I imagine
might have been obtained by Means of Orna-
ment, by painting and concealing any Thing
that was deformed, and trimming and poli$hing
what was hand$ome; $o that the un$igh <*>y
Parts might have given le$s Offence, and the
more lovely more Delight. If this be grant-
ed we may define Ornament to be a Kind of
an auxiliary Brightne$s and Improvement to
Beauty. So that then Beauty is $omewhat
lovely which is proper and innate, and diffu$ed
over the whole Body, and Ornament $ome-
what added or fa$tened on, rather than proper
and innate. To return therefore where we
le$t off. Whoever would build $o as to have
their Building commended, which every rea-
$onable Man would de$ire, mu$t build accord-
ing to a Ju$tne$s of Proportion, and this Ju$t-
ne$s of Proportion mu$t be owing to Art. Who
therefore will affirm, that a hand$ome and ju$t
Structure can be rai$ed any otherwi$e than by
the Means of Art? and con$equently this Part
of Building, which relates to Beauty and Orna-
ment, being the Chief of all the Re$t, mu$t
without doubt be directed by $ome $ure Rules
of Art and Proportion, which whoever ne-
glects will make him$elf ridiculous. But there
are $ome who will by no means allow of this,
and $ay that Men are guided by a Variety of
Opinions in their Judgment of Beauty and of
Buildings; and that the Forms of Structures
mu$t vary according to every Man's particular
Ta$te and Fancy, and not be tied down to any
Rules of Art. A common Thing with the
Ignorant, to de$pi$e what they do not under-
$tand! It may not therefore be ami$s to confute
this Error; not that I think it nece$$ary to
enter into a long Di$cu$$ion about the Origin
of Arts, from what Principles they were de-
duced, and by what Methods improved. I
$hall only take Notice that all Arts were begot
by Chance and Ob$ervation, and nur$ed by
U$e and Experience, and improved and per-
fected by Rea$on and Study. Thus we are
told that Phy$ick was invented in a thou$and
Years by a thou$and thou$and Men; and $o too
the Art of Navigation; as, indeed, all other
Arts have grown up by Degrees from the $mall-
e$t Beginnings.</P>
<foot>Gg CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>114</p>
<head>CHAP. III.</head>
<head><I>That Architecture began in</I> A$ia, <I>flouri$hed in</I> Greece, <I>and was brought to
Perfection in</I> Italy.</head>
<P>The Art of Building, as far as I can
gather from the Works of the Ancients,
$pent the fir$t Vigour of its Youth (if I may
be allowed that Expre$$ion) in <I>A$ia:</I> It after-
wards flouri$hed among the <I>Greeks;</I> and at
la$t came to its full Maturity in <I>Italy.</I> And
this Account $eems very probable; for the
Kings of <I>A$ia</I> abounding in Wealth and Lei-
$ure, when they came to con$ider them$elves,
their own Riches, and the Greatne$s and Ma-
je$ty of their Empire, and found that they had
Occa$ion for larger and nobler Habitations,
they began to $earch out and collect every
Thing that might $erve to this Purpo$e; and
in order to make their Buildings larger and
hand$omer, began perhaps with building their
Roofs of larger Timbers, and their Walls of a
better Sort of Stone. This $hewed noble and
great, and not unhand$ome. Then finding
that $uch Works were admired for being very
large, and imagining that a King was obliged
to do $omething which private Men could not
effect, the$e great Monarchs began to be de-
lighted with huge Works, which they fell to
rai$ing with a Kind of Emulation of one an-
other, till they came to erecting tho$e wild im-
men$e Moles, the Pyramids. Hereupon I ima-
gine that by frequent Building they began to
find out the Difference that there was between
a Structure built in one Manner, and one built
in another, and $o getting $ome Notion of
Beauty and Proportion, began to neglect tho$e
Things which wanted tho$e Qualities. <I>Greece</I>
came next; which flouri$hing in excellent
Geniu$$es and Men of Learning, pa$$ionately
de$irous of adorning their Country, began to
erect Temples and other publick Structures.
They then thought fit to look abroad and take
a more careful View of the Works of the <I>A$-
$yrians</I> and <I>&AElig;gyptians,</I> till at la$t they came
to under$tand that in all Things of this Nature
the Skill of the Workman was more admired
than the Wealth of the Prince: For any one
that is rich may rai$e a great Pile of Building;
but to rai$e $uch a one as may be commended
by the Skilful, is the Part only of a $uperior
Genius. Hereupon <I>Greece</I> finding that in the$e
Works $he could not equal tho$e Nations in
Expence, re$olved to try if $he could not out-do
them in Ingenuity. She began therefore to
trace and deduce this Art of Building, as in-
deed $he did all others, from the very Lap of
Nature it$elf, examining, weighing and con-
$idering it in all its Parts with the greate$t Di-
ligence and Exactne$s: enquiring with the
greate$t Strictne$s into the Difference between
tho$e Buildings which were highly prai$ed, and
tho$e which were di$liked, without neglecting
the lea$t Particular. She tried all Manner of
Experiments, $till tracing and keeping clo$e to
the Foot$teps of Nature, mingling uneven
Numbers with even, $trait Lines with Curves,
Light with Shade, hoping that as it happens
from the Conjunction of Male and Female, $he
$hould by the Mixture of the$e Oppo$ites hit
upon $ome third Thing that would an$wer her
Purpo$e: Nor even in the mo$t minute Parti-
culars did $he neglect to weigh and con$ider all
the Parts over and over again, how tho$e on
the right Hand agreed with tho$e on the left,
the Upright with the Platform, the nearer with
the more remote, adding, dimini$hing, propor-
tioning the great Parts to the Small, the Simi-
lar to the Di$$imilar, the La$t to the Fir$t, till
$he had clearly demon$trated that different
Rules were to be ob$erved in tho$e Edifices
which were intended for Duration, to $tand as
it were Monuments to Eternity, and tho$e
which were de$igned chiefly for Beauty. The$e
were the Methods pur$ued by the <I>Greeks.
Italy,</I> in her fir$t Beginnings, having Regard
wholly to Par$imony, concluded that the Mem-
bers in Buildings ought to be contrived in the
$ame Manner as in Animals; as, for In$tance,
in a Hor$e, who$e Limbs are generally mo$t
beautiful when they are mo$t u$eful for Service:
from whence they inferred that Beauty was
never $eparate and di$tinct from Conveniency.
But afterwards when they had obtained the
Empire of the World, being then no le$s in-
flamed than the <I>Greeks</I> with the De$ire of a-
dorning their City and them$elves, in le$s than
thirty Years that which before was the fine$t
Hou$e in the whole City of <I>Rome,</I> could not
<foot>then</foot>
<p n=>115</p>
then be reckoned $o by a hundred; and they
abounded in $uch an incredible Number of in-
genious Men who exerci$e their Talent this
Way, that we are told there was at one Time
no le$s than $even hundred Architects at <I>Rome,</I>
who$e Works were $o noble that the extraor-
dinary Prai$e which is be$towed upon them,
is hardly equal to their Merit. And as the
Wealth of the Empire was $ufficient to bear the
Expence of the mo$t $tately Structures, $o we
are told that a private Man, by Name <I>Tatius,</I>
at his own proper Charges built Baths for the
People of <I>O$tia</I> with an hundred Columns of
<I>Numidian</I> Marble. But $till though the Con-
dition of their State was thus flouri$hing, they
thought it mo$t laudable to join the Magnifi-
cence of the mo$t profu$e Monarchs, to the an-
cient Par$imony and frugal Contrivance of their
own Country: But $till in $uch a Manner, that
their Frugality $hould not prejudice Conveni-
ency, nor Conveniency be too cautious and
fearful of Expence; but that both $hould be
embelli$hed by every thing that was delicate or
beautiful. In a Word, being to the greate$t
Degree careful and exact in all their Buildings,
they became at la$t $o excellent in this Art,
that there was nothing in it $o hiden or $ecret
but what they traced out, di$covered and
brought to light, by the Favour of Heaven,
and the Art it$elf not frowning upon their En-
deavours: For the Art of Building having had
her ancient Seat in <I>Italy,</I> and e$pecially among
the <I>Hetrurians,</I> who be$ides tho$e miraculous
Structures which we read to have been erected
by their Kings, of Labyrinths and Sepulchres,
had among them $ome excellent ancient Writ-
ings, which taught the Manner of building
Temples, according to the Practice of the An-
cient <I>Tu$cans:</I> I $ay, this Art having had her
ancient Seat in <I>Italy,</I> and knowing with how
much Fervour $he was courted there, $he $eems
to have re$olved, that this Empire of the World,
which was already adorned with all other Vir-
tues, $hould be made $till more admirable by
her Embelli$hments. For this Rea$on $he gave
her$elf to them to be throughly known and un-
der$tood; thinking it a Shame that the Head
of the Univer$e and the Glory of all Nations
$hould be equalled in Magnificence by tho$e
whom $he had excelled in all Virtues and Sci-
ences. Why $hould I in$i$t here upon their
Porticoes, Temples, Gates, Theatres, Baths,
and other gigantick Structures; Works $o a-
mazing, that though they were actually exe-
cuted, $ome very great foreign Architects
thought them impracticable. In $hort, I need
$ay no more than that they could not bear to
have even their common Drains void of Beau-
ty, and were $o delighted with Magnificence
and Ornament, that they thought it no Profu-
$ion to $pend the Wealth of the State in Build-
ings that were hardly de$igned for any thing
el$e. By the Examples therefore of the Anci-
ents, and the Precepts of great Ma$ters, and
con$tant Practice, a thorough Knowledge is to
be gained of the Method of rai$ing $uch mag-
nificent Structures; from this Knowledge
$ound Rules are to be drawn, which are by no
means to be neglected by tho$e who have not
a Mind to make them$elves ridiculous by build-
ing, as I $uppo$e nobody has. The$e Rules it
is our Bu$ine$s here to collect and explain, ac-
cording to the be$t of our Capacity. Of the$e
$ome regard the univer$al Beauty and Orna-
ment of the whole Edifice; other the particu-
lar Parts and Members taken $eparately. The
former are taken immediately from Philo$ophy
and are intended to direct and regulate the
Operations of this Art; the others from Ex-
perience, as we have $hewn above, only filed
and perfected by the Principles of Philo-
$ophy. I $hall $peak fir$t of tho$e wherein this
particular Art is mo$t concerned; and as for
the others, which relate to the Univer$ality,
they $hall $erve by Way of Epilogue.</P>
<head>CHAP. IV</head>
<P><I>That Beauty and Ornament in every Thing ari$e from Contrivance, or the
Hand of the Artificer, or from Nature; and that though the Region indeed
can hardly be improved by the Wit or Labour of Man, yet many other
Things may be done highly worthy of Admiration, and $carcely credible.</I></P>
<P>That which delights us in Things that
are either beautiful or finely adorned,
mu$t proceed either from the Contrivance and
Invention of the Mind, or the Hand of the
Artificer, or from $omewhat derived immedi-
ately from Nature her$elf. To the Mind be-
<foot>long</foot>
<p n=>116</p>
long the <*>lection, Di$tribution, Di$po$ition,
and other Things of the like Nature which
give Dignity to the Work: To the Hand, the
ama$$ing, adding, dimini$hing, chipping, po-
li$hing, and the like, which make the Work
delicate: The Qualities derived from Nature
are Heavine$s, Lightne$s, Thickne$s, Clearne$s,
Durability, <I>&amp;c.</I> which make the Work wond-
erful. The$e three Operations are to be adapt-
cd to the $everal Parts according to their various
U$es and Offices. There are $everal Ways of
dividing and con$idering the different Parts:
But at pre$ent we $hall divide all Buildings
either according to the Parts in which they
generally agree, or to tho$e in which they ge-
nerally differ. In the fir$t Book we $aw that
all Edifices mu$t have Region, Situation, Com-
partition, Walling, Covering, and Apertures;
in the$e Particulars therefore they agree. But
then in the$e others they differ, namely, that
$ome are Sacred, others Profane, $ome Pub-
lick, others Private, $ome de$igned for Nece$-
$ity, others for Plea$ure, and $o on. Let us be-
gin with tho$e Particulars wherein they agree.
What the Hand or Wit of Man can add to
the Region, either of Beauty or Dignity, is
hardly di$coverable; unle$s we would give in-
to tho$e miraculous and $uper$titious Accounts
which we read of $ome Works. Nor are the
Undertakers of $uch Works blamed by pru-
dent Men, if their De$igns an$wer any great
Conveniency; but if they take Pains to do
what there was no Nece$$ity for, they are ju$t-
ly denied the Prai$e they hunt after. For who
would be $o daring as to undertake, like <I>Sta$i-
crates,</I> (according to <I>Plutarch</I>) or <I>Dinocrates</I>
(according to <I>Vitruvius</I>) to make Mount <I>Athos</I>
into a Statue of <I>Alexander,</I> and in one of the
Hands to build a City big enough to contain
ten thou$and Men? Indeed I $hould not di$-
commend Queen <I>Nitocris</I> for having forced
the River <I>Euphrates,</I> by making va$t Cuts, to
flow three Times round the City of the <I>A$$y-
rians,</I> if $he made the Region $trong and $ecure
by tho$e Trenches, and fruitful by the over-
flowing of the Water. But let us leave it to
mighty Kings to be delighted with $uch Un-
dertakings: Let them join Sea to Sea by cut-
ting the Land between them: Let them level
Hills: Let them make new I$lands, or join old
ones to the Continent: Let them put it out
of the Power of any others to imitate them,
and $o make their Names memorable to Po$te-
rity: Still all their wa$t Works will be com-
mended not $o much in Proportion to their
Greatne$s as their U$e. The Ancients $ome-
times added Dignity not only to particular
Groves, but even to the whole Region, by
Means of Religion. We read that all <I>Sicily</I>
was con$ecrated to <I>Ceres;</I> but the$e are Things
not now to be in$i$ted upon. It will be of great
and real Advantages, if the Region be po$$e$$ed
of $ome rare Quality, no le$s u$eful than extra-
ordinary: As for In$tance, if the Air be more
temperate than in any other Place, and always
equal and uniform, as we are told it is at
<I>Moroe,</I> where Men live in a Manner as long as
they plea$e; or if the Region produces $ome-
thing not to be found el$ewhere and very de-
$irable and whole$ome to Man, as that which
produces Amber, Cinnamon, and Bal$am; or
if it has $ome divine Influence in it, as there is
in the Soil of the I$land <I>Eub&oelig;a,</I> where we are
told nothing noxious is produced. The Situ-
ation, being a certain determinate Part of the
Region, is adorned by all the $ame Particulars
as beautify the Region it$elf. But Nature ge-
nerally offers more Conveniencies, and tho$e
more ready at Hand, for adorning the Situati-
on than the Region; for we very frequently
meet with Circum$tances extreamly noble and
$urpri$ing, $uch as Promontories, Rocks, brok-
en Hills va$tly high and $harp, Grottoes, Ca-
verns, Springs and the like; near which, if we
would have our Situation $trike the Beholders
with Surprize, we may build to our Hearts
de$ire. Nor $hould their be wanting in the
Pro$pect Remains of Antiquity, on which we
cannot turn our Eyes without con$idering the
various Revolutions of Men and Things, and
being filled with Wonder and Admiration. I
need not mention the Place where <I>Troy</I> once
$tood, or the Plains of <I>Leuctra</I> $tained with
Blood, nor the Fields near <I>Tra$umenus,</I> and a
thou$and other Places memorable for $ome
great Event. How the Hand and Wit of Man
may add to the Beauty of the Situation, is not
$o ea$ily $hewn. I pa$s over Things com-
monly done; $uch as Plane-trees brought by
Sea to the I$land of <I>Tremeti</I> to adorn the Situ-
ation, or Columns, Obelisks and Trees left by
great Men in order to $trike Po$terity with Ve-
neration; as for In$tance, the Olive-tree planted
by <I>Neptune</I> and <I>Minerva,</I> which flouri$hed for
$o many Ages in the Citadel of <I>Athens:</I> I like-
wife pa$s over ancient Traditions handed down
from Age to Age, as that of the Turpentine-
tree near <I>Hebron,</I> which was reported to have
$tood from the Creation of the World to the
Days of <I>Jo$ephus</I> the Hi$torian. Nothing can
<foot>give</foot>
<p n=>117</p>
give a greater Air of Dignity and Aw$ulne$s to
a Place than $ome artful Laws made by the
Ancients; $uch as the$e: That nothing Male
$hould pre$ume to $et Foot in the Temple of
the <I>Bona Dea,</I> nor in that of <I>Diana</I> in the Pa-
trician Portico; and at <I>Tanagra,</I> that no Wo-
man $hould enter the $acred Grove, nor the in-
ner Parts of the Temple of <I>Jeru$alem;</I> and
that no Per$on what$oever, be$ides the Prie$t,
and he only in order to purify him$elf for Sa-
cri$ice, $hould wa$h in the Fountain near <I>Pan-
thos;</I> and that nobody $hould pre$ume to $pit
in the Place called <I>Doliola</I> near the great Drain
at <I>Rome,</I> where the Bones of <I>Numa Pompilius</I>
were depo$ited; and upon $ome Chapels there
have been In$criptions, $trictly forbidding any
common Pro$titute to enter; in the Temple of
<I>Diana</I> at <I>Crete,</I> none were admitted, except
they were bare-footed; it was unlawful to bring
a Bond-woman into the Temple of the God-
de$s <I>Matuta;</I> and all common Cryers were ex-
cluded from the Temple of <I>Orodio</I> at <I>Rhodes,</I>
and all Fiddlers from that of <I>Temnius</I> at <I>Te-
nedos.</I> So again, it was unlawful to go out of
the Temple of <I>Jupiter Alfi$tius</I> without $acri-
ficing, and to carry any Ivy into the Temple
of <I>Minerva</I> at <I>Athens,</I> or into that of <I>Venus</I> at
<I>Thebes.</I> In the Temple of <I>Fauna,</I> it was not
lawful $o much as to mention the Name of
Wine. In the $ame Manner it was decreed,
that the Gate <I>Janualis</I> at <I>Rome</I> $hould never
be $hut, but in Time of War, nor the Temple
of <I>Janus</I> ever opened in Time of Peace; and
that the Temple of the Godde$s <I>Hora</I> $hould
$tand always open. If we were to imitate any
of the$e Cu$toms, perhaps it might not be a-
mi$s to make it criminal for Women to enter
the Temples of Martyrs; or Men, tho$e dedi-
cated to Virgin Saints. Moreover there are $ome
Advantages very de$irable, $aid to be procured
by Art, which when we read of, we could
$carcely believe, unle$s we $aw $omething like
it in $ome particular Places even at this Day.
We are told that it was brought about by hu-
man Art, that in <I>Con$tantinople</I> Serpents will
never hurt any body, and that no Daws will fly
within the Walls; and that no Gra$shoppers
are ever heard in <I>Naples,</I> nor any Owls in
<I>Candy.</I> In the Temple of <I>Achilles,</I> in the
I$land of <I>Bori$thenes</I> no Bird what$oever will
enter, nor any Dog or Fly of any Sort in the
Temple of <I>Hercules</I> near the <I>Forum Boarium</I>
at <I>Rome.</I> But what $hall we $ay of this $ur-
prizing Particularity, that at <I>Venice,</I> even at
this Day, no Kind of Fly ever enters the pub-
lick Palace of the <I>Cen$ors?</I> And even in the
Fle$h-market at <I>Toledo,</I> there is never more than
one Fly $een throughout the Year, and that a
remarkable one for its Whitene$s. The$e
$trange Accounts which we find in Authors,
are too numerous to be all in$erted here, and
whether they are owing to Nature or Art, I
$hall not now pretend to decide. But then,
again, how can we, either by Nature or Art,
account for what they tell us of a Laurel-tree
growing in the Sepulchre of <I>Bibrias</I> King of
<I>Pontus,</I> from which if the lea$t Twig is brok-
en, and put aboard a Ship, that Ship $hall ne-
ver be free from Mutinies and Tumults till the
Twig is thrown out of it: Or for its never
raining upon the <I>Altar</I> in <I>Venus's</I> Temple at
<I>Paphos:</I> Or for this, that whatever Part of the
Sacrifice is left at <I>Minerva's</I> Shrine in <I>Phrygia
minor,</I> will never corrupt: Or this, if you
break off any Part of <I>Anteus's</I> Sepulchre, it
immediately begins to rain, and never leaves off
till it is made whole again? Some indeed af-
firm, that all the$e Things may be done by an
Art, now lo$t, by means of little con$tellated
Images, which A$tronomers pretend are not
unknown to them. I remember to have read
in the Author of the Life of <I>Apollonius Tyaneus,</I>
that in the chief Apartments of the Royal Palace
at <I>Babylon,</I> $ome Magicians fa$tened to the
Cieling four golden Birds, which they called
the Tongues of the Gods, and that the$e were
endued with the Virtue of conciliating the Af-
fection of the Multitude towards their King:
And <I>Jo$ephus,</I> a very grave Author, $ays that
he him$elf $aw a certain Man named <I>Eleazer,</I>
who in the Prefence of the Emperor <I>Ve$pa$ian</I>
and his Sons, immediately cured a Man that
was po$$e$$ed, by fa$tening a Ring to his No$e;
and the $ame Author writes that <I>Solomon</I> com-
po$ed certain Ver$es, which would give Ea$e
in Di$tempers; and <I>Eu$ebius Pamphilus</I> $ays,
that the <I>&AElig;gyptian</I> God <I>Serapis,</I> whom we call
<I>Pluto,</I> invented certain Charms which would
drive away evil Spirits, and taught the Methods
by which <I>D&aelig;mons</I> a$$umed the Shapes of brute
Bea$ts to do mi$chief. <I>Servius</I> too $ays, that
there were Men who u$ed to carry Charms
about them, by which they were $ecured a-
gain$t all unhappy Turns of Fortune; and that
tho$e Charms were $o powerful, that the Per-
$ons who wore them could never die till they
were taken from them. If the$e Things could
be true, I $hould ea$ily believe what we read
in <I>Plutarch,</I> that among the <I>Pelenei</I> there was
an Image, which if it were brought out of the
<foot>Hh Temple</foot>
<p n=>118</p>
Temple by the Prie$t, filled every Creature
with Terror and Dread on whatever Side it was
turned; and that no Eye dur$t look towards
it, for Fear. The$e miraculous Accounts we
have in$erted only by way of Amu$ement. As
to other Particulars which may help to make
the Situation beautiful, con$idered in a general
View, $uch as the Circumference, the Space
round about it, its Elevation, Levelling,
Strengthening, and the like, I have nothing
more to $ay here, but to refer you for In$truc-
tions to the fir$t and third Books. The chief
Qualities requi$ite in a Situation or Platform
(as we have there ob$erved) are to be perfectly
dry, even, and $olid, as al$o convenient and
$uitable to the Purpo$e of the Building; and
it will be a very great Help to it, to $trengthen
it with a good Bottom made of baked Earth,
in the Manner which we $hall teach when we
come to treat of the Wall. We mu$t not here
omit an Ob$ervation made by <I>Plato,</I> that it
will be a great Addition to the Dignity of the
Place, if you give it $ome great Name; and
this we find the Emperor <I>Adrian</I> was very
fond of doing, when he gave the Names of
<I>Lycus, Canopeis, Academia, Tempe</I> and other
great Titles to the $everal Parts of his <I>Villa</I> at
<I>Tivoli.</I></P>
<head>CHAP. V.</head>
<head><I>A $hort Recapitulation of the Compartition, and of the ju$t Compo$ition and
adorning the Wall and Covering.</I></head>
<P>Though we have already $aid almo$t
as much as was nece$$ary of the Com-
partition in the fir$t Book, yet we $hall take a
brief Review of it again here. The chief and
fir$t Ornament of any Thing is to be free from
all Improprieties. It will therefore be a ju$t
and proper Compartition, if it is neither con-
fu$ed nor interrupted, neither too rambling nor
compo$ed of un$uitable Parts, and if the Mem-
bers be neither too many nor too few, neither
too $mall nor too large, nor mi$-matcht nor un-
$ightly, nor as it were $eparate and divided
from the Re$t of the Body: But every Thing
$o di$po$ed according to Nature and Conveni-
ence, and the U$es for which the Structure is
intended, with $uch Order, Number, Size, Si-
tuation and Form, that we may be $atisfied
there is nothing throughout the whole Fabrick,
but what was contrived for $ome U$e or Con-
venience, and with the hand$ome$t Compact-
ne$s of all the Parts. If the Compartition
an$wers in all the$e Re$pects, the Beauty and
Richne$s of any Ornaments will $it well upon
it; if not, it is impo$$ible it $hould have any
Air of Dignity at all. The whole Compo$iti-
on of the Members therefore $hould $eem to be
made and directed entirely by Nece$$ity and
Conveniency; $o that you may not be $o much
plea$ed that there are $uch or $uch Parts in
the Building, as that they are di$po$ed and laid
out in $uch a Situation, Order and Connection.
In adorning the Wall and Covering, you will
have $ufficient Room to di$play the fine$t Ma-
terials produced by Nature, and the mo$t curi-
ous Contrivance and Skill of the Artificer. If
it were in your Power to imitate the ancient
<I>O$iris,</I> who, we are told, built two Temples of
Gold, one to the Heavenly, the other to the
Royal <I>Jupiter;</I> or if you could rai$e $ome va$t
Stone, almo$t beyond humane Belief, like that
which <I>Semiramis</I> brought from the Mountains
of <I>Arabia,</I> which was twenty Cubits broad
every Way, and an hundred and fifty long;
or if you had $uch large Stone, that you could
make $ome Part of the Work all of one Piece,
like a Chapel in <I>Latona's</I> Temple in <I>&AElig;gypt,</I>
forty Cubits wide in Front, and hollowed in
one $ingle Stone, and $o al$o covered with an-
other: This no doubt would create a va$t deal
of Admiration in the Beholders, and e$pecially
if the Stone was a foreign one, and brought
through difficult Ways, like that which <I>Hero-
dotus</I> relates to have been brought from the City
of <I>Elephantis,</I> which was about twenty Cubits
broad, and fifteen high, and was carried as far
as <I>Su$a</I> in twenty Days. It will al$o add great-
ly to the Ornament and Wonder of the Work,
if $uch an extraordinary Stone be $et in a re-
markable and honourable Place. Thus the
little Temple at <I>Chemmis,</I> an I$land in <I>&AElig;gypt,</I>
is not $o $urprizing upon Account of being co-
vered with one $ingle Stone, as upon Account
of $uch a huge Stone's being rai$ed to $o great a
Height. The Rarity and Beauty of the Stone
it$elf will al$o add greatly to the Ornament; as
for In$tance, if it is that $ort of Marble, with
<foot>which</foot>
<p n=>119</p>
which we are told <I>Nero</I> built a Temple to
<I>Fortune</I> in his golden Palace, which was $o
white, $o clear and tran$parent, that even when
all the Doors were $hut the Light $eemed to be
enclo$e within the Temple. All the$e Things
are very Noble in them$elves; but they will
make no Figure if there is not Care and Art
u$ed in their Compo$ition or putting together:
For every Thing mu$t be reduced to exact Mea-
$ure, $o that all the Parts may corre$pond with
one another, the Right with the Left, the
lower Parts with the Upper, with nothing in-
terfering that may blemi$h either the Order or
the Materials, but every Thing $quared to ex-
act Angles and $imilar Lines. We may often
ob$erve that ba$e Materials managed with Art,
make a hand$omer Shew than the Noble$t
heaped together in Confu$ion. Who can ima-
gine that the Wall of <I>Atheus,</I> which <I>Thucydides</I>
informs us was built $o tumultuou$ly that they
even threw into it $ome of the Statues of their
Sepulchres, could have any Beauty in it, or be
any ways adorned by being full of broken Sta-
tues? On the Contrary, we are very much
plea$ed with the Walls of $ome old Country-
Hou$es, though they are built of any Stone
that the People could pick up; becau$e they
are di$po$ed in even Rows, with an alternate
Checquer of Black and White: $o that con-
$idering the Meanne$s of the Structure, no-
thing can be de$ired hand$omer. But perhaps
this Con$ideration belongs rather to that Part
of the Wall which is called the outward Coat,
than to the Body of the Wall it$elf. To con-
clude, all your Materials $hould be $o di$tribu-
ted that nothing $hould be begun, but accord-
ing to $ome judicious Plan; nothing carried on
but in pur$uance of the $ame; and no Part of
it left imperfect, but fini$hed and compleated
with the utmo$t Care and Diligence. But the
principal Ornament both of the Wall and Co-
vering, and e$pecially of all vaulted Roofs (al-
ways excepted Columns) is the outward Coat:
And this may be of $everal Sorts; either all
white, or adorned with Figures and Stu<*>-work,
or with Painting, or Pictures $et in Pannels, or
with <I>Mo$aie</I> Work, or el$e a Mixture of all
the$e together.</P>
<head>CHAP. VI.</head>
<head><I>In what Manner great Weights and large Stones are moved from one Place to
another or rai$ed to any great Height.</I></head>
<P>Of tho$e Ornaments la$t mentioned we are
to treat; and to $hew what they are and
how they are to be made; but having in the
la$t Chapter mentioned the moving of va$t
Stones, it $eems nece$$ary here to give $ome
Account in what Manner $uch huge Bodies are
moved, and how they are rai$ed to $uch high
and difficult Places. <I>Plutarch</I> relates that
<I>Archimedes,</I> the great Mathematician of <I>Syra-
cu$e,</I> drew a Ship of Burthen with all its lad-
ing through the Middle of the Market Place,
with his Hand, as if he had been only leading
along a Hor$e by the Bridle: But we $hall here
con$ider only tho$e Things that are nece$$ary
in Practice; and then take Notice of $ome
Points, by which Men of Learning and good
Apprehen$ions may fully and clearly under-
$tand the whole Bu$ine$s of them$elves. <I>Pliny</I>
$ays, that the Obelisk brought from <I>Ph&oelig;nicia</I>
to <I>Thebes,</I> was brought down a Canal cut from
the <I>Nile,</I> in Ships full of Bricks, $o that by ta-
king out $ome of the Bricks they could at any
Time lighten the Ve$$el of its Lading. We
find in <I>Ammianus Marcellinus</I> the Hi$torian,
that an Obelisk was brought from the <I>Nile,</I> in
a Ve$$el of three hundred Oars, and laid upon
Rollers at three Miles di$tance from <I>Rome,</I> and
$o drawn into the great <I>Circus</I> through the
Gate that leads to <I>O$tia:</I> And that $everal
thou$and Men laboured hard at the crecting it,
though the whole <I>Circus</I> was full of nothing
but va$t Engines and Ropes of a prodigious
Thickne$s. We read in <I>Vitruvius</I> that <I>Cte$iphon</I>
and his Son <I>Metagenes</I> brought his Columns
and Architraves to <I>Ephe$us</I> by a Method which
they borrowed from tho$e Cylinders with
which the Ancients u$ed to level the Ground:
For in each End of the Stone they fixed a Pin
of Iron which they fa$tened in with Lead,
which Pin $tood out and $erved as an Axis,
and at each End was let into a Wheel $o large
as for the Stone to hang upon its Pins above
the Ground; and $o by the Motion of the
Wheels the Stones were carried along with a
great deal of Ea$e. We are told that <I>Chem-
minus</I> the <I>&AElig;gyptian,</I> when he built that va$t
<foot>Pyramid</foot>
<p n=>120</p>
Pyramid of above $ix Furlongs high, rai$ed a
Mound of Earth all the Way up along with
the Building, by which he carried up tho$e
huge Stones into their Places. <I>Herodotus</I> writes
that <I>Cheops,</I> the Son of <I>Rhamp$inites,</I> in the
building of that Pyramid which employed an
hundred thou$and Men for many Years, left
Steps on the Out$ide of it, by means of which
the large$t Stones might by proper Engines, be
rai$ed up into their Places without having Oc-
ca$ion for very long Timbers. We read too
of Architraves of va$t Stones being laid upon
huge Columns in the following Manner: Un-
der the Middle of the Architrave they $et two
Bearers acro$s, pretty near each other. Then
they loaded one End of the Architraves with a
great Number of Baskets full of Sand, the
Weight of which rai$ed up the other End, on
which there were no Baskets, and one of the
Bearers was left without any Weight upon it:
Then removing the Baskets to the other End
$o rai$ed up, and putting under $ome higher
Bearers in the Room of that which was left
without Weight, the Stone by little and little
ro$e up as it were of its own accord. The$e
Things which we have here briefly collect-
ed together, we leave to be more clearly
learnt from the Authors them$elves. But
the Method of this Treati$e requires, that we
$hould $peak $uccinctly of $ome few Things
that make to our Purpo$e. I $hall not wa$te
Time in explaining any $uch curious Principles,
as that it is the Nature of all heavy Bodies to
pre$s continually downwards, and ob$tinately
to $eek the lowe$t Place; that they make the
greate$t Re$i$tance they are able again$t being
rai$ed aloft, and never change their Place, but
after the $toute$t Conflict, being either over-
come by $ome greater Weight or $ome more
powerful contrary Force. Nor $hall I $tand to
ob$erve that Motions are various, from high to
low or from low to high, directly, or about a
Curve; and that $ome Things are carried, $ome
drawn, $ome pu$hed on, and the like; of
which Enquiries we $hall treat more copiou$ly
in another Place. This we may lay down for
certain, that a Weight is never moved with $o
much Ea$e as it is downwards; becau$e it then
moves it$elf, nor ever with more Difficulty,
than upwards; becau$e it naturally re$i$ts that
Direction; and that there is a Kind of middle
Motion between the$e two, which perhaps par-
takes $omewhat of the Nature of both the
others, ina$much as it neither moves of it$elf,
nor of it$elf re$i$ts, as when a Weight is drawn
upon an even Plain, free from all Rubs. All
other Motions are ea$y or difficult in Proporti-
on as they approach to either of the preceding.
And indeed Nature her$elf $eems in a good
Mea$ure to have $hewn us in what Manner
great Weights are to be moved: for we may
ob$erve, that if any con$iderable Weight is laid
upon a Column $tanding upright, the lea$t
Shove will pu$h it off, and when once it be-
gins to fall, hardly any Force is $ufficient to
$top it. We may al$o ob$erve, that any round
Column, or Wheel, or any other Body that
turns about, is very ea$ily moved, and very
hard to $top when once it is $et on going; and
if it is draged along without rowling, it does
not move with half the Ea$e. We further $ee,
that the va$t Weight of a Ship may be moved
upon a $tanding Water with a very $mall Force,
if you keep pulling continually; but if you
$trike it with ever $o great a Blow $uddenly, it
will not $tir an Inch: On the Contrary, $ome
Things will move with a $udden Blow or a fu-
rious Pu$h, which could not otherwi$e be $tirred
without a mighty Force or huge Engines.
Upon Ice too the greate$t Weights make but a
$mall Re$i$tance, again$t one that tries to draw
them. We likewi$e $ee that any Weight which
hangs upon a long Rope, is very ea$ily moved
as far as a certain Point; but not $o ea$ily, fur-
ther. The Con$ideration of the Rea$ons of
the$e Things, and the Imitation of them, may
be very u$eful to our Purpo$e; and therefore
we $hall briefly treat of them here. The Keel
or Bottom of any Weight, that is to be drawn
along, $hould be even and $olid; and the
Broader it is, the le$s it will plough up the
Ground all the Way under it, but then the
Thinner it is, it will $lip along the Quicker,
only it will make the deeper Furrows, and be
apter to $tick: If there are any Angles or Ine-
qualities in the Bottom of the Weight, it will
u$e them as Claws to fa$ten it$elf in the Plain,
and to re$i$t its own Motion. If the Plain be
$mooth, $ound, even, hard, not ri$ing or $ink-
ing on any Side, the Weight will have nothing
to hinder its Motion, or to make it re$u$e to
obey, but its own natural Love of Re$t, which
makes it lazy and unwilling to be moved.
Perhaps it was from a Con$ideration of the$e
Things, and from a deeper Examination of the
Particulars we have here mentioned, and <I>Ar-
chimedes</I> was induced to $ay, that if he had on-
ly a Ba$is for $o immen$e a Weight, he would
not doubt to turn the World it$elf about. The
Preparation of the Bottom of the Weight and
<foot>the</foot>
<p n=>121</p>
the Plain upon which it is to be drawn, which
is what we are here to con$ider, may be effect-
ed in the following Manner. Let $uch a Num-
ber of Poles be laid along, and of $uch a
Strength and Thickne$s as may be $ufficient
for the Weight; let them be $ound, even,
$mooth, and clo$e joined to one another: Be-
tween the Bottom of the Weight and this Plain
which it is to $lide upon, there $hould be $ome-
thing to make the Way more $lippery; and
this may be either Soap, or Tallow, or Lees of
Oil, or perhaps Slime. There is another Way
of making the Weight $lip along, which is by
underlaying it cro$s-ways with Rollers: But
the$e, though you have a $ufficient Number of
them, are very hard to be kept even to their
proper Lines and exact Direction; which it is
ab$olutely nece$$ary they $hould be, and that
they $hould all do Duty equally and at once,
or el$e they will run together in Confu$ion,
and carry the Weight to one Side And if you
have but few of them, being continually load-
ed, they will either be $plit or flatted, and $o
be rendered u$ele$s; or el$e that $ingle Line
with which they touch the Plain underneath,
or that other with which they touch the
Weight that is laid upon them, will $tick fa$t
with their $harp Points and be immoveable
A Cylinder or Roller is a Body con$i$ting of a
Number of Circles joined together; and the
Mathematicians $ay that a Circle can never
touch a right Line in more than one Point;
for which Rea$on I call the $ingle Line which
is pre$$ed by the Weight, the Point of the Rol-
ler. The only Way to provide again$t this In-
convenience, is to have the Roller made of the
$tronge$t and $ounde$t Stuff, and exactly ac-
cording to Rule and Proportion.</P>
<head>CHAP. VII.</head>
<head><I>Of Wheels, Pins, Leavers, Pullies, their Parts, Sizes and Figures.</I></head>
<P>But as there are $everal other Things, be-
$ides tho$e already mentioned, which are
nece$$ary for our Purpo$e, $uch as Wheels, Pul-
lies, Skrews and Leavers, we $hall here treat of
them more di$tinctly. Wheels in a great Mea-
$ure are the $ame as Rollers, as they always
pre$s down perpendicularly upon one Point:
But there is this Difference between them,
namely, that Rollers are more expeditious,
Wheels being hindered by the Friction of their
Pins or Axis. The Parts of a Wheel are three:
The large outer Circle, the Pin or Axis in the
Middle, and the Hole or Circle into which the
Pin is let. This Circle $ome perhaps would
rather call the Pole; but becau$e in $ome Ma-
chines it $tands $till, and in others moves about,
we rather de$ire Leave to call it the Axicle.
If the Wheel turns upon a very thick Axis, it
will go very hard; if upon too thin a one, it
will not $upport its Load; if the outer Circle
of the Wheel be too $mall, the $ame Inconve-
nience will happen that we ob$erved of the
Roller, that is, it will $tick in the Plain; if it
be too large, it will go along tottering from
Side to Side, and it will never be ready or
handy at turning one way or the other. If the
Axicle or Circle in which the Axis turns, be
too large, it will grind its Way out; if it be
too narrow, it will hardly be able to turn. Be-
tween the Axis and the Circle in which it turns,
there $hould be $omewhat to lubricate: Be-
cau$e one of the$e is to be con$idered as the
Plain, and the other as the Bottom or Keel of
the Weights. Rollers and Wheels $hould be
made of Elm or Holm-Oak: The Axis of
Holly or the Cornel-tree, or indeed rather of
Iron: The Circle for the Wheel to turn in, is
made be$t of Bra$s with one third of Tin. Pul-
lies are little Wheels. Leavers are of the Na-
ture of the Radii or Spokes of a Wheel. But
every Thing of this Sort, whether large Wheels
which Men turn about by walking within
them, or Cranes or Skrews, or any other En-
gine, working either by Leavers or Pullies; the
Principles, I $ay, of all the$e are deduced from
the Balance. They tell us, that <I>Mercury</I> was
believed to be a God chiefly upon this Ac-
count, that without the lea$t Ge$ture with his
Hand, he could make his Meaning perfectly
clear and plain by his Words. This, though
I am a little fearful of $ucceeding in it, I $hall
here endeavour to do to the utmo$t of my
Power: For my De$ign is to $peak of the$e
Things not like a Mathematician, but like a
Workman; and to $ay no more than is ab$o-
<marg>*</marg>
lutely nece$$ary. For the clearer under$tand-
ing therefore of this Matter, I will $uppo$e that
you have in your Hand, a Dart. In this Dart I
<foot>I i would</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 10, facing page 122.</I></foot>
<p n=>122</p>
would have you con$ider three Places, which
I call Points; the two Ends, that is the Steel
and the Peathers, and the third is the Loop in
the Middle for throwing the Dart by; and the
two Spaces between the two Ends and the
Loop, I $hall call the Radii. I $hall not di$-
pute about the Rea$ons of the$e Names, which
will appear better from the Con$ideration of
the Thing it$elf. If the Loop be placed ex-
actly in the Middle of the Dart, and the Fea-
ther End be ju$t equal in Weight to the Steel,
both Ends of the Dart will certainly hang even
and be equally poi$ed; if the $teel End be the
Heavie$t, the Feather will be thrown up, but
yet there will be a certain Point in the Dart
further towards the heavy End, to which if
you $lip the Loop, the Weight will be imme-
diately brought to an equal Poi$e again; and
this will be the Point by which the larger Ra-
dius exceeds the $maller ju$t as much as the
$maller Weight is exceeded by the larger. For
tho$e who apply them$elves to the Study of
the$e Matters, tell us, that unequal Radii may
be made equal to unequal Weights, provided
the Number of the Parts of the Radius and
Weight of the right Side, multiplied together,
be equal to the Number of tho$e Parts on the
oppo$ite left Side: Thus if the Steel be three
Parts, and the Feather two, the Radius be-
tween the Loop and the Steel mu$t be two, and
the other Radius between the Loop and the
Feather mu$t be three. By which Means, as
this Number five will an$wer to the five on the
oppo$ite Side, the Radii and the Weights an-
$wering equally to one another, they will hang
even and be equally poi$ed. If the Number
on each Side do not an$wer to one another,
that Side will overcome on which that Inequa-
lity of Numbers lies. I will not omit one Ob-
$ervation, namely, that if equal Radii run out
from both Sides of the Loop, and you give the
Ends a twirl round in the Air they will de-
$eribe equal Circles; but if the Radii be un-
equal, the Circles which they de$cribe, will be
unequal al$o. We have already $aid that a
Wheel is made up of a Number of Circles:
Whence it is evident, that if two Wheels let
into the $ame Axis be turned by one and the
$ame Motion, $o as when one moves the
other cannot $tand $till, or when one $tands
$till the other cannot move; from the Length
of the Radii or Spokes in each Wheel we may
come at the Knowledge of the Force which is
in that Wheel, remembring always to take the
Length of the Radius $rom the very Center of
the Axis. If the$e Principles are $ufficiently
under$tood, the whole Secret of all the$e En-
gines of which we are here treating, will be
mani$e$t; e$pecially with Relation to Wheels
and Leavers. In Pullies indeed we may con-
$ider $ome $urther Particulars: For both the
Rope which runs in the Pully and the little
Wheel in the Pully are as the Plain, whereon
the Weight is to be carried with the middle
Motion, which we ob$erved in the la$t Chapter
was between the mo$t Ea$y and the mo$t Dif-
ficult, ina$much as it is neither to be rai$ed up
nor let down, but to be drawn along upon the
Plain keeping always to one Center. But that
you may under$tand the Rea$on of the Thing
more clearly, take a Statue of a thou$and
Weight; if you hang this to the Trunk of a
Tree by one $ingle Rope, it is evident this Rope
mu$t bear the whole thou$and Weight. Fa$ten
a Pully to the Statue, and into this Pully let
the Rope by which the Statute hangs, and bring
this Rope up again to the Trunk of the Tree,
$o as the Statue may hang upon the double
Rope, it is plain the Weight of the Statue is
then divided between two Ropes, and that the
Pully in the Middle divides the Weight equal-
ly between them. Let us go on yet further,
and to the Trunk of the Tree fa$ten another
Pully and bring the Rope up through this
likewi$e. I ask you what Weight this Part of
the Rope thus brought up and put through
the Pully will take upon it$elf: You will $ay
five hundred; do you not perceive from hence
that no greater Weight can be thrown upon
this $econd Pully by the Rope, than what the
Rope has it$elf; and that is five hundred. I
$hall therefore go no farther, having, I think,
demon$trated that a Weight is divided by Pul-
lies, by which means a greater Weight may be
moved by a $maller; and the more Pullies
there are, the more $till the Weight is divided;
from whence it follows that the more Wheels
there are in them, $o many more Parts the
Weight is $plit into and may $o much the more
ea$ily be managed.</P>
<foot>* <I>See Plates 11-13, following Plate 10.</I></foot>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 10. <I>(Pages 121-22)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 11. <I>(Page 122)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 12. <I>(Page 122)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 13. <I>(Page 122</I>)</cap>
<fig>
<p n=>123</p>
<head>CHAP. VIII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Skrew and its Circles or Worm, and in what Manner great Weights
are either drawn, carried or pu$hed along.</I></head>
<P>We have already treated of Wheels, Pul-
lies and Leavers; we are now to pro-
ceed to the Skrew. A Skrew con$i$ts of a
Number of Circles like Rings, which take up-
on them$elves the Burthen of the Weight. If
the$e Rings were entire, and not broken in
$uch a Manner, that the End of one of them is
the Beginning of the other; it is certain the
Weight which they $upport, though it might
be moved about, would neither go upwards nor
downwards, but evenly round upon an equal
Plain according to the Direction of the Rings:
The Weight therefore is forced to $lide either
upwards or downwards along the Slope of the
Rings, which act herein after the Manner of
the Leaver. Again, if the$e Rings or this Worm
be of a $mall Circumference, or be cut in too
near to the Center of the Skrew, the Weight
will then be moved by $horter Leavers and
with a $maller Force. I will not here omit one
Thing which I did not think to have menti-
oned in this Place: Namely, that if you could
$o order it that the Bottom or Keel of any
Weight which you would move might (as far
as could be done by the Art and Skill of the
Workman) be made no broader than a Point,
and be moved in $uch a Manner upon a firm
and $olid Plain as not in the lea$t to cut into
it, I would engage you $hould move <I>Archi-
medes's</I> Ship, or effect any thing el$e of this
Nature what$oever. But of the$e Matters we
$hall treat in another Place. Each of the$e
Forces in particular, of which we have already
$poken, are of great Power for the moving of
any Weight; but when they are all joined to-
gether, they are va$tly $tronger. In <I>Germany</I>
you every where $ee the Youth $porting upon
the Ice with a $ort of wooden Pattens with a
very fine thin Bottom of Steel, in which with
a very $mall Strain they $lip over the Ice with
$o much Swiftne$s, that the quicke$t flying
Bird can hardly out-go them. But as all Weights
are either drawn, or pu$hed along, or carried,
we may di$tingui$h them thus: That they are
drawn by Ropes; pu$hed along by Leavers;
and carried by Wheels, Rollers and the like:
And how all the$e Powers may be made u$e of
<marg>*</marg>
at the $ame Time, is manife$t. But in all the$e
Methods, there mu$t of Nece$$ity be $ome one
Thing, which $tanding firm and immoveable
it$elf, may $erve to move the Weight in Que$-
tion. If this Weight is to be drawn, there mu$t
be $ome greater Weight, to which you may
fa$ten the In$truments you are to employ; and
if no $uch Weight can be had, fix a $trong iron
Stake of the Length of three Cubits, deep in-
to the Ground which mu$t be rammed down
tight all about it, or well $trengthened with
Piles laid cro$s-ways: And then fa$ten the
Ropes of your Pullies or Cranes to the Head
of the Stake which $tands up out of the Ground.
If the Ground be $andy, lay long Poles all the
Way for the Weight to $lide upon, and at the
Head of the$e Poles fa$ten your In$truments to
a good $trong Stake. I will take Notice of
one Thing which the Unexperienced will never
allow, till they under$tand the Matter thorough-
ly; which is, that along a Plain it is more con-
venient to draw two Weights than one; and
this is done in the following Manner: Having
moved the fir$t Weight to the End of the
Timbers laid for it to $lide upon, fix it there
with Wedges in $uch a Manner that nothing
can $tir it, and then fa$ten or tie to it the En-
gines, or In$truments with which you are to
draw your other Weight; and thus the move-
able Weight will be overcome and drawn along
the $ame Plain by the other Weight, which is
no more than equal to it, but only that it is
fixed. If the Weight is to be drawn up on high,
we may very conveniently make u$e of one
$ingle Pole, or rather of the Ma$t of a Ship;
but it mu$t be very $tout and $trong. This
Ma$t we mu$t $et upright, fa$tening the Foot
of it to a Stake, or fixing it $trong in any other
Manner that you plea$e. To the upper End of
it we mu$t fa$ten no le$s than three Ropes, one
on the right Side, another on the le$t, and the
other running down directly even with the
Ma$t. Then at $ome Di$tance from the Foot
of the Ma$t fix your Cap$tern and Pullies in
the Ground, and putting this la$t Rope through
the Pullies, let it run through them $o as to
draw the Head of the Ma$t a little downwards,
<foot>and</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 14, facing page 124.</I></foot>
<p n=>124</p>
and we may guide it which way we think
proper by means of the two $ide Ropes, as with
two Reins, making it either $tand upright
whenever we find it nece$$ary, or $toop which-
$oever way we Plea$e to $et down the Weight
in the proper place. As to the$e two $ide
Ropes, if you have no greater Weight to fa$ten
them to, you may fix them in the following
Manner: Dig a $quare Pit in the Ground, and
in it lay the Trunk of a Tree, to which fa$ten
one or more Loops that may $tand up out of
the Ground; then lay $ome cro$s Timbers over
the Trunk, and fill up the Pit with Earth, ram-
ming it down very clo$e, and if you wet it, it
will be the heavier. In all the other Particu-
lars, you may ob$erve the Rules we have laid
down as to the Plain on which the Weight is
to $lide: For you mu$t fa$ten Pullies both to
the Head of the Ma$t and to the Weight which
is to be rai$ed, and near the Foot of the Ma$t
you mu$t fix your Cap$tern, or whatever other
In$trument you u$e that acts with the Power of
the Leaver. In all Engines of this Nature de-
$igned for the moving of great Weights, we
$hould take Care that none of the Parts of the
Machine which are to have any Stre$s upon
them, be too $mall, and that none of our
Ropes, Spokes, or any other Medium which
we u$e in the Movement be weak by means of
their Length; for indeed long and thin are in
a Manner $ynonimous Terms, and $o, on the
Contrary, are $hort and thick. If the Ropes
are $mall let them run double in the Pullies;
if they are very thick, you mu$t get larger
Pullies, that the Rope may not be cut by the
Edges of the Pully-wheel. The Axis of the
Pully $hould be Iron, and not le$s in Thickne$s
than the $ixth Part of the Semidiameter of the
Pully it$elf, nor more than the eighth Part of
the whole Diameter. If the Rope be wetted,
it will be the more $ecure from taking Fire,
which $ometimes happens by means of its Mo-
tion and Friction in the Pully; it will al$o turn
the Pully round the better, and keep better
within the Wheel. It is better to wet the
Rope with Vinegar than with Water; but if
you do it with Water, Sea-water is be$t. If
you wet with fre$h Water, and it is expo$ed to
the Heat of the Sun, it will rot pre$ently.
Twi$ting the Ropes together is much $afer than
tying them; and e$pecially you mu$t take Care
that one Rope does not cut the other. The
Ancients u$ed a Bar or Rule of Iron, to which
they fa$tened the fir$t Knots of their Ropes,
and their Pullies, and for taking up any Weight,
and e$pecially of Stone, they had a Kind of
Pincers or Forceps of Iron. The Shape of
the$e Pincers or Forceps was taken from the
Letter X, the lower Limbs of it being turned
inwards like a Crab's Claw, by which means it
fa$tened it$elf to the Weight. The two upper
Limbs had Holes at the Top, through which
they put a Rope, which being tied, and $train-
ed tight by the moving Force, made the Teeth
<marg>*</marg>
of the Pincers keep clo$er to the Weight -A-.
In very large Stones, and e$pecially in the
Middle of Columns, though perfectly $mooth
in all other Parts, I have $een little Knobs left
jutting out, like Handles, again$t which the
Ropes were hitched, to prevent their $lipping.
It is al$o common, e$pecially in Cornices, to
make a Hole in the Stone like a Morti$e, after
this Manner; you make a Hole in the Stone
like an empty Pur$e, of a Bigne$s an$werable
to the Size of the Stone, narrower at the Mouth
than at the Bottom. I have $een $ome of the$e
Holes a Foot deep. You then fill it with iron
<marg>*</marg>
Wedges, -B- the two $ide Wedges being $hap-
ed like the letter D, which are put in fir$t to
fill up the Sides of the Hole, and the middle
Wedge is put in la$t between the$e two. All
the$e three Wedges have their Ears which pro-
ject out beyond the Morti$e, and the$e Ears
have a Hole drilled in them, through which
you put an iron Pin, which fa$tens on a $trong
Handle or Ring; and to this Ring you fa$ten
the Rope which runs through the Pully that
is to draw up the Weight. My way of fa$ten-
ing my Ropes about Columns, Jambs of Doors,
and other $uch Stones which are to be $et up-
right, is as follows. I make a Cincture or
Hoop of Wood or Iron of a due Strength for
bearing the Weight which I am to move, and
with this Hoop I $urround the Column or
other Stone in $ome convenient Part, making
it tight to the Stone with long thin Wedges
drove in gently with a Hammer, then I fa$ten
my Ligatures to this Hoop, and by this Means
I neither $poil the Beauty of the Stone by ma-
king Morti$es in it, nor break the Edges of the
Jambs by the Rubbing of the Ropes again$t
them: Be$ides that it is the mo$t expeditious,
convenient and $afe$t Way of fa$tening the
Ropes that has been thought of. In another
Place I $hall enlarge more particularly upon
many Things relating to this Subject. All I
$hall ob$ervc further here is, that all Engines
may be looked upon to be a Sort of Animals,
with prodigious $trong Hands; and that they
move Weights ju$t in the $ame Manner as we
<foot>Men</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 15, facing page 125.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 14. <I>(Page 123)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 15. <I>(Page 124)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>125</p>
Men do with our Arms. For this Rea$on, the
$ame Di$tention and Contraction of the Mem-
bers and Nerves which we u$e in pulling,
thru$ting or lifting, we are to imitate in our
Engines. I $hall only add one Piece of Ad-
vice more, which is, that whenever you are to
move any great Weight, in any Manner what-
$oever, you would go about it carefully, cauti-
ou$ly and deliberately, remembering the many
uncertain and irrecoverable Accidents and
Dangers which $ometimes happen in Attempts
of this Nature, even to the mo$t experienced:
For you will never get $o much Honour and
Reputation if what you undertake, $ucceeds, as
you will incur Blame and the Imputation of
Ra$hne$s, if it fails. We $hall now leave this
Subject, to proceed to the outward Coat of
the Wall.</P>
<head>CHAP. IX.</head>
<P><I>That the Incru$tations which are made upon the Wall with Mortar, mu$t be
three in Number: How they are to be made, and to what Purpo$es they are
to $erve. Of the $everal Sorts of Mortar, and in what Manner the
Lime is to be prepared for making them: Of Ba$s-relieves in Stuc-work
and Paintings, with which the Wall may be adorned.</I></P>
<P>In all Incru$tations there mu$t be at lea$t
three Coats of Mortar; the fir$t is called
Rough-ca$ting, and its Office is to $tick as clo$e
as po$$ible to the Wall and to bind on the two
outer Coats; the Office of the outer Coat, is
to make the Work $hew neat, $mooth, and po-
li$hed; that of the middle Coat, which we call
Plai$tering, is to prevent any Faults or Defects
in either of the other two. The Defects are
the$e: If the two la$t, that is to $ay, the Plai$t-
ering and the outer Coat are $harp, and to u$e
$uch an Expre$$ion, tenacious of the Wall, as
the Rough-ca$t ought to be, their Acrimony
will occa$ion an infinite Number of Cracks in
them in drying. And if the Rough-ca$t be
$oft, as the outer Coat $hould be, it will not
take hold of the Wall as it ought, but will fall
off in Pieces. The oftener we plai$ter the Wall
over, the better we may poli$h it, and the
longer it will endure the Injuries of Time.
Among the ancient Buildings I have $een $ome
which have been done over no le$s than nine
Times. The fir$t of the$e $hould be very $harp,
and made of Pit-Sand and Brick beaten not
too fine, but about the Size of $mall Gravel,
and laid on about the Thickne$s of three
Inches. For the Plai$tering, or middle Coat,
River-Sand is better, and is le$s apt to crack.
This Coat too $hould be $omewhat rough, be-
cau$e to a $mooth Surface nothing will $tick
that you lay on. The la$t of all $hould be as
white as Marble; for which Rea$on, in$tead of
Sand you $hould u$e the white$t Stone that can
be got pounded $mall; and it will be $ufficient
if this Coat be laid on about half an Inch thick,
$or when it is much more, it will not ea$ily
dry. I know $ome that, out of good Hu$-
bandry, make it no thicker than a Piece of
Shoe-leather. The $econd Coat, or Plai$ter-
ing, ought to be ordered according to its Proxi-
mity to either of the other two. In Moun-
tains where there are Stone-pits, you meet
with certain Veins extremely like a tran$parent
Alaba$ter, which are neither Marble nor Tarres,
but of a Kind of middle Nature between both,
and very friable. If this be beat $mall and
mixed up in$tead of Sand, it will $hew full of
little Sparks that will $hine like a fine Sort of
Marble. In many Places we $ee Nails $tuck
into the Wall to keep on the Plai$tering, and
Time has proved to us that it is better to have
them of Bra$s than of Iron. I am very much
plea$ed with tho$e who, in$tead of Nails, $tick
little Pieces of Flint in between the Joints of
the Stone; which they drive in gently with a
wooden Hammer. The fre$her and rougher
the Wall it$elf is, the fa$ter all your plai$tering
Work will cleave to it: For which Rea$on, if,
as you build the Wall, and while the Work is
Green, you rough-ca$t it, though but $lightly,
the Plai$tering and outer Coat will $tick to it
$o fa$t, as hardly ever to peel off. After $outher-
ly Winds, it is very proper to do any of this
Sort of Work; but if when a north Wind
blows, or in any great Cold or Heat, you offer
at any Sort of Plai$tering, e$pecially at laying
on the outer Coat, it will $cale off pre$ently.
La$tly, all Incru$tations are of two Sorts; either
<foot>Kk $pread</foot>
<p n=>126</p>
$pread on, or fa$tened to the Work. Stuc and
Plai$ter are $pread on; but Stuc is never good
but in very dry Places. The Moi$ture trick-
ling down from old Walls is extremely preju-
dicial to all Sorts of Incru$tations. The$e In-
cru$tations which are fa$tened to the Work are
Stone, Gla$s and the like. The different Sorts
of Incru$tations which are $pread on are either
flat White, Ba$s-relieve, or painted in Fre$co.
Tho$e which are fa$tened on, are either plain,
pannelled or te$$elated. We $hall $peak fir$t of
tho$e which are $pread on, for which the Lime
mu$t be prepared in the following Manner:
Quench it in a covered Pit with clear Water,
and let there be much more Water than Lime;
then with an Axe chop and cut it as if you
were chopping of Wood, and you will know
when it is $ufficiently $oaked and di$$olved by
the Axes not being offended by the lea$t Stone
or Grit. It is thought not to be $ufficiently
$oaked under three Months. It is never good
unle$s it be very glutinous and clammy; for if
the Axe comes out of it dry, it is a Sign it has
not had a $ufficient Quantity of Water to quench
its Thir$t. When you mix it up with the Sand,
or any other pounded Materials, beat it over
and over again very heartily, till it perfectly
foams again. That which was de$igned for
the outer Coat the Ancients u$ed to pound in
a Mortar, and they tempered their Mixture $o
well, that it never $tuck to the Trowel when
they came to lay it on. Upon this fir$t Coat,
while it is $till wet and fre$h, lay on the $econd,
and be $ure to let all the three be laid on $o
fa$t as to dry together, beating them even and
$mooth while they are wet. The outer Coat
of flat White, if you rub and $mooth it well,
will $hine like a Looking-gla$s; and if when
it is almo$t dry, you anoint it with Wax and
Gum Ma$tix di$$olved in a little Oil, and heat
the Wall thus anointed with a Pan of Charcoal,
$o that it may imbibe that Ointment, it will
out-do any Marble in Whitene$s. I have found
by Experience that this Coat will never $cale
off, if while you are working it, upon the fir$t
Appearance of any Crack, you make it good
with a few Twigs of white Mallows or wild
Spart. But if you are obliged to plai$ter in
the Dog-days, or in any very hot Place, cut
and beat $ome old Ropes very $mall, and mix
them with the Plai$ter. You may al$o give it
a very fine Poli$h, by throwing in a little
white Soap di$$olved in warm Water; but if
you u$e too much of this, it will make your
Work look pale. Figures in Stuc-work are
ea$ily made from a Mold; and the Mold it$elf
is taken off from any Relieve, by pouring $ome
liquid Plai$ter over it; and as it is drying, if it
is anointed with the Compo$ition above men-
tioned, it will get a Surface like Marble. The$e
Figures are of two Sorts, one alto Relieve and
the other ba$$o Relieve. In an upright Wall,
the alto Relieve do extremely well: But on an
arched Cieling the ba$$o Relieve are better;
becau$e tho$e of the high Relieve being to hang
down from the Cieling, are very apt to break
off by their own Weight, which may endanger
the Per$ons in the Room. It is a very good
Admonition, that where there is likely to be
much Du$t, we $hould never make Ornaments
of high Relieve; but flat and low, that they
may be ea$ily cleaned. Of painted Surfaces
$ome are done while the Work is fre$h, and
others when it is dry. All natural Colours
which proceed from the Earth, from Mines or
the like, are proper for Paintings in Fre$co:
But all artificial Colours, and e$pecially tho$e
which are altered by Means of Fire, require a
very dry Surface, and abhor Lime, the Rays of
the Moon, and $outhern Winds. It has been
newly found out that Colours mixed up with
Lin$eed Oil, will $tand a va$t While again$t all
the Injuries of the Air and Sea$ons, provided
the Wall on which they are laid be perfectly
dry, and quite clear of all Moi$ture; though I
have ob$erved that the antient Painters, in
painting the Poops of their Ships, make u$e of
liquid Wax, in$tead of Size. I have al$o $een
in the Works of the Ancients, $ome Colours of
Gems laid on the Wall, if I judge rightly, with
Wax, or perhaps with a white Sort of Terra$s,
which was $o hardened by Time, that it could
not be got off either by Fire or Water, and you
would have taken it for a hard Sort of Gla$s.
I have known $ome too, that with the white
milky Flower of Lime, have laid Colours up-
on the Wall, while it was $till fre$h, that have
looked as much like Gla$s as po$$ible. But of
this Subject, we need $ay no more.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>127</p>
<head>CHAP. X.</head>
<P><I>Of the Method of cutting Marble into thin Scantlings, and what Sand is be$t
for that Purpo$e; as al$o of the Difference and Agreement between</I> Mo$aic
<I>Work in Relieve, and Flat, and of the Cement to be u$ed in that Sort of Work.</I></P>
<P>As to tho$e Incru$tations which are fa$ten-
ed on to the Work, whether flat Facings,
or pannelled Work, the $ame Method is to be
u$ed in both. It is very $urprizing to con$ider
the Diligence which the Antients u$ed in $aw-
ing and poli$hing their Scantlings of Marble.
I my$elf have $een $ome Pieces of Marble above
$ix Foot long and three broad, and yet $carce
half an Inch thick, and the$e have been joined
together with a curve Line, that the Spectators
might not ea$ily find out where the Junctures
were. <I>Pliny</I> tells us, that the Ancients com-
mended the Sand of <I>&AElig;thiopia</I> as the Be$t for
$awing of Marble, and that the <I>Indian</I> came up
the neare$t to it: But that the <I>&AElig;gyptian</I> was
rather too $oft, though even that was better than
ours. They tell us that there is a Sort found
in a certain Flat in the <I>Adriatic</I> Sea, which
was much u$ed by the Ancients. We dig a
Sand about the Shore of <I>Pozzuolo,</I> which is not
improper for this Purpo$e. The $harp Sand
found in any Sort of Torrent is good, but the
larger it is, the wider it cuts and the more it
eats into the Stone; whereas the $ofter it goes
through, the Smoother it leaves the Surface,
and the more ea$ily to be poli$hed. The Po-
li$hing mu$t be begun with chizzelling, but
ended with the $ofte$t and $moothe$t rubbing.
The <I>Theban</I> Sand is much commended for rub-
bing and poli$hing of Marble; $o is the Whet-
$tone, and the Emeril, who$e Du$t nothing can
exceed for this Purpo$e. The Pumice-$tone
too, for giving the la$t Poli$h, is very u$eful.
The Scum of calcined Tin, which we call Put-
ty, white Lead burnt, the <I>Tripoli</I> Chalk in
particular, and the like, if they are beat in-
to the fine$t Du$t that po$$ibly can be, $till re-
taining their Sharpne$s, are very good for this
Work. For fa$tening on the Scantlings, if
they are thick, fix into the Wall either Pins of
Iron, or little Spars of Marble $ticking out from
the Wall, to which you may fa$ten your Scant-
ling without any Thing of Cement. But if the
Scantlings are thin, after the $econd Plai$ter-
ing, in$tead of Mortar, take Wax, Pitch, Ro-
$in, Gum Ma$tic, and a good Quantity of any
other Sort of Gum what$oever, all melted and
mixed together, and warm your Piece of Mar-
ble by degrees, le$t if you put it to the Fire at
once of a Sudden, the Heat $hould make it
crack. In fixing up your Scantlings, it will be
very laudable if the Juncture and Order in
which you place them, produce a beautiful Ef-
fect, by means of the Veins and Colours an-
$wering and $etting off one another. I am
mightily plea$ed with the Policy of the Anci-
ents, who u$ed to make tho$e Parts which lay
neare$t to the Eye as neat and as exactly poli$hed
as was po$$ible, but did not take $o much Pains
about tho$e which $tood at any Di$tance, or
Heigth, and in $ome Places put them up with-
out any poli$hing at all, where they knew the
Eye of the mo$t curious Examiner could not
reach them. <I>Mo$aic</I> Work in Relieve, and
that which is flat, agree in this Particular,
that both are de$igned to imitate Painting, by
means of an artful Compo$ition of various Co-
lours of Stones, Gla$s, and Shells. <I>Nero</I> is $aid
to have been the Fir$t that had Mother of
Pearl cut and mixed in <I>Mo$aic</I> Work. But
herein they differ, that in <I>Mo$aic</I> Work in Re-
lieve we u$e the large$t Pieces of Marble, <I>&amp;c.</I>
that we can get; whereas in the flat <I>Mo$aic,</I>
we put none but little $quare Pieces, no big-
ger than a Bean; and the $maller the$e Pieces
are, the more Bright and Sparkling they make
the Work, the Light by $o many different Faces
being broke into the more various Parts. They
differ too in this, that in fa$tening on the for-
mer, Cement made of Gums is the Be$t; but
in the flat Work, we $hould u$e Mortar made
of Lime, with a Mixture of <I>Tyburtine</I> Stone,
beat as $mall as Du$t. There are $ome that, in
flat Work <I>Mo$aic</I> Work, are for $teeping the
Lime often in hot Water, in order to get out
its Saltne$s and make it $ofter and more gluey.
I have known $ome of the harde$t Stone poli$h-
ed upon a Grind-$tone, in order to be u$ed in
the <I>Mo$aic</I> in Relieve. In the flat <I>Mo$aic</I> Work
you may fa$ten Gold to Gla$s with a Cement
of Lead or Litharge, which may be made more
liquid than any Sort of Gla$s what$oever. All
<foot>that</foot>
<p n=>128</p>
that we have here $aid of the outer Coat, or
Surface of the Wall may likewi$e $erve as to
Pavements, of which we promi$ed to $peak,
only that on Pavements we never be$tow fine
Painting nor $uch good <I>Mo$aic</I> Work, unle$s
you will grant the Name of Painting to a Par-
get of various Colours poured into hollow little
Spaces $eparated from each other by thin Par-
titions of Marble in Imitation of Painting. This
Parget may be made of red Oker burnt, with
Brick, Stone and the Dro$s of Iron; and when
it is laid on and is thoroughly dry, it mu$t be
cleared and ground down $mooth, which is done
in the following Manner: Take a hard Stone,
or rather a Piece of Lead of three$core Pound
Weight, with its lower Surface perfectly $mooth;
to each End of this fa$ten a Rope, by which
you mu$t draw it backwards and forwards over
your Pavement, $till keeping it $upplied with
Sand and Water, till it is rubbed exactly $mooth,
and is poli$hed as it ought, which it never is
unle$s all the Lines and Angles of the Dies an-
$wer and fit one another to the greate$t Nice-
ne$s. If this Parget be rubbed over with Oil,
e$pecially that of Lin$eed, it will get a Coat
like Gla$s. It al$o does very well to anoint it
with Lees of Oil, as al$o with Water in which
Lime has been quenched, with which you
$hould rub it over often. In all our <I>Mo$aic</I>
Works we $hould avoid u$ing the $ame Co-
lours too often in the $ame Places, as al$o too
frequent Repetitions of the $ame Figures and
Irregularity in the Compo$ition of them. We
$hould likewi$e take Care that the Junctures
are not too wide, but that every Thing be fit-
ted together with the utmo$t Exactne$s, that
equal Care may appear to have been u$ed in all
Parts of the Work.</P>
<head>CHAP. XI.</head>
<head><I>Of the Ornaments of the Covering, which con$i$t in the Richne$s and Beauty
of the Rafters, Vaults and open Terra$$es.</I></head>
<P>The Coverings too have their Beauty and
Gratefulne$s from the Contrivance of
the Rafters, Vaults and open Terra$$es. There
are Roofs yet to be $een in <I>Agrippa</I>'s Portico
with Rafters of Bra$s, forty Foot long; a Work
wherein we know not which to admire mo$t,
the Greatne$s of the Expence, or the Skill of
the Workmen. In the Temple of <I>Diana</I> at
<I>Ephe$us,</I> as we have taken Notice el$ewhere,
was a Roof of Cedar, which la$ted a va$t
While. <I>Pliny</I> relates that <I>Salauces</I> King of
<I>Colchos,</I> after he had overcome <I>Se$o$tris</I> King
of <I>&AElig;gypt,</I> made his Rafters of Gold and Sil-
ver. There are $till to be $een Temples covered
with Slabs of Marble, as, we are told, was the
Temple of <I>feru$alem</I> with prodigious large
ones of $uch wonderful Whitene$s and Splen-
dor, that at a Di$tance the whole Roof appear-
ed like a Mountain of Snow. <I>Catulus</I> was the
fir$t that gilt the Bra$s Tiles on the Capitol
with Gold. I find too that the <I>Pantheon,</I> or
<I>Rotonda</I> at <I>Rome,</I> was covered with Plates of
Bra$s gilt; and Pope <I>Honorius,</I> he in who$e
Time <I>Mahomet</I> taught <I>&AElig;gypt</I> and <I>Africa</I> a
new Religion and Wor$hip, covered the Church
of St. <I>Peter</I> all over with Plates of Bra$s. <I>Ger-
many</I> $hines with Tiles glazed over. In many
Places we cover our Roofs with Lead, which
will endure a great While, $hews very hand-
$ome, and is not very expen$ive; but it is at-
tended with this Inconvenience, that if it is laid
upon a Stone Roof, not having room for Air
under it, when the Stones come to be heated
by the Rays of the Sun, it will melt. There
is an Experiment which may convince us of
the Truth of this. If you $et a leaden Ve$$el
full of Water upon the Fire, it will not melt;
but if you throw the lea$t Stone into it,
where that touches it will immediately melt
into a Hole. Be$ides this, if it is not well
cramped and pinned down in all Parts, it is
ea$ily ripped off by the Wind. Moreover it is
pre$ently eat into and $poilt by the Saltne$s of
Lime; $o that it does much the be$t upon
Timbers, if you are not afraid of Fire: But
here again, there is a great Inconvenience arif-
ing from the Nails, e$pecially if they are of
Iron, ina$much as they are more apt to grow
hoter than Stone, and, be$ides, eat away the
Lead all about them with Ru$t. For this
Rea$on the Cramps and Pins ought al$o to be
all of Lead, and mu$t be fa$tened into the
Sheets with hot Sodder. Under this Covering
you $hould make a thin Bed of A$hes of Wil-
low, wa$hed and mixed with Chalk. Bra$s
Nails are not $o apt to grow hot or to ru$t, as
<foot>Iron</foot>
<p n=>129</p>
Iron ones. If Lead is daubed with any Sort
of Fil<*>h, it quickly $poils; and for this Rea$on
we $hould take Care that our Roof be not a
convenient Harbour for Birds; or if it is a like-
ly Place for them to get together in, we $hould
make our Stuff thick where their Dung is to
fall. <I>Eu$ebius</I> tells us, that all round the Top
of <I>Solomon</I>'s Temple there was a great Number
of Chains, to which hung four hundred little
Bells continually vibrating, the Noi$e of which
drove away the Birds. In the Covering we
al$o adorn the Ridge, Gutters and Angles, by
$etting up Va$es, Balls, Statues, Chariots and
the like, each of which we $hall $peak of in
particular in its due Place. At pre$ent I do
not call to Mind any thing further relating to
this Sort of Ornaments in general, except that
each be adapted to the Place to which it is
mo$t $uitable.</P>
<head>CHAP. XII.</head>
<P><I>That the Ornaments of the Apertures are very plea$ing, but are attended with
many and various Difficulties and Inconveniences; that the fal$e Apertures
are of two Sorts, and what is required in each.</I></P>
<P>The Ornaments of the Aperture give no
$mall Beauty and Dignity to the Work,
but they are attended with many great Diffi-
culties, which cannot be provided again$t
without a good deal of Skill in the Artificer,
and a con$iderable Expence. They require very
large Stones, $ound, equal, hand$ome and rare,
which are Things not ea$ily to be got, and
when got not ea$ily removed, poli$hed, or $et
up according to your Intention. <I>Cicero</I> $ays,
that the Architects owned they could not $et
up a Column exactly perpendicular, which in
all Apertures is ab$olutely nece$$ary both with
Re$pect to Duration and Beauty. There are
other Inconveniencies be$ides; which, as far as
lies in our Power, we $hall endeavour to pro-
vide again$t. An Aperture naturally implies
an Opening; but $ometimes behind this Open-
ing we run up a Wall which makes a Kind
of fal$e Opening which is not pervious but
clo$ed up; which for this Rea$on we $hall ac-
cordingly call a fal$e Aperture. This Sort of
Ornaments, as indeed were mo$t of tho$e
which $erve either to $trengthen the Work or
to $ave Expence, was fir$t invented by the
Carpenters, and afterwards imitated by the
Ma$ons, who thereby gave no $mall Beauty to
their Structures. Any of the$e Apertures would
be more beautiful if their Ribs were all of one
Piece, made of one entire Stone; and next to
this, is the having the Parts $o nicely joined
that the Joints cannot be $een. The Ancients
u$ed to erect their Columns and other Stones
which $erved as Ribs to the$e fal$e Apertures,
and fix them firm on their Ba$es, before they
carried up the Wall; and herein they did very
wi$ely; for by this Means they had more Room
to u$e their Engines, and could take the Per-
pendicular more exactly. You may plant your
Column perpendicular upon its Ba$e in the fol-
lowing Manner: In the Ba$e and at the Top
and Bottom of the Column mark the exact
Center of each Circle. Into the Center of the
Ba$e fa$ten an iron Pin, $oddering it in with
Lead, and make a Hole in the Center of the
Bottom of the Column, ju$t big enough to re-
ceive the Pin which $ticks up in the Center of
the Ba$e. In the Top of your Engine, or
Scaffolding, make a Mark exactly perpendicu-
lar over the Pin which $ticks up in the Center
of the Ba$e, which you may find by letting $all
Line from thence to that Pin. When you
have thus prepared every Thing, it will be no
hard Matter to move the Head of the Shaft
till its Center an$wers exactly to the Mark
which you have made above and is perpendi-
cular to the Center of its Ba$e. I have ob$erv-
ed from the Works of the Ancients that the
$ofter Sort of Marble may be $moothed with
the very $ame In$truments with which we
plane Wood. The Ancients al$o u$ed to $et
up their Stones quite rough, only $moothing
the Heads and Sides of them which were to
join to other Stones, and a$terwards when the
Building was rai$ed, they poli$hed the Faces of
the Stones, which they had le$t rough before;
and this I believe they did that they might
leave the lea$t Expence that was po$$ible to the
Hazards of their Engines: For it would have
been a much greater Lo$s to them, if by Acci-
dent any Stone that was quite $moothed and
poli$hed had been let fall and broke, than if
<foot>L l they</foot>
<p n=>130</p>
they broke one that was only half wrought.
Be$ides that by this means they had the Ad-
vantage of doing their Work at different Times,
according to the different Sea$ons which are re-
qui$ite for building the Wall, and for cloathing
<marg>*</marg>
and poli$hing it. There are two Sorts of fal$e
Apertures: One is that where the Columns or
Pila$ters are $o joined to the Wall, that one Part
of them is hid within it, and only Part of them
appears; the other is that wherein the whole
Columns $tand out of the Wall, $omewhat
imitating a Portico. The former therefore we
may call the low Relieve, and the latter the
whole Relieve. In the low Relieve we may u$e
either half Columns or Pila$ters. The half
Columns mu$t never $tand more nor le$s out of
the Wall than one half of their Diameter. Pi-
la$ter, never more than one fourth Part of its
Breadth, nor le$s than a $ixth. In the whole
Relieve the Columns mu$t never $tand out
from the Naked of the Wall more than with
their whole Ba$e and one fourth Part of the
Breadth of their Ba$e; and never le$s than with
their whole Ba$e and Sha$t $tanding out clear
from the Wall. But tho$e which $tand out
from the Wall with their whole Ba$e and one
fourth Part more mu$t have their Pila$ters of
the low Relieve, fixed again$t the Wall to an-
$wer to them. In the whole Relieve the En-
tablature mu$t not run all along the Wall but
be broke and project over the Head of each
Column, as you may $ee in Plate 19. No. 4.
But in the half Relieve you may do as you
think fit, either carrying on your Entablature
entire all the Length of the Wall, or breaking
it over each Pila$ter with a Sweep, after the
Manner of the whole Relieve. We have now
treated of tho$e Ornaments wherein all Build-
ings agree: But of tho$e wherein they differ,
we $hall $peak in the following Book, this be-
ing already long enough. But as in this we
undertook to treat of every Thing relating to
Ornaments in general, we $hall not pa$s by any
Thing that may be $erviceable under this Head.</P>
<P>A. <I>Plan of the Inter-$pace of the two half
Columns, called</I> Ba$$o Relievo.</P>
<head>CHAP. XIII.</head>
<head><I>Of Columns and their Ornaments, their Plans, Axes, Out-lines, Sweeps, Di-
minutions, Swells, A$tragals and Fillets.</I></head>
<P>The principal Ornament in all Archi-
tecture certainly lies in Columns; for
many of them $et together embelli$h Porticoes,
Walls and all Manner of Apertures, and even
a $ingle one is hand$ome, and adorns the Meet-
ing of $everal Streets, a Theatre, an open
Square, $erves for $etting up Trophies, and pre-
$erving the Memory of great Events, and is $o
Beautiful and Noble that it is almo$t incredible
what Expence the Ancients u$ed to be$tow in
$ingle Pillars, which they looked upon as a very
$tately Ornament: For o$tentimes, not being
content with making them of <I>Parian, Nu-
midian</I> or other fine Marbles, they would al$o
have them carved with Figures and Hi$tories
by the mo$t excellent Sculptors; and of $uch
Columns as the$e we are told there were above
an Hundred and Twenty in the Temple of
<I>Diana at Ephe$us.</I> Others made their Capi-
tals and Ba$es of gilt Bra$s, as we may $ee in
the double Portico at <I>Rome,</I> which was built
in the Con$ul$hip of that <I>Octavius</I> who tri-
umphed over <I>Per$eus.</I> Some made their whole
Columns of Bra$s, and others plated them all
over with Silver; but we $hall not dwell upon
$uch Things as tho$e. Columns mu$t be ex-
actly round and perfectly $mooth. We read
that one <I>Theodorus</I> and one <I>Tholus,</I> Architects
of <I>Lemnos,</I> contrived certain Wheels in their
Workhou$es, wherein they hung their Columns
with $o nice a Poi$e, that they could be turned
about by a little Boy, and $o poli$hed $mooth.
But this is a <I>Greek</I> Story. We $hall proceed
to $omething more material. In all Columns
we may con$ider two long Lines in the Shaft;
one we may call the Axis of the Shaft, and the
other the Out-lines; the $hort Lines that we
are to con$ider are the $everal Diameters of
tho$e Circles which in different Places gird the
Column about; and of tho$e Circles, the prin-
cipal are the two Superficies; one at the Top
and the other at the Bottom of the Shaft. The
Axis of the Shaft is a Line drawn through the
very Center of the Column from the Center of
the Circle which forms the flat Superficies at
the Top, to the Center of the Circle which is
the flat Superficies at the Bottom, and this
Line may be al$o called the Perpendicular in
the Middle of the Column. In this Line meet
the Centers of all the Circles. But the out Line
is one drawn from the Sweep of the Fillet at
the Top along the Surface of the Column to
<foot>the</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plates 16-19, facing and following this page.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 16. <I>(Page 130, No. 1)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 17. <I>(Page 130, No. 2)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 18. <I>(Page 130, No. 3)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 19. <I>(Page 130, No. 4)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 20. <I>(Page 131)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>131</p>
the Sweep of the Fillet at Bottom; and in this
terminate all the Diameters that are in the
Thickne$s of the Sha$t, and it does not run
$trait like the Axis, but is compo$ed of a great
Number of Lines, $ome $trait and $ome curve;
as we $hall $hew hereafter. The $everal Dia-
meters of Circles which we are to con$ider in
different Parts of the Column, are $ive; the
Sweeps, the Diminutions, and the Swell or Belly
of the Shaft. The Sweeps are two, one at the
Top and the other at the Bottom of the Co-
lumn, and are called Sweeps upon account of
their running out a little beyond the Re$t of
the Shaft, The Diminutions are likewi$e two,
clo$e by the Sweeps at the Bottom and Top,
and are $o called becau$e in tho$e Parts the
<marg>*</marg>
Shaft dimini$hes inwards. The Diameter of
the Swell or Belly of the Column is to be ob-
$erved about the Middle of the Shaft, and is
called the Belly, becau$e the Column $eems to
$well out ju$t in that Part. Again, the Sweeps
differ from one another, for that which is at
the Bottom is formed by the Fillet and a $mall
Curve running from the Fillet to the Body of
the Shaft; but the Sweep at the Top of the
Sha$t, be$ides this Curve and its Fillet has like-
wi$e the A$tragal. La$tly, the Out-lines mu$t
be formed in the following Manner: On the
Pavement, or upon the flat Side of a Wall,
which is proper for the Drawing your De$ign,
draw a $trait Line, of the Length which you
intend to give the Column, which perhaps is
as yet in the Quarry. This Line we call the
Axis of the Shaft. Then divide this Axis into
a certain Number of determinate Parts, ac-
cording to the Nature of the Building, and of
the various Sorts of Columns which you are to
erect, of which Variety we $hall $peak in due
Time; and according to a due Proportion of
the$e Parts you mu$t make the Diameter of the
Bottom of your Shaft, with a little Line drawn
acro$s the Axis. The Diameter you divide in-
to four-and-twenty Parts, one of which you
give to the Height of the Fillet, which Height
we mark upon the Wall with a $mall Stroke;
then take three more of tho$e Parts, and at
that Height make a Mark in the Axis of the
Shaft, which is to be the Center of the next
Diminution, and through this Center draw a
Line exactly parallel with the Diameter of the
Bottom of the Shaft, which Line mu$t be the
Diameter of the lower Diminution, and be one
$eventh Part $horter than the Diameter of the
Bottom of the Shaft. Having marked the$e
two Lines, that is to $ay, the Diameter of the
Diminution, and the Fillet, draw from the
Point of the End of the Fillet to the Point of
that Diameter in the Shaft of the Column a
curve Line, as ea$y and neat as po$$ible; the
Beginning of this curve Line mu$t be one Quar-
ter of a little Circle, the Semi-diameter of
which mu$t be the Height of the Fillet. Then
divide the whole Length of the Shaft into $even
equal Parts, and mark tho$e Divi$ions with lit-
tle Dots. At the fourth Dot, counting from
the Bottom, make the Center of the Belly of
the Shaft, acro$s which draw its Diameter,
who$e Length mu$t be equal to the Diameter
of the Diminution at the Bottom. The Di-
minution and Sweep at the Top mu$t be made
as follows: According to the Species of the
Column, of which we $hall treat el$ewhere,
take the Diameter of the upper Superficies from
the Diameter of the Bottom of the Shaft, and
draw it at the Top of the Column in your De-
$ign; which Diameter $o drawn mu$t be di-
vided into twelve Parts, one of which Parts
mu$t be allowed to the Projecture of the Fillet
and A$tragal, giving two thirds of it to the
latter, and one third to the former. Then
make the Center of your Diminution, at the
Di$tance of one and a half of tho$e Parts from
the Center of the upper Surface of the Shaft,
and the Diameter of this Diminution a ninth
Part le$s than the large$t Diameter of that Sur-
face. You mu$t afterwards draw the Curve or
Sweep in the $ame Manner as I taught you to
draw that below. La$tly, having thus marked
in your De$ign the Sweeps, Diminutions, and
all the other Particulars which we have here
mentioned, draw a $trait Line from the Dimi-
nution at the Top, and another from the Di-
minution at the Bottom to the Diameter of the
Belly or Swell of the Column, and this will
make in your De$ign what we called the Out-
line of the Column, and by this Line you may
make a Model of Wood by which your Ma-
$ons may $hape and fini$h the Column it$elf.
The Superficies of the Bottom of the Shaft, if
the Column be exactly rounded, mu$t make
equal Angles on all Sides with the Axis in the
Middle, and with the like Superficies at the Top
of the Shaft. The$e Things I do not find com-
mitted to writing by any of the Ancients, but I
have gathered them by my own Indu$try and
Application from the Works of the be$t Ma-
$ters. All that is to follow may be for the
mo$t Part referred to the Proportions of the
Lines already treated of, and will be very de-
lightful and of great U$e, e$pecially to the Im-
provement of Painters.</P>
<head><I>The End of Book</I></head>
<foot>VI. THE</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 20, following Plate 19.</I></foot>
<pb>
<fig>
<head>THE
ARCHITECTURE
OF
<I>Leone Bati$ta Alberti.</I></head>
<head>BOOK VII. CHAP. I.</head>
<head>Of the ORNAMENTS of Sacred EDIFICES.</head>
<P><I>That the Walls of Cities, the Temples, and Courts of Ju$tice, u$ed to be con-
$ecrated to the Gods; of the proper Region for the City, its Situation and
principal Ornaments.</I></P>
<P>We have already ob$erved that all
Buildings con$i$t of $everal Parts,
and that of the$e Parts $ome are
tho$e wherein all Manner of Build-
ings in general agree; $uch as Si-
tuation, Covering, and the like; and others,
tho$e wherein they differ. We have already
treated of the Ornaments which belong to the
former; we are now to $peak of tho$e which
are proper to the latter. And this Di$cour$e
will be of $o u$eful a Nature, that even Painters,
tho$e mo$t accurate Searchers after every Thing
that is beautiful, will confe$s, that they them-
$elves have ab$olute Occa$ion for it. As for
the Plea$antne$s of it, I $hall only $ay, that I be-
lieve nobody will repent his having read it.
But I mu$t now de$ire not to be blamed, if,
having propo$ed new Ends to my$elf, I begin
to handle my Subject upon fre$h Principles.
The Principles and Steps to any Subject are
found by the Divi$ion, Intent and Con$idera-
tion of the Parts whereof that Subject con$i$ts.
For as in a Statue made of Bra$s, Gold and
Silver melted together, the Workman con$iders
the Parts with regard to their Weight, the
Statuary with regard to their Out-lines, and
others perhaps as to other Re$pects; $o, as we
have ob$erved before, the Parts of Architecture
ought to be divided in $uch a Manner, that our
Con$iderations upon each of them may be as
clear and di$tinct as po$$ible. We $hall now
therefore proceed upon that Divi$ion which
regards the Beauty and Ornament of Buildings,
more than either their Conveniency or Strength.
Though indeed all the$e Qualifications have
$uch a mutual Agreement with one another,
that where any one of them is wanting, the
others al$o lo$e their Commendation. All
Buildings therefore are either publick or pri-
vate; and both publick and private, are either
$acred or profane. We $hall fir$t treat of pub-
lick Edifices. The Ancients u$ed to found the
Walls of their Cities with the greate$t Religion,
dedicating them to $ome God who was to be
their Guardian: Nor did they think that it
was po$$ible for the publick Weal to be $o per-
fectly $ecured by the Prudence of any Man
what$oever, but that it might be endangered
<foot>by</foot>
<p n=>133</p>
by the In$ults and Treachery of tho$e who
were concerned with it; and they were of Opi-
nion that a City, either through the Negli-
gence of its own People, or the Envy of its
Neighbours, was continually expo$ed to Dangers
and Accidents; ju$t as a Ship is which is to$$ed
on the Sea. And upon this Account I $uppo$e,
they fabled that <I>Saturn,</I> out of his Care of hu-
man Affairs, appointed Semi-Gods and Heroes
to be Guardians over Cities and to protect them
by their Wi$dom; $ince indeed we are not to
tru$t wholly to Walls for our Defence, but
$tand in need be$ides of the Favour of Heaven.
And the Rea$on they gave for <I>Saturn</I>'s $o do-
ing was this, that as we do not $et one of the
Bea$ts them$elves to take Care of a Flock or
Herd, but a Shepherd; $o it was rea$onable
that the Guardians appointed over Men, $hould
be $ome other Kind of Beings of $uperior Wi$-
dom and greater Virtue than common Men;
and therefore they dedicated their Walls to the
Gods. Others $ay, that it is $o ordered by the
Providence of the great and good God, that as
the Minds of Men have their fatal <I>Genii,</I> $o
have Cities al$o. It is no Wonder therefore
that the Walls within which the Citizens were
to be a$$ociated and defended, were accounted
holy; and that the Ancients, whenever they
were about to lay Siege to any Town, le$t they
$hould $eem to offer any In$ult to Religion,
u$ed to invoke, and with $acred Hymns en-
deavoured to appea$e the Gods that were
Guardians of the Place, be$eeching them to
pa$s willingly over to them. As for the Tem-
ple, who can doubt that to be $acred, as well
for other Rea$ons, as chiefly becau$e we there
pay the due Reverence and Honour to God
for tho$e infinite Obligations which Mankind
has towards him? Piety is one of the Princi-
pal Parts of Ju$tice, and who can doubt that
Ju$tice is a Pre$ent from Heaven? Another
Part of Ju$tice which has a very near Relation
to the preceding, and is of the greate$t Excel-
lence and Dignity, and extremely grateful to
the divine Being, and con$equently highly
$acred, it is that which is di$pen$ed between
Man and Man for the Maintenance of Peace
and Tranquillity, and giving to every one his
due De$erts: For this Rea$on the Places $et
apart for the Admini$tration of Ju$tice, $hould
always be looked upon as $acred to Religion.
What $hall we $ay of the Monuments of great
Actions and Events which are dedicated to
Eternity, and left to future Ages? Surely we
may venture to affirm, that all the$e have $ome
Relation to Ju$tice and Religion. We are
now therefore to treat of the Walls, Temples,
Places for the Admini$tration of Ju$tice, and
Monuments of great Events; unle$s it may be
fir$t thought nece$$ary to $et down $ome Ob-
$ervations concerning Cities in general, which
ought not to be omitted. A large Number of
Edifices well di$tributed, and di$po$ed in their
proper Places, cannot fail of giving a City a
great Air of Magnificence. <I>Plato</I> was for di-
viding the whole Area of a City into twelve
Parts, allotting to each its particular Temples
and Chapels, To the$e I would add particu-
lar Courts of Judicature for each Di$trict, to-
gether with Places for other inferior Magi-
$trates, Fortre$$es, Spaces for publick Races,
Exerci$es and Games, and every Thing el$e of
this Nature, provided there be a $ufficient
Number of Hou$es to be allotted to every Di$-
trict: For of Cities, $ome are large, others
$mall; $uch as are generally fortified Towns,
and Places de$igned chiefly for Strength. The
ancient Writers were of Opinion that the Cities
which $tood in Plains were not very ancient,
and therefore could not pretend to much Au-
thority; believing that $uch could not be built
till long after the Deluge. But, indeed, Cities
in large open Plains, and Ca$tles in Places of
$teep and difficult Acce$s, are be$t $ituated
both for Plea$ure and Convenience: But $till
in each of the$e I would always have this Dif-
ference, that the Town which $tands in a Plain
$hould ri$e upon a gentle Slope, for the Re-
moval of Dirt and Filth; and that which is on
a Hill, $hould be built upon a level and even
Area, for the greater Beauty of the Streets and
Buildings. <I>Cicero</I> was of Opinion, that <I>Capua</I>
was preferable to <I>Rome,</I> becau$e it neither hung
upon Hills, nor was broken by Vallies, but lay
open and level. <I>Alexander</I> de$i$ted from com-
pleating the Town he had begun to build in
the I$land of <I>Pharos,</I> though otherwi$e a Place
of great Strength and many Conveniences, be-
cau$e he found it would not have Room enough
to enlarge it$elf, as in all Probability it would
have Occa$ion to do. Nor $hould we omit to
take Notice here, that the greate$t Ornament
of a City is the Multitude of her Citizens. We
read that <I>Tigranes,</I> when he built the City of
<I>Tigranocerta,</I> con$trained a va$t Number of the
Riche$t and mo$t Honourable of his Subjects,
to remove thither with all their Wealth to in-
habit it, publi$hing an Edict, that whatever
Effects they did not carry with them, but left
el$ewhere, $hould be forfeited to the publick
<foot>Mm Trea$ury.</foot>
<p n=>134</p>
Trea$ury. But this is no more than what the
Neighbours all around, and other Strangers,
will do willingly and of their own Accord, to
a Place where they know they can live with
Health, Plea$ure and Plenty, and among a
People of a fair and regular Behaviour. But
the principal Ornament of the City will ari$e
$rom the Di$po$ition of the Streets, Squares and
publick Edifices, and their being all laid out
and contrived beautifully and conveniently, ac-
cording to their $everal U$es; for without Or-
der, there can be nothing Hand$ome, Conve-
nient or Plea$ing. In a well regulated City,
<I>Plato</I> is of Opinion that the Laws $hould pre-
vent the introducing of any foreign Delicacies
or Corruptions; and, in order thereto $hould
$uffer no Citizen to travel till full forty Years
of Age; and that $uch Strangers as $hould be
admitted into the City, in order to pro$ecute
their Studies, when they had $ufficiently im-
proved them$elves, $hould be $ent Home again
to their own Country. And this is nece$$ary,
becau$e the Citizens, from the Contagion of
Foreigners, are apt to fall off daily more and
more from that Par$imony wherein they were
educated by their Ance$tors, and to de$pi$e
their own old Cu$toms and U$ages; which is
the chief Rea$on that Cities grow $o univer-
$ally corrupted. <I>Plutarch</I> tells us, that the
People of <I>Epidaurus</I> ob$erving that their Citi-
zens grew vicious by their Intercour$e with the
<I>Illyrians,</I> and knowing that a Depravity of
Manners is always the Occa$ion of continual
Innovations; in order to prevent it, elected one
Citizen yearly out of their Number, who was
always to be a Man of Gravity and Circum-
$pection, who $hould go among the <I>Illyrians,</I>
and provide and bring them all $uch Things as
any of the$e Citizens gave him Commi$$ion to
procure them. In a Word, all the wi$e$t Men
are agreed in this, that the greate$t Care and
Precaution ought to be u$ed to keep the City
from being corrupted by the Intercour$e of
Strangers who come to it. Not that I am for imi-
tating tho$e who are again$t granting Admi$$ion
to any Strangers what$oever. Among the <I>Greeks</I>
it was the ancient Cu$tom never to receive any
People that were not in League with them,
though not in Enmity neither, if they had Oc-
ca$ion to pa$s through their Country in Arms:
Neither would they drive them away; but
they u$ed to appoint a Market for all Nece$$a-
ries at $ome little Di$tance without the Walls,
where the Strangers might refre$h them$elves
with whatever Conveniencies they wanted, and
the Citizens might not be expo$ed to any
Danger. But I, for my Part, am be$t plea$ed
with the <I>Carthaginians,</I> who, though they
permitted Strangers to come among them,
would not $uffer them to have every Thing
in common with their own Citizens. The
Streets which led to the Market or publick
Place were open to all Strangers; but the more
private Parts of the City, $uch as the Ar$enal,
and the like, they were not allowed $o much
as to $ee. In$tructed therefore by the$e Ex-
amples, let us lay out the Platform of our City
in $uch a Manner, that not only Strangers may
have their Habitations $eparate, convenient for
them, and not inconvenient to the Citizens;
but al$o that the Citizens them$elves may con-
ver$e, negociate and dwell together commo-
diou$ly and honourably, according to their $e-
veral Ranks and Occa$ions. It will add much
to the Beauty of the City, if the Shops for par-
ticular Trades $tand in particular Streets and
Di$tricts in the mo$t convenient Parts of the
Town. Gold$miths, Silver$miths and Painters
may have their Shops in the publick Place, and
$o may the Sellers of Drugs, of Habits, and
other creditable Trades; but all na$ty, $tink-
ing Occupations $hould be removed out of the
Way, e$pecially the offen$ive Smells of Tan-
ners, which $hould be $et by them$elves and
towards the North, becau$e the Winds $eldom
blow into the City from that Corner; or, if
they do, they blow $o $trong that they rather
fly than pa$s over it. There may perhaps be
$ome who would like better to have the Ha-
bitations of the Gentry $eparate by them$elves,
quite clear and free from all Mixture with the
meaner Sort of People. Others are for having
every Di$trict of the City $o laid out, that each
Part might be $upplied at Hand with every
Thing that it could have Occa$ion for, and for
this Rea$on they are not again$t having the
meane$t Trades in the Neighbourhood of the
mo$t honourable Citizens. But of this Sub-
ject we have $aid enough. Conveniency is one
Thing, and Dignity another. Let us now
return.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>135</p>
<head>CHAP. II.</head>
<head><I>Of how large and what Kind of Stone the Walls ought to be built, and who
were the fir$t that erected Temples.</I></head>
<P>The Ancients, and particularly the <I>He-
trurians,</I> built their Walls of $quare
Stones, and the Large$t that could be got.
The <I>Athenians,</I> as we are informed by <I>Themi$-
tocles,</I> did the $ame in their <I>Pireum.</I> There
are $ome very ancient Ca$tles $till to be $een in
<I>Tu$cany,</I> and in the Territory of <I>Spoleto,</I> and
near <I>Piperno</I> in <I>Campania,</I> built of huge un-
wrought Stone; which Sort of Work plea$es
me extremely, becau$e it gives the Building a
rugged Air of the antique Severity, which is a
very great Ornament to a Town. I would
have the Walls of a City built in $uch a Man-
ner, that the Enemy at the bare Sight of them
may be $truck with Terror, and be $ent away
with a Di$tru$t of his own Forces. There is
a good deal of Maje$ty too in very broad deep
Ditches clo$e to the Foot of the Wall, with
very $teep Sides, like tho$e which we are told
were at <I>Babylon,</I> which were fifty royal Cubits
broad and above an hundred deep. There is
al$o much Maje$ty in the Height and Thick-
ne$s of the Walls them$elves, $uch as we are
told were built by <I>Ninus, Semiramis</I> and <I>Ti-
granes,</I> and mo$t of tho$e who$e Minds were
inclined to Magnificence. In the Towers and
Corridors of the Walls of <I>Rome,</I> I have $een
Pavements of <I>Mo$aic</I> Work, and Walls incru$-
tated with the hand$ome$t Materials; but all
Ornaments are not $uitable to all Cities alike.
Delicate Cornices and Incru$tations are not $o
proper for the Walls of a Town; but in$tead of
a Cornice let there be a projecting Row of long
Stones, $omewhat more regularly wrought than
the Re$t, and $et by the Level and Plum-line;
and in$tead of Incru$tations, tho' I would have
the Front pre$erve its rugged and threatning
A$pect, yet I would have the Stones $o well fit-
ted to one another, that there may be no
Cracks in the Building. The be$t Way to fit
$uch Stones together is by Means of the <I>Doric</I>
Rule; like which <I>Ari$totle</I> u$ed to $ay, the
Laws ought to be made; for it was of Lead
and pliable; becau$e having very hard Stones
and difficult to be wrought, for the $aving of
Expence and Labour, they did not take the
Pains to $quare them, but $et them in the Wall
without any certain Order and where-ever they
would fit in; and finding it an endle$s Task
to remove them from Place to Place till they
could fit them in exactly, they invented this
Rule which would bend any Way, which they
moulded to the Sides and Corners of the Stone
which they had already $et, and to which they
were to fit the next, and made u$e of the Rule
thus moulded for chu$ing out $uch Stones as
would fit the Vacancies they were to fill up,
and an$wer be$t to the Stones which they had
already $et in the Wall. Moreover, for a $till
greater Addition of Reverence and Dignity, I
would have a very hand$ome open Space left
both within and without the Walls, and dedi-
cated to the publick Liberty; which $hould
not be cumbered up by any Per$on what$oever,
either with Trench, Wall, Hedge, or Shrub,
under very great Penalties. Let us now pro-
ceed to the Temple. The fir$t Builders of
Temples I find to have been in <I>Italy,</I> Father
<I>Janus,</I> and for that Rea$on the Ancients, in
their Sacrifices, u$ed always to begin with a
Prayer to <I>Janus.</I> Some were of Opinion that
<I>Jupiter</I> in <I>Crete</I> was the fir$t that built Tem-
ples, and upon that Account thought him the
fir$t God to be adored. They $ay that in <I>Phe-
nicia, U$o</I> was the fir$t that erected Altars, and
built Temples to Fire and Wind. Others tell
us that <I>Diony$ius,</I> another Name for <I>Bacchus,</I>
in his Pa$$age through <I>India,</I> finding no Cities
in all that Region, after he had built Towns
there, al$o erected Temples and e$tabli$hed re-
ligious Rites. Others $ay that in <I>Achaia, Ce-
crops</I> was the fir$t that built a Temple to the
Godde$s <I>Ops,</I> and the <I>Arcadians</I> the fir$t that
built one to <I>Jupiter.</I> Some write that <I>I$is,</I>
who was al$o called the Law-giver, becau$e $he
was the fir$t Deity that commanded Men to
live according to her Laws, was al$o the fir$t
that rai$ed a Temple to <I>Jupiter</I> and <I>Juno</I> her
Progenitors, and appointed Prie$ts to attend their
Wor$hip. But what Manner of Temples any
of the$e were, is not $o well known. I am
very much inclined to believe they were like
that which was in the Citadel of <I>Athens,</I> or
that in the Capitol at <I>Rome;</I> which, even when
<foot>the</foot>
<p n=>136</p>
the City flouri$hed, was covered with Straw
and Reeds, the <I>Romans</I> $till adhering to the an-
cient Par$imony of their Forefathers. But when
the great Wealth of their Kings and of many
of their Citizens brought them to think of ho-
nouring them$elves and their City by the State-
line$s of their Edifices, they looked upon it to
be a Shame that the Habitations of the Gods
$hould not be made hand$omer than the Hou$es
of Men; and this Humour in a $hort Time
made $o great a Progre$s, that only in the
Foundation of one $ingle Temple, while the
City was yet extremely frugal, King <I>Numa</I>
laid out four thou$and Pounds Weight of Sil-
ver: And I highly commend that Prince for
this Act of Genero$ity, as it was done out of
Regard to the Dignity of the City, and to the
Reverence which is due to the Gods, to whom
we owe all Things: Though it has been the
Opinion of $ome, who have had the Reputati-
on of Wi$dom, that it is very improper to de-
dicate or build any Temples at all to the Gods,
and we are told, that it was in this Per$ua$ion
that <I>Xerxes</I> burnt down the Temples in <I>Greece,</I>
thinking it an impious Thing to $hut up the
Gods between Walls, to whom all Things
ought to be open, and to whom the whole
World ought to $erve as a Temple. But let
us return to our Subject.</P>
<head>CHAP. III.</head>
<P><I>With how much Thought, Care and Diligence we ought to lay out and adorn
our Temples; to what Gods and in what Places we $hould build them, and
of the various Kinds of Sacrifices.</I></P>
<P>In the whole Compa$s of the Art of Build-
ing, there is nothing in which we ought to
employ more Thought, Care and Diligence
than in the laying out and adorning a Tem-
ple; becau$e, not to mention that a Temple
well built and hand$omely adorned is the great-
e$t and noble$t Ornament a City can have; it
is moreover the Habitation of the Gods: And
if we adorn and beautify the Hou$e where a
King or any great Man is to dwell, with all the
Art we are Ma$ters of, what ought we to do
to tho$e of the immortal Gods? Whom we
expect, when invoked, to be pre$ent at our Sa-
crifices, and to give Ear to our Prayers. And
though the Gods may de$pi$e tho$e peri$hable
Things which we mo$t highly value; yet Men
are moved by the Purity of beautiful Materials,
and rai$ed by them to Reverence and Devoti-
on for the Deity to which they are $acred. It
is certain that Temples may be of great U$e
for $tirring up Men to Piety, by filling their
Minds with Delight, and Entertaining them
with Admiration of their Beauty. The An-
cients were wont to $ay, that Piety was ho-
noured when the Temples were frequented.
For this Rea$on I would have the Temple
made $o beautiful, that the Imagination $hould
not be able to form an Idea of any Place more
$o; and I would have every Part $o contrived
and adorned, as to fill the Beholders with Awe
and Amazement, at the Con$ideration of $o
many noble and excellent Things, and almo$t
force them to cry out with A$toni$hment:
This Place is certainly worthy of God! <I>Strabo</I>
$ays, that the <I>Mile$ians</I> built their Temple $o
large, that they were not able to make a Roof
to cover it; which I do not approve. The
<I>Samians</I> boa$ted of having the bigge$t Temple
in the World. I am not again$t building them
$uch, that it $hould be very hard to make any
Addition to them. Ornaments are in a Man-
ner infinite, and even in $mall Temples there is
always $omething which we imagine might
and ought to be added. I would have the
Temple as large as the Bigne$s of the City re-
quires, but not unmea$urably huge. What I
$hould chiefly de$ire in a Temple, would be
this, that every Thing which you behold $hould
be $uch; that you $hould be at a Stand which
mo$t to commend, the Genius and Skill of the
Workmen, or the Zeal and Genero$ity of the
Citizens in procuring and dedicating $uch rare
and beautiful Materials to this Service; and
be doubtful whether tho$e very Materials con-
duce mo$t to Beauty and Stateline$s, or to Du-
ration, which, as in all other Buildings both
publick and private, $o chiefly in the Structure
of Temples, ought to be very carefully con-
$ulted; in as much as it is in the highe$t De-
gree rea$onable that $uch a great Expence
$hould be well $ecured from being lo$t by means
of any Accidents, be$ides that Antiquity gives
<foot>no</foot>
<p n=>137</p>
no le$s Awfulne$s, than Ornaments do Beauty,
to any Structure of this Nature. The Anci-
ents, who had their In$tructions from the
<I>Etrurians,</I> thought the $ame Kind of Situation
not proper for the Temples of different Gods:
The Temples to the Gods that pre$ided over
Peace, Mode$ty and good Arts, they judged
fit to be placed within the Compa$s of the
Walls; but tho$e Deities that were the Guar-
dians of Plea$ures, Feuds and Combu$tions,
$uch as <I>Venus, Mars</I> and <I>Vulcan,</I> they placed
$omewhere without the City. <I>Ve$ta, Jupiter</I>
and <I>Minerva,</I> whom <I>Plato</I> calls the Protectors
of Cities, they $eated in the Heart of the
Town, or in the Citadel; <I>Pallas,</I> the Godde$s
of working Trades, and <I>Mercury,</I> to whom the
Merchants $acrificed in the Month of <I>May,</I>
and <I>I$is,</I> they $et in the publick Market-place;
<I>Neptune,</I> upon the Sea-$hore, and <I>Janus</I> on
the Summit of the highe$t Hills; the Temple
of <I>&AElig;$culapius</I> they built in the I$land of the
<I>Tiber,</I> being of Opinion that the chief Thing
nece$$ary to the Sick, was Water. In other
Countries <I>Plutarch</I> tells us, that they u$ed to
place the Temple of this God out of the City,
for the Sake of the Goodne$s of the Air. Fur-
ther, they imagined that the Temples of vari-
ous Gods ought to be built in various Forms.
The Temple of the <I>Sun</I> and of <I>Bacchus</I> they
thought $hould be round; and <I>Varro</I> $ays,
that of <I>Jupiter</I> $hould be partly uncovered at the
Top, becau$e it was that God who opened the
Seeds of all Things. The Temple of the God-
de$s <I>Ve$ta,</I> $uppo$ing her to be the Earth, they
built as round as a Ball: Tho$e of the other
cele$tial Gods they rai$ed $omewhat above the
Ground; tho$e of the infernal Gods they built
under Ground, and tho$e of the terre$t<*>ial
they $et upon the Level. If I am not mi$taken
too, their various Sorts of Sacrifices made them
invent different Sorts of Temples: For $ome
wa$hed their Altars with Blood, others $acrificed
with Wine and a Cake; others were daily
practi$ing new Rites. <I>Po$thumius</I> enacted a
Law among the <I>Romans,</I> that no Wine $hould
be $prinkled upon a funeral Pile; for which
Rea$on the Ancients u$ed to perform their Li-
bations not with Wine but Milk. In the <I>Hy-
perborean</I> I$land in the Ocean, where <I>Latona</I>
was fabled to be born, the Metropolis was con-
$ecrated to <I>Apollo;</I> the Citizens of which, be-
ing u$ed con$tantly every Day to $ing the
Prai$es of their Gods, were all good Ma$ters of
Mu$ick. I find in <I>Theophra$tus</I> the Sophi$t, that
the People of the I$thmus, or the <I>Morea,</I> u$ed
to $acrifice an Ant to the Sun and to <I>Neptune.</I>
It was not lawful for the <I>&AElig;gyptians</I> to appea$e
their Gods by any Thing but Prayers within
their City; wherefore, that they might $acri-
fice Sheep to <I>Saturn</I> and <I>Serapis,</I> they built
their Temples out of the Town. But our
Countrymen by Degrees got into a Way of
making u$e of Ba$iliques or Palaces for their
Places of Wor$hip; which was occa$ioned by
their being accu$tomed from the Beginning to
meet and get together in the Palaces of private
Per$ons; be$ides, that the Altar had a very
great Air of Dignity when $et in the Place of
the Tribunal, as had al$o the Choir when di$-
po$ed about the Altar. The other Parts of the
Structure, $uch as the Nave and the Portico,
$erved the People either to walk about in, or
to attend the religious Ceremonies. Add to
this, that the Voice of the Pontiff, when he
preached, might be more di$tinctly heard in a
Ba$ilique cieled with a Timber, than in a Tem-
ple with a vaulted Roof: But of the$e Things
we $hall treat in another Place. It may not
be ami$s to take Notice here of what the An-
cients tell us, that the Temples dedicated to
<I>Venus, Diana,</I> the <I>Mu$es,</I> the Nymphs and the
more tender Godde$$es, ought in their Struc-
ture to imitate that Virgin's Delicacy and $mil-
ing Gaiety of Youth, which is proper to them;
but that <I>Hercules, Mars,</I> and the other greater
Deities $hould have Temples which $hould ra-
ther fill the Beholders with Awe by their Gra-
vity, than with Plea$ure by their Beauty. La$t-
ly, the Place where you intend to fix a Tem-
ple, ought to be noted, famous, and indeed
$tately, clear from all Contagion of $ecular
Things, and, in order thereunto, it $hould have
a $pacious hand$ome Area in its Front, and be
$urrounded on every Side with great Streets, or
rather with noble Squares, that you may have
a beautiful View of it on every Side.</P>
<foot>Nn CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>138</p>
<head>CHAP. IV.</head>
<head><I>Of the Parts, Forms and Figures of Temples and their Chapels, and how the$e
latter $hould be di$tributed.</I></head>
<P>The Parts of the Temple are two; the
Portico and the In$ide: But they differ
very much from one another in both the$e Re-
$pects; for $ome Temples are round, $ome
$quare, and others, la$tly, have many Sides. It
is manife$t that Nature delights principally in
round Figures, $ince we find that mo$t Things
which are generated, made or directed by Na-
ture, are round. Why need I in$tance in the
Stars, Trees, Animals, the Ne$ts of Birds, or
the like Parts of the Creation, which $he has
cho$en to make generally round? We find too
that Nature is $ometimes delighted with Figures
of $ix Sides; for Bees, Hornets, and all other
Kinds of Wa$ps have learnt no other Figure
for building their Cells in their Hives, but the
Hexagon. The Area for a round Temple
$hould be marked out exactly circular. The
Ancients, in almo$t all their quadrangular
Temples made the Platform half as long again
as it was broad. Some made it only a third
Part of the Breadth longer; and others would
have it full thrice the Breadth long. But in
all the$e quadrangular Platforms the greate$t
Blemi$h is for the Corners to be not exactly
rectangular. The Polygons u$ed by the An-
cients were either of $ix, eight, or $ometimes
<marg>*</marg>
ten Sides. The Angles of $uch Platforms
$hould all terminate within a Circle, and indeed
from a Circle is the be$t Way of deducing
them; for the Semidiameter of the Circle will
make one of the $ix Sides which can be con-
tained in that Circle. And if from the Cen-
ter you draw Right-lines to cut each of tho$e
$ix Sides exactly in the Middle, you will plainly
$ee what Method you are to take to draw a
Platform of twelve Sides, and from that of
twelve Sides you may make one of four, or
eight, as in Fig. <I>B. C.</I> However here is an-
other ea$ier Way of drawing a Platform of eight
Sides. Having drawn an equilateral and right-
angled Square together with its Diagonals from
Corner to Corner; from the Point where tho$e
Diagonals inter$ect each other in the Middle, I
turn a Circle, opening the Compa$$es $o wide
as to take in all the Sides of the Square; then
I divide one of tho$e Sides into two equal Parts,
and through the Point of that Divi$ion draw a
Line from the Center to the Circumference of
the Circle <I>D,</I> and thus from the Point where
that Line touches the Circumference to the
Angle of the Square, will be exactly one of the
eight Sides which that Circle will contain.
We may al$o draw a Platform of ten Sides by
means of a Circle, in the following Manner:
Draw two Diameters in the Circle, inter$ecting
each other at Right-angles, and then divide
the Half of either of tho$e Diameters into two
equal Parts, and from that Divi$ion draw a
$traight Line upwards a$lant to the Head of
the other Diameter; and if from this $lant
Line you take off the Quantity of the fourth
Part of one of the Diameters, the Remainder of
that Line will be one of the ten Sides which
can be contained in that Circle, as you may
$ee in Letter <I>E.</I> To Temples it is u$ual to
joyn Chapels; to $ome, more; to others fewer.
In quadrangular Temples it is very unu$ual to
make above one, and that is placed at the
Head, $o as to be $een immediately by tho$e
that come in at the Door. If you have a Mind
to make more Chapels on the Sides, they will
not be ami$s in tho$e quadrangular Temples
which are twice as long as broad; and there
we $hould not make more than one in each
Side: Though if you do make more, it will
be better to make an odd Number on each Side
than an even one. In round Platforms, and
al$o in tho$e of many Faces (if we may ven-
ture $o to call them) we may very conveniently
make a greater Number of Chapels, according
to the Number of tho$e Faces, one to each, or one
with and one without alternately, an$wering to
each other. In round Platforms $ix Chapels,
or even eight will do extremely well. In Plat-
forms of $everal Faces you mu$t be $ure to let
the Corners be exactly an$wering and $uiting
to one another. The Chapels them$elves mu$t
be made either Parts of a rectangled Square, or
of a Circle. For the $ingle Chapel at the Head
of a Temple, the $emicircular Form is much
the hand$ome$t; and next to that is the rect-
angular. But if you are to make a good Num-
ber of Chapels, it will certainly be much more
<foot>plea$ing</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 21, facing.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 21. <I>(Page 138)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 22. <I>(Page 139)</I></cap>
<p n=>139</p>
plea$ing to the Eye, to make Part of them
$quare and Part round alternately, and an$wer-
ing one to the other. For the Aperture of
the$e Chapels ob$erve the following Rule.
When you are to make a $ingle Chapel in a
quadrangular Temple, divide the Breadth of
the Temple into four Parts, and give two of
tho$e Parts to the Breadth of the Chapel. If
you have a Mind to have it more $pacious, di-
vide that Breadth into $ix Parts, and give four
of them to the Breadth of your Chapel. And
thus the Ornaments and Columns which you
are to add to them, the Windows, and the like,
may be hand$omely fitted in their proper
Places. If you are to make a Number of
Chapels about a round Platform, you may, if
you plea$e, make them all of the $ame Size
with the principal one; but to give that the
greater Air of Dignity, I $hould rather chu$e
to have it a twelfth Part bigger than the re$t.
There is al$o this other Difference in quadran-
gular Temples, that if the principal Chapel is
made of equal Lines, that is to $ay, in an exact
Square, it may not be ami$s; but the other
Chapels ought to be twice as broad as they are
deep. The Solid of the Walls, or tho$e Ribs
of the Building which in Temples $eparate one
Chapel from the other, $hould never have le$s
Thickne$s than the fifth Part of the Break
which is left between them, nor more than the
third; or, if you would have them extremely
$trong, the half. But in round Platforms, if
the Chapels are in Number $ix, let the Solid or
Rib which is left between each Chapel, be one
half of the Break; and if there be eight of
tho$e Chapels, let the $olid Wall between them,
e$pecially in great Temples, be as thick as the
whole Break for the Chapel: But if the Plat-
form con$i$t of a great Number of Angles, let
<marg>*</marg>
the Solid always be one third of the Break. In
$ome Temples, according to the Cu$tom of the
ancient <I>Hetrurians,</I> it has been u$ual to adorn
the Sides not with Chapels, but with a $mall
Sort of I$les, in the following Manner: They
cho$e a Platform, which was one $ixth Part
longer than it was broad: Of this Length they
a$$igned two of tho$e $ix Parts to the Depth of
the Portico, which was to $erve as a Ve$tibule
to the Temple; the re$t they divided into three
Parts, which they gave to the three Breadths of
the $ide I$les. Again, they divided the Breadth
of the Temple into ten Parts, three of which
they a$$igned to the little I$les on the right
Hand, and as many to tho$e on the left, and
the other four they gave to the Area in the
Middle. At the Head of the Temple, and $o
fronting the Middle of each $ide I$le, they pla-
ced Chapels, and the Walls which $eparated
the $everal I$les they made in Thickne$s one
fifth Part of the Inter$pace.</P>
<head>CHAP. V.</head>
<head><I>Of the Porticoes and Entrance to the Temple, its A$cent, and the Apertures
and Inter$paces of the Portico.</I></head>
<P>Hitherto we have $poken of the
Platform for the In$ide. The Portico
to a quadrangular Temple may be either only
in Front, or on the Back of the Structure, or
el$e both in the Front and the back Part at the
$ame Time, or, la$tly, it may run quite round
the Fabrick. Where-ever any Chapel projects
out, there $hould be no Portico. The Portico
$hould never be $horter, in quadrangular Tem-
ples, than the full Breadth of the Temple;
and never broader than the third Part of its
Length. In tho$e Porticoes which run along
the Sides of the Temple, let the Columns be
$et as far from the Wall as they $tand from one
another. The back Portico may imitate which
you plea$e of the afore-mentioned. Circular
Temples have either a Portico quite round
them, or el$e have only one Portico, which
mu$t be in Front. In both, the $ame Propor-
tions mu$t be ob$erved as in tho$e to quadran-
gular Platforms; nor indeed mu$t $uch Porti-
coes be ever made other than quadrangular.
As to their Length, it mu$t either be equal to
the whole Breadth of the In$ide of the Plat-
form, or an eighth Part le$s, or at the mo$t a
fourth Part, which is the $horte$t that is ever
allowed. The <I>Hebrews,</I> according to the an-
cient Laws of their Forefathers, were to have
one $acred and chief City in a fit and conve-
nient Place, and therein one $ingle Temple and
one Altar built of Stones, not hewn by Men's
Hands, but ju$t $uch as they could find, pro-
vided they were white and clean; and there
was to be no Steps to a$cend to this Temple;
<foot>ina$much</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 22, facing.</I></foot>
<p n=>140</p>
ina$much as they were to be one People joyn-
ing in the Wor$hip of one God, by whom
alone they were defended and pre$erved. Now
I cannot approve of either of the$e Particulars:
For as to the Fir$t, it mu$t be extremely in-
convenient to the People, and e$pecially to
tho$e who frequent the Temples mo$t, as the
old Folks and the Infirm; and the Second mu$t
take very much from the Maje$ty of the Struc-
ture. As to what I have ob$erved in $ome
$acred Edifices, built not long before our Time,
to which you a$cend by a few Steps on the
Out$ide, and afterwards have as many to go
down again within, I will not ab$olutely call it
ridiculous; but why they $hould contrive it in
this Manner, I cannot imagine. Indeed I would
have the Plain of the Portico, and $o of the
whole Temple, $omewhat rai$ed above the Le-
vel of the re$t of the Town, which gives the
Fabrick a great Air of Dignity. But as in an
Animal, the Head, the Feet, and every parti-
cular Member, $hould be exactly proportioned
to all the other Members, and to all the re$t
of the Body; $o in a Building, and e$pecially
in a Temple, all the Parts $hould be made to
corre$pond $o exactly, that let us con$ider which
of them we plea$e, it may bear its ju$t Propor-
tion to all the Re$t. Thus I find that mo$t
of the be$t ancient Architects u$ed to take their
Elevation of the Plain of their Temple, from
the Breadth of the Temple it$elf, which they
divided into $ix Parts, giving one of tho$e
Parts to the Height of the Plain or Mound of
the Structure. Others, in larger Temples, rai$-
ed it only a $eventh Part, and in the Bigge$t of
all, only a ninth. The Portico, by its Nature,
$hould have a continued Wall but of one Side,
and all the other Sides $hould be full of large
Apertures for Pa$$age. Your Bu$ine$s there-
fore is to con$ider what Kind of Apertures you
would make u$e of; for Colonades are of two
Sorts; one where the Columns $tand wide and
at a great Di$tance from each other; and the
other, where they $tand clo$e and thick. And
neither of the$e Sorts is without its Inconveni-
encies; for in the wide Sort, the Apertures are
$o large, that if you would make u$e of an
Architrave, it is apt to break in the Middle,
and if you would carry Arches over it, it is no
ea$y Matter to turn them upon the Heads of
the Columns. Where the Columns $tand clo$e
and thick, they intercept the View, the Light
and the Pa$$age, and upon this Account, a
third Manner has been found out, in a Medium
between the other two, which is called Elegant,
and avoids the Defects of the others; is more
convenient and much more approved. And
with the$e three Sorts we might have been con-
tented; but the Diligence of Architects have
added two other Sorts, which I $uppo$e may
be accounted for as follows: Not having a
$ufficient Number of Columns for the Exten-
$ivene$s of their Area, they deviated $omewhat
from the laudable Medium, and imitated the
wider Apertures; and when they happen to
have Plenty of Columns, they were fond of
$etting them clo$er together; whence aro$e five
Sorts of Intercolumniations, which we may call
by the Names of Wide, Clo$e, Elegant, Le$s-
wide, Le$s-clo$e. I further $uppo$e it to have
happened, that the Architects being $ometimes
de$titute of long Stones, were obliged to make
their Columns $horter, knowing that this
would take much from the Beauty of the
Structure, they $et a Plinth under their Columns,
in order to give them their ju$t Height; for
they found by a careful View and Examinati-
on of other Buildings, that Columns had no
Grace in a Portico, unle$s a right Proportion
was ob$erved both in their Height and Thick-
ne$s. This induced them to lay down the fol-
lowing Rules for this Purpo$e. The Interco-
lumniation may be unequal; but the Columns
them$elves mu$t always be exactly equal. Let
the Apertures that an$wers to the Door be $ome-
what wider than the re$t. Where the Inter-
columniation is clo$e, make u$e of thinner Co-
lumns; where it is wide, make u$e of thicker;
thus always proportioning the Thickne$s of the
Colums to the Inter$paces, and the Inter$paces
to the Thickne$s of the Columns, which you
may do by the following Rules. In the clo$e$t
Sort of Colonades, let the Intercolumniation be
never narrower than one Diameter and a Half
of the Column; and in the wide$t, let it be
never broader than three Diameters and three
eighths. In the elegant Sort of Colonades you
may allow two Diameters and a Quarter, in the
Le$s-clo$e, two; in the Le$s-wide, three. The
middle Inter$pace in the Colonade $hould be
$omewhat wider than the re$t, and the Ancients
direct us to give it an Addition of one fourth
Part: But by an Examination of old Buildings,
I find that this middle Inter$pace was not al-
ways made according to this Rule; for in the
wide Colonades, no good Architect ever made
it a fourth Part wider, but only about a
twelfth; and herein they acted very prudently,
le$t an unfaithful Architrave $hould not be able
to bear even the Weight of its own Length,
<foot>but</foot>
<p n=>141</p>
but crack in the Middle. Others indeed, in
other Colonades, have allowed a $ixth Part;
but mo$t have made it only a twelfth, e$pecial-
ly in tho$e Colonades which we have called
Elegant.</P>
<head>CHAP. VI.</head>
<head><I>Of Golumns, and the different Sorts of Capitals.</I></head>
<P>When we have re$olved upon our In-
tercolumniation, we are to erect our
Columns which are to $upport the Roof or
Covering. But we are to make a great Dif-
ference between a Work that con$i$ts of Pila$-
ters, and one that con$i$ts of Columns, and
between covering them with Arches, or with
Architraves. Arches and Pila$ters are very
proper in Theatres, and Arches are not ami$s
in Ba$iliques; but in the nobler Temples, we
never $ee any Porticoes without Architraves.
Of the$e Things we are now to treat. The
Parts of the Column are the$e: The lower
Plinth, upon that the Ba$e, upon the Ba$e the
Column, then the Capital, next to that the
Architrave, after which comes the Freeze,
where the Ends of the Rafters either terminate
or are concealed, and over all is the Cornice.
I think it will be proper to begin with the
Capitals, by which chiefly Columns are di$-
tingui$hed from one another. And here I en-
treat tho$e who $hall hereafter copy this Book,
that they would take the Pains to write the
Numbers which I $et down, with Letters at
length, in this Manner, twelve, twenty, forty,
and not with numeral Characters, as XII. XX.
XL. Nece$$ity fir$t taught Men to $et Capi-
tals upon their Columns, for the Heads of the
Timbers of their Architraves to meet and re$t
upon; but this being at fir$t nothing but a
$quare Block of Wood, looked very mean and
unhand$ome. Some Arti$ts therefore among
the <I>Dorians</I> (if we may thus allow the <I>Greeks</I>
the Honour of all Inventions) were the fir$t
that endeavoured to improve it by making it
round, $o as to look like a Cup covered with
a $quare Tile; and becau$e it $eemed $omewhat
too $quat, they rai$ed it higher by lengthening
the Neck. The <I>Ionians,</I> $eeing the Inventi-
on of the <I>Dorians,</I> commended this Introduc-
tion of the Cup into the Capital; but they did
not like to $ee it $o naked, nor with $o long a
Neck, and there$ore they added to it the Imi-
tation of the Bark of a Tree hanging down on
each Side, which by its Convolution inwards,
or Volute, embraced the Sides of the Cup.
Next came the <I>Corinthians,</I> among whom a
certain Arti$t, named <I>Callimachus,</I> di$liking
the $quat Cup, made u$e of a high Va$e co-
vered with Leaves, in Imitation of one which
he had $een on the Tomb of a young Maiden,
all over-grown with the Leaves of an Acanthus,
which had $prung up quite round it, and which
he thought looked very beautiful. Thus three
Sorts of Capitals were now invented and re-
ceived into Practice by the be$t Workmen in
tho$e Days: The <I>Doric</I> (though I am convinc-
ed that this was in u$e before among the anci-
ent <I>Etrurians</I>) the <I>Doric,</I> I $ay, the <I>Ionic</I> and
the <I>Corinthian.</I> And what think you, was the
Occa$ion of that infinite Number of other Ca-
pitals which we $ee quite different the one from
the other, but the Diligence and Application
with which Men have been continually $tudy-
ing to find out $omething new? But yet there
is none that de$erves to be preferred before
tho$e already mentioned, except one which,
that we may not own our$elves obliged to
Strangers for every thing, I call the <I>Italian;</I>
for this Order to the Richne$s of the <I>Corin-
thian,</I> has added the Delicacy of the <I>Ionic,</I> and
in$tead of tho$e Ears, has $ub$tituted Volutes,
which are extremely admired and commend-
ed. But to return to the Ordonnance of Co-
lumns; the ancient Architects have left us the
following Rules for their Proportions. They
tell us that the <I>Doric</I> Capital requires a Shaft
$even Times as long as its Diameter at Bottom;
the <I>Ionic</I> mu$t have eight, and the <I>Corinthian</I>
ten of its own Diameters. The Ba$es of all
the$e Columns they made of the $ame Height;
but they made them of different Lineaments
and De$igns: And indeed they differed as to
the Lineaments of almo$t every particular Part,
though they in a great Mea$ure agreed as to
the Proportions of Columns in general, and
particularly as to tho$e Lineaments of Co-
lumns, whereof we treated in the la$t Book, all
were of one accord, as well the <I>Dorians</I> and
<I>Ionians,</I> as the <I>Corinthians.</I> In this Point too
<foot>Oo they</foot>
<p n=>142</p>
they agreed, from an Imitation of Nature,
namely, that the Tops of the Shafts of all Co-
lumns ought to be thinner than they were at
Bottom. Some laid it down as a Rule, that
they $hould be a fourth Part thicker at Bottom
than at the Top. Others con$idering that
Things always $eem to lo$e of their Bigne$s in
Proportion to the Di$tance from which they
are viewed, very prudently advi$e that $uch
Columns as were to be of a great Length,
$hould be made $omewhat thicker at the Top
than tho$e that were $horter; and for this Pur-
po$e they gave the following Directions. The
Diameter of the Bottom of a Column of fifteen
Foot high, $hould be divided into $ix Parts,
whereof five $hould be given to the Diameter
at the Top. Of all Columns from fifteen to
twenty Foot high, the lower Diameter $hould
be divided into thirteen Parts, eleven whereof
are to be allowed to the Thickne$s at the Top;
all Columns from twenty to thirty Foot high,
mu$t have $even Parts at the Bottom, and $ix
at the Top; tho$e from thirty to forty Foot,
mu$t have fifteen Parts Thickne$s below and
thirteen above: La$tly, tho$e amounting to
fifty Foot height, mu$t have eight Parts at the
Bottom, and $even at the Top. According to
the $ame Rule and Proportion, as the Column
grows $till longer, the larger Diameter we mu$t
allow to the Top of its Shaft: So that in the$e
Points all Columns agree. Not that I can
$ay, upon tho$e Mea$urements which I have
taken of ancient Structures, that the$e Rules
were always $trictly ob$erved among the <I>Ro-
mans.</I></P>
<head>CHAP. VII.</head>
<P><I>A nece$$ary Rehear$al of the $everal Members of Columns, the Ba$e, Torus,
Scotia, Li$ts, Die, and of the $maller Parts of tho$e Members, the Plat-
band, Corona, Ovolo, $mall Ogee, Cima-inver$a, and Cymatium, both up-
right and rever$ed.</I></P>
<P>We $hall here take a $econd Review of
the $ame Things relating to Columns,
which we con$idered in the la$t Book; not in-
deed in the $ame Method, but in another no
le$s u$eful. For this Purpo$e, out of tho$e Co-
lumns which the Ancients made u$e of in their
publick Buildings, I $hall take one of a middle
Proportion between the Bigge$t and the Lea$t,
which I $uppo$e to be of about thirty Foot.
The bigge$t Diameter of the Shaft of this Co-
lumn, I $hall divide into nine equal Parts,
eight of which I $hall a$$ign to the bigge$t Di-
ameter of its Cincture at the Top: Thus its
Proportion will be as eight to nine, which the
<I>Latins</I> call a Se$quioctave. In the $ame Pro-
portion I $hall make the Diameter of the Di-
minution at Bottom, to the large$t Diameter
of the Sha$t, making the latter nine and the
$ormer eight. Again I $hall make the Dia-
meter of the Cincture at the Top to that of
the upper Diminution, as $even to eight, or in
the Proportion which the <I>Latins</I> call Se$qui-
$eptimal. I now proceed to the De$cription
of tho$e Members wherein they differ. Ba$es
con$i$t of the$e following; the Die, the Torus
and the Scotia. The Die is that $quare Mem-
ber which is at the Bottom of all, and I call it
by this Name, becau$e it is $quare on every Side,
like a flat Die; the Toru$$es are tho$e Cu$hi-
ons, upon one of which the Column re$ts, and
the other $tands upon the Die; the Scotia is
that circular Hollow which lies between two
Toru$$es, like the Hollow in the Wheel of a
Pully. All the Mea$ures of the$e Members are
taken from the Diameter of the Bottom of the
Shaft; and fir$t the <I>Dorians</I> gave the following
<marg>*</marg>
Proportions for them. They made the Height
of the Ba$e to be half the Diameter of the Bot-
tom of the Shaft, and the Plinth or Die, as
broad at mo$t every Way as one Diameter and
a Half of the Column, and as one Diameter
and a Third at lea$t. They then divided the
Height of the whole Ba$e into three Parts, one
of which they a$$igned to the Height of the
Die. Thus the Height of the whole Ba$e was
three Times that of the Die, and the Breadth
of the Die was three times the Height of the
Ba$e. Then exclu$ive of the Die they divided
the Re$t of the Height of the Ba$e into four
Parts, the uppermo$t of which they gave to the
upper Torus. Again, what remained between
the upper Torus and the Die at Bottom, they
divided into two Parts, one of which they al-
lowed to the lower Torus, and the other they
<foot>hollowed</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 23, facing.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 23. <I>(Page 142)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 24. <I>(Page 143)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>143</p>
hollowed into a Scotia which lay between the
two Toru$$es. A Scotia con$i$ts of a hollow
Channel edged on each Side with an Annulet;
to each of tho$e Annulets they allowed one
$eventh Part of the Scotia, and the re$t they
hollowed. We have formerly laid it down as a
Rule, that in all Building particular Care mu$t
be taken that all the Work be $et upon a per-
fect Solid. Now it would not be $o, if a Per-
pendicular falling from the Edge of the upper
Stone were to meet with any void Space or Hol-
low. For this Rea$on in cutting their Scotias,
they took Care not to go in $o far as to come
within the Perpendicular of the Work above.
The Toru$$es mu$t project one Half and an
Eighth of their Thickne$s, and the extreme$t
Edge of the Circle of the bigge$t Torus mu$t
be exactly Perpendicular to the Die. This was
the Method of the <I>Dorians.</I> The <I>Ionians</I> ap-
proved of the <I>Doric</I> Height, but they made
two Scotias, and placed two Fillets between
<marg>*</marg>
them. Thus their Ba$e was the Height of
half the Diameter of the Bottom of the Shaft;
and this Height they divided into four Parts,
one of which they a$$igned to the Height of the
Plinth, giving eleven of tho$e fourth Parts to its
Breadth: So that the whole Height of the Ba$e
was as four, and the Breadth as eleven. Ha-
ving thus de$igned their Plinth, they divided
the re$t of the Height into $even Parts, two of
which they gave to the Thickne$s of the lower
Torus, and what remained be$ides this Torus
and the Plinth, they divided into three Parts,
one of which they hollowed to the upper To-
rus, and the two middle Parts they gave to the
two Scotias with their two Fillets, which $eem-
ed to be $queezed between the two Toru$$es.
The Proportions of the$e Scotias and Fillets
were as follows: They divided the Space be-
tween the two Toru$$es into $even Parts, one
of which they gave to each Fillet, dividing the
re$t equally between the two Scotias. As to
the Projecture of the Toru$$es they ob$erved
the $ame Rules as the <I>Dorians,</I> and in hollow-
ing their Scotias had regard to the Perpendi-
cular Solid of the Stone that was to be laid
over them; but they made their Annulets on-
ly an eighth Part of the Scotia. Others were
of Opinion, that exclu$ive of the Plinth, the
Ba$e ought to be divided into $ixteen Parts,
which we call Minutes; and of the$e they gave
four to the lower Torus, and three to the upper,
three and a half to the lower Scotia, and three
and a half to the upper, and the other two
they a$$igned to the Fillets between them.
The$e were the <I>Ionic</I> Proportions. The <I>Co-
rinthians</I> liked both the <I>Ionic</I> and the <I>Doric</I>
Ba$e too, and made u$e indifferently of them
both; $o that indeed they added nothing to the
Column, but a Capital. We are told that the
<I>Etrurians</I> under their Columns (which we call
the <I>Italian</I>) u$ed to put not a $quare but a
round Plinth; but I never met with $uch a
Ba$e among the Works of the Ancients. In-
deed I have taken Notice, that in Porticoes
which u$ed to go clear round their circular
Temples, the Ancients carved one continued
Plinth quite round, which $erved for all the
Columns, and of the due Height which the
Plinth of the Ba$e ought to be of. This I
doubt not they did, becau$e they were con-
vinced that $quare Members did not $uit with
a circular Structure. I have ob$erved, that
$ome have made even the Sides of the Abacus
of their Capitals point to the Center of the
Temple, which, if it were to be done in the
Ba$es, might not be altogether ami$s, though it
would $carce be much commended. And here
it may not be improper to $ay $omething of the
$everal Members of the Ornaments made u$e
of in Architecture; and they are the$e; the
Plat-band, the Corona, the Ovolo, or Quarter-
round, the $mall Ovolo, or Ogee, the Cima-
inver$a, and the Cymatium, or Doucine, both
upright and rever$ed. All the$e particular
Members have each a Projecture, but with
different Lines. The Plat-band projects in a
Square like the Letter L, and is indeed the
$ame as a Li$t or Fillet, but $omewhat broader.
The Corona has a much greater Projecture
than the Plat-band; the Ovolo, or Quarter-
round, I was almo$t tempted to call the Ivy,
becau$e it runs along and cleaves to another
Member, and its Projecture is like a C placed
under the Letter L, thus <30> and the $mall Ovolo,
or Ogee is only $omewhat le$s. But if you
place this Letter C rever$ed under the Letter L,
thus <31> it forms the Cima-inver$a. Again, if
under the $ame Letter L you place an S in this
Manner <32> it is called the Cymatium, or Gola
from its Re$emblance to a Man's Throat; but
if you place it inverted thus <33> it is called Cima-
inver$a, or by $ome from the Similitude of its
Curve, the Onda, or Undula. Again, the$e
Members are either plain, or el$e have $ome
other Ornaments in$erted into them. In the
Plat-band or Fa$cia it is common to carve
Cockle-$hells, Birds, or In$criptions. In the
Corona we frequently have Dentils, which are
made in the following Proportions: Their
<foot>Breadth</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 24, facing.</I></foot>
<p n=>144</p>
Breadth is one half of their Height, and the
Inter$pace between them is two thirds of their
Breadth. The Ovolo, or Quarter-round, is
$ometimes adorned with Eggs and $ometimes
with Leaves, and the$e Eggs are $ometimes
carved entire, and $ometimes $heared off at the
Top. The Ogee, or Baguette is make like a
Row of Beads, $trung upon a Thread. The
Cymatiums are never carved with any thing
but Leaves. The Annulets are always left
plain on every Side. In the putting the$e
Members together, we mu$t always keep to
this Rule, that the upper ones have always
more Projecture than tho$e below them. The
Annulets are what $eparate one Member from
the other, and $erve as a Kind of Cymaize to
each Member; the Cymaize being any Li$t
that is at the Top of any Member what$oever.
The$e Cymaizes, or Annulets being always
$mooth and poli$hed, are al$o of U$e in di$tin-
gui$hing the rough carved Members from each
other, and their Breadth is a $ixth Part of the
Member over which they are $et, whether it be
the Corona or Ovolo; but in the Cymatium
their Breadth is one whole third.</P>
<head>CHAP. VIII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Compo$ite Capitals.</I></head>
<P>Let us now return to the Capitals. The
<marg>*</marg>
<I>Dorians</I> made their Capital of the $ame
Height as their Ba$e, and divided that Height
into three Parts: The Fir$t they gave to the
Abacus, the Second to the Ovolo which is un-
de rthe Abacus, and the Third they allowed to
the Gorgerin or Neck of the Capital which is
under the Ovolo. The Breadth of the Abacus
every Way was equal to one whole Diameter,
and a twelfth of the Bottom of the Shaft. This
Abacus is divided into two Members, an up-
right Cymatium and a Plinth, and the Cyma-
tium is two fifth Parts of the whole Abacus.
The upper Edge of the Ovolo joyned clo$e to
the Bottom of the Abacus. At the Bottom of
the Ovolo $ome made three little Annulets, and
others a Cymatium as an Ornament, but the$e
never took up above a third Part of the Ovolo.
The Diameter of the Neck of the Capital,
which was the lowe$t Part of it, never exceed-
ed the Thickne$s of the Top of the Sha$t,
which is to be ob$erved in all Sorts of Capitals.
Others, according to the Ob$ervations which I
have made upon ancient Buildings, u$ed to
make the Height of the <I>Doric</I> Capital three
Quarters of the Diameter of the Bottom of the
Shaft, and divided this whole Height of the
Capital into eleven Parts, of which they allow-
ed four to the Abacus, four to the Ovolo, and
three to the Neck of the Capital. Then they
divided the Abacus into two Parts, the up-
permo$t of which they gave to the Cymatium
and the lowermo$t to the Plinth. The Ovolo
al$o they divided into two Parts, a$$igning the
lowermo$t either to the Annulets or to a Cy-
matium, which $erved as an Edging to the
Ovolo, and in the Neck of the Capital $ome
cut Ro$es, and others Leaves with a high Pro-
jecture. This was the Practice of the <I>Dorians.</I>
<marg>*</marg>
Our Rules for the <I>Ionic</I> Capital are as follows.
Let the whole Height of the Capital be one
half the Diameter of the Bottom of the Co-
lumn. Let us divide this Height into nineteen
Parts, or Minutes, three of which we mu$t give
to the Abacus, four to the Thickne$s of the
Volute, $ix to the Ovolo, and the other $ix be-
low we mu$t leave for the Turn of the Volutes
on each Side. The Breadth of the Abacus
every Way mu$t be equal to the Diameter of
the Top of the Shafts; the Breadth of the Rind
which is to terminate in the Scroll mu$t both
in the Front and Back of the Capital be equal
to the Abacus. This Rind mu$t fall down on
each Side winding round like a Snail-$hell.
The Center of the Volute on the right Side
mu$t be di$tant from that on the Left two-
and-thirty Minutes, and from the highe$t
Point of the Abacus twelve Minutes. The
Method of turning this Volute is as follows:
About the Center of the Volute de$cribe a lit-
tle Circle, the Semi-diameter of which mu$t be
one of the afore-mentioned Minutes. This is
the Eye of the Volute. In the Circumference
of this little Circle make two Points oppo$ite
to each other, one above and the other below.
Then fix one Foot of your Compa$$es into the
uppermo$t Point, and extend the other to the
Line that divides the Abacus from the Rind,
and turn it outwards from the Capital till you
have made a perfect Semi-circle ending Per-
pendicular under the lowe$t Point or Dot in
the Eye of the Volute. Then contract your
<foot>Compa$$es,</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 25, facing, and Plate 26, following.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 25. <I>(Page 144)</I></cap>
<fig>
<cap><I>&ldquo;(Altro) Capitello Dorico&rdquo; = (another) Doric capital. &ldquo;Diametro etc.&rdquo; = diameter of
the column below. &ldquo;minu.&rdquo; = minutes.</I></cap>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 26. <I>(Pages 144-45)</I></cap>
<fig>
<cap><I>&ldquo;Il lato del Capitello&rdquo; = the side of the capital. &ldquo;Voluta&rdquo; = volute. &ldquo;Profilo&rdquo; =
profile. &ldquo;Pianta&rdquo; = plan. &ldquo;Capitello Ionico in prospeto&rdquo; = Ionic capital in elevation.</I></cap>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 27. <I>(Page 145)</I></cap>
<fig>
<cap><I>&ldquo;Capitello Corinthio&rdquo; = Corinthian capital.</I></cap>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 28. <I>(Page 145)</I></cap>
<fig>
<cap><I>&ldquo;Capitello Composito&rdquo; = composite capital.</I></cap>
<p n=>145</p>
Compa$$es, and fixing one Foot in the Point
below the Eye, let the other reach to the End
of the Line which you have already turned,
that is to $ay, to the End of your Semi-circle,
and turn it upwards till you touch the upper
Edge of the Ovolo. Thus with two unequal
Semi-circles, you will have made one entire
Compa$s about the Eye of your Volute. Then
go on with your Sweep in the $ame Manner,
till you have turned it quite to the Eye of the
Volute, or that little Circle in the Middle.
The Top of the Ovolo in the Front mu$t have
a Projecture of two Minutes beyond the Rind,
and the lower Part of it mu$t be even with the
Top of the Shaft. The Sides of the Volutes
where the hindmo$t joins to the foremo$t on
each Side of the Capital, mu$t be contracted to
the $ame Width as the Ovolo, with the Addi-
tion only of one half Minute. The Abacus
mu$t be adorned with an upright Cymatium
of one Minute. The Back of the Volute mu$t
be adorned with a little Channel half a Minute
deep, and the Annulets on the Side of this
Channel mu$t be one Fourth of its Breadth,
and the Spaces on each Side the Channel mu$t
be filled with Leaves or Fruits. That Part of
the Ovolo which appears forward in the Front
of the Capital mu$t be carved with Eggs, and
under them with Berries. In the Void left on
each Side by the Sweep of the Volute, carve
Leaves or Scales. And thus much for the <I>Ionic</I>
<marg>*</marg>
Capital. The <I>Corinthian</I> Capital is in Height
one whole Diameter of the Bottom of the Shaft.
This Height mu$t be divided into $even Parts
or Minutes, of which the Abacus mu$t be al-
lowed one. The re$t is entirely taken up by
the Bell or Va$e, the Breadth of which at the
Bottom mu$t be exactly equal to that of the
Top of the Shaft, without any of its Projec-
tures, and the Breadth of the Top of the Va$e
mu$t be equal to the large$t Diameter of the
Bottom of the Shaft. The Length of the A-
bacus on every Side mu$t be equal to ten of the
afore-mentioned Parts; but the Corners of it
mu$t be cut away to the Breadth of one half
of tho$e Parts. The Abacus of the other Ca-
pitals con$i$ts entirely of $traight Lines, but
that of the <I>Corinthian</I> mu$t go with a Sweep
inwards to the Thickne$s of the Bottom of the
Va$e. The Thickne$s of the Abacus is divid-
ed into three Parts, the Uppermo$t of which
mu$t be made exactly as we adorn the Top of
the Shaft, that is to $ay, with a Fillet and $mall
Baguette. The Va$e mu$t be covered with
two Rows of Leaves $tanding upright, each
Row con$i$ting of eight Leaves. Each Row
mu$t be in Height two of the afore-mentioned
Parts, and the remaining Parts mu$t be given
to $everal little Shoots ri$ing out of the Leaves
to the Top of the Va$e. The$e Shoots are in
Number $ixteen, of which four are tied in each
Front of the Capital, two on the le$t Hand in
one Knot, and two on the right in another,
$preading away from each Knot in $uch a Man-
ner, that the Tops of the two outward ones
make a Sort of a Volute exactly under the
Horns of the Abacus. The two Middle ones
in each Front join together, winding al$o like
Volutes, and exactly over the Middle of them
is carved a beautiful Flower ri$ing out of the
Va$e, which mu$t not exceed the Abacus in
Breadth. The Breadth of tho$e Parts of the
Lips of the Va$e which tho$e Shoots do not
conceal from us, is only one of the afore-men-
tioned $eventh Parts. The Leaves mu$t be di-
vided into five Plumes, and never more than
into $even. The Tops of the Leaves mu$t pro-
ject half a Minute. It looks hand$ome in the
Leaves of this Capital, and all other Carving
of the $ame Nature, to have all the Lines cut
in deep and bold. This was the Capital of
<marg>*</marg>
the <I>Corinthians.</I> The <I>Italians</I> brought into
their Capital all the Ornaments that they found
in the others, and ob$erved the $ame Method
in making the Va$e, Abacus, Leaves, and the
Flower in the Abacus, as the <I>Corinthians.</I> But
in$tead of Shoots they made u$e of a Sort of
Volutes, under the four Horns of the Abacus,
projecting two whole Minutes. The Front of
the Capital, being otherwi$e naked, borrowed
its Ornaments from the <I>Ionic;</I> for in$tead of
Shoots it has Volutes, and the Lips of its Va$e
are carved full of Eggs with Berries underneath
them, like an Ovolo. Be$ides the Capitals here
de$cribed, we up and down $ee a great many
other Sorts made up of the Members of the$e,
with either Additions or Diminutions: But I
do not find that they are much approved.
And thus much may $uffice of Capitals, unle$s
it be nece$$ary ju$t to mention one Practice;
which is, that it is common over the Abacus
to lay a very thick $quare Piece of Stone, or
Plinth, which $eems as it were to give the Ca-
pital Breadth, and to prevent its being oppre$$-
ed by the Architrave, and at the $ame Time is
of U$e to keep the nice$t and mo$t delicate
Parts of the Work from being injured in laying
the Super$tructure.</P>
<foot>P p CHAP.</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plates 27 and 28, following Plate 26.</I></foot>
<p n=>146</p>
<head>CHAP. IX.</head>
<P><I>Of the Entablature, the Architrave, Triglyphs, Dentils, Mutules, Cavetto,
and Drip or Crona, as al$o of Flutings and $ome other Ornaments helong-
ing to Columns.</I></P>
<P>Having fixed our Capitals, we upon
them rai$e our Architraves, upon the
Architrave the Freze, Cornice and other Mem-
bers of the Covering. In mo$t of the$e Mem-
bers the <I>Ionians</I> and all others differ very much
from the <I>Dorians;</I> though in $ome Particulars
they agree. For In$tance, it is a general Rule,
that the Thickne$s of the Bottom of the Ar-
chitrave $hould be never greater than the Solid
of the Top of the Shaft of the Column, nor
$hould the Breadth of the Top of the $ame
Architrave be greater than the Diameter of the
Bottom of the Shaft. The Cornice is that
Member which lies upon the Freze, and pro-
jects over it. In this too they ob$erved the
Rule which we have already given, that the
Projecture of all Members that $tood out from
the Naked of the Wall ought to be equal to
their Height. It was al$o u$ual with them to
make their Cornice lean forwards about a
twelfth Part of its Width, knowing that this
Member would $eem to be falling backwards,
if it were $et up at right Angles. I here again
entreat tho$e who $hall hereafter tran$cribe this
Book, and I do it in the mo$t earne$t Manner,
that they would write the Numbers which I
$et down with Letters at Length, and not with
numeral Characters, for the avoiding of more
<marg>*</marg>
numerous Errors. The <I>Dorians</I> then never
made the Height of their Architrave le$s than
half the Diameter of the Bottom of their Co-
lumn, and this Architrave they divided into
three Fa$cias, under the uppermo$t of which
ran $ome $hort Mouldings, in each whereof
$tuck $ix Nails, which were fixed in tho$e
Mouldings with their Heads downwards, and
might at fir$t be intended to keep the Freze
from retiring backward. The whole Height
of this Architrave they divided into twelve
Parts or Minutes, by which we $hall mea$ure
all the following Members. Four of the$e
Minutes they gave to the lower Fa$cia, $ix to
the Middle one which is above it, and the other
two they left for the upper Fa$cia; and of the
$ix Minutes given to the middle Fa$cia, one
was allowed to the Reglet or Moulding under
the T&aelig;nia, and another to the Nails which
$tuck in that Moulding. The Length of the$e
Reglets was twelves Minutes, and the Spaces
from one Reglet to the other were eighteen.
Over the Architrave for an Ornament they $et
the Triglyphs, the Front of which, being rai$ed
High and Perpendicular, projected over the
Architrave half a Minute. The Breadth of
the Triglyphs mu$t be equal to the Thickne$s
of the Architrave, and their Height or Length
half as much more, $o that this will be eight-
teen Minutes. Lengthways in the Face of the$e
Triglyphs we cut three Furrows at equal Di$-
tance from each other, and hollowed at right
Angles, allowing the Breadth of the opening
one Minute. The Corners of the$e Furrows or
Channels mu$t be cut away to the Breadth of
half a Minute. The Spaces or Metopes be-
tween the Triglyphs, where the Proportions are
elegant, are flat Tables exactly $quare, and the
Triglyphs them$elves mu$t be $et perpendicu-
larly over the Solid of their Columns. The
Face of the Triglyphs project half a Minute out
from the Metopes; but the Perpendicular of
the Metopes mu$t fall exactly upon the lower
Fa$cia of the Architrave. In the$e Metopes it
is u$ual to carve the Skulls of Oxen, Pateras,
Wheels, and the like. Over each of the$e
Triglyphs and Metopes, in$tead of a Cymati-
um, mu$t run a Fillet of the Breadth of two
Minutes, over the$e a Cima-inver$a of the
Breadth of two Minutes, and above that a Plat-
band of the Breadth of three Minutes, which is
adorned with little Eggs, in Imitation, perhaps,
of the $mall Stones which $ometimes bur$t out
between the Joints of a Pavement through the
too great Abundance of Mortar. In the$e we
fix the Mutules of the $ame Breadth as the
Triglyphs, and of the $ame Height as the Plat-
band, placed directly over the Heads of the
Triglyphs and projecting twelve Minutes. The
Heads of the Mutules are cut Perpendicular,
with a Cymai$e over them. Over the Mutules
runs a $mall Cima of three Quarters of a Mi-
nute. In the Plat-fond of the Entablature be-
tween the Mutules we carve a Ro$e or a Flower
<foot>of</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 29, facing.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 29. <I>(Page 146)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 30. <I>(Page 147)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>147</p>
of the Branca Ur$ina. Upon the Mutules lies
the Corona, which is allowed four Minutes,
and this Corona con$i$ts of a Plat-band or Drip
and a Cima Recta, which la$t takes up one
Minute and a Half. If you are to have a Pe-
diment over your Building, all the Members of
the Cornice mu$t be transferred to that, and
every Member in the Pediment mu$t corre$pond
with the $ame in the Cornice, and an$wer to
the $ame Perpendiculars and Proportions. There
is only this Difference between Pediments and
the fir$t Cornices, that in Pediments the high-
e$t Member of the Cornice is always the Drip,
which in the <I>Doric</I> Order is a Cima-rever$a,
four Minutes in Height, whereas this Drip or
Cima has never Place in a Cornice that is to
have a Pediment over it; but in tho$e which
are to have no Pediment it is con$tantly u$ed.
But of Pediments we $hall $peak by and by.
This was the Entablature of the <I>Dorians.</I> The
<marg>*</marg>
<I>Ionians</I> were of Opinion, and not without Rea-
$on, that the Proportion of the Architrave
ought to encrea$e according to the Bigne$s of
the Column; which mu$t certainly have a good
Effect both here and in the <I>Doric</I> Order too.
The Rules they gave for enlarging this Pro-
portion were as follows: When the Column
was twenty Foot high the Architrave ought to
be the thirteenth Part of that Length; but
when the Column was to be five-and-twenty
Foot, the Architrave $hould be the twelfth
Part of the Length of the Column. La$tly,
if the Column was to be thirty Foot high, the
Architrave was to be the eleventh Part, and for
higher Columns in the $ame Gradation. The
<I>Ionic</I> Architrave, be$ides its Cymai$e, con$i$ted
of three Fa$cias, and the Whole was divided
into nine Parts, two of which were allowed to
the Cymai$e, which was an upright one. The
Remainder below the Cymai$e they divided in-
to twelve Parts, three of which went to the
lower, four to the middle, and five to the up-
per Fa$cia, which lies ju$t below the Cymai$e.
Some made the$e Fa$cias without any Sort of
Mouldings between them, but others made
them with Mouldings, and the$e were $ome-
times a $mall Cima-inver$a, taking up a fifth
Part of the Fa$cia, and $ometimes a Baguette
taking up a $eventh Part. We may ob$erve in
the Works of the Ancients, that the Linea-
ments or Members of the $everal Orders were
often mixed, one borrowing from another, and
often with a very good Effect. But they $eem-
ed chiefly plea$ed with an Architrave of only
two Fa$cias, which I take to be entirely <I>Doric</I>
without its Reglets and Drops. Their Man-
ner of de$igning this Architrave was thus. They
divided the whole Height into nine Parts, a$-
$igning one Part and two Thirds to the Cy-
mai$e. The upper Fa$cia had four Parts and
one Third, and the lower Fa$cia the other three.
Half the upper Part of this Cymai$e was taken
up with a Cima-inver$a and a Fillet, and the
other half with a $mall Quarter-round. The
upper Fa$cia for its Cymai$e had a Baguette,
which took up an eighth Part of the Fa$cia,
and the lower Fa$cia had a Cima-recta of the
third Part of its whole Breadth. Upon the
Architrave lay the Rafters; but their Heads
did not appear out, as in the <I>Doric</I> Order, but
were cut away Perpendicular to the Archi-
trave, and were covered with a flat Pannel
which I call the Freze, the Breadth of which
was the $ame as the Height of the Architrave
which is under it. Upon this they u$ed to
carve Va$es and other Uten$ils belonging to
their Sacrifices, or Skulls of Oxen at certain
$tated Di$tances, with Fe$toons of Flowers and
Fruits hanging between their Horns. This
Freze had over it a Cima-recta, which was
never higher than $our Parts of the Freze, nor
lower than three. Over this ran the Denticle,
four Parts high, $ometimes carved and $ome-
times left quite plain. Above this was the
Ovolo, out of which came the Mutules, three
Parts in Height, and carved with Eggs, and
from hence came the Mutules $upporting the
Drip, which was four Parts high and $ix Parts
and a half Broad in its Soffit, or that Face un-
derneath which lay over the Mutules. Over
this Drip was a $mall Cima-recta, or el$e a Ba-
guette two Parts in Height, and at the Top of
all was a Cymai$e or Cima-inver$a of three
Parts, or if you plea$e of four. In this Cy-
mai$e both the <I>Ionians</I> and the <I>Dorians</I> u$ed to
carve the Mouths of Lyons, which $erved for
Spouts to throw out the Water; but they took
Care that they $hould neither $prinkle any Body
that was going into the Temple, nor beat back
into any Part of the Temple it$elf; and for this
Rea$on they $topt up tho$e Mouths that were
<marg>*</marg>
over the Doors and Windows. The <I>Corinthi-
ans</I> added nothing either to the Architrave,
Freze or Cornice, that I can call to Mind, ex-
cept only that they did not make their Mutu-
les $quare like the <I>Dorians,</I> but with a Sort of
Sweep like a Cymai$e, and made the Di$tances
between them equal to their Projecture from
the Naked of the Building. In all other Re-
$pects they followed the <I>Ionians.</I> Thus much
<foot>may</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 30, facing, and Plate 31, facing page 148</I></foot>
<p n=>148</p>
may $uffice for tho$e Colonades which are to
be covered with Architraves; of tho$e which are
to $upport Arches we $hall $peak by and by,
when we come to treat of the Ba$ilique. There
are only $ome few Particulars more relating to
Colonades of this Sort, which ought by no
Means to be omitted. It is certain that a Co-
lumn which $tands in the open Air, always
$eems $maller than one that is under Cover, and
the more Flutings there are in its Shaft, the
Thicker it will appear. For this Rea$on we
are advi$ed either to make tho$e fluted Co-
lumns that $tand in the open Air $omewhat
thicker, or el$e to encrea$e the Number of the
<marg>*</marg>
Channels. The$e Channels are made either
direct along the Shaft, or el$e run $piral about
it. The <I>Dorians</I> made them direct along the
Shaft. The$e Channels are called by Archi-
tects Stri&aelig;, and among the <I>Dorians</I> they were
in Number Twenty. Others made Twenty-
four. Others $eparated the$e Channels by $mall
Li$ts, which were never more than a third, nor
le$s than a fourth Part of the Groove of the
Fluting, and the$e Flutings were a $emi-circu-
lar Concave. In the <I>Doric</I> Order the Flut-
ings are plain without any Li$t, with very little
hollow, or at mo$t but the Quarter of a Circle,
terminating the Channels in an Angle. For
the lower third Part of the Shaft of the Co-
lumn, they generally filled their Flutings with
a Cable, to make the Column $tronger, and
le$s liable to Injuries. Tho$e Flutings which
run direct along the Shaft, make the Column
appear to the Eye of the Beholder thicker than
it really is. Tho$e Channels that run $piral
about the Shaft, vary it too; but the le$s they
$werve from the Perpendicular of the Column,
the Thicker the Column will appear. They
mu$t round clear round the Column never
more than three Times, nor ever make le$s than
one compleat Revolution. Whatever Flutings
you make, they mu$t always run from the Bot-
tom to the Top of the Shaft in even and con-
tinued Lines, with an equal Hollow all the
Way. The Sides of the Builder's Square will
$erve us as a Guide for making our Channels.
There is a mathematical Line, which being
drawn from any certain Point of the Circum-
ference of a Semi-circle to the End of its Dia-
meter is called a right Angle, which is the $ame
as the Builder's Square. Having then marked
out the Sides of your Flutings, $ink them $o
deep in the Middle, that the Angle of your
Square may touch the Bottom and its two Sides
of the Lips of them at the $ame Time. At
each End of the Shaft of a fluted Column, you
mu$t leave a proper Di$tance plain between the
Channels and the Cincture at one End, and
the A$tragal at the other. We are told, that
all round the Temple of <I>Memphis</I>, in$tead of
Columns, they made u$e of Colo$$al Statues
eighteen Foot high. In other Places they had
wreathed Columns twi$ted round with Ten-
drils and Vine-leaves carved in Relief, and
with the Figures of little Birds here and there
inter$per$ed. But the plain Column is much
more agreeable to the Maje$ty of a Temple.
There are certain Dimentions which are great
Helps to the Workmen in the placing of their
Columns, and the$e are taken from the Num-
ber of the Columns them$elves that are to be
<marg>*</marg>
u$ed in the Structure. Thus, for In$tance, to
begin with the <I>Dorians</I>; when they had four
Columns for the Front of their Building, they
divided the Front of the Platform into $even-
and-twenty Parts. If they had $ix Columns,
they divided it into one-and-forty, and if eight
into $ix-and-fifty, and of the$e Parts they al-
lowed two for the Thickne$s of each Column.
<marg>*</marg>
But in <I>Ionic</I> Structures where four Columns are
to be u$ed, the Front of the Platform mu$t be
divided into eleven Parts and a half; where
the$e are to be $ix, into eighteen, and where
eight, into four-and-twenty and a half; whereof
only one Part mu$t be given to the Thickne$s
of each Column.</P>
<head>CHAP. X.</head>
<head><I>Of the Pavement of the Temple and its inner Area, of the Place for the Al-
tar, and of the Walls and their Ornaments.</I></head>
<P>It is the mo$t approved Ta$te to a$cend to
the Floor of the Temple and to the inner
Area by $ome Number of Steps, and to have
the Place where the Altar is to be fixed, rai$ed
higher than the Re$t. The Apertures and En-
trance to the Chapels on the Sides were $ome-
times left quite open without any Inclo$ure
what$oever, and $ometimes $hut in with two
<foot>Columns,</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plates 32-34, following Plate 31.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 31. <I>(Pages 147-48)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 32. <I>(Page 148)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 33. <I>(Page 148)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 34. <I>(Page 148)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>149</p>
Columns, over which ran an Architrave, Freze
and Cornice, according to the Rules ju$t now
laid down for Porticoes; and the re$t of the
Void above the Cornice was left quite open
for $etting of Statues or large Candle$ticks.
Others inclo$ed the Entrance into $uch Chapels
with a Walls brought half Way on each Side.
Tho$e who imagine that the great Thickne$s
of the Walls adds Dignity to a Temple, are
greatly mi$taken; for who is there that does
not di$like a Body compo$ed of gouty Limbs?
be$ides that when the Walls are too thick, they
always intercept the Light. In the <I>Rotonda</I> at
<I>Rome</I>, the excellent Architect who had the
Care of that great Work having in it Occa$ion
for thick Walls, built the Ribs entirely of $olid
Work, without any Stuffing, and tho$e Inter-
$paces which a le$s skilful Arti$t would have
$tuffed, he employed in Niches and other A-
pertures, whereby he $aved Expence, and made
the Structure le$s heavy, and more beautiful.
The Thickne$s of the Walls mu$t be proporti-
oned after the Manner of Columns; that is to
$ay, their Thickne$s mu$t corre$pond to their
Height, as in tho$e. I have ob$erved that the
Ancients, in building their Temples, u$ed to
divide the Front of their Platform into twelve
Parts; or, when they would make them parti-
cularly $trong, into nine, and one of tho$e
Parts was the Thickne$s of the Wall. In cir-
cular Temples the Wall was never le$s high
than half the Diameter of its inner Area;
many made it two Thirds of that Diameter,
and $ome three Fourths, which was the Height
to which they carried the Wall before they be-
gan the Sweep of the Cupola. But the more
di$creet Workmen divided the Circumference
of this circular Platform into four Parts; and
one of tho$e fourth Parts being extended to a
Line was equal to the inward Height of the
Wall, which is as four to eleven: And this
Practice has been al$o imitated in $quare Tem-
ples as well as round ones, and in many other
Kinds of Structures that were to be covered
with Arches. But where there were to be
Chapels on each Side in the Wall, to make the
Aperture $eem the Larger they $ometimes rai$ed
their Wall equal in Height to the whole Breadth
of the Area. In round Temples the inward
Height of the Wall will not be the $ame as the
outward: Becau$e within the Wall ends exact-
ly where the Sweep of the Arch begins; but
without, it is carried up $traight to the Top of
the Cornice. If the Cupola have a Cover on
the Out$ide made with Degrees like Steps, the
outward Wall will take up a third Part of it;
but if the Cover be made with $traight Lines
and a common Slope, then the outward Wall
will take up half. Nothing is more conveni-
ent for building the Walls of a Temple, than
Brick; but then it mu$t be ca$ed with $ome-
thing hand$omer. There have been many dif-
ferent Opinions with Relation to the Adorning
of the Walls of Temples. At <I>Cyzicus</I> a Town
in <I>Bythinia</I> there was a Temple which had its
Walls adorned with a very beautiful Stone, and all
the Joints pointed with ma$$y Gold. In the Tem-
ple of <I>Minerva</I> at <I>Elis</I>, the Brother of <I>Phidias</I>,
the celebrated Carver, made an Incru$tation of
Stuc tempered with Saffron and Milk. The
Kings of <I>&AElig;gypt</I> encompa$$ed the Monument
of <I>Simandes</I>, which was the Scpulchre for the
Concubines of <I>Jupiter</I>, with a Circle of Gold
no le$s than a Cubit or Foot and half broad,
and three hundred $ixty-five Cubits round,
with a Day of the Year in$cribed upon every
Cubit. Others condemned this Exce$s of Or-
nament in Temples. <I>Cicero</I>, being guided by
<I>Plato's</I> Opinion, thought it nece$$ary that the
People $hould be admoni$hed by the Laws to
lay a$ide all Manner of Delicacy in the Adorn-
ing their Temples, and take Care only to have
them perfectly clean and white. However,
$ays he, let the Structure of them be beautiful.
I confe$s, for my own Part, I am very ready to
believe, that Purity and Simplicity of Colour,
as of Life, mu$t be mo$t plea$ing to the Divine
Being; and that it is not proper to have any
Thing in a Church that may be likely to draw
off Men's Thoughts from Devotion and fix
them upon the Plea$ure and Delight of the
Sen$es: But $till I am of Opinion, that he is
highly to be commended, who, as in other
publick Structures, $o al$o in Temples, without
departing from the Gravity requi$ite in $uch
Works, endeavours to have all the Parts, the
Walls, Roof, and Pavement, as hand$ome and
clegant as po$$ible, $till chiefly having it in his
Eye to make all his Ornaments the mo$t dura-
ble that may be. Thus nothing can be more
proper for the Ornament of the Roof on the
In$ide than all Sorts of <I>Mo$aic</I> Work made of
Marble, Gla$s, and other la$ting Materials.
Stuc-work with Figures, according to the Prac-
tice of the Ancients, may be a very hand$ome
Coat for the Out$ide. In both you mu$t take
the greate$t Care to chu$e proper Places as
well for your Pictures as Figures. The Por-
tico, for In$tance, is the fitte$t Place for the
Repre$entation of great Actions in Pictures.
<foot>Qq Indeed,</foot>
<p n=>150</p>
Indeed, within the Temple I think detached
Pictures do much better than painting upon
the Wall it$elf, and in my Mind Statues are
hand$omer than Pictures. unle$s they be $uch
excellent ones as tho$e two, for which <I>C&aelig;$ar</I>
the Dictator gave ninety Talents, or fourteen
hundred of our Crowns, in order to adorn the
Temple of <I>Venus</I> his Progenitor; and I look
upon a Picture with no le$s Plea$ure (I mean a
good one, for ill Painting is a Di$grace to the
Wall) than I read a good Hi$tory. They both
indeed are Pictures, only the Hi$torian paints
with Words, and the Painter with his Pencil.
All other Qualifications are common to them
both, and they both require the greate$t Genius
and Application. But I would have nothing
either on the Wall or Pavement of the Tem-
ple but what $avours entirely of Philo$ophy. We
read that in the Capitol there were Tables of
Bra$s whereon were in$cribed the Laws by
which the Empire was to be governed; which,
when the Temple was de$troyed by Fire, were
re$tored by the Emperor <I>Ve$pa$ian</I>, to the
Number of three Thou$and. We are told that
at the Entrance of the Temple of <I>Apollo</I> at <I>De-
los</I>, there were Ver$es engraved, containing $e-
veral Compo$itions of Herbs proper to be u$ed
as Remedies again$t all Sorts of Poi$on. Thus
I $hould think it would be proper among us,
by Way of In$cription, to have $uch Precepts
as may make us more ju$t, more mode$t, more
u$eful, more adorned with all Virtues, and
more acceptable in the Sight of God; $uch as
the$e, <I>Be what you would be thought; Love if
you would be beloved</I>, and the like. And I would
have the Compo$ition of the Lines of the
Pavement full of mu$ical and geometrical Pro-
portions; to the Intent that which-$oever Way
we may turn our Eyes, we may be $ure to find
Employment for our Minds. One Method
which the Ancients took to adorn their Tem-
ples, was to fill them with Things that were
uncommon and excellent; as in the Temple of
<I>Hercules</I>, where were to be $een $ome Horns
of Emmets brought from <I>India</I>; or like tho$e
Crowns made of Cinnamon which <I>Ve$pa$ian</I>
gave to the Capitol; or like that great Root of
Cinnamon which <I>Augu$ta</I> placed in the prin-
cipal Temple of Mount <I>Palatine</I>, in a Cup of
Gold. At <I>Thermus</I>, a Town in <I>&AElig;tolia</I> plun-
dered by <I>Philip</I>, we are told, that in the Por-
ticoes of the Temple there were above fifteen
thou$and Suits of Armour, and to adorn the
Temple it$elf above two thou$and Statues; all
which, according to <I>Polybius</I>'s Relation, were
de$troyed and broken by <I>Philip</I>, except tho$e
which were in$cribed with the Name, or bore
the Repre$entation of $ome God; and perhaps
Variety is more to be con$ulted in $uch Collec-
tions than Number. <I>Solinus</I> informs us, that
in <I>Sicily</I> there were $ome Artificers who had
the Secret of making Statues of Salt; and <I>Pliny</I>
tells us, that there was one made of Gla$s.
There is no Que$tion but $uch Things mu$t be
exceeding rare, and very worthy to rai$e our
Admiration of the Work both of Nature and
Art. But of Statues we $hall $peak in another
Place. The Walls and Apertures mu$t be
adorned with Columns; but not like a Porti-
co. There is one Thing which I have ob$erv-
ed in the Covering of $ome of the bigge$t
Temples, which is, that not having Columns
of Height $ufficient to reach to the Spring of
their Arches, they heightened the Sides of the
Arches them$elves in $uch a Manner that their
Sagitta was a third Part longer than their Se-
mi-diameter, which added not a little to the
Clearne$s and Beauty of the Work it$elf. And
here I mu$t not omit one Precept, namely, that
the Spring of the Arch $hould have at lea$t $o
much Perpendicular, as to prevent the Projec-
ture of the Cornices from taking away any Part
of the Arch from the Sight of tho$e that $taid
below in the Middle of the Temple.</P>
<head>CHAP. XI.</head>
<head><I>Why the Roofs of Temples ought to be arched.</I></head>
<P>I am entirely for having the Roofs of Tem-
ples arched, as well becau$e it gives them
the greater Dignity, as becau$e it makes them
more durable. And indeed I know not how
it happens that we $hall hardly meet any one
Temple what$oever that has not fallen into the
Calamity of Fire. We read that <I>Camby$es</I> burnt
all the Temples in <I>&AElig;gypt</I> in general, and re-
moved the Trea$ure and Ornaments belonging
to them to <I>Per$epolis. Eu$ebius</I> relates, that the
Oracle of <I>Delphos</I> was burnt three Times by
the <I>Thracians</I>, and another Time it took Fire
of it$elf, and was rebuilt by <I>Ama$is</I>, as we are
informed by <I>Herodotus.</I> We read too that it
<foot>was</foot>
<p n=>151</p>
was once burnt by <I>Phlegyas,</I> about the Time
that <I>Ph&oelig;nice</I> invented $ome Characters for the
U$e of his Citizens. It was al$o con$umed by
Fire in the Reign of <I>Cyrus,</I> a few Years before
the Death of <I>Servius Tallus,</I> the King of <I>Rome;</I>
and it is certain, that it was again burnt about
the Time of the Birth of tho$e three great Lu-
minaries of Learning, <I>Catullus, Sallus</I> and <I>Var-
ro.</I> The Temple of <I>Ephe$us</I> was burnt by the
<I>Amazons,</I> in the Reign of <I>Sylvius Po$thumus,</I>
as it was al$o about the Time that <I>Socrates</I>
was condemned to drink Poi$on at <I>Athens:</I>
and the Temple of the <I>Argives</I> was de$troyed
by Fire the $ame Year that <I>Plato</I> was born at
<I>Athens,</I> at which Time <I>Tarquin</I> reigned at <I>Rome.</I>
Why $hould I mention the $acred Porticoes of
<I>Jeru$alem?</I> Or the Temple of <I>Minerva</I> at
<I>Miletus?</I> Or that of <I>Serapis</I> at <I>Alexandria?</I>
Or at <I>Rome,</I> the <I>Pantheon?</I> And the Temple
of the Godde$s <I>Ve$ta?</I> And that of <I>Apollo?</I>
In which la$t we are told the Sibyls Ver$es
were de$troyed. We indeed find, that $carce
any Temple e$caped the $ame Calamity. <I>Dia-
dorus</I> writes, that there was none be$ides that
dedicated to <I>Venus,</I> in the City of <I>Eryx</I> in <I>Si-
cily,</I> that had e$caped to his Time unhurt by
the Flames. <I>C&aelig;$ar</I> owned that <I>Alexandria</I>
e$caped being burnt, when he him$elf took it,
becau$e its Roofs were vaulted. Nor are vault-
ed Roofs de$tituted of their Ornaments. The
Ancients transferred all the $ame Ornaments to
their Cupolas, as the Gold$miths u$ed about
the Pateras or Cups for the Sacrifices; and the
$ame Sort of Work as was u$ed in the Quilts
of their Beds, they imitated in their vaulted
Roofs, whether plain or camerated. Thus we
$ee them divided into four, eight, or more Pan-
nels, or cro$$ed different Ways with equal
Angles and with Circles, in the mo$t beautiful
Manner that can be imagined. And here it
may be proper to ob$erve, that the Ornaments
of vaulted Roofs, which con$i$t in the Forms
of their Pannels or Excavations, are in many
Places exceeding hand$ome, and particularly
at the <I>Rotonda</I> at <I>Rome;</I> yet we have no where
any In$truction left us in Writing how to make
them. My Method of doing it, which is very
ea$y and cheap, is as follows: I de$cribe the
Lineaments of the future Pannels or Excavati-
ons upon the Boards of the Scaffolding it$elf,
whether they are to be Quadrangular, Sexan-
gular, or Octangular. Then tho$e Parts which
I intended to excavate in my Roof, I rai$e to
the $tated Height with unbaked Bricks $et in
Clay in$tead of Mortar. Upon this Kind of
Mount thus rai$ed on the Back of the Scaffold-
ing, I build my vaulted Roof of Brick and Mor-
tar, taking great Care that the thinner Parts
cohere firmly with the Thicker and Stronger.
When the Vault is compleated and $ettled and
the Scaffolding is taken away from under it, I
clear the $olid Building from tho$e Mounts of
Clay which I had rai$ed at fir$t; and thus the
Shape of my Evcavations or Pannels are formed
according to my original De$ign. But to re-
turn to our Subject. I am extremely delighted
with an Ornament mentioned by <I>Varro,</I> who
tells us of a Roof on which was painted a Sky
with a moving Star in it, which by a Kind of
Hand $hewed at once the Hour of the Day and
what Wind blew abroad. I $hould be wonder-
fully plea$ed with $uch a Contrivance. The
Ancients were of Opinion that rai$ing the Roof
high and ending it with a Pedient gave $uch an
Air of Greatne$s to a Building, that they u$ed
to $ay the Hou$e of <I>Jove</I> him$elf, though they
never $uppo$ed it rained in Heaven, could
not look hand$ome without it. The Rule for
the$e Pediments is as follows. Take not more
than the Fourth nor le$s than the Fifth of the
Breadth of your Front along the Cornice, and
let this be the Summit or upper Angle of your
Pediment. Upon this Summit, as al$o at each
End, you $et Acroteria, or little Pede$tals for
Statues. The Height of the Acroteria or Pe-
de$tals at the Ends $hould be equal to that of
the Freze and Cornice; but that which $tands
on the Summit, $hould be an eighth Part higher
than the others. We are told that <I>Buccides</I>
was the fir$t that adorned his Pediments with
Statues, which he made of Earth coloured red;
but afterwards they came to be made of Mar-
ble, and the whole Covering too.</P>
<head>CHAP. XII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Apertures proper to Temples, namely, the Windows, Doors, and Valves;
together with their Members, Proportions and Ornaments.</I></head>
<P>The Windows in the Temple ought to
be $mall and high, $o that nothing but
the Sky may be $een through them; to the
Intent that both the Prie$ts that are employed
in the Performance of divine Offices, and tho$e
that a$$i$t upon Account of Devotion, may
<foot>not</foot>
<p n=>152</p>
not have their Minds any Ways diverted by fo-
reign Objects. That Horror with which a
$olemn Gloom is apt to $ill the Mind naturally
rai$es our Veneration, and there is always $ome-
what of an Au$terity in Maje$ty: Be$ides that
tho$e Lights which $hould be always burning
in Temples, and than which nothing is more
awful for the Honour and Ornament of Re-
ligion, look faint and langui$h, unle$s favoured
by $ome Ob$curity. For this Rea$on the Ancients
were very often contented without any other
Aperture be$ides the Gate. For my own Part,
I am for having the Entrance into the Temple
thoroughly well lighted, and tho$e Parts with-
in, where People are to walk, not melan-
choly; but the Place where the Altar is to be
$eated, I think $hould have more of Maje$ty
than Beauty. But to return to the Apertures
them$elves. Let us here remember what has
formerly been $aid, namely, that Apertures
con$i$t of three Parts, the Void, the Jambs
and the Lintel, which two la$t we may call
the Frame of the Door or Window. The An-
cients never u$ed to make either Doors or Win-
dows otherwi$e than $quare. We $hall treat
fir$t of Doors. All the be$t Architects, whe-
ther <I>Dorians, Ionians</I> or <I>Corinthians,</I> always
made their Doors narrower at the Top than
at the Bottom by one fourteenth Part. To
the Lintel they gave the $ame Thickne$s as
they found at the Top of the Jamb, making
the Lines of their Ornaments an$wer exactly
to one another, and meet together in ju$t
Angles: And they rai$ed the Cornice over the
Door equal in Height to the Capital of the
Columns in the Portico. Thus far they all
agreed, but in other Particulars they differed
<marg>*</marg>
very much. And fir$t the <I>Dorians</I> divided this
whole Height, that is to $ay, from the Level of
the Pavement up to the Roof, into $ixteen
Parts, whereof they gave ten to the Height of
the Void, which the Ancients u$ed to call the
Light; five to its Breadth, and one to the
Breadth of the Frame. This was the <I>Doric</I>
<marg>*</marg>
Divi$ion; but the <I>Ionians</I> divided the whole
Height to the Top of the Columns, as afore-
mentioned, into nineteen Parts, whereof they
gave twelve to the Height of the Light, $ix to
its Breadth, and one to the Frame. The <I>Co-
rinthians</I> divided it into one-and-twenty Parts,
a$$igning $even to the Breadth of the Light,
and doubling that Breadth for its Length, and
allowing for the Breadth of the Frame one
$eventh Part of the Breadth of the Light. In
all the$e Doors the Frame was an Architrave.
And, unle$s I am much mi$taken, the <I>Ionians</I>
made u$e of their own Architrave, adorned
with three Fa$cias, as did the <I>Dorians</I> too of
theirs, only leaving out the Reglets and
Drops; and all adorned their Lintels with
mo$t of the Delicacies of their Cornice; only
the <I>Dorians</I> left out their Triglyphs, and in-
$tead of them made u$e of a Freze as broad as
the Jamb or Frame of the Door. Over the
Freze they added an upright Cymatium; and
over that a plain Dentil, and next an Ovolo;
above that ran the Mutules with their Cymai$e,
and over them an inverted Cymatium; ob-
$erving in all the$e Members the $ame Pro-
portions as we have already $et down for the
<I>Doric</I> Entablature. The <I>Ionians,</I> on the con-
trary, did not make u$e of a plain Freze, as
in their common Entablature; but in$tead of
it made a $welling Freze, one third Part of
the Breadth of the Architrave, adorned with
Leaves bound about with a Kind of Swathes.
Over this they made their Cyma$e, Dentil,
Ovolo, Mutules, with their Cymai$e, and above
all the Drip and inverted Cymatium. Be$ides
this, at each End of the Entablature, on the
Out$ide of the Jamb, under the Drip, they
made a Sort of Ears, as we may call them,
from their Re$emblance to the hand$ome Ears
of a fine Spaniel, by Architects called, <I>Con$oles.</I>
The$e Con$oles were turned like a great S.
The Ends winding round in this Manner, <29>,
and the Thickne$s of the Con$ole at the Top
was equal to the Breadth of the $welling Freze,
and one fourth Part le$s at Bottom. The
Length reached down to the Top of the Void
<marg>*</marg>
or Light. The <I>Corinthians</I> applied to their
Doors all the Embelli$hments of a Collonade.
And to avoid further Repetitions, we adorn a
Door, e$pecially when it is to $tand under the
open Air with a Sort of little Portico, attached
again$t the Wall, in this Manner. Having made
the Frame of the Door, we place on each Side
an entire Column, or if you will only an half
Column, with their Ba$es at $uch a Di$tance
from each other, as to leave the Jambs, or
whole Antipagment clear. The Length of
the whole Columns with their Capitals, mu$t
be equal to the Di$tance between the outward
Edge of the left Ba$e to the outward Edge of
the Right. Over the$e Columns you make a
regular Architrave, Freze, Cornice and Pedi-
ment, according to all the $ame Proportions as
as we have above laid down for a Portico.
Some on each Side of the Door, in$tead of a
plain Jamb, made u$e of all the Ornaments of a
<foot>Cornice,</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plates 35-37, facing and following this page.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 35. <I>(Page 152)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 36. <I>(Page 152)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 37. <I>(Pages 152-53)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>153</p>
Cornice, $o allowing the Open a greater Width;
but this is a Delicacy much more $uitable to
the Hou$e of a private Per$on, and e$pecially
about Windows, than to the Door of a Tem-
ple. In very large Temples, and e$pecially in
$uch as have no other Apertures but the Door,
the Height of the Open of that Door is divided
into three Parts, the uppermo$t of which is left
by Way of Window, and grated, the Remain-
der $erves for the Door. The Door it$elf too,
or Valve, con$i$ts of different Members and
Proportions. Of the$e Members the Chief is
the Hinge, which is contrived after two Man-
ners; either by an iron Staple fixed in the
Door-ca$e; or el$e by Pins coming out from
the Top and Bottom of the Door it$elf, upon
which it balances and turns, and $o $huts and
opens. The Doors of Temples, which for the
Sake of Duration, are generally made of Bra$s,
and con$equently mu$t be very heavy, are bet-
ter tru$ted to Axles, in the later Manner, than
to hang upon any Staples. I $hall not here
$pend Time in giving an Account of tho$e
Doors which we read of in Hi$torians and Poets,
enriched with Gold, Ivory, and Statues, and
$o heavy that they could never be opened with-
out a Multitude of Hands, and $uch a Noi$e as
terri$ied the Hearers, I own Facility in open-
ing and $hutting them is more to my Mind.
Under the Bottom therefore of the lower Pin
or Axle, make a Box of Bra$s mixed with Tin,
and in this Box $ink a deep hollow Concave at
the Bottom; let the Bottom of the Axle have al$o
a Concavity in it, $o that the Box and the Axle
may contain between them a round Ball of
Steel, perfectly $mooth and well poli$hed. The
upper Pin or Axle mu$t al$o be let into a bra$s
Box made in the Lintel, and be$ides mu$t turn
in a moveable iron Circle as $mooth as it can
be made; and by this Means the Door will
never make the lea$t Re$i$tance in turning, but
$wing which Way you plea$e with all the Ea$e
imaginable. Every Door $hould have two Val-
ves or Leaves, one opening to one Side, and the
other to the other. The Thickne$s of the$e
Leaves $hould be one twelfth Part of their
Breadth. Their Ornament are Pannels or
$quare Mouldings applied lengthways down the
Leaf, and you may have as many of them as
you will, either two or three, one above the
other, or only one. If you have two, they mu$t
lie like the Steps of a Stair, one above the other,
and both mu$t take up no more of the Breadth
of the Leaf than a fourth, nor le$s than a $ixth
Part; and let the la$t, which lies above the
other, be one fifth Part broader than the un-
der one. If you have three of the$e Mould-
ings, ob$erve the $ame Proportions in them as
in the Faces of the <I>Ionic</I> Architrave: But if
you have only one Moulding, let it be not
more than a fifth, nor le$s than a $eventh Part
of the Breadth of the Leaf. The$e Mouldings
mu$t all fall inward to the Leaf with a Cima-
recta. The Length of the Leaf $hould al$o be
divided by other Mouldings cro$sways, giving
the upper Pannel two fifth Parts of the whole
Height of the Door. In Temples the Win-
dows mu$t be adorned in the $ame Manner as
the Doors; but their Apertures, being near the
highe$t Part of the Wall, and their Angles ter-
minating near the Vault of the Roof, they are
therefore made with an Arch, contrary to the
Practice in Doors. Their Breadth is twice their
Height; and this Breadth is divided by two
little Columns, placed according to the $ame
Rules as in a Portico; only that the$e Columns
are generally $quare. The De$igns for Niches,
Statues or other Repre$entations, are borrowed
from tho$e of Doors; and their Height mu$t
take up one third Part of their Wall. The
Ancients in the Windows of their Temples,
in$tead of Panes of Gla$s, made u$e of thin
tran$parent Scantlings of Alaba$ter, to keep out
Wind and Weather; or el$e made a Grate of
Bra$s or Marble, and filled up the Inter$paces
of this Grate not with brittle Gla$s, but with
a tran$parent Sort of Stone brought from <I>Se-
govia,</I> a Town in <I>Spain,</I> or from <I>Boulogne</I> in
<I>Picardy.</I> The Scantlings are $eldom above a
Foot broad, and are of a bright tran$parent
Sort of Plai$ter or Talk, endued by Nature
with a particular Property, namely, that it
never decays.</P>
<head>CHAP. XIII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Altar, Communion, Lights, Candle$ticks, Holy Ve$$els, and $ome other
noble Ornaments of Temples.</I></head>
<P>The next chief Point to be con$idered
in the Temple, is fixing the Altar,
where Divine Office is to be performed, which
$hould be in the mo$t honourable Place, and
this $eems to be exactly in the Middle of the
Tribune. The Ancients u$ed to make their
<foot>Rr Altar</foot>
<p n=>154</p>
Altar $ix Foot high and twelve Broad; and on
it placed the Statue of their Deity. Whether
or no it be proper to have more Altars for Sa-
crifice in a Temple, than one, I $hall leave to
the Judgment of others. Among our Fore-
fathers, in the primitive Times of our Religi-
on, the devout Chri$tians u$ed to meet toge-
ther at the Holy Supper, not to fill their Bodies
with Food, but in order to $often and huma-
nize their Manners by frequent Conver$ation
and Communion with each other; and having
filled their Minds with good In$tructions, they
returned every Man to his own Home, warm-
ed and inflamed with the Love of Virtue. For
having rather ta$ted than eat the moderate
Portion that was $et before them, they read
and rea$oned upon all Sort of divine Subjects.
Every one burnt with Charity towards his
Neighbour, for their common Salvation, and
for the Divine Wor$hip. La$tly, every Man,
according to his Power, paid a Kind of Tax
due to Piety, for the Maintenance of $uch as
truly de$erved it, and the Bi$hop di$tributed
the$e Contributions among $uch as wanted.
Thus all Things were common among them,
as among loving Brethren. Afterwards when
Princes con$ented that the$e Duties $hould be per-
formed publickly, they did not indeed deviate
much from the In$titution of their Forefathers;
but as greater Numbers came in than before,
the Supper was $till more moderate. The Ser-
mons preached in tho$e Times by the learned
Bi$hops, are $till extant in the Writings of the
Fathers. Thus in tho$e Ages they had but
one Altar, where they u$ed to meet to cele-
brate only one Sacrifice in a Day. Next $uc-
ceeded the$e our Times, which I wi$h to God
$ome worthy Man might ari$e to reform, and
be this $aid without Offence to our Popes, who,
though to keep up their own Dignity, they
hardly $uffer them$elves to be $een by the
People once in a Year, yet have $o crowded
every Place with Altars, and perhaps too with
-------But I $hall venture to $ay no more.
This I may venture to affirm, that as there is
nothing in Nature can be imagined more Holy
or Noble than our Sacrifice, $o I believe no
Man of Sen$e can be for having it deba$ed by
being made too common. There are other
Sorts of Ornaments al$o, not fixed, which
$erve to adorn and grace the Sacrifice; and
others of the $ame Nature that embelli$h the
Temple it$elf, the Direction of which belongs
likewife to the Architect. It has been a Que$-
tion which is the mo$t beautiful Sight: A large
Square full of Youth employed about their $e-
veral Sports; or a Sea full of Ships; or a Field
with a victorious Army drawn out in it; or a
Scnate-hou$e full of venerable Magi$trates; or
a Temple illuminated with a great Number of
chearful Lights? I would de$ire that the Lights
in a Temple $hould have $omewhat of a Maje-
$ty in them which is not to be found in the
blinking Tapers that we u$e now-a-days. They
might, indeed, have a good Effect enough if
they were $et in Rows with any thing of a
pretty Regularity, or $tuck all along the Edge
of the Cornice. But I am much better plea$ed
with the Ancients, who on the Top of their
Candle$ticks fixed large Shells in which they
lighted an odoriferous Flame. They divided
the whole Length of the Candle$ticks into $e-
ven Parts, two of which they gave to the Ba$e,
which was triangular, and longer than it was
broad , and broader at Botton than
at Top . The Shaft of the Candle-
$tick was divided by $everal little Pans placed
one above the other, to catch the Drops that
fell from the upper Shell; and at the Top of
all was that Shell, full of Gums and odoriferous
Woods. We have an Account how much
$weet Balm u$ed to be burnt on every Holy-
day in the principal Churches by the Emperor's
Order in <I>Rome,</I> at the publick Charge; and it
was no le$s than five hundred and four $core
Pounds Weight. And this may $uffice as to
Lamps: Let us now ju$t mention $ome other
Things, which are very noble Ornaments in
Temples. We read that <I>Gyges</I> gave to the
Temple of the <I>Pythian Apollo,</I> $ix great Cups
of ma$$y Gold, which weighed thirty thou$and
Pound Weight; and that at <I>Delphos</I> there
were Ve$$els of $olid Gold and Silver, each of
which would contain $ix Amphoras, or about
four-and-fifty of our Gallons, among which
there were $ome that were more valued for the
Invention and Workman$hip than for the Me-
tal. We are told that in the Temple of <I>Juno</I>
at <I>Samos,</I> there was a Ve$$el, carved all about
with Figures in Steel, $ent by the <I>Spartans</I> as
a Pre$ent to <I>Cr&oelig;$us,</I> $o large, that it would
hold three hundred Amphoras, or two thou-
$and $even hundred Gallons. We read too that
the <I>Samians</I> $ent as a Pre$ent to <I>Delphos</I> an
iron Cauldron with the Heads of $everal Ani-
mals finely wrought upon it, and $upported $e-
veral kneeling colo$$al Statues ten Foot and a
half high. It was a wonderful Contrivance of
<I>Sanniticus</I> the <I>&AElig;gyptian,</I> in the Temple of the
God <I>Apis,</I> which was extremely rich in diffe-
<foot>rent</foot>
<p n=>155</p>
rent Columns and Statues, in making an Image
of that God which was continually turning
round to face the Sun. And there was $ome-
what yet more wonderful than this in the Tem-
ple of <I>Diana</I> at <I>Ephe$us;</I> which was, <I>Cupid's</I>
Dart hanging upon nothing. For $uch kind
of Ornaments no other certain Rule can be
given, but that they be $et in decent Places,
where they may be viewed with Wonder and
Reverence.</P>
<head>CHAP. XIV.</head>
<head><I>Of the fir$t Original of Ba$iliques, their Porticoes and different Members, and
wherein they differ from Temples.</I></head>
<P>It is certain that at fir$t Ba$iliques were no-
thing but Places where the Magi$trates u$ed
to meet to admini$ter Ju$tice under Shelter,
and the Tribunal was added to give the greater
Air of Maje$ty to the Structure. Afterwards
in order to enlarge them, the principal Roof
being found not $ufficient, Porticoes were add-
ed on each Side, fir$t a $ingle, and in Time a
double one. Others acro$s the Tribunal made
a Nave, which we $hall call the Ju$ticiary Nave,
as being the Place for the Concour$e of the
Notaries, Sollicitors and Advocates, and joined
this Nave to the other I$les after the Manner of
the Letter T. The Porticoes without were
$uppo$ed to be added afterwards for the Con-
venience of Servants: So that the Ba$ilique
con$i$ts of Naves or I$les, and of Porticoes: But
as the Ba$ilique $eems to partake of the Na-
ture of the Temple, it has claimed mo$t of the
Ornaments belonging to the Temple, but $till
in $uch a Manner as to $eem rather to imitate
than to pretend to equal it in Embelli$hments.
It is rai$ed above the Level of the Ground, like
the Temple, but an eighth Part le$s; that $o
it may yield to the Temple, as to the more
honourable Structure: And indeed none of its
other Ornaments mu$t be allowed the $ame So-
lemnity as tho$e u$ed in a Temple. Moreover
there is this further Difference between the
Ba$ilique and the Temple, that the I$les in the
former mu$t be clear and open, and its Win-
dows per$ectly light$ome, upon account of the
$ometimes tumultuous Crowd of Litigants, and
for the Conveniency of examining and $ub-
$cribing to Writings; and it would be very
proper, if it could be $o contrived, that $uch as
came to $eek either their Clients or their Pa-
trons, might immediately find them out; For
which Rea$on the Columns ought to be $et at
a greater Di$tance from each other; and there-
fore tho$e that $upport Arches are the mo$t
proper, though $uch as bear Architraves are
not to be wholly rejected. Thus we may de-
fine the Ba$ilique to be a clear $pacious Walk
covered with a Roof, with Porticoes or I$les on
the In$ide; becau$e that which is without I$les
$eems to me to have more in it of the Court
of Ju$tice or Senate-hou$e, whereof we $hall
$peak in due Time, than of the Ba$ilique. The
Platform of the Ba$ilique $hould be twice as
long as broad; and the chief I$le, which is that
in the Middle, and the cro$s one, which we
have called the Ju$ticiary, $hould be entirely
<marg>*</marg>
clear and free for Walkers. If it is to have on-
ly one $ingle I$le on each Side, without the
Ju$ticiary Nave, you may order your Propor-
tions as follows: Divide the Breadth of the
Platform into nine Parts, whereof five of them
mu$t be allowed to the middle I$le, and two to
each Portico or $ide I$le. The Length too
mu$t be divided into nine Parts, one of which
mu$t be given to the Sweep of the Tribunal,
and two to the Breadth or Entrance into that
<marg>&dagger;</marg>
Tribunal. But if be$ides the $ide I$le you
would have a Ju$ticiary Nave, then divide the
Breadth of the Platform only into four Parts,
giving two to the middle I$le, and one to each
$ide I$le; and divide the Length as follows:
Give one twelfth Part of it to the Sweep of the
Tribunal, two twelfths and an half to the
Breadth of its Entrance, and let the Breadth of
the Ju$ticiary Nave be the $ixth Part of the
<marg>&ddager;</marg>
Length of the whole Platform. But if you are
to have not only the Ju$ticiary Nave, but double
I$les be$ides; then divide the Breadth of the
Platform into ten Parts, giving four to the
middle I$le, and three on each Side to be di-
vided equally for the $ide I$les, and divide the
Length into twenty Parts, giving one and a
half to the Sweep of the Tribunal, and three
and one third to its Entrance, and allowing on-
ly three Parts to the Breadth of the Ju$ticiary
Nave. The Walls of the Ba$ilique need not
be $o thick as tho$e of the Temple; becau$e
<foot>they</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plates 38 and 39, following page 156.</I></foot>
<foot>&dagger; <I>See Plates 40 and 41, following page 156.</I></foot>
<foot>&ddager; <I>See Plates 42 and 43, following page 156.</I></foot>
<p n=>156</p>
they are not de$igned to $upport the Weight
of a vaulted Roof, but only a flat one of Sum-
mers and Rafters. Let their Thickne$s there-
fore be only one twentieth Part of their Height,
and let their Height be only once the Breadth
of the Front and an Half, and never more. At
the Angles of the I$les come out Pila$ters from
the Naked of the Wall, running parallel with,
and on a Line with, the Columns, not le$s than
twice, nor more than three Times the Thick-
ne$s of the Wall. Others, $till more to $trength-
en the Building, make $uch a Pila$ter in the
Middle of the Row of Columns, in Breadth
three of the Diameters of one the Columns, or
at mo$t four. The Columns them$elves too
mu$t never have the $ame Solidity as tho$e
u$ed in Temples; and therefore, if we make
our Colonades with an Architrave over it, we
may ob$erve the following Rules. If the Co-
lumns are to be <I>Corinthian,</I> $ub$tract a twelfth
Part from their Diameter; if <I>Ionic,</I> a tenth;
if <I>Doric,</I> a ninth. As for the Compo$ition of
the other Members, the Capitals, Architrave,
Freze, Cornice, and the like, you may proceed
in the $ame Manner as in Temples.</P>
<head>CHAP. XV.</head>
<P><I>Of Colonades both with Architraves and with Arches; what Sort of Columns
are to be u$ed in Ba$iliques, and what Cornices, and where they are to be
placed; of the Height and Wedth of Windows and their Gratings; of the
Roofs and Doors of Ba$iliques, and their Ornaments.</I></P>
<P>Columns that are to have Arches over
them, ought by rights to be $quare; for
if they were round, the Work would not be
true, becau$e the Heads of the Arches would
not lie plum upon the Solid of the Column
underneath; but as much as their Squares ex-
ceeded a Circle, $o much of them would hang
over the Void. To remedy this Defect, the
be$t ancient Ma$ters placed over the Capitals
of their Columns another Abacus or Plinth, in
Thickne$s $ometimes one fourth and $ometimes
one fi$th Part of the Diameter of the Column;
the upper Part of this Plinth, which went off
with a Cima-recta, was equal to the greate$t
Breadth of the Top of the Capital, and its Pro-
jecture was equal to its Height, $o that by this
means the Heads and Angles of the Arches had
a $uller and firmer Seat. Colonades with
Arches, as well as tho$e with Architraves, are
various, $ome being thinner $et, others clo$er,
and $o on. In the clo$er Sort the Height of
the Void mu$t be three Times and an half the
Breadth of the Aperture; in the thin Set, the
Height mu$t be once the Breadth and two
thirds; in the le$s thin, the Height mu$t be
twice the Breadth; in the clo$e$t of all, the
Breadth mu$t be one third of the Height. We
have formerly ob$erved, that an Arch is no-
thing el$e but a Beam bent. We may there-
fore give the $ame Ornaments to Arches as to
Architraves, according to the different Sorts of
Columns over which they are turned; be$ides
which, if we would have our Structure very
rich, over the Heads of our Arches we may
run an Architrave, Freze, and Cornice in a
$traight Line, with the $ame Proportions as we
$hould make them over Columns that $hould
reach to that Height. But as the Ba$ilique is
$ometimes encompa$$ed only with one $ingle
I$le, and at other Times with two, the Place of
the Cornice over the Columns and Arches mu$t
vary accordingly. In tho$e which are encom-
pa$$ed only with one $ingle Portico, having di-
vided the Height of your Wall into nine Parts,
the Cornice mu$t go only to five; or if you
divide it into $even, to four. But in tho$e
which are to have double I$les, the Cornice
mu$t be placed at one third of the Height of
the Wall at lea$t, and at never more than three
eighths. We may al$o over the fir$t Cornice,
as well for the greater Ornament as for real
U$e, place other Columns, and e$pecially Pi-
la$ters, directly plum over the Centers of the
Columns which are below them. And this
indeed is of great Service, as it maintains the
Strength and Firmne$s of the Ribs of the Work,
and adds Maje$ty to it, and at the $ame Time
takes off much from the Weight and Expence
of the Wall; and over this upper Colonade
too we make a regular Entablature, according
to the Order of the Columns. In Ba$iliques
with double Side I$les, we may rai$e three Rows
of Columns in this Manner one above another;
but in others we $hould make but two. Where
<foot>you</foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 38. <I>(Page 155)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 39. <I>(Page 155)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 40. <I>(Page 155)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 41. <I>(Page 155)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 42. <I>(Page 155-56)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 43. <I>(Page 155-56)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>157</p>
you have three Rows of Columns, divide the
Space that is between the fir$t Row and the
Roof into two Parts, and in that Divi$ion end
the $econd Cornice. Between the fir$t and $e-
cond Cornices, let the Wall be pre$erved en-
tire, and adorn it with $ome beautiful Sorts of
Stuc-work; but in the Wall between the $e-
cond and the third Cornices, you mu$t make
your Windows for lighting the whole Structure.
The Windows in Ba$iliques mu$t be $et exactly
over the Intercolumnations, and an$wer regu-
larly to one another. The Breadth of the$e
Windows mu$t not be le$s than three Fourths
of the Intercolumnation, and their Height
may very conveniently be twice their Breadth.
Their Head-piece may be upon a Line with
the Top of the Columns, exclu$ive of the Ca-
pitals, if the$e Windows be made $quare; but
if they are round, their Arch may come al-
mo$t even with the Architrave, and $o lower
as you think fit to dimini$h the Arch; but
they mu$t never ri$e above the Tops of the
Columns. At the Bottom of the Window
mu$t be a Plat-band for a Re$t or Leaning
Place, with a Cima-recta and an Ovolo. The
Open of the Window mu$t be grated, tho' not
paned with $cantling Tale like tho$e of the
Temple; but $till they mu$t have $omething
to keep out Wind and Weather. On the other
Hand, it is nece$$ary to have a free Vent for
the Air, that the Du$t which is rai$ed by the
Peoples Feet may not injure their Eyes and
Lungs; and therefore I think nothing does
better here, than tho$e fine Grates, either of
Bra$s or Lead, with an infinite Number of
$mall Holes di$po$ed in a regular Order, al-
mo$t like a Picture, which admit both Light
and Air to refre$h the Spirits. The Roof or Ceil-
ing will be extreamly hand$ome, if it is compo$-
ed of different Pannels nicely jointed together,
with large Circles, in hand$ome Proportions,
mixed with other Compartments and Angles,
and if tho$e Pannels are $eparated from each
other with flying Cornices, with all their due
Members, and with their Coffits adorned with
carved Work of Gems in Relief, intermixed
with beautiful Flowers, either of the Acanthus
or any other, the Pannels being enriched with
lively Colours, by the Hand of $ome ingeni-
ous Painter, which will add a $ingular Grace
to the whole Work. <I>Pliny</I> tells us of an ex-
traordinary Cement for laying Gold upon
Wood-work; which may be made as follows.
Mix together $ix Pounds of Sinoper, or Terra
Pontica, and ten Pounds of red Oker, mixed
with two Pounds of Terra Melina or White
Lead, which mu$t be all ground together, and
the pa$t kept full ten Days before it is u$ed.
Ma$tic $teept in Lin$eed Oil, and mixed with
Helbic Sinoper or Ruddle well burnt, makes
a Cement or Glue that will hardly ever come
off. The Height of the Door of the Ba$ilique
mu$t be an$werable to that of the I$les. If
there be a Portico on the Out$ide, by Way of
Ve$tibule, it mu$t be of the $ame Height and
Breadth as the I$le within. The Void Cham-
branle, and other Members of the Door mu$t
be made after the $ame Rules at the Door of
the Temple; but in a Ba$ilique the Leaf
$hould never be of the Bra$s. But you may
make it of Cypre$s, Cedar, or any other fine
Wood, and enrich it with Bo$$es of Bra$s, con-
triving the Whole rather for Strength than
Delicacy: Or if you would have it beautiful
or noble, do not embeli$h it with any minute
Ornaments in Imitation of Painting, but adorn
it with $ome Relieve, not too high rai$ed,
that may make the Work look hand$ome, and
not to be too liable to be injured. Some have
of late begun to build Ba$iliques circular. In
the$e the Height in the Middle mu$t be equal
to the Breadth of the whole Structure; but
the Porticoes, Colonades, Doors and Windows
mu$t be in the $ame Proportions as in the
$quare Ba$ilique. Of this Subject $ufficient has
been $aid.</P>
<head>CHAP. XVI.</head>
<head><I>Of Monuments rai$ed for pre$erving the Memory of publick Actions and
Events.</I></head>
<P>I come now to $peak of Monuments erected
for pre$erving the Memory of great Events;
and here by Way of Relief I $hall take the
Liberty to unbend my$elf a little from that In-
ten$ene$s and Dryne$s which is nece$$ary in
tho$e Parts of this Work which turn altogether
upon Numbers and Proportions: However,
I $hall take Care not to be too prolix. Our
<foot>S$ Ance$tors,</foot>
<p n=>158</p>
Ance$tors, when, having overcome their Ene-
mies, they were endeavouring with all their
Power to enlarge the Confines of their Em-
pire, u$ed to $et up Statues and Terms to mark
the Cour$e of their Victories, and to di$tingui$h
the Limits of their Conque$ts. This was the
Origin of Pyramids, Obelisks, and the like
Monuments for the Di$tinction of Limits.
Afterwards being willing to make $ome Ac-
knowledgment to the Gods for the Victories
which they had gained, they dedicated Part of
their Plunder to Heaven, and con$ecrated the
publick Rejoycings to Religion. This gave
Ri$e to Altars, Chapels, and other Monuments
nece$$ary for their Purpo$es. They were al$o
de$irous of eternizing their Memory to Po$te-
rity, and of making even their Per$ons, as well
as Virtues known to future Ages. This pro-
duced Trophies, Spoils, Statues, In$criptions,
and the like Inventions for propagating the
Fame of great Exploits. People of lower Rank
too, tho' not eminent for any particular Ser-
vice done their Country, but only for their
Wealth or Pro$perity, were fond of imitating
the $ame Practice, in which many different
Methods have been taken. The Terms erected
by <I>Bacchus,</I> at the End of his Progre$s thro'
<I>India,</I> were Stones $et up at certain Di$tances,
and great Trees with their Trunks encom-
pa$$ed with Ivy. At <I>Ly$imachia</I> was a very
large Altar, which was $et up by the <I>Argo-
nauts,</I> when they pa$$ed by that Place in their
Voyage. <I>Pau$anias,</I> on the Banks of the Ri-
ver <I>Hippanis,</I> near the Black Sea, fixed a huge
Va$e of Bra$s, $ix Inches thick, which would
contain $ix hundred * Amphoras. <I>Alexander,</I>
near the River <I>Alce$tes,</I> which falls into the
Ocean, erected twelve Altars of prodigious large
$quare Stones, and near the <I>Tanais</I> $urrounded
all the Space of Ground which his Army took
up in its Encampment, with a Wall which
was $even Miles and an half in Compa$s.
<I>Darius,</I> having $et down his Camp near <I>Oth-
ry$ia,</I> upon the River <I>Arte$roe,</I> commanded
his Soldiers to throw each of them one Stone
in different Heaps, which being very large
and numerous, might fill Po$terity with A$-
toni$hment. <I>Se$o$tris,</I> in his Wars, erected an
Obelisk with hand$ome In$criptions, in Ho-
nour of tho$e who made a brave Re$i$tance
again$t him; but tho$e who $ubmitted ba$ely
he branded with Infamy, by $etting up Obe-
lisks and Columns with the Pudenda of a Wo-
man carved upon them. <I>Ja$on,</I> in all the
Countries thro' which he pa$$ed, erected
Temples in his own Honour, which we are
told were all demoli$hed by <I>Parmenio,</I> to the
Intent, that no Memorial might any where
remain but that of <I>Alexander.</I> The$e were
Monuments erected during the Expeditions
them$elves; others, $uch as follow, were rai$ed
after the Victory obtained, and the Conque$t
compleated. In the Temple of <I>Pallas, the
Diligent</I> hung the Shackles with which the
<I>Lacedemonians</I> had been fettered. The <I>Evi-
ans</I> not only pre$erved in their Temple the
Stone with which the <I>Phymian</I> King $lew the
King of <I>Machien$es,</I> but even wor$hiped it as
a God. The <I>&AElig;ginet&aelig;</I> dedicated to their
Temple the Beaks of the Ships which they
took from their Enemies. In Imitation of
them <I>Augu$tus,</I> having overcome the <I>&AElig;gyp-
tians,</I> erected four Trophies of the Beaks of
their Ships; which were afterwards removed
to the Capitol by the Emperor <I>Domitian, Ju-
lius C&aelig;$ar</I> had before rai$ed two of the $ame
Sort, one upon the Ro$trum, and the other
before the Senate, upon defeating the <I>Cartha-
ginians</I> in a naval Engagement. Why need I
mention that infinite Number of Towers,
Temples, Obelisks, Pyramids, Labyrinths, and
the like Works which we read of in Hi$tori-
ans? I $hall only ob$erve, that this De$ire of
perpetuating their Names by $uch Structures,
ro$e to $uch a Pitch among the Heroes of old,
that they even built Towns for no other Pur-
po$e, calling them by their own Names to de-
liver them down to Po$terity. <I>Alexander,</I> not
to mention many others, be$ides tho$e Cities
which he built in Honour of his own Name,
went $o far as to build one after the Name of his
Hor$e <I>Bucephalus.</I> But in my Opinion, what
<I>Pompey</I> did was much more decent; when having
defeated <I>Mithridates</I> in the lower <I>Armenia,</I> he
built the City <I>Nicopolis</I> (or of Victory) in the
very Place where he had been Conqueror. But
<I>Seleucus</I> $eems to have far out$tript all the$e;
$or he built three Cities in Honour of his
Wife, and called them <I>Apamia;</I> five in Ho-
nour of his Mother, by the Name of <I>Laodicea;</I>
nine called <I>Seleucia,</I> in Honour of his own
Name; and ten in Memory of his Father,
which were called <I>Antiocha.</I> Others have made
them$elves famous to Po$terity, not $o much
by Magnificence and Expence, as by $ome par-
ticular new Invention. <I>C&aelig;$ar,</I> with the Berries
of the Laurel which he had worn in Triumph,
planted a Grove which he con$ecrated to fu-
ture Triumphers. Near <I>A$calon</I> in <I>Syria,</I> was
<foot>* An Amphora was about nine Gallons of our Mea$ure.</foot>
<foot>a famous</foot>
<p n=>159</p>
a famous Temple, in which ftood the Statue
of <I>Dercetis</I> (the $ame that is called in Scripture
<I>Dagon</I>) with his upper Parts like a Man, and
his lower like a Fi$h; who was thus honoured,
becau$e from that Place he threw him$elf into
the Lake: And if any <I>Sytian</I> ta$ted of the
Fi$h that was in it, he was looked upon as ex-
communicate. The <I>Mutinii,</I> or ancient <I>Mo-
deneze,</I> near the Lake <I>Fucinus,</I> repre$ented
<I>Medea</I> the Serpent-killer, under the Shape of
a Serpent, becau$e by her Means they fancied
them$elves freed from tho$e Animals. Of the
$ame Nature was <I>Hercules's Lern&aelig;an Hydra,
Io</I> changed into a Cow, and the other Fables
related in the Ver$es of the ancient Poets;
with which Inventions I am very much de-
lighted, provided $ome virtuous Precept
be contained in them; as in that Symbol
which was carved upon <I>Symandes</I>'s Sepulchre,
in which was a Judge $urrounded by $ome
other chief Magi$trates cloathed in the Habits
of Prie$ts, and from their Necks hung down
upon their Brea$ts the Image of Truth with
her Eyes clos'd, and $eeming to nod her Head
towards them. In the Middle was a Heap of
Books, with this In$cription upon it: This is
the true Phy$ick of the Mind.</P>
<P>BUT the Invention of Statues was the mo$t
excellent of all, as they are a noble Ornament
for all Sorts of Structures, whether $acred or
profane, publick or private, and pre$erve a
wonderful Repre$entation both of Per$ons and
Actions. Whatever great Genius it was that
invented Statues, it is thought they owe their
Beginning to the $ame Nation as the Religion
of the ancient <I>Romans;</I> the fir$t Statue being
by $ome $aid to be made by the <I>Etrurians.</I>
Others are of Opinion, that the <I>Telchines</I> of
<I>Rhodes,</I> were the fir$t that made Statues of the
Gods, which being formed according to cer-
tain magical Rules, had Power to bring up
Clouds and Rain, and other Meteors, and to
change them$elves into the Shapes of different
Animals. Among the <I>Greeks, Cadmus,</I> the
Son of <I>Agenor,</I> was the fir$t that con$ecrated
Statues of the Gods to the Temple. We are
informed by <I>Ari$totle,</I> that the fir$t Statues that
were placed in the publick Forum of <I>Athens,</I>
were tho$e of <I>Harmodius</I> and <I>Ari$togiton,</I> who
were the fir$t Deliverers of the City from Ty-
ranny; and <I>Arrian</I> the Hi$torian tells us, that
the$e very Statues were $ent back again to
<I>Athens</I> by <I>Alexander</I> from <I>Su$a,</I> whither <I>Xer-
xes</I> had removed them. The Number of Sta-
tues was $o great at <I>Rome,</I> that they were call-
ed a Marble People. <I>Rhap$inates,</I> a very ancient
<I>&AElig;gyptian</I> King, erected a Statue of Stone to
<I>Vulcan</I> above $even-and-thirty Foot high.
<I>Se$o$tris</I> made Statues of him$elf and his Wife
of the Height of eight-and-forty Foot. <I>Ama$is</I>
$et up a Statue near <I>Memphis,</I> in a leaning
Po$ture, which was forty-$even Foot long, and
in its Pede$tal were two others, each twenty
Foot high. In the Sepulchre of <I>Simandes</I> were
three Statues of <I>Jupiter,</I> made by <I>Memnon,</I> of
wonderful Workman$hip, being all cut out of
one $ingle Stone, whereof one, which was in a
$itting Po$ture, was $o large, that only its Foot
was above $even Foot and an Half long; and
what was extremely $urprizing in it, be$ides the
Skill of the Arti$t, in all that huge Stone there
was not the lea$t Spot or Flaw. Others after-
wards, when they could not find Stones large
enough to make Statues of the Size which they
de$ired, made u$e of Bra$s, and formed $ome of
no le$s than an hundred Cubits, or an hundred
and fifty Foot high. But the greate$t Work
we read of in this Kind, was that of <I>Semiramis,</I>
who not being able to find any Stone large
enough for her Purpo$e, and being re$olved to
make $omething much bigger than was po$$ible
to be done with Bra$s, contrived near a Moun-
tain in <I>Media</I> called <I>Bagi$tan,</I> to have her own
Image carved out of a Rock of two Miles and
a furlong in Length, with the Figures of an
hundred Men offering Sacrifice to her, hewn
out of the $ame Stone. There is one Particu-
lar relating to this Article of Statues, mention-
ed by <I>Diodorus,</I> by no means to be omitted;
which is, that the <I>&AElig;gyptian</I> Statuaries were
arrived at $uch a Pitch of Skill in their Art, that
they would out of $everal Stones in $everal dif-
ferent Places make one Statue, which when
put together $hould $eem to be all the Work
of one Hand; in which $urprizing Manner we
are told the Statue of the <I>Pythian Apollo</I> at
<I>Samos</I> was made, one half of it being wrought
by <I>Thele$ius,</I> and the other half by <I>Theodorus</I> at
<I>Ephe$us.</I> The$e Things I thought it not ami$s
to write here by way of Recreation, which,
though very u$eful in them$elves, are here in-
$erted only as an Introduction to the follow-
ing Book, where we $hall treat of the Monu-
ments rai$ed by private Per$ons; to which
they properly belong. For as private Men have
$carce $uffered even Princes to outdo them in
Greatne$s of Expence for perpetuating their
Memories, but being equally fired with the
De$ire of making their Names famous, have
$pared for no Co$t which their Fortunes would
<foot>bear,</foot>
<p n=>160</p>
bear, to get the A$$i$tance and Skill of the be$t
Arti$ts for their Purpo$e; they have accord-
ingly rivalled the greate$t Kings in fine De$igns
and noble Compo$itions, $o as, in my Opinion,
to be very little, if at all, inferior to them. But
tho$e Works are re$erved for the next Book,
in which I dare promi$e the Reader he $hall
find $ome Entertainment worth his Pains. But
fir$t we are here to $peak of $ome few Particu-
lars nece$$ary to our pre$ent Subject.</P>
<head>CHAP. XVII.</head>
<head><I>Whether Statues ought to be placed in Temples, and what Materials are the
mo$t proper for making them.</I></head>
<P>Some are again$t placing any Statues in
Temples; and we are told that <I>Numa,</I>
being a Di$ciple of <I>Pythagoras,</I> would allow of
none: And <I>Seneca</I> rallies him$elf and his Coun-
trymen upon this Account; we play with Ba-
bies, $ays he, like Children. The Ancients,
who were of this Opinion, u$ed to argue con-
cerning the Gods in the following Manner:
Who can be $o weak as not to know, that every
Thing relating to the Gods is to be con$idered
with the Mind, and not with the Eyes, $ince it
is impo$$ible to give them any Form that can
be in the lea$t Degree an$werable to the Ex-
cellence of their Nature? And indeed they
thought that the having no vi$ible Repre$enta-
tions of them made by Hands, mu$t have a
very good Effect, as it would put every Man
upon forming $uch an Idea of the fir$t Mover,
and of the $upreme Intelligence, as be$t $uited
his own Capacity and Way of Thinking: By
which he would be the more induced to revere
the Maje$ty of the Divine Name. Others
thought quite differently, holding, that the
Gods were repre$ented under human Forms to
a very wi$e End, and that they had a very good
Influence upon the Minds and Morals of the
Vulgar, who when they approached tho$e Sta-
tues, imagined they were in the Pre$ence of
the Gods them$elves. Others e$pecially were
for $etting up to publick View in con$ecrated
Places, the Effigies of $uch as had de$erved well
of Mankind, and were therefore $uppo$ed to be
admitted among the Gods, believing it mu$t
in$pire Po$terity, when they came to wor$hip
them, with a Love of Glory, and an Emulati-
on of their Virtue. It is certainly a Point of
great Importance what Statues we $et up, e$-
pecially in Temples, as al$o whereabouts, in
what Number, and of what Materials: For no
ridiculous Figures are to be admitted here, as
of the God <I>Priapus,</I> that is u$ually $et up in
Gardens to $care away the Birds; nor of fight-
ing Soldiers, as in Porticoes, or the like; nei-
ther do I think they $hould be placed in clo$e
Nooks and mean Corners. But fir$t let us treat
of the Materials with which they $hould be
made, and then proceed to the other Points.
Of old, $ays <I>Plutarch,</I> they u$ed to make their
Images of Wood; as was that of <I>Apollo</I> at <I>De-
los;</I> and at <I>Popolonia,</I> near <I>Piombino,</I> was one
of <I>Jupiter</I> of Vine-tree, which many affirmed
to have remained perfectly clear of the lea$t
Corruption. Of the $ame Sort was that of the
<I>Ephe$ian Diana,</I> which $ome $aid was of Ebony,
but <I>Mu$ianus</I> tells us it was of Vine-tree. <I>Peras,</I>
who built the Temple of <I>Juno</I> the <I>Argive,</I> and
dedicated his Daughter to be Prie$te$s of it,
made a <I>Jupiter</I> out of the Trunk of a Pear-
tree. Some would not allow the Statues of the
Gods to be made of Stone, as thinking that
Material had $omething in it too rugged and
cruel. They al$o di$approved of Gold and
Silver for this U$e, becau$e tho$e Metals are
produced of a barren ungrateful Soil, and have
a wan $ickly Hue. The Poet $ays:</P>
<P><I>Great</I> Jove <I>$tood crampt beneath the lowly Roof,
Scarce full erect; and in his mighty Hand
Brandi$h'd aloft a Thunderbolt of Clay.</I></P>
<P>SOME among the <I>&AElig;gyptians</I> were of Opini-
on, that the Sub$tance of God was Fire, and
that he dwelt in the elemental Flame, and
could not be conceived by the Sen$es of Man-
kind: For which Rea$on they made their
Gods of Chri$tal. Others thought the Gods
ought to be made of black Stone, in the Sup-
po$ition of that Colour being incomprehen$i-
ble; and others la$tly of Gold, in Conformity
with the Colour of the Stars. I own for my
Part, I have been very much in Su$pen$e what
Materials was mo$t proper for making Images
that are to be the Objects of Wor$hip. You
will $ay, no doubt, that whatever is to be made
<foot>into</foot>
<p n=>161</p>
into the Repre$entation of God, ought to be
the noble$t Material that can be had. Next to
the noble$t is the rare$t; and yet I would not be
for making them of Salt, as <I>Solinus</I> informs us
the <I>Sicilians</I> u$ed to do; nor of Gla$s, like
$ome mentioned by <I>Pliny;</I> neither would I
have them of ma$$y Gold or Silver, not that
I di$like tho$e Materials for being produced of
a barren Soil, or for their $ickly Hue; but for
other Rea$ons: Among which one is, that I
think it $hould be a Point of Religion with us
that tho$e Repre$entations which we $et up to
be adored as Gods, $hould bear as much Re-
$emblance to the Divine Nature as po$$ible.
For this Rea$on, I would have them made im-
mortal in Duration, as far as it is in the Power
of mortal Men to effect it. And here I cannot
help enquiring, what $hould be the Rea$on of
a very whim$ical, though very old Per$ua$ion,
which is firmly rooted in the Minds of the Vul-
gar, that a Picture of God, or of $ome Saint in
one Place $hall hear the Prayers of Votaries,
when in another Place the Statue of the very
$ame God or Saint $hall be utterly deaf to them?
Nay, and what is $till more non$en$ical, if you
do but remove the very $ame Statue, for which
the People u$ed to have the highe$t Venerati-
on, to $ome other Station, they $eem to look
upon it as a Bankrupt, and will neither tru$t it
with their Prayers, nor take the lea$t Notice of
it. Such Statues $hould therefore have Seats
that are fixed, eminent and peculiar to them-
$elves. It is $aid, that there never was any
beautiful Piece of Workman$hip known in the
Memory of Man to be made of Gold, as if that
Prince of Metals di$dained to owe any thing to
the Skill of an Artificer. If this be true, we
$hould never u$e it in the Statues of our Gods,
which we $hould de$ire to make $uitable to the
Subject. Be$ides that, the Thir$t of the Gold
might tempt $ome not only to rob our Statue
of his Beard, but to melt him quite down. I
$hould chu$e Bra$s, if the lovely Purity of fine
white Marble did not oblige me to give that
the Preference. Yet there is one Con$iderati-
on which weighs very much in Favour of Bra$s,
and that is its Duration, provided we make our
Statue not $o ma$$y, but that the Odium and
Dete$tation of $poiling it may be much greater
than the Profit to be made by melting it down
for other Purpo$es: I would have it indeed no
more than if it were beat out with a Hammer,
or run into a thin Plate, $o as to $eem no more
than a Skin. We read of a Statue made of
Ivory, $o large that it would hardly $tand under
the Roof of the Temple. But that I di$like,
for there ought to be a due Proportion ob$erv-
ed as well in Size, as in Form and Compo$iti-
on: Upon which Accounts too the Figures of
the greater Deities, with their gruff Beards, and
$tern Countenances, do not $uit well in the
$ame Place with the $oft Features of Virgins. I
am likewi$e of Opinion, that the having but
few Statues of Gods, may help to increa$e the
People's Veneration and Reverence to them.
Two, or at mo$t three, may be placed proper-
ly enough upon the Altar. All the re$t may be
di$po$ed in Niches in other convenient Places.
In all $uch Repre$entations of Gods and Heroes,
the Sculptor $hould endeavour as much as po$-
$ible, to expre$s both by the Habit and Action
of the Figure, the Character and Life of the
Per$on. Not that I approve of tho$e extrava-
gant Attitudes which make a Statue look like
the Hero of a Droll, or a Prize-fighter; but I
would have $omewhat of a Dignity and Maje-
$ty both in the Countenance, and all the re$t
of the Body, that $hould $peak the God, $o that
he may $eem both by his Look and Po$ture to
be ready to hear and receive his Adorers. Such
$hould be the Statues in Temples. Let others
be left to Theatres, and other profane Edifices.</P>
<fig>
<foot>Tt THE</foot>
<pb>
<fig>
<head>THE
<B>ARCHITECTURE</B>
OF
<I>Leone Bati$ta Alberti.</I></head>
<head>BOOK VIII. CHAP. I.</head>
<head><I>Of the Ornaments of the great Ways eitherwithin or without the City, and of
the proper Places for interring or burning the Bodies of the Dead.</I></head>
<P>We have formerly ob$erved, that the
Ornaments annexed to all Sorts of
Buildings make an e$$ential Part of
Architecture, and it is manife$t that
every Kind of Ornament is not proper for every
Kind of Structure. Thus we are to endeavour,
to the utmo$t of our Power, to make our $acred
Works, e$pecially if they are of a publick Na-
ture, as compleatly adorned as po$$ible, as be-
ing intended for the Honour of the Gods;
whereas profane Structures are de$igned en-
tirely for Men. The meaner therefore ought
to yield to the more honourable; but yet they
too may be embelli$hed with $uch Ornaments
as are $uitable to them. In what Manner $acred
Buildings of a publick Nature are to be adorn-
ed, we have $hewn in the la$t Book: We now
come to profane Structures, and to give an Ac-
count what Ornaments are proper to each di$-
tinct Sort of them. And fir$t I $hall take No-
tice, that all Ways are publick Works, as being
contrived for the U$e of the Citizens, and the
Convenience of Strangers: But as there are
Travellers by Water as well as by Land, we
$hall $ay $omething of both. And here it will
be proper to call to Mind what has been $aid
el$ewhere, that of Ways $ome are properly
Highways, others in a Manner but private
ones; as al$o, that there mu$t be a Difference
between the Ways within the City, and tho$e
in the Country. Highways in the Country re-
ceive their greate$t Beauty from the Country
it$elf through which they lie, from its being
rich, well cultivated, full of Hou$es and Villa-
ges, affording delightful Pro$pects, now of the
Sea, now of a fine Hill, now a River, now a
Spring, now a barren Spot and a Rock, now a
fine Plain, Wood, or Valley; nor will it be a
$mall Addition to its Beauty, that it be not
$teep, broken by Precipices, or deep with Dirt;
but clear, $mooth, $pacious and open on all
Sides: and what Pains were not the Ancients
at to obtain the$e Advantages? I $hall not
wa$te the Reader's Time to relate how they
paved their Highways for above an hundred
Miles round their Capital with extreme hard
Stones, rai$ing $olid Cau$eways under them
with huge Stones all the Way. The <I>Appian</I>
Way was paved from <I>Rome</I> quite to <I>Brundu$ium.</I>
In many Places along their Highways we $ee
Rocks demoli$hed, Mountains levelled, Vallies
rai$ed, Hills cut through, with incredible Ex-
pence and miraculous Labour; Works of great
U$e and Glory. Another great Embelli$hment
to a Highway, is its furni$hing Travellers with
frequent Occa$ion of Di$cour$e, e$pecially upon
notable Subjects. A Friend or Companion that
is not $paring of his Speech, $ays <I>Laberius,</I> up-
on a Journey is as good as a Vehicle; and
there is no doubt but Di$cour$e takes of much
<foot>from</foot>
<p n=>163</p>
from the Fatigue of Travelling. For which
Rea$on, as I had always the highe$t E$teem for
the Prudence o$ our Ance$tors in all their In-
$titutions, $o I particularly commend them for
that Cu$tom of theirs, whereof we $hall $peak
immediately, by which, though in it they aim-
ed at much greater Ends, they afforded $o much
Rccreation to Travellers. It was a Law of the
twelve Tables, that no dead Body $hould be
interred or burnt within the City, and it was
a very ancient Law of the Senate that no
Corp$e $hould be interred within the Walls,
except the Ve$tal Virgins, and the Emperors,
who were not included within this Prohibition.
<I>Plutarch</I> tell us, that the <I>Valeri</I> and the <I>Fa-
bricii,</I> as a Mark of Honour, had a Privilege to
be buried in the Forum; but their De$cend-
ants, having only $et their dead down in it,
and ju$t clapt a Torch to the Body, u$ed im-
mediately to take it up again to bury it el$e-
where; thereby $hewing that they had $uch a
Privilege, but that they did not think it decent
to make u$e of it. The Ancients there$ore
cho$e their Sepulchres in convenient and con$pi-
cuous Places by the Side of Highways, and em-
belli$hed them, as far as their Abilities and the
Skill of the Architect would reach, with a per-
fect Profu$ion of Ornaments. They were built
after the noble$t De$igns; no Columns or Pi-
la$ters were $pared for, nor did they want the
riche$t Incru$tations, nor any Delicacies that
Sculpture or Painting could afford; and they
were generally adorned with Bu$ts of Bra$s or
marble fini$hed after the mo$t exqui$ite Ta$te:
By which Cu$tom how much that prudent Peo-
ple promoted the Service of the Common-
wealth and good Manners, would be tedious
now to recapitulate. I $hall only ju$t touch
upon tho$e Points which make to our pre$ent
Purpo$e. And how, think ye, mu$t it delight
Travellers as they pa$$ed along the <I>Appian</I>
Way, or any other great Road, to find them
full of a va$t Number of Tombs of the mo$t
excellent Workman$hip, and to be every Mo-
ment picking out $ome more beautiful than the
re$t, and ob$erving the Epitaphs and Effigies of
their greate$t Men? Do you not think that
from $o many Monuments of ancient Story,
they mu$t of Nece$$ity take continual Occa$ion
to di$cour$e of the noble Exploits per$ormed by
tho$e Heroes of old, thereby $weetning the Te-
diou$ne$s of their Journey, and exalting the Ho-
nour of <I>Rome,</I> their native City? But this was
the lea$t of the good Effects which they pro-
duced; and it was of much more Importance
that they conduced not a little the Pre$ervation
of the Commonwealth, and of the Fortunes of
private Per$ons. One of the chief Cau$es why
the Rich rejected the <I>Agrarian</I> Law, as we
are in$ormed by the Hi$torian <I>Appian,</I> was be-
cau$e they looked upon it to be an Impiety to
$uffer the Property of the Tombs of their Fore-
fathers to be transferred to others. How many
great Inheritances may we therefore $uppo$e
them to have left untouched to their Po$terity,
merely upon this Principle of Duty, Piety or
Religion, which el$e would have been prodi-
gally wa$ted in Riot and Gaming? Be$ides
that tho$e Monuments were a very great Ho-
nour to the Name of the City it$elf, and of a
great Number of private Families, and was a
con$tant Incitement to Po$terity to imitate the
Virtues of tho$e whom they $aw $o highly re-
vered. Then again, with what Eyes think
you, whenever $uch a Misfortune happened,
mu$t they behold a furious and in$olent Enemy
ran$acking among the Sepulchres of their An-
ce$tors? And what Man could be $o ba$e and
cowardly, as not to be immediately inflamed with
Rage and De$ire of revenging $uch an In$ult
upon his Country and his Honour? And what
Boldne$s and Courage mu$t Shame, Piety and
Grief $tir up in the Hearts of Men upon $uch
an Occa$ion? The Ancients therefore are great-
ly to be prai$ed; not that I pre$ume to blame
the pre$ent Practice of burying our Dead within
the City, and in holy Places, provided we do
not lay them in our Temples, where our Ma-
gi$trates and great Men are to meet for the
Celebration of holy Rites, $o as to pollute the
mo$t $acred Offices with the noi$ome Vapours
of a rotting Corp$e. The Cu$tom of burning
the Dead was much more convenient.</P>
<head>CHAP. II.</head>
<head><I>Of Sepulchres, and the various Manner of Burial.</I></head>
<P>I shall here take an Opportunity to in$ert
$ome Things, which in my Opinion, are by
no means to be omitted, concerning the Struc-
ture of Sepulchres, $ince they $eem to partake
of the Nature of publick Works, as being de-
dicated to Religion. Let the Place where you
<foot>inter</foot>
<p n=>164</p>
inter a dead Body, $ays the old Law, be $acred;
and we $till profe$s the $ame Belief, namely,
that Sepulchres belong to Religion. As Reli-
gion therefore ought to be preferred before all
Things, I $hall treat of the$e, though intended
for the U$e of private Per$ons, before I proceed
to profane Works of a publick Nature. There
$carce ever was a People $o barbarous, as to be
without the U$e of Sepulchres, except, perhaps,
tho$e wild <I>Ichthyophagi</I> in the remote Parts of
<I>India,</I> who are $aid to throw the Bodies of their
Dead into the Sea, affirming that it mattered
little whether they were con$umed by Fire,
Earth, or Water. The <I>Albani</I> of <I>Scythia</I> too
thought it to be a Crime to take any Care of
the Dead. The <I>Sab&aelig;ans</I> looked upon a Corp$e
to be no better than $o much Dung, and ac-
cordingly they ca$t the Bodies, even of their
Kings, upon the Dunghill. The <I>Troglodytes</I>
u$ed to tie the Head and Feet of their Dead to-
gether, and $o hurried them away, with Scoffs
and Flouts, to the fir$t convenient Spot of
Ground they could find, without more Regard
to one Place than to another, where they threw
them in, $etting up a Goat's Horn at their
Head. But no Man who has the lea$t Tinc-
ture of Humanity, will approve of the$e bar-
barous Cu$toms. Others, as well among the
<I>&AElig;gyptians</I> as the <I>Greeks,</I> u$ed to erect Sepul-
chres not only to the Bodies, but even to the
Names of their Friends; which Piety mu$t be
univer$ally commended. It was a very lauda-
ble Notion among the <I>Indians,</I> that the be$t
Monument was to live in the Memory of Po$-
terity; and therefore they celebrated the Fu-
nerals of their greate$t Men no otherwi$e than
by $inging their Prai$es. However, it is my
Opinion, that Care ought to be taken of the
dead Body, for the Sake of the Living; and
for the Pre$ervation of the Name to Po$terity,
there can be no Means more effectual than Se-
pulchres. Our Ance$tors u$ed to erect Statues
and Sepulchres, at the publick Expence, in
Honour of tho$e that had $pilt their Blood and
lo$t their Lives for the Commonwealth, as a
Reward of their Services, and an Incitement to
others to emulate their Virtue: But perhaps
they $et up Statues to a great many, but Sepul-
chres to few, becau$e they knew that the for-
mer were defaced and con$umed by Age;
whereas the Sanctity of Sepulchres, $ays <I>Cicero,</I> is
$o annexed to the very Ground it$elf, that nothing
can either efface or remove it: For whereas
other Things are de$troyed, Tombs grow more
$acred by Age. And they dedicated the$e Se-
pulchres to Religion, as I imagine, with this
View, that the Memory of the Per$on, which
they tru$ted to the Protection of $uch a Struc-
ture, and to the Stability of the Ground, might
be defended by the Reverence and Fear of the
Gods, from all Violence from the Hand of
Man. Hence proceeded the Law of the twelve
Tables, that the Ve$tibule or Entrance of a Se-
pulchre $hould not be employed to any Man's
private U$e, and there was moreover a Law
which ordained the heavie$t Puni$hment upon
any Man that $hould violate an Urn, or throw
down or break any of the Columns of a Tomb.
In a Word, the U$e o$ Sepulchres has been re-
ceived by all the polite$t Nations, and the Care
and Re$pect of them was $o great among the
<I>Athenians,</I> that if any o$ their Generals neglec-
ted to give honourable Burial to one of tho$e
that were $lain in War, he was liable to capital
Puni$hment for it. There was a Law among
the <I>Hebrews,</I> which injoined them to give Bu-
rial even to their Enemies. Many and various
are the Methods of Burial and Sepulture which
we read of; but they are entirely foreign to
our De$ign: As for In$tance, that which is re-
lated of the <I>Scythians,</I> who thought the greate$t
Honour they could do their Dead, was to eat
them at their Meals; and others kept Dogs to
devour them when they died: But of this we
need $ay no more. Mo$t of the wi$e$t Legi$la-
tors have been careful to prevent Exce$s in the
Expence and Magnificence of Funerals and
Tombs. <I>Pittacus</I> ordained, that the greate$t
Ornament that $hould be erected over any Per-
$on's Grave, $hould be three little Columns,
one $ingle Cubit high; for it was the Opinion,
that it was ridiculous to make any Difference
in a Thing that was common to the Nature of
every Man, and therefore in this Point the
Riche$t and the Poore$t were $et upon the $ame
Foot, and all were covered with common Earth,
according to the old Cu$tom; in doing which it
was the received Notion, that as Man was origi-
nally formed of Earth, $uch a Burial was only lay-
ing him once more in his Mother's Lap. We al$o
find an ancient Regulation, that no Man $hould
have a more magnificent Tomb, than could be
built by ten Men in the Space of three Days.
The <I>&AElig;gyptians,</I> on the contrary, were more
curious about their Sepulchres than any other
Nation what$oever; and they u$ed to $ay, that
it was very ridiculous in Men to take $o much
Pains in the building of Hou$es where they were
to dwell but a very $hort Space of Time, and to
neglect the Structure of a Habitation where they
<foot>were</foot>
<p n=>165</p>
were to dwell for ever. The mo$t probable
Account I can find of the fir$t Original of the$e
Structures, is as follows: The <I>Get&aelig;,</I> in the
mo$t remote Antiquity, u$ed at fir$t, in the
Place where they interred a dead Body, to $et
up a Stone for a Mark, or perhaps (as <I>Plato</I> in
his Laws more approves) a Tree, and afterwards
they u$ed to rai$e $omething of a Fence about
it to keep off the Bea$ts from routing it up, or
moving it out of its Place; and when the $ame
Sea$on of the Year came round again, and they
$aw that Field either chequered with Flowers,
or laden with Grain as it was when the Per$on
died, it was no wonder if it awakened in them
the Love of their dear Friends whom they had
lo$t, and prompted them to go together to the
Place where they lay, relating and $inging their
Actions and Sayings, and dre$$ing up their Mo-
numents with whatever they thought would
embelli$h them. Hence perhaps aro$e the
Cu$tom among $everal different Nations, and
particularly among the <I>Greeks,</I> of adorning and
offering Sacrifices upon the Tombs of tho$e to
whom they were much obliged. They met,
$ays <I>Thucydides,</I> upon the Place, in Habits $uit-
able to the Occa$ion, bringing with them the fir$t
Fruits of their Harve$t, thinking the publick
Performance of the$e Rites to be an Act of the
greate$t Piety and Devotion. From whence I
proceed to conjecture, that be$ides rai$ing the
Ground over the Place of Burial, and erecting
little Columns for Marks, they u$ed al$o to rai$e
little Alars whereon to celebrate tho$e Sacrifices
with the greate$t Decency, and con$equently
they took care to make them as convenient and
beautiful as was po$$ible. The Places where
the$e Tombs were erected, were various among$t
the Ancients. According to the Pontificial
Law, it was not permitted to erect a Tomb in
any publick Square. <I>Plato</I> was of Opinion,
that a Man ought not to be in the lea$t offen-
$ive to human Society either alive or dead; and
for this Rea$on he ordained that the Dead
$hould be interred without the City, in $ome
barren Place. In Imitation of this, others $et
apart a certain determined Place of Burial, un-
der the open Air, and out of the Way of all
Re$ort; which I highly approve: Others, on
the contrary, pre$erved the Bodies of their
Dead in their Hou$es, inclo$ed either in Salt or
Terra$s. <I>Mycerinus,</I> King of <I>&AElig;gypt,</I> inclo$ed
the dead Body of his Daughter within a wood-
en Figure of a Bull, and commanded the Sa-
crificers to perform Ob$equies in her Honour
every Day. <I>Servius</I> relates, that the Ancients
u$ed to place the Sepulchres of their Sons, that
had the greate$t Stock of Merit and Nobility,
upon the Top of very high Hills. The <I>Alex-
andrians,</I> in the Time of <I>Strabo</I> the Hi$torian,
had Gardens and Inclo$ures con$ecrated wholly
to the Burial of the Dead. Our more modern
Ance$tors u$ed to build little Chapels, along the
Sides of their great Churches, on purpo$e for
Tombs. All through the Country, which was
once the ancient <I>Latium,</I> we find the Burial-
places of whole Families, made under Ground,
with Urns $tanding in Rows along the Walls
full of the A$hes of the Decea$ed, with $hort
In$criptions, and the Names of the Baker, Bar-
ber, Cook, Surgeon, and other Officers and Ser-
vants that were reckoned Part of the Family;
in tho$e Urns which inclo$ed the A$hes of little
Children, once the Joy of their Mothers, they
made their Effigies in Stuc; but tho$e of grown
Men, e$pecially if they were noble, were made
of Marble. The$e were the Cu$toms of the
Ancients: Nor do I blame the making u$e of
any Place indifferently for burying the Body,
provided $ome di$tingui$hed Place be cho$en
for $etting up an In$cription in the Per$on's
Honour. Now what chiefly delights us in all
Tombs, is the De$ign of the Structure, and the
Epitaph. What Sort of De$ign the Ancients
approved mo$t in the$e Works, I cannot $o
ea$ily affirm. <I>Augu$tus</I>'s Sepulchre in <I>Rome</I>
was built of $quare Blocks of Marble, $haded
with Ever-greens, and at the Top $tood his
Statue. In the I$land of <I>Tyrina,</I> not far from
<I>Carmania,</I> the Sepulchre of <I>Erythr&aelig;a</I> was a
great Mound of Earth planted with wild Palm-
trees. The Sepulchre of <I>Zarina,</I> Queen of the
<I>Saces,</I> was a Pyramid of three Sides, with a
Statue of Gold on the Top. <I>Archatheus,</I> one
of <I>Xerxes</I>'s Lieutenants, had a Tomb of Earth
erected for him by the whole Army. But the
main Point which all $eem to have aimed at,
was to have $omething different from all others,
not as to condemn the Sepulchres of others,
but to draw the Eyes of Men to take the great-
er Notice of them: And from this general U$e
of Sepulchres, and the$e con$tant Endeavours
to invent $omething new in that Way, the
Con$equence at la$t was, that it was impo$$ible
to think of any thing which had not already
been put in Practice to a very great Perfection,
and all were extremely beautiful in their $eve-
ral Kinds. From the Ob$ervation I have made
of the numberle$s Works of this Nature, I find
that $ome had nothing in their Eye, but adorn-
ing that which was to contain the Body, while
<foot>U u others</foot>
<p n=>166</p>
others went farther, and rai$ed $uch a Super-
$tructure as was proper for placing Epitaphs
and In$cripti&oacute;ns of the Per$on's Exploits. The
former were contented with a plain Ca$e for
the Body, or with adding $omewhat of a little
Chapel about it, according to the Religion of
the Place. But the others erected either a Co-
lumn, or a Pyramid, an Obelisk, or $ome other
great Super$tructure, not principally for con-
taining the Body, but rather for delivering
down the Name with Glory to Po$terity. We
have already taken Notice, that there is a Stone
called <I>Sarcophagus,</I> found at <I>A$on,</I> a Town
of <I>Troas,</I> which con$umes a dead Body im-
mediately; and in any made Ground, con-
$i$ting chiefly of old Rubbi$h, the Moi$ture is
pre$ently dried up. But I $hall in$i$t no longer
upon the$e minute Particulars.</P>
<head>CHAP. III.</head>
<head><I>Of little Chapels, by way of Sepulchres, Pyramids, Columns, Alars and Moles.</I></head>
<P>Now $ince the Sepulchres of the An-
cients are generally approved, and we
find them in different Places built $ometimes
after the Manner of little Chapels, $ometimes
in Pyramids, $ometimes Columns, and in $e-
veral other Forms, as Moles and the like, we
$hall $ay $omething of each of the$e: And fir$t
of Chapels. The$e little Chapels $hould be
like $o many little Models of Temples; nor is
it at all improper to add the Ornaments and
De$igns of any other Sort of Building, provi-
ded they be equally well adapted both for
Beauty and Duration. Whether it be mo$t
advi$eable to build a Sepulchre which we would
have, if po$$ible, endure to Eternity, of noble
or mean Materials, is not thoroughly deter-
mined, upon Account of the Danger of their
being removed for their Value. But the Beau-
ty of its Ornaments, as we have ob$erved el$e-
where, is extremely effectual to its Pre$erva-
tion, and to $ecuring the Monument to Po$-
terity. Of the Sepulchres of tho$e great Prin-
ces <I>Caius Caligula,</I> and <I>Claudius C&aelig;$ar,</I> which
no doubt mu$t have been very noble, nothing
now remains but $ome few $mall $quare Stones
of two Cubits broad, on which their Names
are in$cribed; and if tho$e In$criptions had
been cut upon larger Stones, I doubt not they
too would e'er now have been carried away
with the other Ornaments. In other Places
we $ee Sepulchres of very great Antiquity,
which have never been injured by any body,
becau$e they were built of common Chequer-
work, or of Stone that would not adorn any
other Building, $o that they were never any
Temptation to Greedine$s. From whence I
draw this Admonition to tho$e who would
have their Sepulchres remain to Perpetuity,
that they build not indeed with a ba$e Sort of
Stone, but not with $uch excellent, as to be a
Temptation to every Man that beholds it, and
to be in perpetual Danger of being $tolen away.
Be$ides, in all Works of this Nature, a decent
Mode$ty $hould be ob$erved according to every
Man's Quality and Degree; $o that, I con-
demn a Profu$ion of Expence in the Tombs
even of Monarchs them$elves, nor can I help
blaming tho$e huge Piles, built by the <I>&AElig;gyp-
tian</I> Kings for their Sepulchres, which $eem to
have been di$plea$ing to the Gods them$elves,
$ince none of them were buried in tho$e proud
Monuments. Others perhaps may prai$e our
<I>Etrurians</I> for not coming $hort even of the
<I>&AElig;gyptians</I> in the Magnificence of their Tombs,
and particularly <I>Por$ena,</I> who built him$elf a
Sepulchre below the Town of <I>Clu$ium,</I> all of
$quare Stone, in the Ba$e whereof, which was
fifty Foot high, was a Labyrinth which no
Man could find his Way thro', and over this
Ba$e five Pyramids, one in the Middle, and one
at each Corner, the Breadth of each whereof,
at the Bottom was $eventy-five Foot; at the
Top of each hung a brazen Globe, to which
$everal little Bells were fa$tened by Chains,
which being $haken by the Wind might be
heard at a con$iderable Di$tance: Over all
this were four other Pyramids, an hundred
Foot high, and others again over the$e, a$ton-
i$hing no le$s for their Workman$hip than for
their Greatne$s. I cannot be plea$ed with the$e
enormous Structures, $erving to no good Pur-
po$e what$oever. There is $omething much
more commendable in the Tomb of <I>Cyrus,</I>
King of the <I>Per$ians,</I> and there is more true
Greatne$s in his Mode$ty, than in the vain Glory
of all tho$e haughtier Piles. Near the Town
of <I>Pa$argard&aelig;,</I> in a little vaulted Temple
built of $quare Stone, with a Door $carce two
Foot high, lay the Body of <I>Cyrus,</I> inclo$ed in
a golden Urn, as the Royal Dignity required;
<foot>round</foot>
<p n=>167</p>
round this little Chapel was a Grove of all Sorts
of Fruit-trees, and a large green Meadow, full of
Ro$es and other Flowers and Herbs of grateful
Scent, and of every Thing that could make the
Place delightful and agreeable. The Epitaph
was adapted to the Structure:</P>
<P>Cyrus <I>am I that founded</I> Per$ia's <I>State,
Then envy not this little Place of Re$t.</I></P>
<P>BUT to return to Pyramids. Some few per-
haps may have built their Pyramids with three
Sides, but they have generally been made with
four, and their Height has mo$t commonly
been made equal to their Breadth. Some have
been particularly commended for making the
Joints of the Stones in their Pyramids $o clo$e,
that the Shadow which they ca$t was perfectly
$traight without the lea$t Interruption. Pyra-
mids have for the mo$t Part been made of
$quare Stone, but $ome few have been built
with Brick. As for the$e Columns which have
been erected as Monuments; $ome have been
$uch as are u$ed in other Structures; others have
been $o large as to be fit for no Edifice; but
merely to $erve as a Monument to Po$terity.</P>
<marg>*</marg>
<P>OF this la$t Sort we are now to treat, and its
Members are as follows: In$tead of a Ba$ement
there are $everal Steps ri$ing above the Level
of the Platform, over the$e a $quare Plinth, and
above that another not le$s than the fir$t. In
the third Place came the Ba$e of the Column,
then the Column with its Capital, and la$t of
all the Statue $tanding upon a Plinth. Some
between the fir$t and $econd Plinths under the
Ba$e placed a Sort of Die to rai$e the Work
higher, and give it the greater Air of Maje$ty.
The Proportions of all the$e Members are taken
from the Diameter of the Bottom of the Shaft,
as we ob$erved with Relation to the Columns
of the Temples; but the Ba$e, in this Ca$e
where the Super$tructure is to be $o very large,
mu$t have but one Torus, and not $everal like
common Columns. The whole Thickne$s of
the Ba$e therefore mu$t be divided into five
Parts, two of which mu$t be given to the To-
rus, and three to the Plinth. The Mea$ure of
the Plinth every Way mu$t be one Diameter
and a Quarter of the Shaft of the Column. The
Pede$tal on which this Ba$e lies mu$t have the
following Parts. The uppermo$t Member in
this, and indeed all other Ornaments, mu$t be
a Cymatium, and the lowermo$t a Plinth, which,
whether it be in the Nature of Steps, or of a
Cyma either upright or rever$ed, is properly the
Ba$e of each Member. But we have $ome few
Things relating to Pede$tals to take Notice of,
which we purpo$ely omitted in the la$t Book,
in order to con$ider them here. We ob$erved
that it was u$ual to run up a continued low
Wall under all the Columns, in order to $up-
port them; but then to make the Pa$$age more
clear and open, it was common to remove that
Part of this Wall which lay between the Co-
lumns, and to leave only that Part which was
really nece$$ary to the Support of the Column.
This Part of the Wall thus left I call the Pede-
$tal. The Ornament of this Pede$tal at the
Top was a Cymatium, either upright or rever$-
ed, or $omething of the $ame Nature, which
was an$werd at the Bottom by a Plinth. The$e
two Ornaments went clear round the Pede$tal.
The Cymatium was the fifth Part of the
Height of the whole Pede$tal, or el$e the $ixth;
and the Body of the Pede$tal was never le$s in
Thickne$s than the Diameter of the Bottom of
the Shaft, that the Plinth of the Ba$e might not
lie upon a Void. Some, in order to $trengthen
the Work yet more, made the Pede$tal broader
than the Plinth of the Ba$e, by an eighth Part of
that Plinth. La$tly, the Height of the Pede-
$tal, be$ides its Cymatium and Plinth, was either
equal to its Breadth, or a fifth Part more: And
this I find to have been the Ordonnance of the
Pede$tal under the Columns u$ed by the mo$t
excellent Workmen. But to return to the Co-
lumn. Under the Ba$e of the Column we are
to place the Pede$tal, an$wering duly to the
Proportions of the Ba$e in the Manner ju$t now
mentioned. This Pede$tal mu$t be crowned
with an entire Cornice, which is mo$t u$ually
of the <I>Ionic</I> Order; the Members of which you
may remember to be as follows: The fir$t and
lowe$t Member is a Cymatium, then a Denticle,
next an Ovolo, with a $mall Baguette and a
Fillet. Under this Pede$tal is placed another
an$werable to the former in every Member, and
of $uch a Proportion that no Part of the Super-
$tructure may lie over a Void; but to this Pe-
de$tal we mu$t a$cend from the Level of the
Ground by three or five Steps, unequal both in
their Height and Breadth; and the$e Stepts all
together mu$t not be higher than a fourth, nor
lower than a $ixth Part of the Height of the
Pede$tal which $tands upon them. In this lower
Pede$tal we make a Door dre$$ed after the Man-
ner of the <I>Doric</I> or <I>Ionic</I> Order, according to
the Rules already laid down for the Doors of
Temples. In the upper Pede$tal we place our
In$criptions or carve Trophies. If we make
<foot>any</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 44, facing page 170.</I></foot>
<p n=>168</p>
any Thing of a Plinth between the$e two Pe-
de$tals, the Height of that Plinth mu$t be a
third Part of the Height of the Pede$tal it$elf;
and this Inter$pace mu$t be filled up with the Fi-
gures of chearful Deities, $uch as Victory, Glory,
Fame, Plenty, and the like. Some covered the
upper Pede$tal with Plates of Bra$s, gilt. The
Pede$tals and the Ba$e being compleated, the
next Work is to erect the Column upon them,
and its Height is u$ually $even Times its Dia-
meter. If the Column be very high, let its up-
per Diameter be no more than one tenth Part
le$s than its lower; but in $maller Columns,
ob$erve the Rules given in the la$t Book. Some
have erected Columns an hundred Foot high,
and enriched all the Body of the Shaft with
Figures and Stories in Relieve, leaving a Hol-
low within for a winding Stair to a$cend to the
Top of the Column. On $uch Columns they
$et a <I>Doric</I> Capital, but without any Gorge-
rine. Over the upper Cymai$e of the Capital
in $maller Columns they made a regular Archi-
trave, Freze and Cornice, full of Ornaments on
every Side; but in the$e great Columns tho$e
Members were omitted, it being no ea$y Mat-
ter to find Stones $ufficiently large for $uch a
Work, nor to $et them in their Places when
found. But at the Top of the Capital both of
great and $mall, there was always $omething
to $erve as a Pede$tal for the Statue to $tand
upon. If this Pede$tal was a $quare Plinth,
then none of its Angles ever exceeded the Solid
of the Column: But if it was round, its Dia-
meter was not to be more than one of the Sides
of $uch a Square. The Height of the Statue
was one third of the Column; and for this
Sort of Columns thus much may $uffice. The
Structure of Moles among the Ancients was as
follows: Fir$t they rai$ed a $quare Ba$ement as
they did for the Platforms of their Temples.
Then they carried up a Wall not le$s high than
a $ixth, nor higher than a fourth of the Length
of the Platform. The whole Ornament of
this Wall was either at the Top and Bottom,
and $ometimes at the Angles, or el$e con$i$ted
in a Kind of Colonade all along the Wall. If
there were no Columns but only at the Angles,
then the whole Height of the Wall, above the
Ba$ement, was divided into four Parts, three of
which were given to the Column with its Ba$e
and Capital, and one to the other Ornaments
at the Top, to wit, the Architrave, Freze and
Cornice; and this la$t Part was again divided
into $ixteen Minutes, five of which were given
to the Architrave, five to the Freze, and $ix to
the Cornice and its Cymai$e. The Space be-
tween the Architrave and the Ba$ement was
divided into five-and-twenty Parts; three
whereof were given to the Height of the Ca-
pital, and two to the Height of the Ba$e, and
the Remainder to the Height of the Column,
and there were always $quare Pila$ters at the
Angles according to this Proportion: The Ba$e
con$i$ted of a $ingle Torus, which was ju$t half
the Height of the Ba$e it$elf. The Pila$ter at
the Bottom, in$tead of a Fillet, had ju$t
the $ame Projecture as at the Top of the
Shaft. The Breadth of the Pila$ter, in this
Sort of Structure, was one fourth of its Height;
but when the re$t of the Wall was adorned
with an Order of Columns, then the Pila$ters
at the Angles were in Breadth only a $ixth
Part of their Length, and the other Columns
along the Wall borrowed all their Ornaments
and Proportions from the De$ign of tho$e u$ed
in Temples. There is only this Difference be-
tween this Sort of Colonades and the former,
that in the fir$t, as the Ba$e is continued on
from one Angle of the Wall to the other, at
the Bottom, $o al$o are the Fillet and A$tragal
at the Top of the Column under the Archi-
trave, which is not practiced where there are a
Number of Columns $et again$t the Wall;
though $ome are for carrying on the Ba$e quite
round the Structure here as well as in Temples.
Over this $quare Structure which $erved for a
Ba$ement, ro$e a round one of excellent Work-
man$hip, exceeding the Ba$ement in Height
not le$s than half its Diameter, nor more than
two thirds, and the Breadth of this Rotunda
was never le$s than half one of the Sides of the
Ba$ement, nor more than five $ixths. Many
took five thirds, and over this round Building
rai$ed another $quare one, with a $econd round
over that, after the $ame Manner as the former,
till the Edifice ro$e to four Stories, adorning
them according to the foregoing De$cription.
Neither within the Mole it$elf wanted there
Stairs, or little Chapels for Devotion, or Co-
lumns ri$ing from the Ba$ement to the upper
Stories, with Statues between them, and In-
$criptions di$po$ed in convenient Places.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>169</p>
<head>CHAP. IV.</head>
<head><I>Of the In$criptions and Symbols carved on Sepulchres</I></head>
<P>Let us now proceed to the In$criptions
them$elves, the U$e whereof was various,
and almo$t infinite among the Ancients, being
by them not only u$ed in their Sepulchres, but
al$o in their Temples, and even in their private
Hou$es. <I>Symmachus</I> tells us, that on the Pe-
diments of their Temples they u$ed to cut the
Name of the God to whom they dedicated,
and it is the Practice with our Countrymen to
in$cribe upon their Churches the Name of the
Saints, and the Year when they were con$e-
crated to them; which I highly approve. Nor
is it foreign to our Subject to take Notice, that
when <I>Crates</I> the Philo$opher came to <I>Cyzicus,</I>
finding the$e Ver$es wrote over the Door of al-
mo$t every private Hou$e:</P>
<P><I>The mighty</I> Hercules, <I>the Son of</I> Jove,
<I>The Scourge of Mon$ters, dwells within the$e Walls.
Let nothing ill dare to approach the Place.</I></P>
<P>HE could not help laughing, and advi$ed
them rather to write over their Doors: <I>Here
dwells Poverty;</I> thinking that would drive away
all Sorts of Mon$ters mu$t fa$ter than <I>Hercules</I>
him$elf, though he were to live again. Epitaphs
on Sepulchres are either written, which are pro-
perly Epigrams, or repre$ented by Figures and
Symbols. <I>Plato</I> would not have an Epitaph
con$i$t of more than four Lines; and accord-
ingly <I>Ovid</I> $ays:</P>
<P><I>On the rear'd Column be my Story wrote,
But brief, that every Pa$$enger may read.</I></P>
<P>AND it is certain that Prolixity, though it
is to be condemned every where, is wor$e in
this Ca$e than any other: Or if the In$cription
be of any Length, it ought to be extremely
elegant, and apt to rai$e Compa$$ion, and $o
plea$ing that you may not regret the Trouble
of reading it, but be fond of getting it by Heart,
and repeating it often. That of <I>Omenea</I> has
been much commended.</P>
<P><I>If cruel Fate allow'd the $ad Exchange
Of Life for Life, how chearfully for thee,
My be$t-lov'd</I> Omenea <I>had I died!
But $ince it mu$t not be, the$e weeping Eyes
The hated Sun and painful Light $hall fly,
To $eek thee in the gloomy Realms below.</I></P>
<P>So this other:</P>
<P><I>Behold, O Citizens, the Bu$t and Urn
Of ancient</I> Ennius, <I>your old Bard, who $ung
In lofty Notes your Fathers brave Exploits.
Let none with Tears or $olemn funeral Pomp
Bewail my Death, for</I> Ennius <I>$till $urvives,
Still honour'd lives upon the Tongue of Fame.</I></P>
<P>ON the Tombs of tho$e that were $lain at
<I>Thermopyl&aelig;,</I> was this In$cription: <I>O Pa$$enger,
tell the</I> Spartans <I>that we lie here, obeying their
Commands.</I> Nor is there any thing ami$s in
throwing in a Stroke of Plea$antry upon $uch
an Occa$ion.</P>
<P><I>Thy Journey, Traveller, a Moment $tay
To view a Wonder $trange and $eldom $een:
A Man and Wife that lie for once at Peace.
Thou ask'$t our Name. Ne'er $halt thou know
from me.
Mind not my $tutt'ring Husband; come to me:
His Name is</I> Balbus, Bebbra <I>mine. Ah Wife!
Will nothing $top that drunken Tongue of thine!</I></P>
<P>I AM extremely delighted with $uch In$cripti-
ons. The Ancients u$ed to gild the Letters
which they u$ed in their In$criptions. The
<I>&AElig;gyptians</I> employed Symbols in the following
Manner: They carved an Eye, by which they
under$tood God; a Vulture for Nature; a Bee
for King; a Circle for Time; an Ox for Peace,
and the like. And their Rea$on for expre$$ing
their Sen$e by the$e Symbols was, that Words
were under$tood only by the re$pective Nations
that talked the Language, and therefore In-
$criptions in common Characters mu$t in a $hort
Time be lo$t: As it has actually happened to
our <I>Etrurian</I> Characters: For among the Ruins
of $everal Towns, Ca$tles and Burial-places, I
have $een Tomb-$tones dug up with In$cripti-
ons on them, as is generally believed, in <I>Etru-
rian</I> Characters, which are like both tho$e of
the <I>Greeks</I> and <I>Latins;</I> but no body can un-
der$tand them: And the $ame, the <I>&AElig;gyptians</I>
$uppo$ed, mu$t be the Ca$e with all Sorts of
<foot>X x Writing</foot>
<p n=>170</p>
Writing what$oever; but the Manner of ex-
pre$$ing their Sen$e which they u$ed upon the$e
Occa$ions, by Symbols, they thought mu$t al-
ways be under$tood by ingenious Men of all
Nations, to whom alone they were of Opinion,
that Things of Moment were fit to be commu-
nicated. In Imitation of this Practice, various
Symbols have been u$ed upon Sepulchres. Over
the Grave of <I>Diogenes</I> the <I>Cynic,</I> was a Column
with a Dog upon the Top of it, cut in <I>Parian</I>
Marble. <I>Cicero</I> glories, that he who was of
<I>Arpinum,</I> was the Di$coverer at <I>Syracu$e</I> of
<I>Archimedes</I>'s Tomb, which was quite decayed
and neglected, and all over-grown with Bram-
bles, and not known, even to the Inhabitants
of the Place, and which he found out by a Cy-
linder and $mall Sphere which he $aw cut upon
a high Column that $tood over it. On the
Sepulchre of <I>Symandes,</I> King of <I>&AElig;gypt,</I> the
Figure of his Mother was cut out of a Piece of
Marble twenty Cubits high, with three Royal
Diadems upon her Head, denoting her to be
the Daughter, Wife and Mother of a King.
On the Tomb of <I>Sardanapalus,</I> King of the
<I>A$$yrians,</I> was a Statue which $eemed to clap
its Hands together by Way of Applau$e, with
an Epitaph to this Effect: <I>In one $ingle Day I
built</I> Tar$us <I>and</I> Archileum; <I>but do you, Friend,
eat, drink and be merry; for there is nothing el$e
among Men that is worthy of this Applau$e.</I>
Such were the In$criptions and Symbols u$ed
in tho$e Nations. But our <I>Romans</I> recorded
the Exploits of their great Men, by carving
their Story in Marble. This gave ri$e to Co-
lumns, Triumphal Arches, Porticoes enriched
with memorable Events, pre$erved both in
Painting and Sculpture. But no Monument of
this Nature $hould be made, except for Acti-
ons that truly de$erve to be perpetuated. But
we have now dwelt long enough upon this
Subject. We have $poken of the publick Ways
by Land; and the $ame Ornaments will $erve
tho$e by Water: But as high Watch-towers
belong to both, it is nece$$ary here to $ay $ome-
thing of them.</P>
<head>CHAP. V.</head>
<head><I>Of Towers and their Ornaments.</I></head>
<marg>*</marg>
<P>The greate$t Ornaments are lofty Tow-
ers placed in proper Situations, and built
after hand$ome De$igns: And when there are
a good Number of them $trewed up and down
the Country, they afford a mo$t beautiful Pro-
$pect: Not that I commend the Age about
two hundred Years ago, when People $eemed
to be $eized with a Kind of general Infection
of building high Watch-towers, even in the
meane$t Villages, in$omuch that $carce a com-
mon Hou$e-keeper thought he could not be
without his Turret: By which means there
aro$e a perfect Grove of Spires. Some are of
Opinion, that the Minds of Men take particu-
lar Turns, at certain Sea$ons, by the Influence
of $ome Planet. Between three and four hun-
dred Years $ince the Zeal for Religion was $o
warm, that Men $eemed born for no other Em-
ployment but to build Churches and Chapels;
for, to omit other In$tances, in the $ingle City
of <I>Rome</I> at this Day, though above half tho$e
$acred Structures are now ruinate, we $ee above
two thou$and five hundred Churches $till re-
maining. And now again, what can be the
Rea$on, that ju$t at this Time all <I>Italy</I> $hould
be fired with a Kind of Emulation to put on
quite a new Face? How many Towns, which
when we were Children, were built of nothing
but Wood, are now lately $tarted up all of
Marble? But to return to the Subject of Tow-
ers. I $hall not here $tay to repeat what we
read in <I>Herodotus,</I> that in the Middle of the
Temple at <I>Babylon</I> there was a Tower, the
Ba$e whereof was a whole Furlong, or the
eighth Part of a Mile, on every Side, and which
con$i$ted of eight Stories built one above an-
other; a Way of Building which I extremely
commend in Towers, becau$e each Story grow-
ing le$s and le$s all the Way up, conduces both
to Strength and Beauty, and by being well knit
one into another, makes the whole Structure
firm. Towers are either $quare or round, and
in both the$e the Height mu$t an$wer in a cer-
tain Proportion to the Breadth. When they
are de$igned to be very taper, $quare ones
$hould be $ix Times as high as they are broad,
and round ones $hould have four Times the
Height of their Diameter. Tho$e which are
intended to be very thick, $hould have in
Height, if $quare, but four Times their Breadth,
and if round, but three Diameters. The Thick-
ne$s of the Walls, if they are forty Cubits high,
<foot>mu$t</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plates 45-48, facing and following this page. For
reasons of page layout, 48 precedes 47 in the present
edition.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 44. <I>(Pages 167-68)</I></cap>
<fig>
<cap><I>&ldquo;Colonn[a] Toscana&rdquo; = Tuscan column. &ldquo;Sei&rdquo; = six.</I></cap>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 45. <I>(Pages 170-71)</I></cap>
<fig>
<cap><I>&ldquo;Pianta dell'Ordine Dorico&rdquo; = plan of the Doric order.</I></cap>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 46. <I>(Pages 170-71)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 48. <I>(Pages 170-71)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 47. <I>(Pages 170-71)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>171</p>
mu$t never be le$s than four Foot; if fifty Cu-
bits, five Foot; if $ixty Cubits, $ix Foot, and
$o on in the $ame Proportion. The$e Rules
relate to Towers that are plain and $imple:
But $ome Architects, about half Way of the
Height of the Tower, have adorned it with a
Kind of Portico with in$ulate Columns, others
have made the$e Porticoes $piral all the Way
up, others have $urrounded it with $everal Por-
ticoes like $o many Coronets, and $ome have
covered the whole Tower with Figures of Ani-
mals. The Rules for the$e Colonades are not
different from tho$e for publick Edifices; only
that we may be allowed to be rather more
$lender in all the Members, upon Account of
the Weight of the Building. But whoever
would erect a Tower be$t fitted for re$i$ting
the Injuries of Age, and at the $ame Time ex-
tremely delightful to behold, let him upon a
$quare Ba$is, rai$e a round Super$tructure, and
over that another $quare one, and $o on, ma-
king the Work le$s and le$s by Degrees, ac-
cording to the Proportions ob$erved in Co-
lumns. I will here de$cribe one which I think
well worthy Imitation. Fir$t from a $quare
Plat$orm ri$es a Ba$ement in Height one tenth
Part of the whole Structure, and in Breadth
one fourth Part of that whole Height. Again$t
this Ba$ement, in the Middle of each Front
$tand two Columns, and one at each Angle,
di$tingui$hed by their $everal Ornaments, in the
$ame Manner as we ju$t now appointed for Se-
pulchres. Over this Ba$ement we rai$e a $quare
Super$tructure like a little Chapel, in Breadth
twice the Height of the Ba$ement, and as high
as broad, again$t which, we may $et three,
four or five Orders of Columns, in the $ame
Manner as in Temples. Over this, we make
our Rotondas, which may even be three in
Number, and which from the Similitude of
the $everal Shoots in a Cane or Ru$h, we $hall
call the Joints. The Height of each of the$e
Joints $hall be equal to its Breadth, with the
Addition of one twelfth Part of that Breadth,
which twelfth Part $hall $erve as a Ba$ement
to each Joint. The Breadth $hall be taken
from that $quare Chapel which we placed up-
on the fir$t Ba$ement, in the following Man-
ner: Dividing the Front of that $quare Chapel
into twelve Parts, give eleven of tho$e Parts to
the fir$t Joint; then dividing the Diameter of
this fir$t Joint into twelve Parts, give eleven of
them to the $econd Joint, and $o make the
third Joint a twelfth Part narrower than the
$econd, and thus the $everal Joints will have
the Beauty which the be$t ancient Architects
highly commended in Columns, namely, that
the lower Part of the Shaft $hould be one $ourth
Part thicker than the upper. Round the$e
Joints we mu$t rai$e Columns with their proper
Ornaments, in Number not le$s than eight, nor
more than $ix: Moreover, in each Joint, as al-
$o in the $quare Chapel, we mu$t open Lights
in convenient Places, and Niches with the Or-
naments $uitable to them. The Lights mu$t
not take up above half the Aperture between
Column and Column. The $ixth Story in this
Tower, which ri$es from the third Rotonda
mu$t be a $quare Structure, and its Breadth and
Height mu$t not be allowed above two third
Parts of that third Rotonda. Its Ornament
mu$t be only $quare Pila$ters $et again$t the
Wall, with Arches turned over them, with
their proper Dre$s of Capitals, Architraves and
the like, and between Pila$ter and Pila$ter, half
the Break may be le$t open for Pa$$age. The
$eventh and la$t Story $hall be a circular Por-
tico of in$ulate Columns, open for Pa$$age
every Way; the Length of the$e Columns, with
their Intablature, $hall be equal to the Diame-
ter of this Portico it$elf, and that Diameter
$hall be three fourths of the $quare Building,
on which it $tands. This circular Portico $hall
be covered with a Cupola. Upon the Angles
of the $quare Stories in the$e Towers we $hould
$et Acroteria equal in Height to the Archi-
trave, Freze and Cornice which are beneath
them. In the lowermo$t $quare Story, placed
ju$t above the Ba$ement, the open Area within
may be five eighths of the outward Breadth.
Among the ancient Works of this Nature, I
am extremely well plea$ed with <I>Ptolomey</I>'s
Tower in the I$land of <I>Pharos,</I> on the Top of
which, for the Direction of Mariners, he placed
large Fires, which were hung in a continual
Vibration, and kept always moving about from
Place to Place, le$t at a Di$tance tho$e Fires
$hould be mi$taken for Stars; to which he ad-
ded moveable Images, to $hew from what Cor-
ner the Wind blew with others, to $hew in
what Part of the Heavens the Sun was at that
Time, and the Hour of the Day: Inventions
extremely proper in $uch a Structure.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>172</p>
<head>CHAP. VI.</head>
<head><I>Of the principle Ways belonging to the City, and the Methods of adorning the
Haven, Gates, Bridges, Arches, Cro$s-ways and Squares.</I></head>
<P>It is now Time to make our Entrance into
the City; but as there are $ome Ways
both within and without the Town which are
much more eminent than the common Sort,
as tho$e which lead to the Temple, the Ba$i-
lique, or the Place for publick Spectacles, we
$hall fir$t $ay $omething of the$e. We read
that <I>Heliogabalus</I> paved the$e broader and no-
bler Ways with <I>Macedonian</I> Marble and Por-
phiry. Hi$torians $ay much in Prai$e of a noble
Street in <I>Buba$tus,</I> a City of <I>&AElig;gypt,</I> which led
to the Temple; for it ran thro' the Market-
place, and was paved with very fine Stone, was
four Jugera, or four hundred and eighty Foot
broad, and bordered on each Side with $tately
Trees. <I>Ari$teas</I> tells us, that in <I>Feru$alem</I>
there were $ome very beautiful Streets, tho'
narrow, thro' which the Magi$trates and Nobles
only were allowed to pa$s, to the Intent chiefly
that the $acred Things which they carried,
might not be polluted by the Touch of any
Thing profane. <I>Plato</I> highly celebrates a Way
all planted with Cypre$s Trees which led from
<I>Gno$$us</I> to the Cave and Temple of <I>Fupiter.</I> I
find that the <I>Romans</I> had two Streets of this
Sort, extremely noble and beautiful, one from
the Gate to the Church of St. <I>Paul,</I> fifteen
Stadia, or a Mile and $even Furlongs in Length,
and the other from the Bridge to the Church
of St. <I>Peter,</I> two thou$and five hundred Foot
long, and all covered with a Portico of Co-
lumns of Marble, with a Roof of Lead. Such
Ornaments are extremely proper for Ways of
this Nature. But let us now return to the
more common Highways. The principal Head
and Boundary of all Highways, whether within
or without the City, unle$s I am mi$taken, is
the Gate for tho$e by Land, and the Haven for
tho$e by Sea: Unle$s we will take notice of
$ubterraneous Ways, of the Nature of tho$e
which we are told were at <I>Thebes</I> in <I>&AElig;gypt,</I>
thro' which their Kings could lead an Army
unknown to any of the Citizens, or tho$e which
I find to have been pretty numerous near <I>Pre-
ne$te,</I> in the ancient <I>Latium,</I> dug under Ground
from the Top of the Hill to the Level of the
Plain, with wonderful Art; in one of which
we are told, that <I>Marius</I> peri$hed when clo$e
pre$$ed by the Siege. We are told by the
Author of the Life of <I>Apollonius,</I> of a very
wonderful Pa$$age made by a Lady of <I>Media</I>
at <I>Babylon,</I> under the River, and arched with
Stone and Bitumen, thro' which $he could go
dry$hod from the Palace to a Country Hou$e,
on the other Side of the River. But we are
not obliged to believe all that the <I>Greek</I> Wri-
ters tell us. To return to our Subject. The
Gates are adorned in the $ame Manner as tri-
umphal Arches, of which anon. The Haven
is adorned by broad Porticoes, rai$ed $omewhat
above the Level of the Ground, by a $tately
Temple, lofty and beautiful, with $pacious
Squares before it, and the Mouth of the Ha-
ven it$elf by huge Statues, $uch as were for-
merly to be $een in $everal Places, and particu-
larly at <I>Rhodes,</I> where <I>Herod</I> is $aid to have
erected three. Hi$torians very much celebrate
the Mole at <I>Samos,</I> which they $ay was an
hundred and twenty Foot high, and ran out
two Furlongs into the Sea. Doubtle$s $uch
Works mu$t greatly adorn the Haven, e$peci-
ally if they are ma$terly wrought, and not of
ba$e Materials. The Streets within the City,
be$ides being hand$omely paved and cleanly
kept, will be rendered much more noble, if
the Doors are built all after the $ame Model,
and the Hou$es on each Side $tand in an even
Line, and none higher than another. The Parts
of the Street which are principally to be ad-
orned, are the$e: The Bridge, the Cro$s-ways,
and the Place for publick Spectactles, which
la$t is nothing el$e but an open Place, with
<marg>*</marg>
Seats built about it. We will begin with the
Bridge, as being one of the chief Parts of the
Street. The Parts of the Bridge are the Piers,
the Arches and the Pavement, and al$o the
Street in the Middle for the Pa$$age of Cattle,
and the rai$ed Cau$eways on each Side for the
better Sort of Citizens, and the Sides or Rail,
and in $ome Places Hou$es too, as in that mo$t
noble Bridge called <I>Adrian</I>'s <I>Mole,</I> a Work
never to be forgotten, the very Skeleton where-
of, if I may $o call it, I can never behold
without a Sort of Reverence and Awe. It
<foot>was</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 49, facing page 174.</I></foot>
<p n=>173</p>
was covered with a Roof $upported by two-
and-forty Columns of Marble, with their Archi-
trave, Freze and Cornice, the Roof plated with
Bra$s, and richly adorned. The Bridge mu$t be
made as broad as the Street which leads to it.
The Piers mu$t be equal to one another on
each Side both in Number and Size, and be
one third of the Aperture in Thickne$s. The
Angles or Heads of the Piers that lie again$t
the Stream mu$t project in Length half the
Breadth of the Bridge, and be built higher than
the Water ever ri$es. The Heads of the Piers
that lie along with the Stream mu$t have the
$ame Projecture, but then it will not look ami$s
to have them le$s acute, and as it were blunt-
ed. From the Heads of the Piers on each
Side, it will be very proper to rai$e Butre$$es for
the Support of the Bridge, in Thickne$s not
le$s than two thirds of the Pier it$elf. The
Crowns of all the Arches mu$t $tand quite clear
above the Water: Their Dre$s may be taken
from the <I>Ionic</I> or rather the <I>Doric</I> Architrave,
and in large Bridges it mu$t not be le$s in
Breadth than the fifteenth Part of the whole
Aperture of the Arch. To make the Rail or
Side-wall of the Bridge the $tronger, erect Pe-
de$tals at certain Di$tances by the Square and
Plum-line, on which, if you plea$e, you may
rai$e Columns to $upport a Roof or Portico.
The Height of this Side-wall with its Zocle
and Cornice mu$t be four Foot. The Spaces
between the Pede$tals may be filled up with a
$light Brea$t-wall. The Crown both of the
Pede$tals and Brea$t-wall may be an upright
Cymatium, or rather a rever$ed one, continu-
ed the whole Length of the Bridge, and the
Plinth at Bottom mu$t an$wer this Cymatium.
The Cau$eway on each Side for Women and
Foot Pa$$engers mu$t be rai$ed a Foot or two
higher than the Middle of the Bridge, which
being intended chiefly for Bea$ts of Carriage,
may be paved only with Flints. The Height
of the Columns, with their Intablature, mu$t
be equal to the Breadth of the Bridge. The
Cro$$ways and Squares differ only in their Big-
ne$s, the Cro$$way being indeed nothing el$e but
a $mall Square. <I>Plato</I> ordained that in all Cro$$-
ways there $hould be Spaces left for Nur$es to
meet in with their Children. His De$ign in
this Regulation was, I $uppo$e, not only that
the Children might grow $trong by being in the
Air, but al$o that the Nur$es them$elves, by
$eeing one another, might grow neater and
more delicate, and be le$s liable to Negligence
among $o many careful Ob$ervers in the $ame
Bu$ine$s. It is certain, one of the greate$t Or-
naments either of a Square, or of a Cro$$way,
is a hand$ome Portico, under which the old
Men may $pend the Heat of the Day, or be
mutually $erviceable to each other; be$ides that
the Pre$ence of the Fathers may deter and re-
$train the Youth, who are $porting and divert-
ing them$elves in the other Part of the Place,
from the Mi$chievou$ne$s and Folly natural to
their Age. The Squares mu$t be $o many dif-
$erent Markets, one for Gold and Silver, an-
other for Herbs, another for Cattle, another for
Wood, and $o on; each whereof ought to have
its particular Place in the City, and its di$tinct
Ornaments; but that where the Traffick of
Gold and Silver is to be carried on, ought to
be much the Noble$t? The <I>Greeks</I> made their
Forums or Markets exactly $quare, and encom-
pa$$ed them with large double Porticoes, which
they adorned with Columns and their Intabla-
tures, all of Stone, with noble Terra$$es at the
Top, for taking the Air upon. Among our
Countrymen the <I>Italians,</I> the Forums u$ed to
be a third Part longer than they were broad:
And becau$e in ancient Times they were the
Places where the Shows of the <I>Gladiators</I> were
exhibited, the Columns in the Porticoes were
$et at a greater Di$tance from each other, that
they might not ob$truct the Sight of tho$e Di-
ver$ions. In the Porticoes were the Shows for
the Gold$miths, and over the fir$t Story were
Galleries projecting out for $eeing the Shows
in, and the publick Magazines. This was the
<marg>*</marg>
Method among the Ancients. For my Part I
would have a Square twice as long as broad,
and that the Porticoes and other Buildings about
it $hould an$wer in $ome Proportion to the open
Area in the Middle, that it may not $eem too
large, by means of the Lowne$s of the Build-
ings, nor too $mall, from their being too high.
A proper Height for the Buildings about a
Square is one third of the Breadth of the open
Area, or one $ixth at the lea$t. I would al$o
have the Porticoes rai$ed above the Level of
the Ground, one fifth Part of their Breadth,
and that their Breadth $hould be equal to half
the Height of their Columns, including the
Intablature. The Proportions of the Columns
$hould be taken from tho$e of the Ba$ilique,
only with this Difference, that here the Archi-
trave, Freze and Cornice together $hould be
one fifth of the Column in Height. If you
would make a $econd Row of Columns over
this fir$t, tho$e Columns $hould be one fourth
Part thinner and $horter than tho$e below, and
<foot>Yy for</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plates 50 and 51, following Plate 49.</I></foot>
<p n=>174</p>
for a Ba$ement to them you mu$t make a
Plinth half the Height of the Ba$ement at the
Bottom. But nothing can be a greater Orna-
ment either to Squares or the Meeting of $eve-
ral Streets, than Arches at the Entrance of the
Streets; an Arch being indeed nothing el$e but
a Gate $tanding continually open. I am of
Opinion, that the Invention of Arches were
owing to tho$e that fir$t enlarged the Bounds
of the Empire: For it was the ancient Cu$tom
with $uch, as we are informed by <I>Tacitus,</I> to
enlarge the Pomoerium, or vacant Space left
next the City Walls, as we find particularly
that <I>Claudius</I> did. Now though they extend-
ed the Limits of the City, yet they thought it
proper to pre$erve the old Gates, for $everal
Rea$ons, and particularly becau$e they might
$ome Time or other happen to be a Safeguard
again$t the Irruption of an Enemy. Afterwards
as the$e Gates $tood in the mo$t con$picuous
Places, they adorned them with the Spoils
which they had won from their Enemies, and
the En$igns of their Victories. To the$e Be-
ginnings it was that Arches owed their Tro-
phies, In$criptions, Statues and Relieves. A
very proper Situation for an Arch is where a
Street joins into a Square, and e$pecially in the
Royal Street, by which Name I under$tand the
<marg>*</marg>
mo$t eminent in the City. An Arch, like a
Bridge, $hould have no le$s than three open
Pa$$ages: That in the Middle for the Soldiers
to return through in Triumph to pay their
Devotions to their paternal Gods, and the two
Side ones for the Matrons and Citizens to go
out to meet and welcome them Home. When
you build one of the$e Triumphal Arches, let
the Line of the Platform which runs length-
ways with the Street be the Half of the Line
that goes cro$s the Street from Right to Left,
and the Length of this Cro$s-line $hould never
be le$s than fifty Cubits. This Kind of Struc-
tures is very like that of a Bridge, only it never
con$i$ts of more than four Piers and three
Arches. Of the $horte$t Line of the Platform
which runs lengthways with the Street, leaves
one eighth Part towards the Square, and as
much behind on the other Side, for the Plat-
forms of Columns to be erected again$t the
Piers. The other longer Line which cro$$es the
Street mu$t al$o be divided into eight Parts,
two whereof mu$t be given to the Aperture in
the Middle, and one to each Pier and to each
Side opening. The perpendicular Upright of
the Piers that $upport the middle Arch, to the
Spring of that Arch, mu$t be two of the afore-
$aid Parts and a Third; and the Piers of the
two Side Arches mu$t bear the $ame Proporti-
on to their re$pective Aperture. The Soffit of
the Arches mu$t be per$ect Vaults. The
Crowns of the Piers beneath the Spring of the
Arch, may be made in Imitation of the <I>Doric</I>
Capital, only in$tead of the Ovolo and Abacus
they may have a projecting Cornice either <I>Co-
rinthian</I> or <I>Ionic,</I> and beneath the Cornice by
Way of Gorgerine, a plain Freze, and below
that an A$tragal and a Fillet like tho$e at the
Top of the Shaft of a Column. All the$e Or-
naments together $hould take up the ninth Part
of the Height of the Pier. This ninth Part
mu$t be again $ubdivided into nine $maller Parts,
five whereof mu$t be given to the Cornice,
three to the Freze, and one to the A$tragal
and Fillet. The Architrave or Face of the
Arch that turns from Pier to Pier mu$t never
be broader than the tenth Part of its Aperture,
nor narrower than the twelfth. The Columns
that are placed in Front again$t the Piers mu$t
be regular and in$ulate; they mu$t be $o rai$ed
that the Top of their Shafts may be equal to
the Top of the Arch, and their Length mu$t
be equal to the Breadth of the middle Aper-
ture. The$e Columns mu$t have their Ba$es,
Plinths and Pede$tals as al$o their Capitals,
either <I>Corinthian</I> or <I>Compo$ite</I> together with
Architrave, Freze and Cornice, either <I>Ionic</I> or
<I>Corinthian,</I> according to the Proportions al-
ready pre$cribed for tho$e $everal Members.
Above the$e Columns mu$t be a plain Wall,
half as high as the whole Sub$tructure from
the lowe$t Ba$ement to the Top of the Cornice,
and the Height of this additional Wall mu$t
be divided into eleven Parts, one of which mu$t
be given to a plain Cornice at the Top, with-
out either Freze or Architrave, and one and an
Half to a Ba$ement with a rever$ed Cymatium
which mu$t take up one third of the Height of
that Ba$ement. The Statues mu$t be placed
directly over the Intablature of the Columns,
upon little Pede$tals who$e Height mu$t be
equal to the Thickne$s of the Top of the Sha$t
of the Columns. The Height of the Statues
with their Pede$tals mu$t be eight of the eleven
Parts to which we divided the upper Wall. At
the Top of the whole Structure, e$pecially to-
wards the Square, mu$t be placed larger Sta-
tues, triumphal Cars, Animals and other Tro-
phies. The Ba$e for the$e to $tand upon, mu$t
be a Plinth three Times as high as the Cor-
nice, which is immediately below it. The$e
larger Statues which we thus place uppermo$t,
<foot>mu$t</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plates 52 and 53, following Plates 49-51. These
two plates appear in reverse order in the present edition.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 49. <I>(Pages 172-73)</I></cap>
<fig>
<cap><I>&ldquo;Super[ficie] dell' Acqua&rdquo; = surface of the water.</I></cap>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 50. <I>(Page 173)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 51. <I>(Page 173)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 53. <I>(Pages 174-75)</I></cap>
<fig>
<cap><I>Inscription: &ldquo;To Great Britain, which holds the destinies of Europe in even balance.&rdquo;</I></cap>
<pb>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 52. <I>(Pages 174-75)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>175</p>
mu$t in Height exceed tho$e which $tand be-
low them over the Columns, not le$s than a
$ixth Part, nor more than two ninths. In con-
venient Places in the Front of the upper Wall
we may cut In$criptions or Stories in Relieve,
in $quare or round Pannels. Beneath the Vault
of the Arch the upper half of the Wall, upon
which the Arch turns, is extremely proper for
Stories in Relieve, but the lower Half being
expo$ed to be $pattered with Dirt, is very un-
fit for $uch Ornaments. For a Ba$ement to
the Piers we may make a Plinth not more than
a Cubit and an Half high, and that its Angle
may not be broke by the Bru$h of Wheels, we
may carry it off into a Cima-rever$a, which
mu$t take up one fourth of the Height of the
Ba$ement it$elf.</P>
<head>CHAP. VII.</head>
<head><I>Of the adorning Theatres and other Places for publick Shows, and of their
U$efulne$s.</I></head>
<P>We come now to Places for publick
Shows. We are told that <I>Epimenides,</I>
the $ame that $lept fifty-$even Years in a Cave;
when the <I>Athenians</I> were building a Place for
publick Shows reproved them, telling them, you
know not how much Mi$chief this Place $hall
occa$ion; if you did, you would pull it to
Pieces with your Teeth. Neither dare I pre-
$ume to find Fault with our Pontiffs, and tho$e
who$e Bu$ine$s it is to $et good Examples to
others, for having, with good Cau$e no doubt,
aboli$hed the U$e of publick Shows. Yet <I>Mo$es</I>
was commended for ordaining, that all his Peo-
ple $hould upon certain $olemn Days meet to-
gether in one Temple, and celebrate publick
Fe$tivals at $tated Sea$ons. What may we $up-
po$e his View to have been in this In$titution?
Doubtle$s he hoped the People, by thus meet-
ing frequently together at publick Fea$ts, might
grow more humane, and be the clo$er linked
in Friend$hip one with another. So I imagine
our Ance$tors in$tituted publick Shows in the
City, not $o much for the Sake of the Diver$i-
ons them$elves, as for their U$efulne$s. And
indeed if we examine the Matter thoroughly,
we $hall find many Rea$ons to grieve that $o
excellent and $o u$eful an Entertainment $hould
have been $o long di$u$ed: For as of the$e
publick Diver$ions $ome were contrived for the
Delight and Amu$ement of Peace and Lei$ure,
others for an Exerci$e of War and Bu$ine$s;
the one $erved wonderfully to revive and keep
up the Vigour and Fire of the Mind, and the
other to improve the Strength and Intrepidity
of the Heart. It is indeed true that $ome cer-
tain and con$tant Medium $hould be ob$erved,
in order to make the$e Entertainments u$eful
and ornamental to a Country. The <I>Arcadi-
ans,</I> we are told, were the fir$t that invented
publick Games, to civilize and poli$h the Minds
of their People, who had been too much ac-
cu$tomed to a hard and $evere Way of Life;
and <I>Polybius</I> writes, that tho$e who afterwards
left off tho$e Entertainments, grew $o barbarous
and cruel, that they became execrable to all
<I>Greece.</I> But indeed the Memory of publick
Games is extremely ancient, and the Invention
of them is a$cribed to various Per$ons. <I>Diony$i-
us</I> is $aid to have been the fir$t Inventor of
Dances and Sports, as <I>Hercules</I> was of the Di-
ver$ion of the Combate. We read that the
Olympick Games were invented by the <I>&AElig;to-
lians</I> and the <I>Eleans,</I> after their return from the
Siege of <I>Troy.</I> We are told, that <I>Diony$ius</I> of
<I>Lemnos,</I> who was the Inventor of the Chorus
in Tragedies, was al$o the fir$t that built a
Place on purpo$e for publick Shows. In <I>Italy,
Lucius Mummius,</I> upon Occa$ion of his Tri-
umph, fir$t introduced theatrical Entertain-
ments two hundred Years before the Em-
peror <I>Nero's</I> Time, and the Actors were
brought to <I>Rome</I> from <I>Etruria.</I> Hor$e-Races
were brought from the <I>Tyrians,</I> and almo$t the
whole Variety of publick Diver$ions came to
<I>Italy</I> from <I>A$ia.</I> I am inclined to believe that
the ancient Race of Men, that fir$t began to
cut the Figure of <I>Janus</I> upon their brazen
Coins, were content to $tand to $ee the$e Sort
of Games under $ome Beech or Elm, according
to tho$e Ver$es of <I>Ovid,</I> $peaking of <I>Romulus's</I>
Show.</P>
<P><I>His Play-hou$e, not of</I> Parian <I>Marble made,
Nor was it $pread with purple Sails for $hade.
The Stage with Ru$hes or with Leaves they $trew'd:
No Scenes in Pro$pect, no machining God.</I>
<foot><I>On</I></foot>
<p n=>176</p>
<I>On Rows of homely Turf they $at to $ee,
Crown'd with the Wreaths of every common Tree.</I></P>
<P>DRYDEN'S Tran$lation.</P>
<P>HOWEVER, we read that <I>Jolaus,</I> the Son of
<I>Iphiclus,</I> fir$t contrived Seats for the Spectators
in <I>Sardinia,</I> when he received the The$piad
from <I>Hercules.</I> But at fir$t Theatres were
built only of Wood; and we find that <I>Pompey</I>
was blamed for having made the Seats fixed
and not moveable, as they u$ed to be anciently:
But Diver$ions of this Nature were afterwards
carried to $uch a Height, that there were no
le$s than three va$t Theatres within the City of
<I>Rome,</I> be$ides $everal Amphitheatres, one of
which was $o large that it would hold above
two hundred thou$and Per$ons, be$ides the <I>Cir-
cus Maximus:</I> All which were built of $quare
Stone and adorned with Columns of Marble.
Nay, not content with all the$e, they erected
Theatres, only for temporary Entertainments,
prodigiou$ly enriched with Marble, Gla$s, and
great Numbers of Statues. The noble$t Struc-
ture in tho$e Days, and the mo$t capacious,
which was at <I>Placentia,</I> a Town in <I>Lombardy,</I>
was burnt in the Time of <I>Octavianus's</I> War.
But we $hall dwell no longer upon this ancient
Magnificence. Of publick Shows, $ome are
proper to Peace and Lei$ure, others to War and
Bu$ine$s. Tho$e proper to Lei$ure, belong to
the Poets, Mu$icians and Actors: Tho$e pro-
per to War, are Wre$tling, Boxing, Fencing,
Shooting, Running, and every Thing el$e re-
lating to the Exerci$e of Arms. <I>Plato</I> ordained
that Shows of this la$t Nature $hould be exhi-
bited every Year, as highly tending to the
Welfare and Ornament of a City. The$e Di-
ver$ions required various Buildings, which there-
fore have been called by various Names. Tho$e
de$igned for the U$e of the Poets, Comick,
Tragick and the like, are called Theatres by
way of Excellence. The Place where the no-
ble Youth exerci$ed them$elves in driving Races
in Chariots with two or four Hor$es, was called
the <I>Circus.</I> That la$tly, where wild Bea$t
were enclo$ed and baited, was called an Am-
phitheatre. Almo$t all the Structures for the$e
different Sorts of Shows were built in Imitation
of the Figure of an Army drawn up in Order
of Battle, with its two Horns or Wings pro-
tending forwards, and con$i$ted of an Area
wherein the Actors, or Combatants, or Chari-
ots are to exhibit the Spectacle, and of Rows
of Seats around for the Spectators to $it on:
But then they differ as to the Form of the afore-
$aid Area; for tho$e which have this Area in
the Shape of a Moon in its Decrea$e are called
Theatres, but when the Horns are protracted
a great Way forwards, they are called <I>Circu$$es,</I>
becau$e in them the Chariots make a Circle
about the Goal. Some tell us, that the Anci-
ents u$ed to celebrate Games of this Kind in
Rings between Rivers and Swords (<I>interen$es &amp;
flumina</I>) and that therefore they were called
<I>Circen$es,</I> and that the Inventor of the$e Di-
ver$ions was one <I>Monagus</I> at <I>Elis</I> in <I>A$ia.</I> The
Area inclo$ed between the Fronts of two Thea-
tres joined together was called <I>Cavea,</I> or the
Pit, and the whole Edifice an Amphitheatre.
The Situation of a Building for publick Shows
ought particularly to be cho$en in a good Air,
that the Spectators may not be incommoded
either by Wind, Sun, or any of the other In-
conveniences mentioned in the fir$t Book, and
the Theatre ought in an e$pecial Manner to
be $heltered from the Sun, becau$e it is in the
Month of <I>Augu$t</I> chiefly, as <I>Horace</I> ob$erves,
that the People are fond of the Recitals of the
Poets, and the lighter Recreations: And if the
Rays of the Sun beat in, and were confined
within any Part of the Theatre, the exce$$ive
Heat might be apt to throw the Spectators into
Di$tempers. The Place ought al$o to be pro-
per for Sound, and it is very convenient to have
Porticoes, either adjoining to the Theatre, or
at an ea$y Di$tance from it, for People to $hel-
ter them$elves under from $udden Rains and
Storms. <I>Plato</I> was for having the Theatre
within the City, and the <I>Circus</I> $omewhere out
of it. The Parts of the ancient Theatres were
as follows: The Area or open Space in the
Middle, which was quite uncovered; about
this Area, the Rows of Seats for the Specta-
tors, and oppo$ite to them the rai$ed Floor or
Stage for the Actors, and the Decorations pro-
per to the Repre$entation, and at the Top of
all, Colonades and Arches to receive the Actor's
Voice, and make it more $onorous. But the
<I>Greek</I> Theatres differed from tho$e of the <I>Ro-
mans</I> in this Particular, that the <I>Greeks</I> brought
their Choru$es and Actors within the Area,
and by that Means had Occa$ion for a $maller
Stage, whereas the <I>Romans</I> having the whole
Performance upon the <I>Pulpitum,</I> or Stage, be-
yond the Semicircle of the Seats, were obliged
to make their Stage much larger. In this they
all agreed, that at fir$t in marking out the Plat-
form for the Theatre, they made u$e of a Se-
micircle, only drawing out the Horns $ome-
what farther than to be exactly $emicircular,
<foot>with</foot>
<p n=>177</p>
with a Line which $ome made $trait, others
curve. Tho$e who extended them with Strait-
lines, drew them out beyond the Semicircle,
parallel to each other, to the Addition of one
fourth Part of the Diameter: But tho$e who
extended them with Curve-lines, fir$t mark'd
out a compleat Circle, and then taking off one
fourth Part of its Circumference, the Remain-
der was left for the Platform of the Theatre.
The Limits of the Area being marked out and
fixed, the next Work was to rai$e the Seats;
and the fir$t Thing to be done in order to this,
was to re$olve how high the Seats $hould be,
and from their Height to calculate how much
of the Platform they mu$t take up. Mo$t
Architects made the Height of the Theatre
equal to the Area in the Middle, knowing that
in low Theatres the Voice was $unk and lo$t,
but made $tronger and clearer in high ones.
Some of the be$t Arti$ts made the Height of
the Building to be four fifths of the Breadth
of the Area. Of this whole Height the Seats
never took up le$s than half, nor more than
two thirds, and their Breadth was $ometimes
equal to their Height, and $ometimes only two
fifths of it. I $hall here de$cribe one of the$e
Structures which I think the mo$t compleat
and perfect of any. The outermo$t Founda-
tions of the Seats, or rather of the Wall again$t
which the highe$t Seat mu$t terminate, mu$t
be laid di$tant from the Center of the Semi-
circle one whole Semidiameter of the Area,
with the Addition of a third. The fir$t or
lowe$t Seat mu$t not be upon the very Level
of the Area, but be rai$ed upon a Wall, which
in the larger Theatres mu$t be in Height the
ninth Part of the Semidiameter of the middle
Area, from the Top of which Wall the Seats
mu$t take their fir$t Flight: And in the $malle$t
Theatres, this Wall mu$t never be le$s than
$even Foot high. The Benches them$elves
mu$t be a Foot and an half high, and two
and an half broad. Among the$e Seats, Spaces
mu$t be left at certain Di$tances for Pa$$ages
into the middle Area, and for Stairs to go up
from thence to tho$e Seats, which Stair-ca$es
and Pa$$ages $hould be with vaulted Roofs,
and in Number proportionable to the Bigne$s
of the Theatre. Of the$e Pa$$ages there $hould
be $even principal ones, all directed exactly to
the Center of the Area, and perfectly clear
and open, at equal Di$tances from each other;
and of the$e $even, one $hould be larger than
the re$t, an$wering to the middle of the Semi-
circle, which I call the Ma$ter Entrance, be-
cau$e it mu$t an$wer to the high Street. An-
other Pa$$age mu$t be made at the Head of
the Semicircle on the Right Hand, and $o an-
other on the Le$t to an$wer it, and between
the$e and the Ma$ter Entrance four others, two
on each Side. There may be as many other
Openings and Pa$$ages as the Compa$s of the
Theatre requires, and will admit of. The
Ancients in their great Theatres divided the
Rows of Seats into three Parts, and each of
the$e Divi$ions was di$tingui$hed from the other
by a Seat twice as broad as the others, which
was a Kind of Landing-place, $eparating the
higher Seats from the lower; and at the$e
Landing-places, the Stairs for coming up to
the $everal Seats terminated. I have ob$erved,
that the be$t Architects, and the mo$t inge-
nious Contrivers u$ed at each great Entrance
to make two different Stairs, one more upright
and direct, for the Young and the Nimble,
and another broader and ea$ier, with more fre-
quent Re$ts, for the Matrons and old People.
This may $uffice as to the Seats. Oppo$ite to
the Front of the Theatre was rai$ed the Stage
for the Actors, and every thing belonging to
the Repre$entation, and here $ate the Nobles
in peculiar and honourable Seats, $eparate from
the common People, or perhaps in the middle
Area in hand$ome Places erected for that Pur-
po$e. The <I>Pulpitum</I> or Stage, was made $o
large as to be fully $ufficient for every thing
that was to be acted upon it. It came forward
equal to the Center of the Semicircle, and was
rai$ed in Height not above five Foot, that the
Nobles who $ate in the Area might from thence
ea$ily $ee every Ge$ture of the Actors. But
when the middle Area was not re$erved for the
Nobles to $it in, but was allowed to the Actors
and Mu$icians: Then the Stage was made le$s,
but rai$ed higher, $ometimes to the Height of
$ix Cubits. In both Kinds the Stage was adorn-
ed with Rows of Colonades one over another,
in Imitation of Hou$es, with their proper Doors
and Windows, and in Front was one principal
Door with all the Dre$s of the Door of a
Temple, to repre$ent a Royal Palace, with
other Doors on each Side for the Actors to
make their Entrances and Exits at, according
to the Nature of the Drama. And as there
are three Sorts of Poets concerned in theatrical
Performances, the Tragick, who de$cribe the
Misfortunes and Di$tre$$es of Princes; the Co-
mick who repre$ent the Lives and Manners of
private Per$ons, and the Pa$toral, who $ing the
Delights of the Country, and the Loves of
<foot>Z z Shepherds:</foot>
<p n=>178</p>
Shepherds: There was a Contrivance upon the
Stage of a Machine which turning upon a Pin,
in an In$tant changed the Scene to a Palace
for Tragedy, an ordinary Hou$e for Comedy,
or a Grove for Pa$toral, as the Nature of the
Fable required. Such was the Manner of the
Middle, Area, Seats and Stage, Pa$$ages and
the like. I have already $aid in this Chapter,
that one of the principal Parts of the Theatre
was the Portico, which was de$igned for ren-
dering the Sound of the Voice $tronger and
clearer. This was placed upon the highe$t
Seat, and the Front of its Colonade looked to
the middle Area of the Theatre. Of this we
are now to give $ome Account.</P>
<P>THE Ancients had learnt from the Philo$o-
phers, that the Air, by the Percu$$ion of the
Voice, and the Force of Sound, was put into a
circular Motion, in the $ame Manner as Water
is when any thing is $uddenly plunged into it,
and that, as for In$tance, in a Lute, or in a
Valley, between two Hills, e$pecially if the
Place be woody, the Sound and Voice are ren-
dered much more clear and $trong, becau$e the
$welling Circles of the Air meet with $ome-
thing which beats back the Rays of the Voice
that i$$ue from the Center, in the $ame Man-
ner as a Ball is beat back from a Wall again$t
which it is thrown, by which means tho$e Cir-
cles are made clo$er and $tronger: For this
Rea$on the Ancients built their Theatres cir-
cular; and that the Voice might meet with no
Ob$tacle to $top its free A$cent to the very
highe$t Part of the Theatre, they placed their
Seats in $uch a Manner, that all the Angles of
them lay in one exact Line, and upon the
highe$t Seat, which was no $mall Help, they
rai$ed Porticoes facing the middle Area of the
Theatre, the Front of which Porticoes were as
open and free as po$$ible, but the Back of them
was entirely $hut up with a continued Wall.
Under this Portico they rai$ed a low Wall,
which not only $erved for a Pede$tal to the
Columns, but al$o helped to collect the $welling
Orbs of the Voice, and to throw it gently into
the Portico it$elf, where being received into a
thicker Air, it was not reverberated from thence
too violently, but returned clear and a little
more $trengthened. And over all this, as a
Cieling to the Theatre, both to keep off the
Weather, and to retain the Voice, they $pread
a Sail all $trewed over with Stars, which they
could remove at Plea$ure, and which $haded
the middle Area, the Seats, and all the Specta-
tors. The upper Portico was built with a
great deal of Art; for in order to $upport it,
there were other Porticoes and Colonades at
the Back of the Theatre, out to the Street, and
in the larger Theatres, the$e Porticoes were
made double, that if any violent Rain or Storm
obliged the Spectators to fly for Shelter, it
might not drive in upon them. The$e Porti-
coes and Colonades, thus placed under the up-
per Portico, were not like tho$e which we have
de$cribed for Temples or Ba$iliques, but built
of $trong Pila$ters, and in Imitation of tri-
umphal Arches. We $hall fir$t therefore treat
of the$e under Porticoes, as being built for the
Sake of that above. The Rule for the Aper-
tures of the$e Porticoes is, that to every Pa$$age
into the middle Area of the Theatre, there
ought to be one of them, and each of the$e
Apertures $hould be accompanied with others
in certain Proportions, an$wering exactly one to
the other in Height, Breadth, De$ign and Or-
naments. The Breadth of the Area for walk-
ing in the$e Porticoes, $hould be equal to the
Aperture between Pila$ter and Pila$ter, and the
Breadth of each Pila$ter $hould be equal to half
that Aperture: All which Rules mu$t be ob-
$erved with the greate$t Care and Exactne$s.
La$tly, again$t the$e Pila$ters we mu$t not $et
Columns entirely in$ulate, as in triumphal
Arches, but only three quarter Columns with
Pede$tals under them, in Height one $ixth of
the Column it$elf. The other Ornaments mu$t
be the $ame as tho$e in Temples. The Height
of the$e three quarter Columns, with their
whole Entablature, mu$t be equal to half the
perpendicular Height of the Seats within, $o
that on the Out$ide there mu$t be two Orders
of Columns one over the other, the $econd of
which mu$t be ju$t even with the Top of tho$e
Seats, and over this we mu$t lay the Pavement
for the upper Portico, which as we $hewed be-
fore, mu$t look into the middle Area of the
Theatre, in Shape re$embling a Hor$e-$hoe.
This Sub$tructure being laid, we are to rai$e
our upper Portico, the Front and Colonade
whereof is not to receive its Light from with-
out, like tho$e before de$cribed, but is to be
open to the Middle of the Theatre, as we have
already ob$erved. This Work being rai$ed in
order to prevent the Voice from being lo$t and
di$per$ed, may be called the Circumvallation.
Its Height $hould be the whole Height of the
outer Portico, with the Addition of one half,
and its Parts are the$e. The low Wall under
the Columns, which we may call a continued
Pede$tal. This Wall of the whole Height of
<foot>the</foot>
<p n=>179</p>
the Circumvallation, from the upper Seat to
the Top of the Entablature, mu$t in great
Theatres be allowed never more than a Third,
and in $mall ones, not le$s than a Fourth. Up-
on this continued Pede$tal $tand the Columns
which with their Ba$es and Capitals mu$t be
equal to half the Height of the whole Circum-
vallation. Over the$e Columns lies their En-
tablature, and over all a Plain Wall, $uch as we
de$cribed in Ba$iliques, which Wall mu$t be
allowed the $ixth remaining Part of the Height
of the Circumvallation. The Columns in this
Circumvallation $hall be in$ulate, rai$ed a$ter
the $ame Proportions as tho$e in the Ba$iliques,
and in Number ju$t an$wering to tho$e of the
three quarter Columns $et again$t the Pila$ters
of the outward Portico, and they $hall be
placed exactly in the $ame Rays, by which
Name I under$tand Lines drawn from the Cen-
ter of the Theatre to the outward Columns.
In the low Wall, or continued Pede$tal, $et
under the Columns of the inner Portico, mu$t
be certain Openings, ju$t over the Pa$$ages be-
low into the Theatre, which Openings mu$t
be in the Nature of Niches, wherein, if you
think fit, you may place a Sort of Va$es of
Bra$s, hung with their Mouths downwards,
that the Voice reverberating in them, may be
returned more $onorous. I $hall not here wa$te
Time in con$idering tho$e In$tructions in <I>Vi-
truvius,</I> which he borrows from the Precepts
of Compo$ition in Mu$ick, according to the
Rules of which he is for placing the ju$t men-
tioned Va$es in Theatres, $o as to corre$pond
with the differerent Pitches of the $everal
Voices: A Curio$ity ea$ily talked of, but how
it is to be executed, let tho$e inform us, who
know. Thus much I mu$t readily a$$ent to,
and <I>Ari$totle</I> him$elf is of the Opinion, that
hollow Ve$$els of any Sort, and Wells too, are
of Service in $trengthening the Sound of the
Voice. But to return to the Portico on the
In$ide of the Theatre. The back Wall of this
Portico mu$t be quite clo$e and entire, and $o
$hut in the whole Circumvallation, that the
Voice arriving there, may not be lo$t. On the
Out$ide of the Wall to the Street, we may ap-
ply Columns as Ornaments, in Number,
Height, Proportions and Members, exactly an-
$wering to tho$e in the Porticoes under them,
in the outward Front of the Theatre. From
what has been $aid, it is ea$y to collect in what
Particulars the greater Theatres differ from the
$maller. In the greater, the outward Portico
below is double, in the $maller $ingle: In the
former, there may be three Orders of Columns,
one over the other; in the latter, not more
than two. They al$o differ in this, that $ome
$mall Theatres have no Portico at all on the
In$ide, but for their Circumvallation, have on-
ly a plain Wall and a Cornice, which is in-
tended for the $ame Purpo$e of returning the
Voice, as the Portico in great Theatres, and
in $ome of the large$t Theatres, even this in-
ward Portico is double. La$tly, the outward
Covering of the Theatre mu$t be well plai$ter-
ed or coated, and made $o $loping that the
Water may run into Pipes placed in the Angles
of the Building, which mu$t carry it off private-
ly into proper Drains. Upon the upper Cor-
nice on the Out$ide of the Theatre, Mutules
and Stays mu$t be contrived to $upport Poles,
like the Ma$ts of Ships to which to fa$ten the
Ropes for $preading the Vela or Covering of
the Theatre upon any extraordinary Repre$en-
tation. And as we are to rai$e $o great a Pile
of Building to a ju$t Height, the Wall ought to
be allowed a due Thickne$s for the $upporting
$uch a Weight. Let the Thickne$s therefore
of the outward Wall of the fir$t Colonade be a
fifteenth Part of the Height of the whole Struc-
ture. The middle Wall between the two Por-
ticoes, when the$e are double, mu$t want one
fourth Part of the Thickne$s of the outward
one. The next Story rai$ed above this may be
a twelfth Part thinner than the lower one.</P>
<head>CHAP. VIII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Ornaments of the Amphitheatre, Circus, publick Walks, and Halls,
and Courts for petty Judges.</I></head>
<P>Having $aid thus much of Theatres,
it is nece$$ary to give $ome Account
of the Circus and Amphitheatre which all owe
their Original to the Theatre, for the Circus is
indeed nothing el$e but a Theatre with its
Horns $tretched further on in Lines equi-di$-
tant one from the other, only that the Nature
of this Building does not require Portices; and
<foot>the</foot>
<p n=>180</p>
the Amphitheatre is formed of two Theatres
with their Horns joined together, and the
Rows of Seats continued quite round; and
the chief Difference between them is, that a
Theatre is properly an half Amphitheatre,
with this further Variation too, that the Am-
phitheatre has its middle Area quite clear from
any Thing of a Stage or Scenes; but in all
other re$pects, and particularly in the Seats,
Porticoes, Entrances and the like, they exactly
<marg>*</marg>
agree. I am inclined to believe, that the Am-
phitheatre was at fir$t contrived chiefly for
Hunting, and that for this Rea$on it was made
round, to the Intent that the wild Bea$ts
which were enclo$ed and baited in it, not
having any Nook or Corner to fly to, might
be the $ooner obliged to defend them$elves
again$t their A$$ailants, who were extremely
bold and dextrous at engaging with the fier-
ce$t wild Bea$ts. Some armed only with a
Javelin, would with the Help of that leap
over a wild Bull that was making at him full
Speed, and $o elude his Blow. Others having
put on a Kind of Armour, compo$ed of no-
thing but thick Thorns and Prickles, would
$uffer them$elves to be rowled about and
mumbled by a Bear. Others enclo$ed in a
Kind of wooden Cage, teazed and provoked a
Lion, and fome with nothing but a Cloak
about their left Arm, and a $mall Ax or Mal-
let in their right Hand would attack him
openly. In a Word, if any Man had either
Dexterity to deceive, or Courage and Strength
to cope with wild Bea$ts, he offered him$elf as
a Champion, either merely for the Sake of Ho-
nour, or for Reward. We read too, that both
in the Theatres and Amphitheatres, the great
Men u$ed to throw Apples, or let fly little Birds
among the Mob, for the Plea$ure of $eeing
them $cramble for them. The middle Area
of the Amphitheatre, though it is $urrounded
by two Theatres joined together, yet mu$t not
be made $olong as two compleat Theatres would
make it, if their Horns both pretended to meet
each other: But its Length mu$t bear a cer-
tain Proportion to its Breadth. Some among
the Ancients made the Length eight, and the
Breadth $even Parts, and $ome made the
Breadth three fourths of the Length. In other
Particulars it agrees with the Theatre: It mu$t
have Porticoes on the Out$ide, and one at the
Top within, over the highe$t Seat, which we
<marg>&dagger;</marg>
have called the Circumvallation. We are next
to treat of the Circus. Some tell us, that this
was built in Imitation of the heavenly Bodies;
for as the Heavens have twelve Hou$es, $o the
Circus has twelve Gates for Entrance; and as
there are $even Planets, $o this has $even Goals,
lying from Ea$t to We$t at a good Di$tance one
from the other, that through them the con-
tending Chariots may hold their Cour$e, as the
Sun and Moon do through the Zodiac; which
they did four-and-twenty Times, in Imitati-
on of the four-and-twenty Hours. The Con-
currents were al$o divided into four Squadrons,
each of which was di$tingui$hed by its particu-
lar Colour; the one was cloathed in Green, in
Repre$entation of the verdant Spring; another
to denote the flaming Summer in Red; the
third in White, in Imitation of the pale Au-
tumn; and the fourth in dusky Brown for the
gloomy Winter. The middle Area of the Cir-
cus was neither clear nor open like the Am-
phitheatre, nor taken up with a Stage like the
Theatre, but it was divided Lengthways into
two Cour$es by the Goals or Terms which
were $et up at proper Di$tances, about which
the Hor$es or Men performed their Races. Of
the$e Goals there were three principal ones,
whereof the Middlemo$t was the chief of all,
and this was a Pile of Stone tapering up to the
Top, upon account of which regular Diminu-
tion, it was called an Obelisk. The other two
principal Goals were either colo$$al Statues, or
lofty Piles of Stones in the Nature of Trophies,
de$igned a$ter the Workman's Fancy, $o as
they were only great and beauti$ul. Between
the$e principal Goals were two others on each
Side, either Columns or Obelisks le$s than the
former, which made up the Number of Seven.
We read in Hi$torians, that the Circus Maxi-
mus at <I>Rome</I> was three Furlongs in Length,
and one in Breadth. Now indeed it is entire-
ly de$troyed, and there are not the lea$t Foot-
$teps remaining by which we can form a Judg-
ment of its ancient Structure: But by an actual
Survey of other Works of this Nature I find the
Manner of them was as follows: The Anci-
ents u$ed to make the middle Area of the Cir-
cus in Breadth at lea$t three$core Cubits, or
ninety Foot, and in Length $even Times that
Breadth. The Breadth was divided into two
equal Parts or Cour$es by a Line drawn the
Length of the Circus, on which Line the Goals
or Terms were placed according to the follow-
ing Method: The whole Length being divided
into $even Parts, one of tho$e Parts was given
to a Sweep at each End for the Concurrents to
turn out of the right Cour$e into the left, and
the Remainder was allowed for the Goals, which
<foot>$tanding</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plates 54-56, facing and following this page. Plate
56 precedes Plate 55.</I></foot>
<foot>&dagger; <I>See Plate 57, following Plates 54-56.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 54. <I>(Page 180)</I></cap>
<fig>
<cap><I>&ldquo;Pianta dell' Anfiteatro&rdquo; = plan of the amphitheater.</I></cap>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 56. <I>(Page 180)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 55. <I>(Page 180)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 57. <I>(Page 180)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 58. <I>(Page 181)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>181</p>
$tanding at equal Di$tances from each other,
took up the other $ive $evenths of the whole
Length of the Circus. One Goal was joined to
the other by a Kind of Brea$t-wall which was
never le$s than $ix Foot high, to keep the
Hor$es that were running from cro$$ing out of
one Cour$e into the other. On each Side of
the Circus were Seats rai$ed to the Height of
never more than the fifth, nor le$s than the
$ixth of the whole Breadth of the middle Area;
and the$e Seats began from a Ba$ement, as in
Amphitheatres, that the Spectators might not
be within reach of any Hurt from the Bea$ts.
Among publick Works we may reckon tho$e
publick Walks, in which the Youth exerci$e
them$elves at Tennis, Leaping, or the U$e of
Arms, and where the old Men walk to take
the Air, or if they are infirm, are carried about
for the Recovery of their Health. <I>Cel$us,</I> the
Phy$ician, $ays, that Exerci$e is much better
in the open Air, than under Cover; but that
they might exerci$e them$elves more commo-
diou$ly even in the Shade, they added Porti-
coes which enclo$ed the whole Square. The
Square it$elf was $ometimes paved with Marble
and Mo$aick Work, and $ometimes turfed with
Gra$s, and planted with Myrtles, Juniper,
<marg>*</marg>
Cypre$s and Cedar Trees. The Porticoes on
three Sides were $ingle, and $o large, that their
Proportion was two ninth Parts greater than
that of the Forum before treated of in this
Book; but on the fourth Side, which fronted
the South, the Portico was yet more $pacious,
and double. In Froat it had <I>Doric</I> Columns,
who$e Height was equal to the Breadth of the
Portico; the Columns behind, which divided
the inner Portico from the outward, were
higher than the former one fifth Part, for $up-
porting the Cover, and giving a Slope to the
Roof; and for this Rea$on they made them of
the <I>Ionic</I> Order, <I>Ionic</I> Columns being in their
very Nature taller than the <I>Doric:</I> Though I
cannot $ee why the Cieling of the$e Porticoes
$hould not have been exactly level, which cer-
tainly mu$t have been more beauti$ul to the
Eye. In both the$e Colonades, the Diameters
of the Columns were as follows: In the <I>Do-
ric,</I> the lower Diameter of the Shaft was two
fifteenths of the whole Height, including the
Ba$e and Capital; but in the <I>Ionic</I> and <I>Corin-
thian,</I> the lower Diameter of the Shaft was
three $ixteenths of the Length of only the Shaft
of the Column. In other Re$pects they were
the $ame as tho$e u$ed in Temples. To the
back Walls of the$e Porticoes, they added hand-
$ome Walls or Rooms, where Philo$ophers and
Men of Knowledge might conver$e and di$-
pute upon the noble$t Subjects; and of the$e
Rooms, $ome were proper for Winter, and
others for Summer. Tho$e which lay any
thing to the North, were for Summer, as
tho$e to the South, and which were not ex-
po$ed to any $harp Winds, were for Winter;
be$ides that tho$e for Winter were $hut in with
entire Walls, whereas tho$e for Summer were
full of Windows, or rather were $eparated only
by a Colonade, and had an open View to-
wards the North, with Pro$pects of Sea, Hills,
Lakes, or $ome other agreeable Landskip, and
admitted as much Light as po$$ible. The Por-
ticoes on the Right and Left of the$e Squares,
had the $ame Sort of back Rooms, $hut in
from Winds, but open to the Morning and to
the Evening Sun, which $hone in upon them
from the middle Area. The Plan of the$e
retiring Rooms was various, $ometimes they
were $emicircular, $ometimes rectangular, but
always in a due Proportion to the Square it$elf,
and to the Porticoes which encompa$$ed it
it. The Breadth of the whole Square with its
Porticoes, was half its Length, and this Breadth
was divided into eight Parts, $ix whereof were
given to the open Square, and one to each
Portico. When the back retiring Rooms were
$emicircular, their Diameter was two fifths of
the open Area. In the back Wall of the Por-
ticoes, were the Apertures for Entrance, and
for Light into tho$e Rooms. The Height of
the $emicircular Retirements, in the greate$t
Proportion, was only equal to their Breadth;
but in $maller Works, it was one fifth Part
more. Over the Top of the Roof of the Por-
tico, Openings were broke for the Admi$$ion
of a $tronger and more chearful Light into the
Room. If the$e Withdrawing-rooms were $quare,
then their Breadth was twice the Breadth of the
Porticoes, and their Length twice their own
Breadth. That I call Length which runs along
with the Portico, $o that upon entering into tho$e
Rooms from the Right, their Length lies to the
Left, and entering them from the Left, to the
Right. Among publick Works, we are al$o to in-
clude the Portico for the inferior Judges, which
the Ancients u$ed to build after the following
Manner: Their Bigne$s was according to the
Dignity of the City, but rather too large than
too $mall, and along them was a Row of
Chamters, contiguous to each other, where
petty Conte$ts were heard and determined.
Tho$e Works which I have hitherto de$cribed
<foot>A a a $eem</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 58, facing this page.</I></foot>
<p n=>182</p>
$eem to be truly publick, as they are de$igned
for the U$e of all the People in general, both
noble and vulgar: But there are $till $ome other
Works of a publick Nature, which are for the
U$e only of the principal Citizens, and of the
Magi$trates; as for In$tance, the Senate-hou$e
and Council-chambers, whereof we are now
to give $ome Account.</P>
<head>CHAP. IX.</head>
<P><I>Of the proper Ornaments for the Senatc-hou$e and Council-chambers, as al$o of
the adorning the City with Groves, Lakes for Swimming, Libraries, Schools,
publick Stables, Ar$enals and Mathematical In$truments.</I></P>
<P><I>Plato</I> appointed the Council to be held
in a Temple, and the <I>Romans</I> had a de-
termined Place for that Purpo$e, which they
called their Comitium. At <I>Ceraunia</I> there
was a thick Grove, con$ecrated to <I>Jupi-
ter,</I> in which the <I>Greeks</I> u$ed to meet to con-
$ult about the Affairs of their State, and many
other Cities u$ed to hold their Councils in the
Middle of the publick Forum. It was not
lawful for the <I>Roman</I> Senate to meet in any
Place that was not appointed by Augury, and
<marg>*</marg>
they commonly cho$e $ome Temple. After-
wards they erected <I>Curi&aelig;,</I> or Courts for that
particular Purpo$e, and <I>Varro</I> tells us, that
the$e were of two Sorts: One in which the
Prie$ts con$ulted about religious Matters; the
other where the Senate regulated $ecular Affairs.
Of the peculiar Properties of each of the$e I can
find nothing certain; unle$s we may be allow-
ed to conjecture, that the former had $ome Re-
$emblance to a Temple, the latter to a Ba$ili-
que. The Prie$ts Court therefore may have a
vaulted Roof, and that of the Senators a flat
one. In both, the Members of the Council are
to declare their Opinion, by $peaking; and
therefore Regard is to be had in the$e Edifices
to the Sound of the Voice. For this Rea$on
there ought to be $omething to prevent the
Voice from a$cending too high and being lo$t,
and e$pecially in vaulted Roofs to prevent it
from thundering in the Top of the Vault and
deafening the Hearers: Upon which Account,
as well for Beauty as for this nece$$ary U$e, the
Wall ought to be crowned with a Cornice. I
find from Ob$ervation of the Structures of this
Sort left by the Ancients, that they u$ed to
make their Courts $quare. The Height of their
vaulted Courts was $ix $evenths of the Breadth
of the Front, and the Roof was a plain Arch.
Ju$t oppo$ite to the Door the Beholder's Eye
was $truck with the Tribunal, the Sagitta
whereof was the Third of its Chord: The
Breadth of the Aperture of the Door, was one
$eventh of the whole Front. At half the
Height of the Wall, and one eighth Part of
that half, projected an Architrave, Freze and
Cornice upon an Order of Columns, either clo$e
or thin $et, as the Architect liked be$t, accord-
ing to the Rules of the Colonades and Porti-
coes of a Temple. Over the Cornice on the
right and left Sides, in certain Niches opened
in the Wall, were Statues and other Figures
of religious Veneration, but in the Front at the
$ame Height with tho$e Niches, was a Window
twice as broad as high, with two little Columns
in the Middle of it, to $upport the Tran$om.
This was the Structure of the Prie$ts Court.
The Court for the Senators may be as follows:
The Breadth of the Platform mu$t be two
thirds of its Length. The Height to the Rafters
of the Roof mu$t be equal to the Breadth of
the Platform, with the Addition of one fourth
Part of that Breadth. The Wall mu$t be crown-
ed with a Cornice, according to the following
Rule. Having divided the whole clear Height
into nine Parts, one of tho$e Parts mu$t be
given to the $olid Ba$ement, or continued Pe-
de$tal of the Columns, and again$t this Ba$e-
ment mu$t be the Seats for the Senators. The
Remainder mu$t afterwards be divided into
$even Parts, whereof four mu$t be given to the
fir$t Row of Columns, over which you mu$t
rai$e another, both with their proper Ba$es,
Capitals, Architraves, Frezes and Cornices, in
the Manner before pre$cribed for a Ba$ilique.
The Intervals between the Columns on each
Side, mu$t always be in an odd Number, and
all equal to each other; but in Front, tho$e
Intervals mu$t be no more than three, the
Middlemo$t whereof mu$t be one fourth Part
broader than the other two. In every Interval
in the upper Row of Columns mu$t be a Win-
dow, this Sort of Courts requiring as much
Light as po$$ible, and under each Window mu$t
<foot>be</foot>
<foot>* <I>For the curia and senate house, see Plates 59-62, facing
and following this page.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 59. <I>(Page 182)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 60. <I>(Page 182)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 61. <I>(Page 182)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 62. <I>(Page 182)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>183</p>
be a Re$t, according to the Rules already given
for the Ba$ilique, and no Part of the Dre$s of
the$e Windows mu$t ri$e higher than the Shaft
of the Columns between which they $tand,
exclu$ive of their Capitals. The Height of the
Aperture of the Window being divided into
cleven Parts, $even mu$t be given to its Breadth.
If you would have no upper Row of Columns
at all, then you may $upport the upper Cornice
with Con$oles, in$tead of Capitals, according to
the Method already given in the De$cription of
the <I>Ionic</I> Door. Then each Window will $tand
between two Con$oles made after the following
Proportions. The Breadth of the Con$ole mu$t
be the $ame as the Top of the naked Shaft of
a Column in the $ame Place ought to be, exclu-
$ive of the A$tragal and Fillet, and its Length
equal to the Height of the <I>Corinthian</I> Capital
without its Abacus. The Projecture of the
Con$ole mu$t not exceed that of the Freze of
its Entablature. The Ancients in a great many
Places had $everal other Kinds of Structures and
Inventions which admitted of Ornaments, and
rendered the City more magnificent. We are
told, that near the Academy of <I>Athens</I> there
was a very fine Grove con$ecrated to the Gods,
which was cut down by <I>Sylla</I> in order for the
ca$ting up an Intrenchment again$t <I>Athens.
Alexander Severus</I> adorned his own Thermes,
or Baths, with a plea$ant Grove, and added to
tho$e of <I>Antoninus</I> $everal fine Lakes for Swim-
ming in. The <I>Agrigentines,</I> upon <I>Zelo</I>'s Vic-
tory again$t the <I>Chalcedonians</I> made $uch a Lake
$even Furlongs long and twenty Cubits deep,
from which they rai$ed a con$iderable Income.
We read, that at <I>Tivoli</I> there was a very famous
publick Library. <I>Pi$i$tratus</I> was the fir$t that
erected $uch a Library at <I>Aihens,</I> con$i$ting of
a great Number of Books, which were carried
away by <I>Xerxes</I> into <I>Per$ia,</I> and afterwards
brought back again to <I>Athens</I> by <I>Seleucus.</I> The
<I>Ptolomeys</I> King of <I>&AElig;gypt</I> had a Library con-
$i$ting of $even hundred thou$and Volumns;
but why $hould we wonder at $uch a Number
of Books in a publick Collection, when there
was no le$s than $ixty-two thou$and Volumns
in the particular Library of the <I>Gordians?</I> In
the Country of <I>Laodicea,</I> be$ides the Temple
of <I>Neme$is,</I> there was a noble Phy$ick School,
erected by <I>Zeuxis,</I> which was highly celebrat-
ed. <I>Appian</I> tells us, that at <I>Carthage</I> there
was a Stable of three hundred Elephants, and
another of hundred Hor$es, an Ar$enal for two
hundred and twenty Ships, together with other
Magazines both of Arms and Provi$ions $uffi-
cient to $upply a whole Army. At <I>Thebes,</I>
which was anciently called the City of the Sun,
we read, that there were no le$s than an hundred
publick Stables, each big enough to hold two
hundred Hor$es. In <I>Cizycus,</I> an I$land of the
<I>Propontis,</I> there were two Ports, and between
them an Ar$enal, the Roofs of which would
give Shelter to two hundred Ve$$els. Upon
the <I>Pireum,</I> or Port of <I>Athens,</I> was a noble
Station for no le$s than four hundred Ships,
which was the celebrated Work of <I>Philo. Di-
ony$ius,</I> at the Haven of <I>Syracu$e,</I> made an
Ar$enal divided into an hundred and $ixty Par-
titions, each whereof would contain two Ve$-
$els, together with a Magazine, which in a few
Days would furni$h above an hundred and
twenty thou$and Shields, and an incredible
Number of Swords. At <I>Sithicus</I> the <I>Spartans</I>
had an Ar$enal of above an hundred and $ixty
Furlongs long. Thus we find Variety of Struc-
tures among various Nations: But as to their
particular Forms, De$igns and Contrivances, I
have nothing certain to pre$cribe, except that
tho$e Parts of them which are for U$e, mu$t be
borrowed from the Rules of private Edifices,
and tho$e which are for Ornament and Magni-
ficence, from tho$e of publick ones. I $hall
only ob$erve, that the principal Ornament of a
Library, is the Number and Variety of the
Books contained in it, and chiefly their being
collected from among the learned Remains of
Antiquity. Another great Ornament, are cu-
rious mathematical In$truments of all Sorts,
e$pecially if they are like that made by <I>Po$do-
nius,</I> in which all the $even Planets performed
their proper Revolutions by their own Motion;
or that of <I>Ari$tarchus,</I> who we are told de-
$cribed a Plan of the whole World, with all its
$everal Provinces, upon a Table of Iron, to a
mo$t curious Exactne$s, and the Bu$ts of the
ancient Poets, which <I>Tiberius</I> placed in his Li-
brary, were certainly a very proper and beau-
tiful Ornament. I think I have now gone
through with all the Ornaments that relate to
publick Edifices. I have treated both of the
Sacred and of the Profane, of Temples, Ba$ili-
ques, Porticoes, Sepulchres, Highways, Ha-
vens, Squares, Bridges, Triumphal Arches,
Theatres, Circu$$es, Courts, Council-chambers,
publick Places for Exerci$e, and the like, $o
that there $eems nothing of this Nature now
left for me to $peak of, except it be Thermes
or publick Baths.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>184</p>
<head>CHAP. X.</head>
<head><I>Of Thermes or publick Baths; their Conveniencies and Ornaments.</I></head>
<marg>*</marg>
<P>Some have condemned Baths, imagining
they made Men effeminate, while others
have had $o great an Opinion of them, that
they have wa$hed in them $even Times a Day.
The ancient Phy$icians, in order for the Cure
of various Di$tempers by means of Bathing,
erected a great Number of Thermes or publick
Baths in the City of <I>Rome</I> at an incredible Ex-
pence. <I>Heliogabalus</I> particularly built <I>Therm&aelig;</I>
in a great many Places, but having wa$hed
once in each, he immediately ordered it to be
demoli$hed, $corning ever to wa$h twice in the
$ame Bath. I am not thoroughly determined
whether this Kind of Structure be of a publick
or private Nature: And indeed I cannot help
thinking that it partakes $omewhat of both,
$ince in many Particulars, it borrows from the
De$igns of private Edifices, and in many others
from tho$e of publick ones. A publick Bath
or Therm&aelig; requiring a very large Area of
Ground to $tand upon, it is not proper to build
it in the principal and mo$t frequented Part of
the City, neither $hould it be placed too far
out of the Way, becau$e both the chief Citi-
zens and the Women mu$t re$ort thither to
wa$h them$elves. The Therm&aelig; it$elf mu$t have
a large open Space clear round it, which mu$t
be encompa$$ed with a high Wall, with proper
Entrances at convenient Places. In the Mid-
dle of the Therme mu$t be a large $tately Hall,
which mu$t be as it were the Center of the
whole Edifice, with Cells all round it after the
Manner of the <I>Etrurian</I> Temple, which we
have already de$cribed. Into this Hall we are
to enter through a hand$ome Ve$tibule, front-
ing to the South, from which we pa$s into an-
other $maller Ve$tibule or Lobby, and $o into
the great Hall. From the Hall is a large Gate
fronting to the North, which opens into a large
open Square, on the Right and Left of which
are $pacious Porticoes, and immediately behind
tho$e Porticoes are the cold Baths. Let us once
more go back into the great Hall. On the
right Side of this Hall, which lies to the Ea$t,
is a broad $pacious Lobby, with three Cells on
each Side of it, lying oppo$ite to each other.
This Lobby carries us into another open Square,
which I call the Xy$tus, which is encompa$$ed
with Porticoes on every Side. Of the$e Porti-
coes, that which fronts you as you come into
the Square, has a hand$ome Withdrawing-
room behind it. The Portico who$e Front lies
to the South has cold Baths behind it, in the
$ame Manner as in the other Square, with con-
venient Dre$$ing-rooms adjoining to them:
And in the oppo$ite Portico are the warm
Baths, which receive the $outh Sun by Win-
dows broke out behind the Portico. In con-
venient Angles in the Porticoes of the Xy$tus
are the other $maller Ve$tibules, for Pa$$ages
out into the open Space which encompa$$es the
whole Therm&aelig;. The$e are the $everal Mem-
bers of the Therm&aelig; which lie on the right Side
of the great Hall, and there mu$t be ju$t the
$ame on the left which lies to the We$t, an-
$wering to the former: The Lobby with three
Cells on each Side, the open Square or Xy$tus
with its Porticoes and Withdrawing-rooms, and
the $maller Ve$tibules in the Angles of the
Xy$tus. Let us return once more to that prin-
cipal Ve$tibule of the whole Structure, which
I $aid fronted the South; on the right Hand of
which, upon the Line which runs to the Ea$t
are three Rooms, and as many on that which
runs to the We$t; the one for the Women,
and the other for the Men. In the fir$t Room
they undre$$ed; in the $econd they anointed
them$elves, and in the third they wa$hed: And
$ome for the greater Magnificence, added a
fourth, for the Friends and Servants of tho$e
that were bathing to wait for them in. The$e
Bathing-rooms received the Noon-day Sun at
very large Windows. Between the$e Rooms
and tho$e Cells which I told you lay along the
Side of the inner Lobbies, which lead out of
the great Hall into the open Square on the Side
or Xy$tus, another open Area was left, which
threw Light into the $outh Side of tho$e inner
Cells that lie along tho$e Lobbies from the great
Hall. The whole Edifice of the Therm&aelig;, as
I before ob$erved, was encompa$$ed clear round
with a broad open Space, which was even $pa-
cious enough for Races, nor were Goals want-
ing in proper Places of it for that Purpo$e. In
the open Space on the $outh Side in which is
the principal Ve$tibule of the whole Edifice,
<foot>was</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 63, following this page.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 63. <I>(Pages 184-85)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<fig>
<p n=>185</p>
was a large $emicircular Area verging to the
South, in which $everal Rows of Seats were
rai$ed like tho$e in the Theatre, and the Wall
was rai$ed very high on that Side to keep off
the $outh Sun. All this open Space quite
round the whole Therm&aelig; was enclo$ed, like a
Ca$tle, with a continued Wall, and in this out-
ward Wall were $everal hand$ome Rooms,
either quadrangular or $emicircular, which
looked towards the Therm&aelig; it$elf. In the$e
Rooms the Citizens at Morning or Evening, or
any Hour they liked be$t, enjoyed either Sun
or Shade. Be$ides all the$e, and e$pecially to-
wards the North, behind the inclo$ing Wall
were open Piazzas, of moderate Height, longer
than broad, and drawn upon a curve Plat-
form. The$e Piazzas were $urrounded by cir-
cular Porticoes, with a clo$e Wall at their
Back, $o that very little Sky was to be $een in
the$e Piazzas, and between the$e Porticoes and
the main Inclo$ure was a very good Refuge
from the Heat in Summer, becau$e by means
of the Narrowne$s of the Piazza it$elf, and the
Height of the main Wall, the Sun, even in the
Summer Sol$tice could hardly $trike in upon it.
In the Angles of the main Inclo$ure were Ve$-
tibules and little Temples in which the Ma-
trons, having clean$ed and purified them$elves,
offered Oblations to their Gods. This is a
brief Account of the $everal Members and Parts
of the ancient Therm&aelig; or Baths, and the De-
$igns of the $everal Members were taken either
from the Structures which we have already de-
$cribed, or from tho$e which we are $till to
treat of, according as they had the greate$t Re-
lation either to publick or to private Edifices;
and the Platform of mo$t of the ancient
Edifices of this Sort contained above ten thou-
$and Foot $quare.</P>
<head><I>The End of Book</I> VIII.</head>
<fig>
<foot>Bbb THE</foot>
<pb>
<head>THE
<B>ARCHITECTURE</B>
OF
<B><I>Leone Bati$ta Alberti.</I></B></head>
<head>BOOK IX. CHAP. I.</head>
<head><I>That particular Regard mu$t be had to Frugality and Par$imony, and of the
adorning the Palaces or Hou$es of the King and principal Magi$trates.</I></head>
<P>We are here to remember, that there
are two Sorts of Hou$es for private
Men; $ome for the Town and others
for the Country; and of the$e again
$ome are intended for Citizens of meaner Rank,
and others for tho$e of the highe$t Quality.
We are now to treat of the proper Ornaments
for each of the$e; but fir$t I would premi$e
$ome few nece$$ary Precautions. We find that
among the Ancients the Men of the greate$t
Prudence and Mode$ty were always be$t plea$ed
with Temperance and Par$imony in all Things,
both publick and private, and particularly in
the Affair of Building, judging it nece$$ary to
prevent and re$train all Extravagance and Pro-
fu$ion in their Citizens in the$e Points, which
they did to the utmo$t of their Power both by
Admonitions and Laws. For this Rea$on <I>Plato</I>
commends tho$e who, as we have before ob$erv-
ed, made a Decree, that no Man $hould have in
his Hou$e any Picture that was finer than tho$e
which had been $et up in the Temples of their
Gods by their Forefathers, and that even the
Temple it$elf $hould be adorned with no other
Painting but $uch a $ingle Picture as one Painter
could draw in one $ingle Day. He al$o or-
dained, that the Statues of the Gods them$elves
$hould be made only of Wood or Stone, and
that Iron and Bra$s $hould be left for the U$es
of War, whereof they were the proper In$tru-
ments. <I>Demo$thenes</I> cried up the Manners of
the ancient <I>Athenians,</I> much beyond tho$e of
his Cotemporaries; for he tells us, they left an
infinite Number of publick Edifices, and e$pe-
cially of Temples, $o magnificent and richly
adorned that nothing could exceed them; but
they were $o mode$t in their private Buildings,
that the Hou$es of the very noble$t Citizens
differed very little from tho$e of the meane$t;
by which means they effected, what is very
rarely known among Men, to overcome Envy
by Glory. But the <I>Spartans</I> condemned even
the$e, for having embelli$hed their City more
with the Builder's Skill, than with the Splendor
of their own Exploits, while they them$elves
gloried, that they had adorned their own City
more by their Virtue than by their fine Build-
ings. Among them it was one of <I>Lycurgus</I>'s
Laws, that their Roofs $hould be wrought with
no nicer Tool than the Ax, and their Doors
with the Saw. <I>Age$ilaus,</I> when he beheld
$quare Rafters in the Hou$es in <I>A$ia,</I> laughed
at them; and asked the People, whether if
they had grown naturally $quare, they would
not have made them round? And doubtle$s he
was in the Right; becau$e, according to the
ancient Mode$ty of his Nation, he was of Opi-
nion, that the Hou$es of private Per$ons ought
to be built only for Convenience, and not for
Beauty or Magnificence. It was a Law in
<foot><I>Germany</I></foot>
<p n=>187</p>
<I>Germany,</I> in <I>C&aelig;$ar</I>'s Time, that no Man $hould
build too delicately, and e$pecially in the
Country, to prevent Di$$ention among the
People from a De$ire of u$urping each other's
Po$$e$$ions. <I>Valerious Poplicola</I> having built a
$tately Hou$e on that which is now the <I>Monte
Cavallo</I> at <I>Rome,</I> pulled it down to avoid Envy,
and built him$elf another in the Plain; and the
$ame Mode$ty appeared in every Thing both
Publick and Private in tho$e ancient Times,
while the Manners of the <I>Romans</I> continued
uncorrupted: But afterwards, when the Em-
pire was enlarged, the Luxury of Building ran
$o high in almo$t every Body (except in <I>Octa-
vianus,</I> who had $o great a Di$like to $umptu-
ous Buildings, that he pulled down a Country-
hou$e only for its being too magnificent) I $ay,
the Extravagance of Building ran $o high in
the City of <I>Rome,</I> that $ome of the <I>Gordian</I>
Family, among others, built a Hou$e on the
Road to <I>Prene$te,</I> with two hundred Columns
all of the $ame Bigne$s, and upon one Row,
whereof fifty were of <I>Numidian,</I> fifty of <I>Clau-
dian,</I> fifty of <I>Samian,</I> and fifty of <I>Titian</I> Mar-
ble, as I remember to have read. What a
Piece of Magnificence was that which we read
of in <I>Lucretius,</I> that in $ome Hou$es there were
Statues of young Men all of Gold, holding
lighted Torches in their right Hands, to light
up their Fea$ts at Night? My De$ign in men-
tioning the$e Things is to confirm by the Com-
pari$on, what I $aid before, that the Magnifi-
cence of the Building $hould be adapted to the
Dignity of the Owner; and if I may offer my
Opinion, I $hould rather, in private Edifices,
that the greate$t Men fell rather a little $hort
in Ornament, than they $hould be condemned
for Luxury and Profu$ion by the more Di$-
creet and Frugal. But $ince all agree, that we
$hould endeavour to leave a Reputation behind
us, not only for our Wi$dom but our Power
too; for this Rea$on, as <I>Thucydides</I> ob$erves,
we erect great Structures, that our Po$terity
may $uppo$e us to have been great Per$ons.
When therefore we adorn our Habitations not
more for Delicacy than to procure Honour to
our Country and our Families, who can deny
this to be a Work well becoming the wi$e$t
Men? Accordingly I would have tho$e Parts
of the Hou$e which are chiefly in the publick
View, and which are in a Manner to give the
fir$t Welcome to every Gue$t, as the Front, the
Ve$tibule, and the like, be made as hand$ome
as po$$ible. And, though indeed I think tho$e
ought to be very much blamed that are guilty
of too much Exce$s; yet I think tho$e are much
more to be condemned that lay out a great
Expence upon a Building capable of no Orna-
ment, than tho$e that turn both their Thoughts
and Money upon Ornament principally: Tho'
I believe, I may venture to $ay, that whoever
con$iders the true Nature of Ornament in
Building will be convinced, that it is not Ex-
pence $o much that is requi$ite,, as Ta$te and
Contrivance. I think no prudent Man in
building his private Hou$e $hould willingly
differ too much from his Neighbours, or rai$e
their Envy by his too great Expence and O$-
tentation; neither, on the other Hand, $hould
he $uffer him$elf to be out-done by any one
what$oever in the Ingenuity of Contrivance, or
Elegance of Ta$te, to which the whole Beauty
of the Compo$ition, and Harmony of the $eve-
ral Members mu$t be owing, which is indeed
the highe$t and principal Ornament in all
Building. But to return to our Subject.</P>
<P>THE Royal Palace, or in a free City, the
Hou$e of the Senator or chief Magi$trate ought
to be the fir$t in Beauty and Magnificence.
Of the Ornaments of tho$e Parts of this Palace
or Hou$e which bear any Relation to a pub-
lick Edifice, I have treated already. We are
now to adorn tho$e Parts which are intended
only for private U$e. I would have the Ve$ti-
bule adorned in the mo$t hand$ome and $plen-
did Manner, according to the Quality of the
Owner; be$ides which there $hould be $tately
Porticoes, and hand$ome Courts, with every
Thing el$e in Imitation of a publick Edifice,
that tends either to Dignity or Ornament, as far
as the Nature of the Structure it$elf will bear,
only u$ing $o much Moderation as to $eem ra-
ther to aim at Beauty and Gracefulne$s, than
at any Thing $umptuous: And as we ob$erved
in the la$t Book, with relation to Works of a
publick Nature, that $ecular Buildings ought
to yield in Dignity to the $acred, $o here the
Edifices of private Per$ons ought to give Way
in Excellence and Number of Ornaments to
tho$e of the publick. A private Hou$e ought
not to have Doors of Bra$s or Ivory, which was
objected to <I>Camillus</I> as a Crime, nor Roofs
fretted with great Quantities of Gold, or inlaid
with Gla$s, nor $hould every Part be incru$ted
with <I>Hymettian</I> or <I>Parian</I> Marble; $uch Ma-
terials being proper only in Temples: But the
Builder's chief Commendation in a private
Structure, is to u$e moderate Materials elegant-
ly, and elegant ones moderately. Let him
be contented with Cypre$s, Larch and Box
<foot>Wood;</foot>
<p n=>188</p>
Wood; let his Incru$tations or outward Coat
be adorned with plain Figures in Stuc, or with
$ome $light Painting, and his Cornices at mo$t
of common Marble. Not that he mu$t ab$o-
lutely reject the mo$t precious Materials; but
he $hould place them only in the mo$t honour-
able Parts, like Gems in a Crown. But to give
my Opinion of the whole Matter in one Word,
I think that a $acred Edifice $hould be adorned
in $uch a Manner, that it $hould be impo$$ible
to add any Thing that can conduce either to
Maje$ty, Beauty or Wonder: Whereas a pri-
vate Structure $hould be $o contrived, that it
$hall be impo$$ible to take any Thing from it,
without le$$ening its Dignity. Other Buildings,
that is to $ay, the Profane of a publick Nature,
$hould ob$erve the Medium between the$e two
Extremes. Buildings of a private Sort $hould
keep $trictly to the Ornaments proper to them,
only they may be made u$e of here with $ome-
what more Freedom. For In$tance, if the Co-
lumns be of rather a $maller Diameter, or el$e
more turgid, or if the Diminution of the Top
of the Shaft be greater than the exact Propor-
tions for publick Structures, they ought not
here to be condemned, provided they do not
look deformed or un$ightly. And whereas in
publick Works not the lea$t Deviation is allow-
ed from the exacte$t Laws of Proportion, in
private Works $uch a Deviation is often hand-
$ome and commendable. Thus we may ob-
$erve with what a beautiful Effect $ome of the
more lively Architects u$ed in the Doors of
Halls, in$tead of Jambs to place huge Statues
of Slaves, which $upported the Lintel on their
Heads; and to make Columns, e$pecially in the
Porticoes of their Gardens, with Knots in the
Shafts, in Imitation of Trees that had their
Branches cut off, or girded round with a Cinc-
ture of Boughs, or with their whole Shaft
wreathed and enriched with Leaves, Birds, and
Channels: or where they would make the
Work extremely $trong, we find them erect-
ing $quare Columns, fortified with a half Co-
lumn on each Side; which in$tead of Capitals
had either Baskets full of Vine Branches laden
with Fruit, or the Head of a Palm-tree ri$ing
up and full of Leaves, or a Knot of Serpents
wreathed together, or an Eagle with its Wings
expanded in Token of Plea$ure, or a <I>Medu$a</I>'s
Head with the Snakes hi$$ing at each other, or
any other Fancy of the $ame Kind; to enu-
merate all which, would be endle$s. But in all
the$e Liberties the Architect mu$t be as care-
ful as po$$ible to keep the $everal Parts within
the Terms of the regular Lines and Angles, and
not $uffer his Work to want a due Proportion
in its $everal Members: So that the Beholder
may immediately find, that his De$ign was to
be wanton in the$e Particulars, and to indulge a
Freedom of Invention. And as of the Parlours,
Pa$$ages and Apartments, $ome are more pub-
lick, $ome more concealed, and as it were hid-
den; the former may be allowed $omewhat
more of the Splendor of a publick Structure,
but yet $o as not to create Envy; and in the
latter we may allow our$elves more Liberty in
departing out of the common Road, and con-
triving $omething new.</P>
<head>CHAP. II.</head>
<head><I>Of the Adorning of private Hou$es, both in City and Country.</I></head>
<P>But as of the Hou$es of private Per$ons,
$ome are in the City, and $ome in the
Country, we mu$t $ay $omething of the Orna-
ments proper to each of the$e. Between a
Hou$e in Town and a Hou$e in the Country,
there is this further Difference, be$ides what we
took notice of in the la$t Book, that the Orna-
ments, for that in Town ought to be much
more grave than tho$e for a Hou$e in the Coun-
try, where all the gaye$t and mo$t licentious
Embelli$hments are allowable. There is an-
other Difference too between them, which is,
that in Town you are obliged to moderate
your$elves in $everal Re$pects according to the
Privileges of your Neighbour; whereas you have
much more Liberty in the Country. In Town
you mu$t not rai$e your Platform or Ba$ement
too high above your Neighbours, nor let your
Portico project too far forwards from the Line
of the adjacent Buildings. The Thickne$s and
Height of the Walls at <I>Rome</I> anciently were
not $uffered to be according to every Man's
particular Fancy, but by an old Law were all
to be made according to a certain Standard;
and <I>Julius C&aelig;$ar,</I> upon account of the Mi$-
chiefs that might happen from bad Foundati-
<foot>ons,</foot>
<p n=>189</p>
ons, ordained that no Hou$e $hould be more
than one Story high: To which Regulations a
Country-hou$e is not $ubject. It was reckoned
one of the Glories of <I>Babylon,</I> that their Hou$es
had Inhabitants in the fourth Story. <I>&AElig;lius
Ari$tides,</I> the Orator, prai$ing <I>Rome</I> in a pub-
lick Oration, cried it up as a miraculous Work
of the <I>Romans</I> to have built upon great Hou$es
other Hou$es as great: a hand$ome Piece of
Flattery; but it $hewed the Numerou$ne$s of
the People much more than the Magnificence
of the Buildings them$elves. We are told that
in Height of Hou$es the City of <I>Rome</I> was out-
done by <I>Tyre,</I> which by that means was former-
ly very near being wholly de$troyed by Earth-
quakes. It is one very great Beauty and Con-
venience in a Building to have no more A$cents
and De$cents in it than are ab$olutely nece$$ary;
and it is certainly a very true Saying, that
Stairs are nothing but Incumbrances to a Hou$e,
from which Incumbrances I find the Ancients
were very $tudious to keep clear. But in the
Country there is no Manner of Nece$$ity for
$etting one Hou$e thus upon another: For on-
ly taking a larger Platform we may make
whatever Conveniencies we think fit upon the
$ame Floor; which I $hould like extremely
well in Town too, if it could be had. There
is another Sort of private Hou$es, in which the
Dignity of the Town-hou$e, and the Delights
and Plea$ures of the Country-hou$e are both
required; of which we $aid nothing in the for-
mer Books, re$erving it purpo$ely for this very
Place: And the$e are the Plea$ure-hou$es ju$t
without the Town, or the Villa's which are by
no means to be pa$$ed by without $ome Ob$er-
vations, though I $hall be as brief in them as
po$$ible. Accordingly I $hall here lay together
all that I have to $ay of each of the$e three
Sorts of Structures, and fir$t of the Villa clo$e
to the Town. The Saying among the Anci-
ents, Let him that buys a Country-hou$e $ell
his Hou$e in Town, and let him that has Bu$i-
ne$s in Town, never think of a Hou$e in the
Country, $eems to imply, that a Villa near
Town is extremely convenient. The Phy$ici-
ans advi$e us to dwell in the cleare$t and open-
e$t Air that we can find; and there is no room
to doubt but a Country-hou$e $eated upon an
Eminence, mu$t of Cour$e be the Be$t: But
then on the other Hand, the Ma$ter of a Fa-
mily, upon account of his private Bu$ine$s, or
the publick Affairs, may be obliged to be often
in the City; for which Purpo$e a Hou$e in
Town $eems nece$$ary: But then as the former
is inconvenient for Bu$ine$s, $o the latter is
prejudicial to the Health. It is a common
Thing for the Generals of Armies to remove
their Camps often, to avoid being incommod-
ed by ill Smells: What can we think then of a
great City, where $uch va$t Quantities of Filth,
and $o long kept, are continually exhaling their
offen$ive Steams? To reconcile this Dilemma
therefore, I do not think that of all the Struc-
tures which are rai$ed for the Conveniency of
Mankind, there is any $o commodious or $o
healthy as the Villa; which at the $ame Time
as it lies in the Way for Bu$ine$s, is not wholly
de$titute of pure Air. <I>Cicero</I> de$ired his Friend
<I>Atticus</I> to build him a Villa in a Place of emi-
nent Note: But I, for my Part, am not for ha-
ving it in a Place of $uch Re$ort, that I mu$t
never venture to appear at my Door without
being compleatly dre$$ed. I would have it
afford me the Plea$ure which the old Gentle-
man in <I>Terence</I> boa$ts he enjoyed, <I>of being never
tired either with the Town or Country. Martial</I>
too gives a very ju$t De$cription of his Way of
Living in $uch a Villa.</P>
<P><I>You tell me, Friend, you much de$ire to know,
What in my Villa I can find to do?
I eat, drink, $ing, play, bathe, sleep, eat again,
Or read, or wanton in the Mu$es Train.</I></P>
<P>THERE is certainly a va$t deal of Satisfaction
in a convenient Retreat near the Town, where
a Man is at Liberty to do ju$t what he plea$es.
The great Beauties of $uch a Retreat, are being
near the City, upon an open airy Road, and
on a plea$ant Spot of Ground. The greate$t
Commendation of the Hou$e it$elf is its making
a chearful Appearance to tho$e that go a little
Way out of Town to take the Air, as if it
$eemed to invite every Beholder: And for this
Rea$on I would have it $tand pretty high, but
upon $o ea$y an A$cent, that it $hould hardly
be perceptible to tho$e that go to it, till they
find them$elves at the Top, and a large Pro-
$pect opens it$elf to their View. Nor $hould
there be any Want of plea$ant Landskips,
flowery Meads, open Champains, $hady Groves,
or limpid Brooks, or clear Streams and Lakes
$or $wimming, with all other Delights of the
$ame Sort, which we before ob$erved to be ne-
ce$$ary in a Country Retreat, both for Conve-
nience and Plea$ure. La$tly, what I have al-
ready $aid conduces extremely to the Plea$ant-
ne$s of all Buildings, I would have the Front
and whole Body of the Hou$e perfectly well
<foot>C c c lighted,</foot>
<p n=>190</p>
lighted, and that it be open to receive a great
deal of Light and Sun, and a $ufficient Quan-
tity of whol$ome Air. Let nothing be within
View that can offend the Eye with a melan-
choly Shade. Let all Things $mile and $eem
to welcome the Arrival of your Gue$ts. Let
tho$e who are already entered be in Doubt
whether they $hall for Plea$ure continue where
they are, or pa$s on further to tho$e other Beau-
ties which tempt them on. Let them be led
from $quare Rooms into round ones, and again
from round into $quare, and $o into others
of mixed Lines, neither all round nor all
$quare; and let the Pa$$age into the very in-
nermo$t Apartments be, if po$$ible, without the
lea$t A$cent or De$cent, but all be upon one
even Floor, or at lea$t let the A$cents be as
ea$y as may be.</P>
<head>CHAP. III.</head>
<head><I>That the Parts and Members of a Hou$e are different both in Nature and
Species, and that they are to be adorned in various Manners.</I></head>
<P>But as the Members or Parts of a Hou$e
are very different one from the other both
in Nature and Species, it may now be proper
to $ay $omething of each, having indeed pur-
po$ely re$erved them for this very Place: For
there are many Parts which it matters very
little whether you make round or $quare, pro-
vided they are fit for the Purpo$es to which they
are intended; but it is not equally indifferent
what Number they are in, and how they are
di$po$ed; and it is nece$$ary that $ome $hould
be larger, as the inner Courts, while $ome re-
quire a $maller Area, as the Chambers and all
the private Apartments. Some others mu$t be
in a Medium between the others, as Eating-
parlours and the Ve$tibule. We have already
in another Place given our Thoughts of the
apt Di$po$ition of each Member of a Hou$e,
and as to the re$pective Difference of their
Areas, there is no Occa$ion to $peak here, be-
cau$e they are infinite both from the different
Humours of Men, and the different Ways of
Living in different Places. The Ancients, be-
fore their Hou$es made either a Portico, or at
lea$t a Porch, not always with $traight Lines,
but $ometimes with curve, after the Manner of
the Theatre. Next to the Portico lay the Ve$-
tibule, which was almo$t con$tantly circular;
behind that was the Pa$$age into the inner Court,
and tho$e other Parts of the Hou$e which we
have already $poken of in their proper Places,
whereof to enter upon a fre$h De$cription
would make us too prolix. The Things that
we ought not to omit are the$e. Where the
Area is round it mu$t be proportioned accord-
ing to the De$ign of the Temple; unle$s there
be this Difference, that here the Height of the
Walls mu$t be greater than in the Temple, for
Rea$ons which you $hall know $hortly. If it
be quadrangular, then in $ome Particulars it
will differ from tho$e In$tructions which we
have given for $acred Edifices, as al$o for pro-
fane ones of a publick Nature; but yet in
$ome others it will agree with the Council-
chambers and Courts. According to the ge-
neral Cu$tom of the Ancients, the Breadth of
the Porch was either two thirds of its Length,
or el$e the Length was one whole Breadth and
two thirds more, or el$e the Length was one
whole Breadth with the Addition of two fifths.
To each of the$e Proportions the Ancients $eem
always to have allowed the Height of the Wall to
be equal to its whole Length, and one third more.
By taking the actual Dimen$ion of a great many
Structures, I find that $quare Platforms require
a different Height of Wall where they are to
be covered with vaulted Roofs, from what they
do when their Roof is to be flat: As al$o that
$ome Difference is to be made between the
Proportions of a large Building and tho$e of a
$mall one: Which ari$es from the different In-
terval that there is from the Beholder's Eye,
which mu$t in this Ca$e be con$idered as the
Center, to the extreme Height which it $ur-
veys: But of tho$e Things we $hall treat el$e-
where. We mu$t Proportion the Areas of our
Apartments to our Roof, and our Roof to the
Length of the Rafters with which it is to be
covered in. I call that a moderate Roof which
may be $upported by a Piece of Timber of a
moderate Length. But be$ides the Proportions
which I have already treated of, there are $eve-
ral other proper Dimen$ions and Agreements of
Lines which I $hall here endeavour to explain
as clearly and $uccinctly as po$$ible. If the
Length of the Platform be twice its Breadth;
<foot>then,</foot>
<p n=>191</p>
then, where the Roof is to be flat, the Height
mu$t be equal to the Breadth; where the Roof
is to be vaulted, a third Part of that Breadth
more mu$t be added. This may $erve for mid-
dling Buildings: In very large ones, if they are
to have a vaulted Roof, the whole Height mu$t
be one whole Breadth, with the Addition of
one fourth Part; but if the Roof is to be flat
it mu$t be one whole Breadth and two fifths.
If the Length of the Platform be three Times its
Breadth, and the Roof is to be flat, let the
Height be one whole Breath and three quarters,
if the Roof is to be vaulted, let the Height be
one whole Breadth and an half. If the Length
of the Platform be four Times its Breadth, and
the Roof is to be vaulted, let the Height be
half its Length; and if the Roof is to be flat,
divide the Breadth into four Parts, and give
one and three quarters of tho$e Parts to the
Height. If the Length be five Times the
Breadth, make the Height the $ame as where
it is four Times, only with the Addition of
one $ixth Part of that Height; and if it is $ix
Times the Breadth, make it as before, adding
not a $ixth as in the former, but a fifth. If
the Platform be an exact Square with equal
Sides, and the Roof is to be vaulted, let the
Height exceed the Breadth as in the Platform
of three Breadths; but if the Roof is to be flat,
it mu$t not exceed $o much, and in the larger
Platforms, it mu$t not exceed this Breadth
above one fourth Part. In tho$e Platforms
where the Length exceeds the Breadth only
one ninth Part, let the Height be exceeded by
the Breadth one ninth Part too; but this mu$t
be only in a flat Roof. When the Length is
to be one whole Breadth and a third, let the
Height be one whole Breadth and a $ixth in flat
Roofs; but in vaulted ones, let the Height be
one whole Breadth and a $ixth of the Length.
When the Length is one Breadth and an Half,
let the Height be one Breadth and a $eventh of
that Breadth, in a flat Roof; but in a vaulted
one, let the Height be one Breadth, and a
$eventh of the Length of the Platform. If the
Platform con$i$t of Lines whereof one is as
$even, and the other as five, or the Length be
as five and the Breadth as three, or the like,
according as the Nece$$ity of the Place, or Va-
riety of Invention, or the Nature of the Orna-
ments requires; add tho$e two Lines together,
and allow one half of the Amount to the
Height. I mu$t not here omit one Precaution,
namely, that the Ve$tibule ought never to be
above twice as long as broad, and the Apart-
ments never le$s broad than two thirds of their
Length. The Platforms which are in Length
three or four Times their Breadth or more, be-
long only to Porticoes, and even they ought
never to be above $ix Times their Breadth. In
the Wall Apertures are to be left both for
Windows and Doors. If the Window is broke
in the Wall of the Breadth-line of the Plat-
form, which in its very Nature is $horter than
that of the Length, then there mu$t be only a
$ingle one; and this Window it$elf mu$t either
be higher than it is broad, or el$e on the con-
trary broader than it is high, which la$t Sort is
called a reclining Window. If the Breadth is
to be like that of the Door, $omewhat le$s than
the Length; then let the Breadth of the clear
Opening be not more than a third, nor le$s than
a fourth Part of the In$ide of the Wall in which
it is made; and let the Re$t or Bottom of the
Window be in Height from the Floor not more
than four ninths of the whole Height, nor le$s
than two. The Height of the clear Open of
the Window mu$t be one third more than its
Breadth; and this is the Proportion, if the Win-
dow is to be higher than broad; but if the
Window is to be broader then high, than of
the whole in$ide Length of the Wall in which
it is made, you mu$t not allow the Open of the
Window le$s than one half, nor more than two
thirds. In the $ame Manner its Height too
mu$t be made either half its Breadth, or two
thirds, only it mu$t have two little Columns to
$upport the Tran$om. If you are to make
Windows in the longer Side, there mu$t be
more of them, and they $hould be in an odd
Number. I find the Ancients were be$t plea$ed
with three, which were made in the following
Manner: The whole longe$t Side of the Wall
mu$t be divided into never more than $even, nor
le$s than five Parts, of which taking three, in
each of them make a Window, making the
Height of the Open one whole Breadth and
three quarters, or one Breadth and four fifths.
If you would make your Windows more nu-
merous; as they will then partake of the Na-
ture of a Portico, you may borrow the Dimen-
$ions of your Openings from the Rules of the
Portico it$elf, and e$pecially from that of the
Theatre, as we laid them down in their proper
Place. The Doors mu$t be made after the
Manner of tho$e which we de$cribed for the
Court and Council-chamber. Let the Dre$s of
the Windows be <I>Corinthian;</I> of the principal
Door, <I>Ionic;</I> of the Doors of the Halls and
Chambers, <I>Doric.</I> And thus much of the Lines,
as far as they relate to this pre$ent Purpo$e.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>192</p>
<head>CHAP. IV.</head>
<head><I>With what Paintings, Plants, and Statues, it is proper to adorn the Pave-
ments, Porticoes, Apartments and Gardens of a private Hou$e.</I></head>
<P>There are $ome other Ornaments ex-
tremely proper for a private Hou$e, by
no means to be omitted in this Place. The
Ancients $tained the Pavements of their Porti-
coes with Labyrinths, both $quare and circular,
in which the Boys u$ed to exerci$e them$elves.
I have my$elf $een Pavements $tained in Imita-
tion of the Bell-flower-weed, with its Branches
twining about very beautifully. Other have
paved their Chambers with a Sort of <I>Mo$aic</I>
Work of Marble, in Imitation of Carpets, others
in Imitation of Garlands and Branches of Trees.
It was a very ingenious Invention of <I>O$is,</I> who
$trewed the Pavement at <I>Pergamus</I> with inlaid
Work, in Imitation of the Fragments that lie
$cattered about after Meals; an Ornament not
ill $uited to a Parlour. <I>Agrippa</I> was very right
in making his Floors of common baked Earth.
I, for my Part, hate every Thing that $avours
of Luxury or Profu$ion, and am be$t plea$ed
with tho$e Ornaments which ari$e principally
from the Ingenuity and Beauty of the Contri-
vance. Upon $ide Walls no Sort of Painting
$hews hand$omer than the Repre$entation of
Columns in Architecture. <I>Titius C&aelig;$ar</I> adorn-
ed the Walls of the Portico in which he u$ed
to walk, with a Sort of <I>Ph&oelig;nician</I> Stone $o fine-
ly poli$hed, that it returned the Reflection of
all the Objects like a Looking-gla$s. <I>Antoninus
Caracalla,</I> the Emperor, painted his Portico
with the memorable Exploits and Triumphs of
his Father. <I>Severus</I> did the $ame; but <I>Aga-
thocles</I> painted not his Father's Actions, but his
own. Among the <I>Per$ians,</I> according to their
ancient Laws, it was not permitted to paint or
carve any other Story, but of the wild Bea$ts
$lain by their Kings. It is certain, the brave
and memorable Actions of one's Countrymen,
and their Effigics, are Ornaments extremely
$uitable both to Porticoes and Halls. <I>Caius
C&aelig;$ar</I> embelli$hed his Portico with the Statues
of all tho$e that had enlarged the Confines of
the Republick, and he gained a general Ap-
probation by $o doing. I am as much plea$ed
as any body with this Kind of Ornaments; but
yet I would not have the Wall too much
crowded with Statues or Hi$tory Pieces. We
may find by Gems, and e$pecially by Pearls,
that if they are $et too thick together, they lo$e
their Beauty. For this Rea$on, in $ome of the
mo$t convenient and mo$t con$picuous Parts of
the Wall, I am for making hand$ome Pannels
of Stone, in which we may place either Sta-
tues, or Pictures; $uch as <I>Pompey</I> had carried
along in his Triumph; Repre$enting his Ex-
ploits both by Sea and Land in Picture. Or
rather, I am for having Pictures of $uch Ficti-
ons of the Poets, as tend to the Promotion of
good Manners; $uch as that of <I>D&aelig;dalus,</I> who
painted the Gates of <I>Cum&aelig;</I> with the Repre-
$entation of <I>Icarus</I> flying. And as the Sub-
jects both of Poetry and Painting are various,
$ome expre$$ing the memorable Actions of great
Men; others Repre$enting the Manners of pri-
vate Per$ons; others de$cribing the Life of
Ru$ticks: The former, as the mo$t Maje$tick,
$hould be applied to publick Works, and the
Buildings of Princes; and the latter, as the
more chearful, $hould be $et apart for Plea$ure-
hou$es and Gardens. Our Minds are delight-
ed in a particular Manner with the Pictures of
plea$ant Landskips, of Havens, of Fi$hing,
Hunting, Swimming, Country Sports, of flowery
Fields and thick Groves. Neither is it foreign
to our pre$ent Purpo$e ju$t to mention, that
<I>Octavianus,</I> the Emperor, adorned his Palace
with the huge Bones of $ome extraordinary
Animals. The Ancients u$ed to dre$s the
Walls of their Grottoes and Caverns with all
Manner of rough Work, with little Chips of
Pumice, or $oft <I>Tyburtine</I> Stone, which <I>Ovid</I>
calls the living Pumice; and $ome I have known
dawb them over with green Wax, in Imitati-
on of the mo$$y Slime which we always $ee in
moi$t Grottoes. I was extremely plea$ed with
an artificial Grotto which I have $een of this
Sort, with a clear Spring of Water falling from
it; the Walls were compo$ed of various Sorts of
Sea-$hells, lying roughly together, $ome rever$-
ed, $ome with their Mouths outwards, their
Colours being $o artfully blended as to form a
very beautiful Variety. In that Apartment
which is peculiar to the Ma$ter of the Family
and his Wife, we $hould take Care that nothing
<foot>be</foot>
<p n=>193</p>
be painted but the mo$t comely and beautiful
Faces; which we are told may be of no $mall
Con$equence to the Conception of the Lady,
and the Beauty of the Children. Such as are
tormented with a Fever are not a little refre$h-
ed by the Sight of Pictures of Springs, Ca$cades
and Streams of Water, which any one may
ea$ily experience; for if at any Time you find
it difficult to compo$e your$elf to re$t in the
Night, only turn your Imagination upon $uch
clear Waters as you can remember any where
to have $een, either of Springs, Lakes or Streams,
and that burning Drowth of the Mind, which
kept you waking, $hall pre$ently be moi$tened,
and a plea$ant Forgetfulne$s $hall creep upon
you, till you fall into a fine Sleep. To the$e
Delicacies we mu$t add tho$e of well-di$po$ed
Gardens and beautiful Trees, together with
Porticoes in the Garden, where you may enjoy
either Sun or Shade. To the$e add $ome lit-
tle plea$ant Meadow, with fine Springs of
Water bur$ting out in different Places where
lea$t expected. Let the Walks be terminated
by Trees that enjoy a perpetual Verdure, and
particularly on that Side which is be$t $helter-
ed from Winds, let them be enclo$ed with Box,
which is pre$ently injured and rotted by $trong
Winds, and e$pecially by the lea$t Spray from the
Sea. In open Places, mo$t expo$ed to the Sun,
$ome $et Myrtles, which will flouri$h extreme-
ly in the Summer: But <I>Theophra$tus</I> affirms,
that the Myrtle, the Laurel, and the Ivy re-
joyce in the Shade, and therefore directs us to
plant them thick, that they may mutually
$helter one another from the Sun by their own
Shade: Nor let there be wanting Cypre$s-
trees cloathed with Ivy. Let the Ground al$o
be here and there thrown into tho$e Figures
that are mo$t commended in the Platforms of
Hou$es, Circles, Semicircles, and the like, and
$urrounded with Laurels, Cedars, Junipers
with their Branches intermixed, and twining
one into the other. <I>Phiteon</I> of <I>Agrigentum,</I>
though but a private Man, had in his Hou$e
three hundred Va$es of Stone, each whereof
would hold an hundred Amphoras, or about
fifteen of our Hog$heads. Such Va$es are very
fine Ornaments for Fountains in Gardens. The
Ancients u$ed to make their Walks into a Kind
of Arbours by Means of Vines $upported by
Columns of Marble of the <I>Corinthian</I> Order,
which were ten of their own Diameters in
Height. The Trees ought to be planted in
Rows exactly even, and an$wering to one an-
other exactly upon $traight Lines; and the
Gardens $hould be enriched with rare Plants,
and $uch as are in mo$t E$teem among the Phy-
$icians. It was a good agreeable Piece of Flat-
tery among the ancient Gardeners, to trace
their Ma$ters Names in Box, or in $weet-$mel-
ing Herbs, in Parterres. Ro$e-trees, intermix-
ed with Pomegranates and Cornels, are very
beautiful in a Hedge: But the Poet $ays,</P>
<P><I>Your Hedge of Oak with Plums and Cornel made,
To yield the Cattle Food, the Ma$ter Shade.</I></P>
<P>BUT perhaps this may $uit better with a
Farm intended for Profit, than with a Villa
calculated chiefly for taking the Air in: And
indeed what we are told <I>Democritus</I> very much
condemned, namely, the inclo$ing a Garden
with any Sort of Wall, I $hould not blame in
the Ca$e before us, but am rather of Opinion,
that it is a very proper Defence again$t Malice
or Rapine. Nor am I di$plea$ed with the plac-
ing ridiculous Statues in Gardens, provided they
have nothing in them ob$cene. Such $hould
be the Di$po$ition of the Villa. In Hou$es in
Town, the inner Apartments and Parlours
$hould not in the lea$t give way, either in
Chearfulne$s or Beauty, to the Villa; but in
the more publick Rooms, $uch as the Hall and
Ve$tibule, you $hould not aim $o much at De-
licacy, as to forget a decent Gravity. The Por-
ticoes of the Hou$es of the principal Citizens
may have a compleat regular Entablature over
the Columns; but tho$e of lower Degree,
$hould have only Arches. Vaulted Roofs are
proper in both. The whole Entablature mu$t
be in Height one fourth Part of the Shaft. If
there is to be a $econd Order of Columns over
the fir$t, let that $econd Order be one fourth
Part $horter than the lower one; and if there
is to be a third Order over this, let it be one
fifth Part $horter than that below it. In each
of the$e the Pede$tal or Plinth under each Or-
der of Columns, mu$t be in Height one fourth
Part of the Column which it $upports; but
where there is to be only one $ingle Row of
Columns, the Proportions may be taken from
tho$e of profane Works of a publick Nature.
A private Hou$e $hould never have $uch a Pe-
diment as may $eem to rival the Maje$ty of a
Temple. However, the Front of the Ve$tibule
may be rai$ed $omewhat above the re$t of the
Building, and be adorned with a $maller Pedi-
ment. The re$t of the Front on each Side this
Pediment may be adorned with a $mall Plinth,
which may ri$e $omewhat higher at the princi-
<foot>D d d pal</foot>
<p n=>194</p>
pal Angles I cannot be plea$ed with tho$e
who make Towers and Battlements to a pri-
vate Hou$e, which belong of right entirely to
a Fortification, or to the Ca$tle of a Tyrant,
and are altogether incon$i$tent with the peace-
able A$pect of a well-governed City or Com-
monwealth, as they $hew either a Di$tru$t of
our Countrymen, or a De$ign to u$e Violence
again$t them. Balconies in the Front of a
Hou$e are beautiful enough, provided they are
not too large, heavy, and out of Proportion.</P>
<head>CHAP. V.</head>
<head><I>That the Beauty of all Edifices ari$es principally from three Things, namely,
the Number, Figure and Collocation of the $everal Members.</I></head>
<P>I now come once more to tho$e Points which
I before promi$ed to enquire into, namely,
wherein it is that Beauty and Ornament, uni-
ver$ally con$idered, con$i$t, or rather whence
they ari$e. An Enquiry of the utmo$t Diffi-
culty; for whatever that Property be which is
$o gathered and collected from the whole
Number and Nature of the $everal Parts, or to
be imparted to each of them according to a
certain and regular Order, or which mu$t be
contrived in $uch a Manner as to join and unite
a certain Number of Parts into one Body or
Whole, by an orderly and $ure Coherence and
Agreement of all tho$e Parts: Which Proper-
ty is what we are here to di$cover; it is cer-
tain, $uch a Property mu$t have in it$elf $ome-
thing of the Force and Spirit of all the Parts
with which it is either united or mixed, other-
wi$e they mu$t jar and di$agree with each other,
and by $uch Di$cord de$troy the Uniformity or
Beauty of the Whole: The Di$covery of which,
as it is far from being ea$y or obvious in any
other Ca$e, $o it is particularly difficult and un-
certain here; the Art of Architecture con$i$t-
ing of $o many various Parts, and each of tho$e
Parts requiring $o many various Ornaments as
you have already $een. However, as it is nece$-
$ary in the Pro$ecution of our De$ign, we $hall
u$e the utmo$t of our Abilities in clearing this
ob$cure Point, not going $o far about as to $hew
how a compleat Knowledge of a Whole is to
be gained by examining the $everal Parts di$-
tinct; but beginning immediately upon what
is to our pre$ent Purpo$e, by enquiring what
that Property is which in its Nature makes a
Thing beautiful. The mo$t expert Arti$ts
among the Ancients, as we have ob$erved el$e-
where, were of Opinion, that an Edifice was
like an Animal, $o that in the Formation of it
we ought to imitate Nature. Let us therefore
enquire how it happens that in the Bodies pro-
duced by Nature her$elf $ome are accounted
more, others le$s beautiful, or even deformed.
It is manife$t, that in tho$e which are e$teemed
beautiful, the Parts or Members are not con-
$tantly all the $ame, $o as not to differ in any
Re$pect: But we find, that even in tho$e Parts
wherein they vary mo$t, there is $omething in-
herent and implanted which though they dif-
fer extremely from each other, makes each of
them beautiful. I will make u$e of an Ex-
ample to illu$trate my Meaning. Some admire
a Woman for being extremely $lender and fine
$haped; the young Gentleman in <I>Terence</I> pre-
fered a Girl that was plump and fle$hy: You
perhaps are for a Medium between the$e two
Extremes, and would neither have her $o thin as
to $eem wa$ted with Sickne$s, nor $o $trong and
robu$t as if $he were a Ploughman in Di$gui$e,
and were fit for Boxing: In $hort, you would
have her $uch a Beauty as might be formed by
taking from the fir$t what the $econd might
$pare. But then becau$e, one of the$e plea$es
you more than the other, would you therefore
affirm the other to be not at all hand$ome or
graceful? By no means; but there may be $ome
hidden Cau$e why one $hould plca$e you more
than the other, into which I will not now pre-
tend to enquire. But the Judgment which you
make that a Thing is beautiful, does not proceed
from mere Opinion, but from a $ecret Argu-
ment and Di$cour$e implanted in the Mind it-
$elf; which plainly appears to be $o from this,
that no Man beholds any Thing ugly or de-
formed, without an immediate Hatred and
Abhorrence. Whence this Sen$ation of the
Mind ari$es, and how it is formed, would be a
Que$tion too $ubtle for this Place: However,
let us con$ider and examine it from tho$e
Things which are obvious, and make more
immediately to the Subject in Hand: For with-
out Que$tion there is a certain Excellence and
<foot>natural</foot>
<p n=>195</p>
natural Beauty in the Figures and Forms of
Buildings, which immediately $trike the Mind
with Plea$ure and Admiration. It is my Opi-
nion, that Beauty, Maje$ty, Gracefulne$s, and
the like Charms, con$i$t in tho$e Particulars
which if you alter or take away, the Whole
would be made homely and di$agreeable. If
we are convinced of this, it can be no very te-
dious Enquiry to con$ider tho$e Things which
may be taken away, encrea$ed or altered, e$pe-
cially in Figures and Forms: For every Body
con$i$ts of certain peculiar Parts, of which if
you take away any one, or le$$en, or enlarge it,
or remove it to an improper Place; that which
before gave the Beauty and Grace to this Body
will at once be lamed and $poild. From hence
we may conclude, to avoid Prolixity in this
Re$earch, that there are three Things princi-
pally in which the Whole of what we are look-
ing into con$i$ts: The Number, and that which
I have called the Fini$hing, and the Collocati-
on. But there is $till $omething el$e be$ides,
which ari$es from the Conjunction and Con-
nection of the$e other Parts, and gives the
Beauty and Grace to the Whole: Which we
will call Congruity, which we may con$ider as
the Original of all that is graceful and hand-
$ome. The Bu$ine$s and Office of Congruity
is to put together Members differing from each
other in their Natures, in $uch a Manner, that
they may con$pire to form a beautiful Whole:
So that whenever $uch a Compo$ition offers it-
$elf to the Mind, either by the Conveyance of
the Sight, Hearing, or any of the other Sen$es,
we immediately perceive this Congruity: For
by Nature we de$ire Things perfect, and ad-
here to them with Plea$ure when they are of-
fered to us; nor does this Congruity ari$e $o
much from the Body in which it is found, or
any of its Members, as from it$elf, and from
Nature, $o that its true Seat is in the Mind and
in Rea$on; and accordingly it has a very large
Field to exerci$e it$elf and flouri$h in, and runs
through every Part and Action of Man's Life,
and every Production of Nature her$elf, which
are all directed by the Law of Congruity, nor
does Nature $tudy any Thing more than to
make all her Works ab$olute and perfect, which
they could never be without this Congruity,
$ince they would want that Con$ent of Parts
which is $o nece$$ary to Perfection. But we
need not $ay more upon this Point, and if what
we have here laid down appears to be true, we
may conclude Beauty to be $uch a Con$ent and
Agreement of the Parts of a Whole in which it
is found, as to Number, Fini$hing and Collo-
cation, as Congruity, that is to $ay, the princi-
pal Law of Nature requires. This is what Ar-
chitecture chiefly aims at, and by this $he ob-
tains her Beauty, Dignity and Value. The
Ancients knowing from the Nature of Things,
that the Matter was in Fact as I have here $tat-
ed it, and being convinced, that if they neglect-
ed this main Point they $hould never produce
any Thing great or commendable, did in their
Works propo$e to them$elves chiefly the Imi-
tation of Nature, as the greate$t Arti$t at all
Manner of Compo$itions; and for this Purpo$e
they laboured, as far as the Indu$try of Man
could reach, to di$cover the Laws upon which
$he her$elf acted in the Production of her
Works, in order to transfer them to the Bu$i-
ne$s of Architecture. Reflecting therefore up-
on the Practice of Nature as well with Relati-
on to an entire Body, as to its $everal Parts,
they found from the very fir$t Principles of
Things, that Bodies were not always compo$ed
of equal Parts or Members; whence it happens,
that of the Bodies produced by Nature, $ome
are $maller, $ome larger, and $ome middling:
And con$idering that one Building differed
from another, upon account of the End for
which it was rai$ed, and the Purpo$e which it
was to $erve, as we have $hewn in the $ore-
going Books, they found it nece$$ary to make
them of various Kinds. Thus from an Imi-
tation of Nature they invented three Manners
of adorning a Building, and gave them Names
drawn from their fir$t Inventors. One was
better contrived for Strength and Duration:
This they called <I>Doric;</I> another was more ta-
per and beautiful, this they named <I>Corinthian;</I>
another was a Kind of Medium compo$ed from
the other two, and this they called <I>Ionic.</I> Thus
much related to the whole Body in general.
Then ob$erving, that tho$e three Things which
we have already mentioned, namely, the Num-
ber, Fini$hing and Collocation, were what
chiefly conduced to make the whole beautiful,
they found how they were to make u$e of this
from a thorough Examination of the Works of
Nature, and, as I imagine, upon the following
Principles. The fir$t Thing they ob$erved, as
to Number, was that is was of two Sorts, even
and uneven, and they made u$e of both, but
in different Occa$ions: For, from the Imita-
tion of Nature, they never made the Ribs of
their Structure, that is to $ay, the Columns,
Angles and the like, in uneven Numbers; as
you $hall not find any Animal that $tands or
<foot>moves</foot>
<p n=>196</p>
moves upon an odd Number of Feet. On
the contrary, they made their Apertures al-
ways in uneven Numbers, as Nature her$elf
has done in $ome In$tances, for tho' in Ani-
mals $he has placed an Ear, an Eye, and a
No$tril on each Side, yet the great Aperture,
the Mouth, $he has $et $ingly in the Middle.
But among the$e Numbers, whether even or
uneven, there are $ome which $eem to be
greater Favourites with Nature than others,
and more celebrated among learned Men;
which Architects have borrowed for the Com-
po$ition of the Members of their Edifices,
upon Account of their being endued with
$ome Qualities which make them more valu-
able than any others.</P>
<P>THUS all the Philo$ophers affirm, that Na-
ture her$elf con$i$ts in a ternary Principle;
and $o the Number five, when we con$ider
the many Things, and tho$e $o admirable and
various, which either follow this Number in
them$elves, or are derived from tho$e Things
which do, mu$t be allowed to be divine in its
Nature, and worthily dedicated to the Gods
of the Arts, and particularly to <I>Mercury.</I> It is
certain, that Almighty God him$elf, the Crea-
tor of all Things, takes particular Delight in
the Number Seven, having placed $even Pla-
nets in the Skies, and having been plea$ed to
ordain with Regard to Man, the Glory of his
Creation, that Conception, Growth, Maturity
and the like, $hould all be reduceable to this
Number Seven. <I>Ari$totle</I> $ays, that the An-
cients never u$ed to give a Child a Name, till
it was $even Days old, as not thinking it was
de$tined to Life before; becau$e both the Seed
in the Womb, and the Child after its Birth, is
liable to very dangerous Accidents till the $e-
venth Day is over. Among odd Numbers,
that of Nine is highly celebrated, in which
Number that great Arti$t, Nature, made the
Spheres of Heaven; and the Philo$ophers $ay,
that Nature in many, and tho$e the greate$t
Things, is contented with making u$e of the
ninth Part of a Whole. Thus forty is about
the Ninth Part of all the Days of the Year,
according to the Revolution of the Sun, and
<I>Hippocrates</I> tells us, that in forty Days the
<I>Foetus</I> is formed in the Womb. Moreover we
find, that in the Generality of acute Di$tem-
pers, the Patient recovers at the End of forty
Days. At the End of the $ame Time Wo-
men that are with Child of a Male, cea$e their
Purgations, which, if they are delivered of a
Boy, after the $ame Term of forty Days, begin
afre$h. They $ay further, that the Child it$elf
for forty Days is never $een either to laugh or
$hed Tears while it is awake; tho' in its Sleep
it will do both. And thus much of odd
Numbers.</P>
<P>As to even Numbers, $ome Philo$ophers
teach, that the Number four is dedicated to
the Deity, and for this Rea$on it was u$ed in
the Taking the mo$t $olemn Oaths, which
were repeated four Times; and they tell us,
that even among the mo$t excellent Numbers,
that of $ix is the mo$t perfect, or con$i$ting of
all its own entire Parts, for Example:</P>
<table>
<row><col></col><col>1.1.1.1.1.1.</col><col>1.2.3.</col><col>1.5.</col><col>2.2.2.</col></row>
<row><col></col><col>6.</col><col>6.</col><col>6.</col><col>6.</col></row>
<row><col>2.4.</col><col>3.3.</col><col></col><col></col><col></col></row>
<row><col>6.</col><col>6.</col><col></col><col></col><col></col></row>
</table>
<P>And it is certain, that the Number eight has
an extraordinary Power in the Nature of
Things. Except in <I>&AElig;gypt,</I> we never find,
that any Child born in the eighth Month, lives
long; nay, and even the Mother her$elf who
is is $o delivered in the eighth Month, when
the Child is dead, will certainly, we are told,
die $oon afterwards. If the Father touches
his Wife in the eighth Month, the Child will
be full of foul Humours, and its Skin will be
leprous and Scurfy, and nau$eous to the Sight.
<I>Ari$totle</I> was of Opinion, that the Number
ten was the mo$t perfect of all, which was
probably becau$e its $quare is compo$ed of four
continued Cubes put together. Upon the$e
Accounts the Architects have mo$t frequently
made u$e of the foregoing Numbers; but in
their Apertures they $eldom have exceeded
that of ten for an even, or nine for an odd
Number, e$pecially in Temples. We are now
to treat of the Fini$hing.</P>
<P>BY the Fini$hing I under$tand a certain
mutual Corre$pondence of tho$e $everal Lines,
by which the Proportions are mea$ured, where-
of one is the Length, the other the Breadth,
and the other the Height.</P>
<P>THE Rule of the$e Proportions is be$t ga-
thered from tho$e Things in which we find
Nature herfelf to be mo$t compleat and ad-
mirable; and indeed I am every Day more
and more convinced of the Truth of <I>Pytha-
goras</I>'s Saying, that Nature is $ure to act con-
$i$tently, and with a con$tant Analogy in all
her Operations: From whence I conclude,
<foot>that</foot>
<p n=>197</p>
that the $ame Numbers, by means of which
the Agreement of Sounds affects our Ears with
Delight, are the very $ame which plea$e our
Eyes and our Mind. We $hall therefore bor-
row all our Rules for the fini$hing our Pro-
portions, from the Mu$icians, who are the
greate$t Ma$ters of this Sort of Numbers, and
$rom tho$e particular Things wherein Nature
$hews her$elf mo$t excellent and compleat:
Not that I $hall look any further into the$e
Matters than is nece$$ary for the Purpo$e of the
Architect. We $hall not therefore pretend to
$ay any thing of Modulation, or the particular
Rules of any In$trument; but only $peak of
tho$e Points which are immediately to our Sub-
ject, which are the$e. We have already ob-
$erved, that Harmony is an Agreement of $eve-
ral Tones, delightful to the Ears. Of Tones,
$ome are deep, $ome more acute. The deeper
Tones proceed from a longer String; and the
more acute, from a $horter: And from the mu-
tual Connection of the$e Tones ari$es all the
Variety of Harmony. This Harmony the An-
cients gathered from interchangeable Concords
of the Tones, by means of certain determinate
Numbers; the Names of which Concords are
as follows: <I>Diapente,</I> or the Fifth, which is
al$o called <I>Se$quialtera: Diate$$aron,</I> or the
Fourth, called al$o, <I>Se$quitertia: Diapa$on,</I> or
the Eighth, al$o called the double Tone; <I>Dia-
pa$on Diapente,</I> the twelfth or triple Tone, and
<I>Di$diapa$on,</I> the fifteenth or <I>Quadruple.</I> To
the$e was added the Tonus, which was al$o
called the <I>Se$quioctave.</I> The$e $everal Con-
cords, compared with the Strings them$elves,
bore the following Proportions. The <I>Se$qui-
altera</I> was $o called, becau$e the String which
produced it bore the $ame Proportion to that
to which it is compared, as one and an half
does to one; which was the Meaning of the
Word <I>Se$qui,</I> among the Ancients. In the <I>Se$-
quialtera</I> therefore the longer String mu$t be
allowed three, and the $horter, two.</P>
<table>
<row><col>3 000</col><col></col></row>
<row><col></col><col><I>Se$quialtera.</I></col></row>
<row><col>2 00</col><col></col></row>
</table>
<P>THE <I>Se$quitertia</I> is where the longer String
contains the $horter one and one third more:
The longer therefore mu$t be as four, and the
$horter as three.</P>
<table>
<row><col>4 0000</col><col></col></row>
<row><col></col><col><I>Se$quitertia</I></col></row>
<row><col>3 000</col><col></col></row>
</table>
<P>BUT in that Concord which was called <I>Dia-
pa$on,</I> the Numbers an$wer to one another in
a double Proportion, as two to one, or the
Whole to the Hal$: And in the <I>Triple,</I> they
an$wer as three to one, or as the Whole to one
third of it$elf.</P>
<table>
<row><col>2 00</col><col></col><col>300</col><col></col></row>
<row><col></col><col><I>Diapa$on,</I> or double</col><col></col><col><I>Triple</I></col></row>
<row><col>1 0</col><col></col><col>1 0</col><col></col></row>
</table>
<P>IN the <I>Quadruple</I> the Proportions are as
four to one, or as the Whole to its fourth Part.</P>
<table>
<row><col>4 0000</col><col></col></row>
<row><col></col><col><I>Quadruple</I></col></row>
<row><col>1 0</col><col></col></row>
</table>
<P>LASTLY, all the$e mu$ical Numbers are as
follows: One, two, three, four, and the Tone
before-mentioned, wherein the long String
compared to the $horter, exceeds it one eighth
Part of that $horter String.</P>
<table>
<row><col>1. 2. 3. 4.</col><col>8 00000000</col><col></col></row>
<row><col></col><col></col><col><I>Tone</I></col></row>
<row><col>Mu$ical Numbers</col><col>9 00000000,0</col><col></col></row>
</table>
<P>OF all the$e Numbers the Architects made
very convenient U$e, taking them $ometimes
two by two, as in planning out their Squares
and open Areas, wherein only two Proporti-
ons were to be con$idered, namely, Length
and Breadth; and $ometimes taking them three
by three, as in publick Halls, Council-cham-
bers, and the like; wherein as the Length was
to bear a Proportion to the Breadth, $o they
made the Height in a certain harmonious Pro-
portion to them both.</P>
<head>CHAP. VI.</head>
<head><I>Of the Proportions of Numbers in the Mea$uring of Areas, and the Rules for
$ome other Proportions drawn neither from natural Bodies, nor from Harmony.</I></head>
<P>Of the$e Proportions we are now to treat
more particularly, and fir$t we $hall $ay
$omething of tho$e Areas where only two are
u$ed. Of Areas, $ome are $hort, $ome long,
and $ome between both. The $horte$t of all
is the perfect Square, every Side whereof is of
<foot>E e e equal</foot>
<p n=>198</p>
equal Length, all corre$ponding with one an-
other at Right Angles. The neare$t to this is
the <I>Se$quialtera,</I> and the <I>Se$quitertian</I> al$o may
be reckoned among the $horter Areas. The$e
three Proportions therefore, which we may al$o
call $imple, are proper for the $maller Plat-
forms. There are likewi$e three others, which
are proper for middling Platforms: The be$t
of all is the Double, and the next be$t is that
which is formed of the <I>Se$quialtera</I> doubled,
which is produced as follows: Having $et
down the lea$t Number of the Area, as, for
In$tance, four, lengthen it to the fir$t <I>Se$qui-
altera,</I> which will make $ix, and then add the
<I>Se$quialtera</I> of this $ix, which will produce
nine. Thus the Length will exceed the Breadth
in a double Proportion, and one Tone more.</P>
<table>
<row><col>4 0000</col><col></col></row>
<row><col></col><col><I>Se$quialtera</I></col></row>
<row><col>6 000000</col><col></col></row>
<row><col>9 000000000</col><col><I>Se$quialtera</I> doubled</col></row>
</table>
<P>FOR moderate Platforms al$o, we may u$e
that Proportion which ari$es from the <I>Se$qui-
tertian</I> doubled in the $ame Manner as the for-
mer; wherein the Length and Breadth will
be as nine and $ixteen.</P>
<table>
<row><col>9 000000000</col><col></col></row>
<row><col></col><col><I>Se$quitertia</I></col></row>
<row><col>12 000000000000</col><col></col></row>
<row><col>16 0000000000000000</col><col><I>Se$quitertia</I> doubled</col></row>
</table>
<P>HERE the longer Line contains the $horter
twice, excluding one Tone of that $horter
Line. In the longe$t Areas we either add the
<I>Duple</I> to the <I>Se$quialtera,</I> which will produce
the <I>Triple;</I> or add the <I>Se$quitertia</I> to the
<I>Duple,</I> which will make the Proportion as three
to eight; or la$tly make the Lines corre$pond
to each other in a <I>Quadruple</I> Proportion. We
have now $poke of the $horter Platforms,
wherein the Numbers an$wer to each other
equally, as two to three, or three to four, and
of the Middling, wherein they corre$pond as
two to four, or as four to nine, or as nine to
$ixteen: And la$tly of the longe$t, wherein
the Numbers an$wer in a <I>Triple</I> or <I>Quadruple</I>
Proportion, or as three to eight. We may
join together or compound all the three Lines
of any Body what$oever, by Means of the$e $e-
veral Number, which are either innate with
Harmony it$elf, or produced from other
Proportions in a certain and regular Me-
thod. We find in Harmony tho$e Num-
bers from who$e mutual Relations we may
form their $everal Proporions, as in the <I>Duple,</I>
the <I>Triple</I> and the <I>Quadruple.</I> For In-
$tance, the <I>Duple</I> is formed of the $imple <I>Se$-
quialtera,</I> with the Addition of the <I>Se$quitertia,</I>
in the following Method. Let the lea$t Num-
ber of the <I>Duple</I> be two; the <I>Se$quialtera</I> of
this is three, and the <I>Se$quitertia</I> of this Num-
ber three is four, which is ju$t the Double of
two before-mentioned.</P>
<table>
<row><col>00</col><col></col></row>
<row><col>000</col><col>The <I>Se$quialtera</I></col></row>
<row><col>0000</col><col>The <I>Se$quitertia</I> or <I>Duple</I></col></row>
</table>
<P>OR el$e the $ame is done in the following
Manner: Let the $maller Number be, for In-
$tance, three; I add one to make it a <I>Se$qui-
tertia,</I> and it becomes four, to which adding a
<I>Se$quialtera,</I> it makes it $ix, which, compared
to three, is ju$t in a double Proportion.</P>
<table>
<row><col></col><col>000</col><col></col></row>
<row><col>The <I>Duple</I></col><col>0000</col><col><I>Se$quitertia</I></col></row>
<row><col></col><col>000000</col><col><I>Se$quialtera</I></col></row>
</table>
<P>THE <I>Triple</I> is likewi$e made of the <I>Duple,</I>
and of the <I>Se$quialtera</I> joined together: For
In$tance, let the $maller Number here be two;
this being doubled, makes four; to which
adding a <I>Se$quialtera,</I> it becomes $ix, which is
the <I>Triple</I> of two.</P>
<table>
<row><col></col><col>00</col><col></col></row>
<row><col>The <I>Triple</I></col><col>0000</col><col>doubled</col></row>
<row><col></col><col>000000</col><col><I>Se$quialtera</I></col></row>
</table>
<P>OR the $ame Thing is done as follows;
placing the $ame Number of two for the
$maller Number, take the <I>Se$quialtera,</I> and
you will have three, which being doubled,
gives $ix, and $o we $hall have the <I>Triple</I> of
two.</P>
<table>
<row><col></col><col>00</col><col></col></row>
<row><col>The <I>Triple</I></col><col>000</col><col><I>Se$quialtera</I></col></row>
<row><col></col><col>000000</col><col>doubled</col></row>
</table>
<P>BY Means of the $ame Exten$ions we may
produce the <I>Quadruple,</I> by compounding one
<I>Duple</I> with another, $ince it is indeed nothing
more than the <I>Duple</I> doubled, which is al$o
called <I>Di$diapa$on,</I> and is performed as follows:
Let the $maller Number here, for In$tance, be
two; double this, and it makes the <I>Diapa$on,</I>
that is to $ay four, which is the <I>Duple</I> of two,
and doubling this four, it makes the <I>Di$diapa-
$on,</I> which is as eight to two.</P>
<table>
<row><col></col><col>00</col><col></col></row>
<row><col>The <I>Quadruple.</I></col><col>0000</col><col><I>Diapa$on.</I></col></row>
<row><col></col><col>00000000</col><col><I>Di$diapa$on.</I></col></row>
</table>
<foot>THIS</foot>
<pb>
<fig>
<cap>PLATE 64. <I>(Page 199)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>199</p>
<P>THIS <I>Quadruple</I> may be al$o formed by
adding a <I>Se$quialtera</I> and a <I>Se$quitertia</I> to the
<I>Duple;</I> and how this is done, is manife$t by
what we have $aid above: But for its clearer
Explanation, we $hall give a further In$tance
of it here. The Number two, for Example,
by Means of a <I>Se$quialtera</I> is made three, which
by a <I>Se$quitertia</I> becomes four, which four
being doubled makes eight.</P>
<table>
<row><col></col><col>00</col><col></col></row>
<row><col></col><col>000</col><col><I>Se$quialtera</I></col></row>
<row><col>The <I>Quadruple.</I></col><col></col><col></col></row>
<row><col></col><col>0000</col><col><I>Se$quitertia</I></col></row>
<row><col></col><col>00000000</col><col>doubled</col></row>
</table>
<P>OR rather in the following Manner. Let us
take the Number three; this being doubled
makes $ix, to which adding another three, we
have nine, and adding to this a third of it$elf,
it produces twelve, which an$wers to three in a
<I>Quadruple</I> Proportion.</P>
<table>
<row><col></col><col>000</col><col></col></row>
<row><col></col><col>000000</col><col>doubled</col></row>
<row><col>The <I>Quadruple</I></col><col></col><col></col></row>
<row><col></col><col>000000000</col><col>a third added</col></row>
<row><col></col><col>000000000000</col><col>a third added</col></row>
</table>
<P>THE Architects make u$e of all the $everal
Proportions here $et down, not confu$edly and
indi$tinctly, but in $uch Manner as to be con-
$tantly and every way agreeable to Harmony:
As, for In$tance, in the Elevation of a Room
which is twice as long as broad, they make
u$e, not of tho$e Numbers which compo$e the
Triple, but of tho$e only which form the
Duple; and the $ame in a Room who$e Length
is three Times its Breadth, employing only its
own proper Proportions, and no foreign ones,
that is to $ay, taking $uch of the triple Pro-
gre$$ions above $et down, as is mo$t agreeable
to the Circum$tances of their Structure. There
are $ome other natural Proportions for the U$e
of Structures, which are not borrowed from
Numbers, but from the Roots and Powers of
Squares. The Roots are the Sides of $quare
Numbers: The Powers are the Areas of tho$e
Squares: The Multiplication of the Areas
produce the Cubes. The fir$t of all Cubes,
who$e Root is one, is con$ecrated to the Deity,
becau$e, as it is derived from One, So it is
One every Way; to which we may add, that
it is the mo$t $table and con$tant of all Fi-
gures, and the very Ba$is of all the re$t. But
if, as $ome affirm, the Unite be no Number,
but only the Source of all others, we may then
$uppo$e the fir$t Number to be the Number
two. Taking this Number two for the Root,
the Areas will be four, which being rai$ed up
to a Height equal to its Root, will produce a
Cube of eight; and from this Cube we may
gather the Rules for our Proportions; for here
in the fir$t Place, we may con$ider the Side of
the Cube, which is called the Cube Root,
who$e Area will in Numbers be $our, and the
compleat or entire Cube be as eight. In the
next Place we may con$ider the Line drawn
from one Angle of the Cube to that which is
directly oppo$ite to it, $o as to divide the Area
of the Square into two equal Parts, and this is
called the Diagonal. What this amounts to
in Numbers is not known: Only it appears
to be the Root of an Area, which is as Eight
on every Side; be$ides which it is the Diago-
nal of a Cube which is on every Side, as twelve,
<marg>*</marg>
<I>Fig.</I> 1.</P>
<P>LASTLY, In a Triangle who$e two $horte$t
Sides form a Right Angle, and one of them
the Root of an Area, which is every Way as
four, and the other of one, which is as twelve,
the long$t Side $ubtended oppo$ite to that
Right Angle, will be the Root of an Area,
will be the Root of an Area, which is as $ix-
<marg>*</marg>
teen <I>Fig.</I> 2.</P>
<P>THESE $everal Rules which we have here
$et down for the determining of Proportions,
are the natural and proper Relations of Num-
bers and Quantities, and the general Method
for the Practice of them all is, that the $horte$t
Line be taken for the Breadth of the Area,
the longe$t for the Length, and the middle
Line for the Height, tho' $ometimes $or the
Convenience of the Structure, they are inter-
changed. We are now to $ay $omething of
the Rules of tho$e Proportions, which are not
derived from Harmony or the natural Pro-
portions of Bodies, but are borrowed el$ewhere
for determining the three Relations of an
Apartment; and in order to this we are to
ob$erve, that there are very u$eful Con$idera-
tions in Practice to be drawn from the Mu$i-
cians, Geometers, and even the Arithmeticians,
of each of which we are now to $peak. The$e
the Philo$ophers call <I>Mediocrates,</I> or <I>Means,</I>
and the Rules for them are many and various;
but there are three particularly which are the
mo$t e$teemed; of all which the Purpo$e is,
that the two Extreams being given, the middle
Mean or Number may corre$pond with them
in a certain detemined Manner, or to u$e
$uch an Expre$$ion, with a regular Affinity.
Our Bu$ine$s, in this Enquiry, is to con$ider
three Terms, whereof the two mo$t remote
are one the greate$t, and the other the lea$t;
the third or mean Number mu$t an$wer to
<foot>the$e</foot>
<foot>*<I>See Plate 64, facing page 198.</I></foot>
<p n=>200</p>
the$e other two in a ju$t Relation or proporti-
onate Interval, which Interval is the equal re-
lative Di$tance which this Number $tands from
the other two. Of the three Methods mo$t
approved by the Philo$ophers for finding this
Mean, that which is called the arithmetical is
the mo$t ea$y, and is as follows. Taking the
two extreme Numbers, as for In$tance, eight
for the greate$t, and four for the lea$t, you add
them together, which produce twelve, which
twelve being divided in two equal Parts, gives
us $ix.</P>
<table>
<row><col>8</col><col></col><col>4</col></row>
<row><col></col><col>12</col><col></col></row>
<row><col></col><col>6</col><col></col></row>
</table>
<P>THIS Number $ix the Arithmeticians $ay, is
the Mean, which $tanding between four and
eight, is at an equal Di$tance from each of
them.</P>
<table>
<row><col>8.</col><col>6.</col><col>4.</col></row>
</table>
<P>THE next Mean is that which is called the
Geometrical, and is taken thus. Let the $mall-
e$t Number, for Example, four, be multiplied
by the greate$t, which we $hall $uppo$e to be
nine; the Multiplication will produce 36:
The Root of which Sum as it is called, or the
Number of its Side being multiplied by it$elf
mu$t al$o produce 36. The Root therefore
will be $ix, which multiplied by it$elf is 36,
and this Number $ix, is the Mean.</P>
<table>
<row><col>4 Times 9</col><col>36</col></row>
<row><col>6 Times 6</col><col>36</col></row>
</table>
<P>THIS geometrical Mean is very difficult to
find by Numbers, but it is very clear by Lines;
but of tho$e it is not my Bu$ine$s to $peak
here. The third Mean, which is called the
Mu$ical, is $omewhat more difficult to work
than the Arithmetical; but, however, may be
very well performed by Numbers. In this the
Proportion between the lea$t Term and the
greate$t, mu$t be the $ame as the Di$tance be-
tween the lea$t and the Mean, and between the
Mean and the greate$t, as in the following Ex-
ample. Of the two given Numbers, let the
lea$t be thirty, and the greate$t $ixty, which is
ju$t the Double of the other. I take $uch
Numbers as cannot be le$s to be double, and
the$e are one, for the lea$t, and two, for the
greate$t, which added together make three. I
then divide the whole Interval which was be-
tween the greate$t Number, which was $ixty,
and the lea$t, which was thirty, into three
Parts, each of which Parts therefore will be
ten, and one of the$e three Parts I add to the
lea$t Number, which will make it forty; and
this will be the mu$ical Mean de$ired.</P>
<table>
<row><col>30</col><col></col><col>60</col></row>
<row><col>1</col><col></col><col>2</col></row>
<row><col></col><col>3</col><col></col></row>
<row><col>3</col><col></col><col>30</col></row>
<row><col></col><col></col><col>10</col></row>
<row><col></col><col>30</col><col></col></row>
<row><col></col><col>10</col><col></col></row>
<row><col>30</col><col>40</col><col>60</col></row>
</table>
<P>AND this mean Number forty will be di$-
tant from the greate$t Number ju$t double the
Interval which the Number of the Mean is
di$tant from the lea$t Number; and the Con-
dition was, that the greate$t Number $hould
bear that Portion to the lea$t. By the Help of
the$e Mediocrites the Architects have di$cover-
ed many excellent Things, as well with Rela-
tion to the whole Structure, as to its $everal
Parts; which we have not Time here to par-
ticularize. But the mo$t common U$e they
have made of the$e Mediocrities, has been how-
ever for their Elevations.</P>
<head>CHAP. VII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Invention of Columns, their Dimen$ions and Collocation.</I></head>
<P>It will not be unplea$ant to con$ider $ome
further Particulars relating to the three
Sorts of Columns which the Ancients invent-
ed, in three different Points of Time: And it
is not at all improbable, that they borrowed the
Proportions of their Columns from that of the
Members of the human Body. Thus they
found that from one Side of a Man to the
other was a $ixth Part of his Height, and that
from the Navel to the Reins was a tenth. From
this Ob$ervation the Interpreters of our $acred
Books, are of Opinion, that <I>Noah</I>'s Ark for
the Flood was built according to the Propor-
tions of the human Body. By the $ame Pro-
portions we may rea$onably conjecture, that the
Ancients erected their Columns, making the
Height in $ome $ix Times, and in others ten
Times, the Diameter of the Bottom of the
<foot>Shaft.</foot>
<p n=>201</p>
Sha$t. But from that natural In$tinct or Sen$e
in the Mind by which, as we have already ob-
$erved, we judge of Beauty and Gracefulne$s,
they found, that one of the$e was too thick and
the other too $light; for which Rea$on they
altered them both, rightly $uppo$ing that the
Truth mu$t lie in $ome Medium between the$e
two vitious Extremes. Accordingly, with the
Help of the Rules of the Arithmeticians, they
joined their two Numbers together, and divid-
ed the Total in half, and then they found that
the mean Number between $ix and ten was
eight: Whereupon they made the Height of
their Column eight Times the Diameter of the
Bottom of the Shaft; and this they called the
<I>Ionic.</I> They al$o formed their <I>Doric</I> Column,
which is proper for Buildings of greater Solidi-
ty, by the $ame Rules. For Example, they
joined the $maller Number before-mentioned,
which was $ix, with the <I>Ionic</I> mean, which was
eight, whereof the Total was fourteen; this
Total they divided into two equal Parts, and
this gave them the Number $even, which they
took for their <I>Doric</I> Column, making its Length
$even Times the Diameter of the Bottom of the
Shaft. La$tly, they made their thinne$t Order,
which they called the <I>Corinthian,</I> from the <I>Ionic</I>
mean Number joined to the greate$t of the for-
mer Numbers, and $o taking the Half as
before; for the <I>Ionic</I> mean Number was eight,
and the greate$t Number was ten, which add-
ed together made eighteen, the Half whereof
was nine, whence they made the Height of
their <I>Corinthian</I> Column nine Times the Dia-
meter of the Bottom of its Shaft, as they did
the <I>Ionic</I> eight, and the <I>Doric</I> $even: Of which
we need $ay no more in this Place. We are
now to $ay $omething of the Collocation, which
relates to the Situation of the $everal Parts;
and this is much ea$ier to conceive where it is
ill done, than it is to lay down exact Rules for
the doing it: Becau$e indeed it is chiefly to be
referred to the natural Judgment which we
have formerly ob$erved to be innate in the
Mind of Man, though it may in $ome Mea-
$ure be derived from the foregoing Rules for
the Fini$hing. However, we $hall ju$t men-
tion a few general Remarks upon this Head.
The very $malle$t Parts or Members of the
Work, if they are $et in their right Places, add
to the Beauty of the whole; if they are placed
in mean or improper Situations, though excel-
lent in them$elves, they become mean. We
$ee the very $ame Thing in the Works of Na-
ture: As for In$tance, if a Dog had one Ea<*>
like that of an A$s, or if a Man had one Foot
bigger than the other, or one Hand very large,
and the other very $mall, we $hould immedi-
ately pronounce $uch a one deformed; or to
$ee even an Hor$e with one Eye grey, and the
other black, is very offen$ive: So agreeable it
is to Nature, that the Members on the right
Side $hould exactly an$wer the left: Wherefore
the very fir$t Thing we are to take Care of
mu$t be, that every Part, even the mo$t Incon-
$iderable, lie duly to the Level and Plum-line,
and be di$po$ed with an exact Corre$pondence
as to the Number, Form and Appearance; $o
that the Right may an$wer to the Left, the
High to the Low, the Similar to the Similar, $o
as to form a corre$pondent Ornament in that
Body whereof they are Parts. Even Statues,
Pictures, or any other Ornaments of that Sort
with which we embelli$h our Work, mu$t be $o
di$po$ed as to $eem to have $prung up naturally
in their propere$t Places, and to be Twins. The
Ancients were $o punctual in this mutual Cor-
re$pondence of the Parts, that even in fixing
up their Scantlings of Marble, they u$ed to
make them an$wer each other exactly to a
Size, Quality, Angles, Situation and Colour:
And e$pecially in tho$e mo$t beautiful Orna-
ments, Statues, wherein the Ancients were $uch
great Ma$ters, and in which I $o much admire
the Excellence of Art, they were careful in fix-
ing them up, as well on Pediments of their
Temples, as el$ewhere, that tho$e on one Side
$hould not differ from tho$e on the other, in
the $malle$t Particular either of De$ign or Ma-
terial. We $ee Statues of two or four Hor$es,
and of their Drivers and Lookers on $o exact-
ly like to each other, that Art in them may be
$aid to have exceeded Nature, in who$e Works
we hardly ever $ee one Feature $o exactly like
the other. Thus we have $hewn what is Beauty,
and wherein it con$i$ts, and with what Num-
bers and Fini$hing the Ancients u$ed to erect
their Structures.</P>
<foot>Fff CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>202</p>
<head>CHAP. VIII.</head>
<head><I>Some $hort, but general Ob$ervations which may be looked upon as Laws in the
Bu$ine$s of Building and Ornament.</I></head>
<P>I shall here put together $ome $hort and ge-
neral Admonitions, which are ab$olutely
nece$$ary to be ob$erved as $o many Laws, as
well in Point of Ornament or Embelli$hment,
as in all the other Parts of Architecture. And
this may $erve to acquit us of the Promi$e
which we made of taking a $hort Review of
the whole Work by Way of Epilogue. Fir$t
therefore, as we laid it down for a Rule at the
Beginning, that all Errors which any Ways de-
form the Structure were to be avoided princi-
pally: We will now $peak in the fir$t Place of
$uch Errors, and e$pecially of the greate$t. Er-
rors ari$e either from the Judgement, and lie
either in the De$ign or Election; or from the
Hand, and lie in the Workmen's Execution.
The Errors of the Judgment are both in Time
and in their Nature of much the greate$t Im-
portance, and when committed, le$s capable of
being remedied. With the$e therefore we $hall
begin. The fir$t Error is to chu$e for your
Structure a Region which is unhealthy, not
peaceable, barren, unfortunate, melancholy, or
afflicted with Calamities, either apparent or
concealed. The next Errors to this are chu$-
ing a Platform not proper or convenient; add-
ing one Member to another, without con$tant
Regard to the Accommodation of the Inhabi-
tants, and not providing fit and $uitable Con-
veniencies for every Rank and Degree of them,
as well Ma$ters as Servants, Citizens as Ru$-
ticks, Inmates as Vi$itants: Making your Build-
ing either too large and $pacious, or too $mall
and narrow; too open and naked, or too much
$hut in and confined; too much crowded, or
too rambling with too many Apartments, or
too few: If there be a Want of Rooms where
you may $ecure your$elf again$t exce$$ive Heats,
or exce$$ive Colds, of Places where you may
exerci$e and divert your$elf when you are in
Health, and of others where you may be $uf-
ficiently $heltered again$t any Inclemency of
Air when you are $ick: To which add the
Structures not being $ufficiently $trong, and as
we may $ay, fortified to be $afe again$t any $ud-
den Attack: If the Wall be either $o $light as
not to be $ufficiently $trong to $upport it$elf
and the Roof, or much thicker than Nece$$ity
requires, if the different Roofs be$patter each
other with their Waters, or throw them again$t
any Part of the Wall, or near the Entrances:
If they be either too low, or too high: If your
Windows be too wide, and admit unwhole-
$ome Winds, noxious Dews, or too much burn-
ing Sun; or, on the other Hand, if they be $o
narrow as to occa$ion a melancholy Gloom:
If they break into any of the Ribs of the Build-
ing: If the Pa$$ages are any Ways ob$tructed,
or lead us to any Object that is offen$ive: Or,
in $hort, if any of tho$e other In$tructions are
neglected, which we have given in the preced-
ing Books. Among the Errors in Ornament,
the Principal, in Architecture as in Nature, is
making any Thing prepo$terous, maimed, ex-
ce$$ive, or any other Ways un$ightly: For if
the$e Things are reckoned defective and mon-
$trous in Nature her$elf, what mu$t we $ay of
an Architect that throws the Parts of his Struc-
tures into $uch improper Forms? And as the
Parts whereof tho$e Forms con$i$t, are Lines,
Angles, Exten$ion, and the like, it is certainly
true, that there can be no Error or Deformity
more ab$urd and $hocking, than the mixing
together either Angles or Lines, or Superficies
which are not in Number, Size and Situation
equal to each other, and which are not blended
together with the greate$t Care and Accuracy.
And indeed who can avoid blaming a Man ex-
tremely, that without being forced to it by any
Manner of Nece$$ity, draws his Wall crooked
and askew, winding this way and that like a
Worm crawling upon the Ground, without
any Rule or Method, with one Side long, and
another $hort, without any Equality of Angles,
or the lea$t Connection with Regard to each
other; making his Platform with an obtu$e
Angle on one Side, and an acute one on the
other, and doing every Thing with Confu$ion,
Ab$urdity and at a Venture: It is another
great Error to have rai$ed your Structure in
$uch a Manner, that, though indeed with Re-
lation to its Platform, it is not ami$s, yet, not-
with$tanding it may be in very great Want of
Ornament, it may be utterly incapable of any
<foot>Sort</foot>
<p n=>203</p>
Sort of Embelli$hment as if all you con$ulted
in rai$ing your Wall, was to $u$tain the Roof,
not leaving any Space where you can after-
wards conveniently or di$tinctly add either the
Dignity of Columns, the Embelli$hment of Sta-
tues, the Maje$ty of Picture, or the Delicacy
of any Incru$tation. An Error of much the
$ame Nature as this is, the Building with $o
little Con$ideration, that though the $ame Ex-
pence might make our Structure beautiful and
graceful, yet we neglect the Pains and Con-
trivance of effecting it: For it is undeniable
that there may be in the mere Form or Figure
of a Building, an innate Excellence and Beau-
ty, which $trikes and delights the Mind, and
is immediately perceived where it is, as much
as it is mi$$ed where it is not; for, indeed, the
Eye is naturally a Judge and Lover of Beauty
and Gracefulne$s, and is very critical and hard
to plea$e in it; neither can I give any Account
why it $hould always happen, that we $hould
be much more offended at what is wanting,
than ready to commend what is done well;
for $till we are continually thinking what fur-
ther might be added to make the Object $till
more $plendid, and are naturally di$plea$ed if
any thing is omitted, which the mo$t accurate,
ingenious, and diligent Arti$t might po$$ibly
have procured: So that indeed we are often at
a Lo$s to $ay what it is offends us, unle$s it be
that there is not wherewithal fully to $atisfy our
immoderate De$ire of Perfection. This being
the true State of the Ca$e, we $hould certainly
endeavour, as much as in us lies, by the great-
e$t Study and Care, to make whatever Struc-
ture we rai$e as hand$ome, and as compleatly
adorned as po$$ibly, e$pecially if it be $uch a
one as every body expects to $ee in the utmo$t
Perfection, as, for In$tance, a publick Structure,
and particularly a $acred one, which no Man
can bear to $ee naked of Ornament. It is an-
other Error to apply the Ornaments peculiar to
a publick Structure, to a private one; or, on
the other Hand, tho$e peculiar to private Edi-
fices to one of a publick Nature: E$pecially if
$uch Ornaments are any thing petty, or not
durable, as, for In$tance, to di$h up a publick
Structure with $light or paultry Painting; for
every Thing u$ed about a publick Edifice ought,
if po$$ible, to be eternal. It is another gro$s
Error, which we $ee $ome ridiculous People
run into, who e'er they have well begun their
Building, fall to painting it, and decking it with
Statues and other Embelli$hments without
Number; all which are $ure to be $poiled and
demoli$hed before the Building is fini$hed.
We $hould erect our Building naked, and let
it be quite compleated before we begin to
dre$s it with Ornaments, which $hould always
be our la$t Work, being be$t done at lea$ure,
when we can do it without any Impediment,
and can take the Advantage of $uch Opportu-
nities as may offer for that Purpo$e. I would
have the Ornaments which you affix to your
Structure, to be the Work of various Hands,
and tho$e moderate Ma$ters; but if you can
procure any rare Pieces of greater Excellence
and Perfection, Statues and Pictuaes like tho$e
of a <I>Phidias</I> or a <I>Zeuxis,</I> let them be fixed only
in Places of peculiar Dignity and Honour. I
cannot commend <I>Dejoces</I> the King of <I>Media,</I>
who encompa$$ed his City of <I>Ecbatana</I> with
$even Walls, and made each of them of diffe-
rent Colours, one Purple, another Blue, another
gilt with Silver, and one even with Gold; nor can
I help blaming <I>Caligula,</I> who made his Stable
of Marble, and the Manger of Ivory. All that
<I>Nero</I> built was covered with Gold and enriched
with Gems. <I>Heliogabalus</I> was $till more ex-
travagantly profu$e, for he paved his Apart-
ments with Gold, and grieved that he could
not do it with Amber. Contempt is the be$t
Reward for the$e wild Prodigals who are o$-
tentatious of $uch Vain-glories, or rather Fol-
lies, and who are thus profu$e of the Labours
and Sweat of Mankind, about Things which
are of no Manner of U$e or Advantage to the
main Structure, nor capable of rai$ing the lea$t
Admiration either for Ingenuity or Contrivance.</P>
<P>I THEREFORE over and over again advi$e you
to avoid the$e Errors; and before you begin
your Work, thoroughly con$ider the whole
De$ign your $elf, and take the Advice of Men
of Skill upon it; be $ure to have a compleat
Model of the Whole, by which examine every
minute Part of your future Structure eight,
nine, ten Times over, and again, after different
Intermi$$ions of Times; till there be not the
lea$t Member from the Foundation to the
Roof of your whole Building, within or without,
great or $mall, but what you have throughly
and long weighed and con$idered, and deter-
mined of what Materials it $hall be made,
where placed, in what Order and Proportions,
and to what it $hall an$wer and bear Relation.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>204</p>
<head>CHAP. IX.</head>
<head><I>The Bu$ine$s and Duty of a good Architect, and wherein the Excellence of the
Ornaments con$i$ts.</I></head>
<P>A Prudent Architect will proceed in the
Method which we have been ju$t laying
down. He will never $et about his Work without
proper Caution and Advice. He will $tudy the
Nature and Strength of the Soil where he is to
build, and ob$erve, as well from a Survey of
Structures in the Neighbourhood, as from the
Practice and U$e of the Inhabitants, what Ma-
terials, what Sort of Stone, Sand, Lime or
Timber, whether found on the Place, or
brought from other Parts, will be$t $tand again$t
the Injuries of the Weather. He will $et
out the exact Breadth and Depth of the Foun-
dations, and of the Ba$ement of the whole
Wall, and take an Account of every Thing
that is nece$$ary for the Building, whether for
the outward Coat or the filling up, for the Li-
gatures, the Ribs, or the Apertures, the Roof,
the Incru$tation, for Pavements abroad, or
Floors within; he will direct which Way,
and by what Method every thing $uperfluous,
noxious or offen$ive $hall be carried off by
Drains for conveying away the rain Water,
and keeping the Foundations dry, and by pro-
per Defences again$t any moi$t Vapours, or
even again$t any unexpected Floods or Vio-
lence from Winds or Storms. In a Word,
he will give Directions for every $ingle Part,
and not $uffer any thing to e$cape his Notice
and Decree. And tho' all the$e Particulars $eem
chiefly to relate to Convenience and Stability,
yet they carry this along with them, that if
neglected they de$troy all the Beauty and Or-
nament of the Edifice. Now the Rules which
give the Ornaments them$elves their main Ex-
cellence, are as follows. Fir$t all your Orna-
ments mu$t be exactly regular, and perfectly
di$tinct, and without Confu$ion: Your Em-
belli$hments mu$t not be too much crowded
together or $cattered as it were under Foot, or
thrown on in Heaps, but $o aptly and neatly
di$tributed, that whoever $hould go about to
alter their Situation, $hould be $en$ible that
he de$troyed the whole Beauty and Delicacy
of the Work. There is no Part what$oever
but what the Arti$t ought to adorn; but there
is no Occa$ion that all $hould be adorned
equally, or that every thing $hould be enriched
with equal Expence; for indeed I would not
have the Merit of the Work con$i$t $o much
in Plenty as in Variety. Let the Builder fix
his riche$t Ornaments in the principal Places;
tho$e of a middling Sort, in Places of le$s Note,
and the meane$t in the meane$t. And here
he $hould be particularly careful, not to mix
what is rich with any thing trifling, nothing
little with what is great, nor to $et any thing
too large or high in narrow or clo$e Places;
tho' things which are not equal to each other
in Dignity, nor alike even in Species, may very
well be placed together, $o it be done artfully
and ingeniou$ly, and in $uch a Manner, that
as the one appears $olemn and maje$tick, the
other may $hew chearful and plea$ant, and that
they may not only unite their different Beau-
ties for the Embelli$hment of the Structure,
but al$o $eem as if the one without the other
had been imperfect; nor may it be ami$s in
$ome certain Places to intermix $omewhat even
of a coar$e Sort, that what is noble may re-
ceive a yet further Addition from the Com-
pari$on: Always be $ure never to make a Con-
fu$ion of the Orders, which will happen if you
mix the <I>Doric</I> Members with the <I>Corinthian,</I>
as I ob$erved before, or the <I>Corinthian</I> with
the <I>Ionic,</I> or the like. Let every Order have
its own regular Members, and tho$e all in their
proper Places, that nothing may appear per-
plexed or broken. Let $uch Ornaments as are
proper to the Middle be placed in the Middle,
and let tho$e which are at equal Di$tances on
each Side, be proportioned exactly alike. In
$hort, let every thing be mea$ured, and put to-
gether with the greate$t Exactne$s of Lines and
Angles, that the Beholder's Eye may have a
clear and di$tinct View along the Cornices, be-
tween the Columns on the In$ide and without,
receiving every Moment fre$h Delight from the
Variety he meets with, in$omuch, that after the
mo$t careful and even repeated Views, he $hall
not be able to depart without once more turn-
ing back to take another Look, nor, upon the
mo$t critical Examination, be able in any Part
of the whole Structure to find one Thing un-
<foot>equal,</foot>
<p n=>205</p>
equal, incongruous, out of Proportion, or not
conducive to the general Beauty of the Whole.
All the$e Particulars you mu$t provide for by
means of your Model; and from thence too
you $hould before-hand con$ider not only what
the Building is that you are to erect, but al$o
get together all the Materials you $hall want
for the Execution, that when you have begun
your Work you may not be at a Lo$s, or
change or $uper$ede your De$ign: but having
before-hand made Provi$ion of every Thing that
you $hall want, you may be able to keep your
Workmen con$tantly $upplied with all their Ma-
terials. The$e are the Things which the Archi-
tect is to take care of with the greate$t Dili-
gence and Judgement. The Errors which
may happen in the manual Execution of the
Work, need not be repeated here; but only
the Workmen $hould be well looked after, to
$ee that they work exactly by their Square,
Level and Plumb-line; that they do their
Bu$ine$s at the proper Sea$ons, take proper Sea-
$ons to let their Work re$t, and at proper Sea-
$ons go to it again; that they u$e good Stuff,
$ound, unmixed, $olid, $trong, and $uitable to
the Work, and that they u$e it in proper Places,
and fini$h every Thing according to their Mo-
del.</P>
<head>CHAP. X.</head>
<head><I>What it is that an Architect ought principally to con$ider, and what Sciences
he ought to be acquainted with.</I></head>
<P>But to the Intent that the Architect may
come off worthily and honourably in
preparing, ordering and accompli$hing all
the$e Things, there are $ome nece$$ary Ad-
monitions, which he $hould by no means ne-
glect. And fir$t he ought to con$ider well
what Weight he is going to take upon his
Shoulders, what it is that he profe$$es, what
Manner of Man he would be thought, how
great a Bu$ine$s he undertakes, how much Ap-
plau$e, Profit, Favour and Fame among Po$-
terity he will gain when he executes his Work
as he ought, and on the contrary, if he goes
about any thing ignorantly, unadvi$edly, or in-
con$iderately, to how much Di$grace, to how
much Indignation he expo$es him$elf, what a
clear, manife$t and everla$ting Te$timony he
gives Mankind of his Folly and Indi$cretion.
Doubtle$s Architecture is a very noble Science,
not fit for every Head. He ought to be a Man
of a fine Genius, of a great Application, of the
be$t Education, of thorough Experience, and
e$pecially of $trong Sen$e and $ound Judge-
ment, that pre$umes to declare him$elf an
Architect. It is the Bu$ine$s of Architecture,
and indeed its highe$t Prai$e, to judge rightly
what is fit and decent: For though Building is
a Matter of Nece$$ity, yet convenient Building
is both of Nece$$ity and Utility too: But to
build in $uch a Manner, that the Generous $hall
commend you, and the Frugal not blame you,
is the Work only of a prudent, wi$e and learn-
ed Architect. To run up any thing that is
immediately nece$$ary for any particular Pur-
po$e, and about which there is no doubt of
what Sort it $hould be, or of the Ability of
the Owner to afford it, is not $o much the
Bu$ine$s of an Architect, as of a common
Workman: But to rai$e an Edifice which is to
be compleat in every Part, and to con$ider and
provide before-hand every Thing nece$$ary for
$uch a Work, is the Bu$ine$s only of that ex-
ten$ive Genius which I have de$cribed above:
For indeed his Invention mu$t be owing to his
Wit, his Knowledge, to Experience, his Choice
to Judgment, his Compo$ition to Study, and
the Completion of his Work to his Perfection
in his Art; of all which Qualifications I take
the Foundation to be Prudence and mature
Deliberation. As to the other Virtues, Hu-
manity, Benevolence, Mode$ty, Probity; I do
not require them more in the Architect, than
I do in every other Man, let him profe$s what
Art he will: For indeed without them I do
not think any one worthy to be deemed a Man:
But above all Things he $hould avoid Levity,
Ob$tinacy, O$tentation, Intemperance, and all
tho$e other Vices which may lo$e him the good
Will of his Fellow-Citizens, and make him
odious to the World. La$tly, in the Study of
his Art I would have him follow the Example
of tho$e that apply them$elves to Letters: For
no Man thinks him$elf $ufficiently learned in
any Science, unle$s he has read and examined
all the Authors, as well bad as good that have
wrote in that Science which he is pur$uing. In
<foot>Ggg the</foot>
<p n=>206</p>
the $ame Manner I would have the Architect
diligently con$ider all the Buildings that have
any tolerable Reputation; and not only $o, but
take them down in Lines and Numbers, nay,
make De$igns and Models of them, and by
means of tho$e, con$ider and examine the Or-
der, Situation, Sort and Number of every Part
which others have employed, e$pecially $uch as
have done any thing very great and excellent,
whom we may rea$onably $uppo$e to have
been Men of very great Note, when they were
intru$ted with the Direction of $o great an Ex-
pence. Not that I would have him admire a
Structure merely for being huge, and imagine
that to be a $ufficient Beauty; but let him
principally enquire in every Building what
there is particularly artful and excellent for
Contrivance or Invention, and gain a Habit of
being plea$ed with nothing but what is really
elegant and prai$e-worthy for the De$ign: And
where-ever he finds any thing noble, let him
make u$e of it, or imitate it in his own Per-
formances; and when he $ees any thing well
done, that is capable of being $till further im-
proved and made delicate, let him $tudy to
bring it to Perfection in his own Works; and
when he meets with any De$ign that is only
not ab$olutely bad, let him try in his own
Things to work it if po$$ible into $omething
excellent. Thus by a continued and nice Ex-
amination of the be$t Productions, $till con-
$idering what Improvements might be made in
every thing that he $ees, he may $o exerci$e
and $harpen his own Invention, as to collect
into his own Works not only all the Beauties
which are di$per$ed up and down in tho$e of
other Men, but even tho$e which lie in a Man-
ner concealed in the mo$t hidden Rece$$es of
Nature, to his own immortal Reputation. Not
$atisfied with this, he $hould al$o have an Am-
bition to produce $omething admirable, which
may be entirely of his own Invention; like him,
for In$tance, who built a Temple without u$ing
one iron Tool in it; or him that brought the
<I>Colo$$us</I> to <I>Rome,</I> $u$pended all the Way up-
right, in which Work we may ju$t mention
that he employed no le$s than four-and-twenty
Elephants; or like an Arti$t that in only $eem-
ingly working a common Quarry of Stone,
$hould cut it out into a Labyrinth, a Temple,
or $ome other u$eful Structure, to the Surpri$e
of all Mankind. We are told that <I>Nero</I> u$ed
to employ miraculous Architects, who never
thought of any Invention, but what it was al-
mo$t impo$$ible for the Skill of Man to reduce
to practice. Such Geniu$$es I can by no mean
approve of; for, indeed, I would have the
Architect always appear to have con$ulted Ne-
ce$$ity and Convenience in the fir$t Place, even
tho' at the very $ame Time his principal Care
has been Ornament. If he can make a hand-
$ome Mixture of the noble Orders of the An-
cients, with any of the new Inventions of the
Moderns, he may de$erve Commendation. In
this Manner he $hould be continually improv-
ing his Genius by U$e and Exerci$e in $uch
Things as may conduce to make him Excel-
lent in this Science; and indeed, he $hould
think it becomes him to have not only that
Knowledge, without which he would not real-
ly be what he profe$$ed him$elf; but he $hould
al$o adorn his Mind with $uch a Tincture of
all the liberal Arts, as may be of Service to
make him more ready and ingenious at his own,
and that he may never be at a Lo$s for any
Helps in it which Learning can furni$h him
with. In $hort, he ought $till to be per$ever-
ing in his Study and Application, till he finds
him$elf equal to tho$e great Men, who$e Prai$es
are capable of no further Addition: Nor let
him ever be $atisfied with him$elf, if there
is that Thing any where that can po$$ibly be
of U$e to him, and that can be obtained either
by Diligence or Thought, which he is not
thoroughly Ma$ter of, till he is arrived at the
Summit of Perfection in the Art which he
profe$$es. The Arts which are u$eful, and in-
deed ab$olutely nece$$ary to the Architect, are
Painting and Mathematicks. I do not require
him to be deeply learned in the re$t; for I
think it ridiculous, like a certain Author, to
expect that an Architect $hould be a profound
Lawyer, in order to know the Right of con-
veying Water or placing Limits between Neigh-
bours, and to avoid falling into Controver$ies
and Law$uits as in Building is often the Ca$e:
Nor need he be a perfect A$tronomer, to know
that Libraries ought to be $ituated to the
North, and Stoves to the South; nor a very
great Mu$ician, to place the Va$es of Copper
or Bra$s in a Theatre for a$$i$ting the Voice:
Neither do I require that he $hould be an Ora-
tor, in order to be able to di$play to any Per-
$on that would employ him, the Services which
he is capable of doing him; for Knowledge,
Experience and perfect Ma$tery in what he is
to $peak of, will never fail to help him to
Words to explain his Sen$e $ufficiently, which
indeed is the fir$t and main End of Eloquence.
Not that I would have him Tongue-tied, or $o
<foot>deficient</foot>
<p n=>207</p>
deficient in his Ears, as to have no Ta$te for
Harmony: It may $uffice if he does not build
a private Man's Hou$e upon the publick
Ground, or upon another Man's: If he does
not annoy the Neighbours, either by his Lights,
his Spou s, his Gutters, his Drains, or by ob-
$tructing their Pa$$age contrary to Law: If he
knows the $everal Winds that blows from the
different Points of the Compa$s, and their
Names; in all which Sciences there is no Harm
indeed in his being more expert; but Painting
and Mathematicks are what he can no more be
without, than a Poet can be without the
Knowledge of Feet and Syllables; neither do
I know whether it be enough for him to be only
moderately tinctured with them. This I can $ay of
my$elf, that I have often $tarted in my Mind Ideas
of Buildings, which have given me wonderful
Delight: Wherein when I have come to re-
duce them into Lines, I have found in tho$e
very Parts which mo$t plea$ed me, many gro$s
Errors that required great Correction; and up-
on a $econd Review of $uch a Draught, and
mea$uring every Part by Numbers, I have been
$en$ible and a$hamed of my own Inaccuracy.
La$tly, when I have made my Draught into a
Model, and then proceeded to examine the $e-
veral Parts over again, I have $ometimes found
my$elf mi$taken, even in my Numbers. Not
that I expected my Architect to be a <I>Zeuxis</I> in
Painting, nor a <I>Nicomachus</I> at Numbers, nor an
<I>Archimedes</I> in the Knowledge of Lines and
Angles: It may $erve his Purpo$e if he is a
thorough Ma$ter of tho$e Elements of Painting
which I have wrote; and if he is skilled in $o
much practical Mathematicks, and in $uch a
Knowledge of mixed Lines, Angles and Num-
bers, as is nece$$ary for the Mea$uring of
Weights, Superficies and Solids, which Part of
Geometry the <I>Greeks</I> call <I>Podi$mata</I> and <I>Em-
boda.</I> With the$e Arts, joined to Study and
Application, the Architect may be $ure to ob-
tain Favour and Riches, and to deliver his
Name with Reputation down to Po$terity.</P>
<head>CHAP. XI.</head>
<head><I>To what Sort of Per$ons the Architect ought to offer his Service.</I></head>
<P>There is one Thing that I mu$t not
omit here, which relates per$onally to
the Architect. It is, that you $hould not im-
mediately run and offer your Service to every
Man that gives out he is going to build; a
Fault which the incon$iderate and vain-glori-
ous are too apt to be guilty of. I know not
whether you ought not to wait till you are
more than once importuned to be concerned.
Certainly they ought to repo$e a free and vo-
luntary Confidence in you, that want to make
u$e of your Labours and Advice. Why $hould
I offer tho$e Inventions which have co$t me $o
much Study and Pains, to gain perhaps no
other Recompence, but the Confidence of a
few Per$ons of no Ta$te or Skill? If by my
Advice in the Execution of your intended
Work, I either $ave you from an unnece$$ary
Expence, or procure you $ome great Conveni-
ence or Plea$ure; $urely $uch a Service de-
$erves a $uitable Recompence. For this Rea-
$on a prudent Man $hould take care to main-
tain his Reputation; and certainly it is enough
if you give hone$t Advice, and correct Draughts
to $uch as apply them$elves to you. If after-
wards you undertake to $upervi$e and com-
pleat the Work, you will find it very difficult
to avoid being made an$werable for all the
Faults and Mi$takes committed either by the
Ignorance or Negligence of other Men: Upon
which Account you mu$t take care to have
the A$$i$tance of hone$t, diligent, and $evere
Over$eers to look after the Workmen under
you. I would al$o have you, if po$$ible, con-
cern your$elf for none but Per$ons of the highe$t
Rank and Quality, and tho$e too $uch as are
truly Lovers of the$e Arts: Becau$e your Work
lo$es of its Dignity by being done for mean
Per$ons. Do you not $ee what Weight the
Authority of great Men is to advance the Re-
putation of tho$e who are employed by them?
And, indeed, I in$i$t the more upon this Piece
of Advice, not only becau$e the World has
generally a higher Opinion of the Ta$te and
Judgment of great Men, than for the mo$t
Part they de$erve, but al$o becau$e I would
have the Architect always readily and plen-
tifully $upplied with every thing that is ne-
ce$$ary for compleating his Edifice; which
tho$e of lower Degree are commonly not $o
able, and therefore not $o willing to do: to
which add, what we find very frequent In$tances
of, that where the De$ign and Invention has
been perfectly equal in two different Works,
<foot>one</foot>
<p n=>208</p>
one has been much more e$teemed than the
other, for the Sake of the Superiority of the
Materials. La$tly, I advi$e you not to be $o
far carried away by the De$ire of Glory, as
ra$hly to attempt any thing entirely new and
unu$ual: Therefore be $ure to examine and
con$ider thoroughly what you are going to un-
dertake, even in its minute$t Parts; and re-
member how difficult it is to find Workmen
that $hall exactly execute any extraordinary
Idea which you may form, and with how much
Grudging and Unwillingne$s People will $pend
their Money in making Trial of your Fancies.
La$tly, beware of that very common Fault, by
means of which there are $o few great Struc-
tures but what have $ome unpardonable Ble-
mi$hes. We always find People very ready to
criticize, and fond of being thought Coun$el-
lors and Directors. Now as, by rea$on of the
Shortne$s of Man's Life, few great Works are
compleated by the fir$t Undertaker, we that
$ucceed him, either out of Envy or Officiou$-
ne$s, are vain of making $ome Alteration in his
original De$ign. By this means what was well
begun is $poiled in the fini$hing. For this Rea-
$on I think we $hould adhere to the original
De$ign of the Inventor, who we are to $uppo$e
had maturely weighed and con$idered it. It is
po$$ible he might have $ome wi$e Inducement
to do what he did, which upon a more dili-
gent and attentive Examination, you may at
length di$cover your$elf. If however you do
make any Alteration, never do it without the
Advice, or rather ab$olute Direction of the mo$t
approved and experienced Ma$ters: By which
means you will both provide for the Nece$$i-
ties of the Structure, and $ecure your$elf again$t
the Malice of envious Tongues. We have now
treated of publick Buildings, and of private; of
$acred, and of profane; of tho$e which relate
to Dignity, and tho$e of Plea$ure. What re-
mains is to $hew how any Defects in an Edi-
fice, which have ari$en either from Ignorance
or Negligence, from the Violence of Men or
Times, or from unfortunate and unfore$een
Accidents, may be repaired and amended:
Still hoping that the$e Arts will meet with the
Favour and Protection of the Learned.</P>
<head><I>The End of Book</I> IX.</head>
<fig>
<foot>THE</foot>
<pb>
<fig>
<head>THE
<B>ARCHITECTURE</B>
OF
<B><I>Leone Bati$ta Alberti.</I></B></head>
<head>BOOK X. CHAP. I.</head>
<P><I>Of the Defects in Buildings, whence they proceed, and their different Sorts;
which of them can be corrected by the Architect, and which cannot; and the
various Cau$es of a bad Air.</I></P>
<P>Since in the Remainder of this
Work we are to treat of the correct-
ing the $everal Defects in Building,
it is nece$$ary fir$t to con$ider what
tho$e Defects are which are capable of Emen-
dation by the Hand of Man: As the Phy$ici-
ans think that the Knowledge of the Patient's
Di$temper, is the greate$t Step towards his
Cure. Of the Defects in Buildings, as well
publick as private, $ome are innate and owing
to the Architect, and others proceed from fo-
reign Cau$es: And again, of the$e $ome are
capable of being repaired by Art and Contri-
vance, and others will not po$$ibly admit of
any Remedy. What tho$e are which are owing
to the Architect, we have pointed out $o plain-
ly in the la$t Book, that a Repetition of them
here is not nece$$ary, having there $hewn that
$ome are the Errors of the Mind, $ome of the
Hand; that tho$e of the Mind are an injudici-
ous Election, an inconvenient Compartition,
an improper Di$tribution, or confu$ed Pro-
portions; whereas tho$e of the Hand are an
inaccurate or incon$iderate Preparation, Col-
lection, Working, and putting together the
Materials: Faults which the Negligent and
Unadvi$ed ea$ily fall into. But the Defects
which proceed from foreign Cau$es are $carcely
to be numbered for their Multiplicity and Va-
riety: Of which Cau$es the fir$t is that which
is $aid to overcome all Things, Time, who$e
Violence is no le$s deceitful than it is power-
ful, nor can any Sort of Bodies elude that great
Law of Nature, of Feeling the Decays of old
Age; in$omuch that $ome are of Opinion, the
very Heavens them$elves are corruptible only
for this Rea$on, becau$e they are Bodies. We
all know the Power of the Sun, of Damps, of
Fro$ts and of Storms. Battered by the$e En-
gines, we $ee the harde$t Flints $hiver and fall
to Pieces, and huge Pieces of Rock broken
down from the Mountains, with Parts of the
Hill it$elf along with them. To the$e add the
Violence or Negligence of Men. I call Heaven
to Witne$s, that I am often filled with the
highe$t Indignation when I $ee Buildings de-
moli$hed and going to Ruin by the Carele$s-
ne$s, not to $ay abominable Avarice of the
Owners, Buildings who$e Maje$ty has $aved
them from the Fury of the mo$t barbarous and
enraged Enemies, and which Time him$elf,
that perver$e and ob$tinate De$troyer, $eems to
have de$tined to Eternity. To the$e again add
the $udden Accidents of Fire, Lightening,
Earthquakes, Inundations, and tho$e many $ur-
prizing, unheard of and incredible Ph&aelig;nomena
which the miraculous Power of Nature $o fre-
quently produces, and which are capable of
<foot>H h h over-</foot>
<p n=>210</p>
over-turning the be$t fini$hed Structure of the
wi$e$t Architect. <I>Plato</I> $ays, that the whole
<I>Atlantick</I> I$land, which was not le$s than <I>Epi-
rus,</I> vani$hed away at once into Smoke. Hi$-
tory informs us, that the Cities of <I>Helice</I> and
<I>Bura</I> were both $wallowed up, one by the Sea
and the other by an Earthquake: That the
Lake <I>Tritonis</I> di$appeared in an In$tant, and
on the contrary, that of <I>Stymphalis</I> in <I>Argos,</I>
appeared as $uddenly: That at <I>Teramene</I> an
I$land $tarted up at once, with hot Springs in
it; and that between the two I$lands of <I>The-
ra$ia</I> and <I>Thera</I> a Flame bur$t out of the Sea,
which made it foam and boil four whole Days
$ucce$$ively, and at la$t appeared an I$land
twelve Furlongs in Length, wherein the <I>Rho-
dians</I> built a Temple to <I>Neptune</I> their Protec-
tor. In other Places we are told of $uch nu-
merous Swarms of Mice, that they bred an
Infection, and that the <I>Spaniards</I> $ent Amba$-
$adors to the <I>Roman</I> Senate to implore their
A$$i$tance again$t infinite Numbers of Hares
which eat up their Country; and many other
wonderful Accidents of the $ame Nature,
whereof we have made a Collection in our lit-
tle Treati$e, entitled <I>Theogenius.</I> But all the
Defects which proceed from foreign Cau$es are
not uncapable of being corrected: Neither
will tho$e which are owing to the Architect,
always admit of Amendment; for where every
thing is wrong and out of Order, no Improve-
ment is practicable. Where the Building can-
not be any ways altered for the better, but by
changing almo$t every Line and Angle, it is
much better to pull the Whole quite down, and
begin upon a new Foundation. But that is not
our Bu$ine$s now: We are here to $hew what
may be amended or improved by Art. And
fir$t we $hall $peak of Buildings of a publick
Nature. Of the$e the greate$t and mo$t im-
portant is the City, or rather, if we may $o
call it, the Region of the City. The Region
wherein an incon$iderable Architect has placed
his City, may perhaps have tho$e Defects
which will admit of Amendment. Either it
may be un$ecure again$t $udden Incur$ions of
Enemies, or it may $tand in a bad unhealthy
Air, or it may not be well $upplied with all
Nece$$aries. Of the$e therefore we $hall now
treat. The Way from <I>Lydia</I> into <I>Cilicia</I> lies
through a narrow Pa$s cut by Nature among
the Hills, in $uch a Manner that you would
think $he de$igned it as a Gate to that Pro-
vince. At <I>Thermopyl&aelig;,</I> now called the <I>Bocca
de Lupo,</I> is a Pa$s which three armed Men may
defend, being a broken Way interrupted by
numberle$s Rills of Water on every Side, which
ri$e from the very Root of the Mountain.
Much like this are the broken Rocks in the
Mark of <I>Ancona,</I> called by the Vulgar <I>Fo$$o
ombrone,</I> and many others in other Places. But
$uch Pa$$es, $o fortified by Nature, are not to
be found every where: However, they $eem in
a great Mea$ure, to be capable of being imitat-
ed by Art; and accordingly we find it to have
been very often prudently done by the Anci-
ents, who in order to $ecure their Country from
the Inroads of their Enemies, u$ed the follow-
ing Methods, which we $hall briefly gather
from as many of the great Works of the old
Heroes, as may $erve to illu$trate our pre$ent
Subject. <I>Artaxerxes</I> near the River <I>Euphrates,</I>
cut a Trench between him$elf and the Enemy,
three$core Foot broad, and ten Miles long. The
<I>C&aelig;$ars</I> (and particularly <I>Adrian</I>) built a Wall
acro$s <I>Britain</I> fore$core Miles in Length, by
which they divided the Lands of the <I>Barbari-
ans</I> from tho$e of the <I>Romans. Antoninus Pius</I>
made another of Turf acro$s the $ame I$land.
After him <I>Severus</I> threw up a Trench an
hundred and twenty-two Miles long, which
divided the I$land clear from Sea to Sea. <I>An-
tiochus Soter</I> encompa$$ed <I>Margiana</I> a Province
of <I>India,</I> where he built <I>Antiochia,</I> with a
Wall fifteen hundred Furlongs in Length; and
<I>Seo$o$is</I> carried a Wall of the $ame Length from
the Borders of <I>&AElig;gypt</I> towards <I>Arabia,</I> thro'
a De$art quite from the City of the Sun, which
was called <I>Thebes.</I> The <I>Neritones,</I> who$e Coun-
try formerly joined to <I>Leucadia,</I> cutting away
the Neck of Land, and letting in the Sea,
made it an I$land: On the contrary, the <I>Chal-
cidians</I> and the <I>Boeotians</I> rai$ed a Dike over the
Straits, called the <I>Euripus,</I> to join <I>Euboia</I> to
<I>Boeotia,</I> that they might be able to $uccour each
other. <I>Alexander</I> the Great built $ix Towns
near the River <I>Oxus,</I> not $ar di$tant from each
other, that upon any $udden Attack from the
Enemy, they might have A$$i$tance at Hand.
The Ancients frequently made u$e of little Re-
doubts, which they called <I>Tyr$es,</I> fortified with
very high Ramparts, like Ca$tles, to put a Stop
to Incur$ions from their Enemies. The <I>Per-
$ians</I> $topt up the <I>Tygris</I> with Sluices, that none
of the Enemy's Ve$$els might get up the River:
But <I>Alexander</I> took them away and opened
the Stream, alledging that it was a mean and
cowardly Defence, and exhorting them rather
to tru$t to their own Valour for their Securi-
ty. Some have overflowed their Country and
<foot>made</foot>
<p n=>211</p>
made it a perfect Mar$h, like <I>Arabia,</I> which
by means of a Number of Lakes and Bogs oc-
ca$ioned by the River <I>Euphrates,</I> was not to
be approached by an Enemy. Thus by $uch
Fortifications they both $ecured their own
Country again$t the Attacks of an Enemy, and
at the $ame Time made their Enemy's Coun-
try weaker and more defencele$s. What are
the Cau$es which make the Air unhealthy, we
have already $hewn $ufficiently at Length in
the proper Place. We may only ob$erve here
in general, that for the mo$t Part tho$e Cau$es
are either the too great Power of the Sun, or
too much Shade; $ome infectious Winds from
neighbouring Parts, or pe$tilent Vapours from
the Soil it$elf, or el$e $omething in the very
Climate it$elf that is noxious. To mend the
Air when it is unhealthy or corrupted, is a
Work $carce thought po$$ible to be done by any
human Contrivance; unle$s by appea$ing the
Wrath of Heaven by Prayers and Supplications,
which, like the Nail driven by the Con$ul, have
$ometimes, as we read, put a Stop to the mo$t
de$tructive Contagions. Again$t the Inconve-
niencies of the Sun or Wind to the Inhabitants
of $ome little Town or Villa, perhaps $ome
Remedy may be found: But to alter the Cli-
mate of a whole Region or Province, is a Task
too great; not that I deny the Po$$ibility of
amending a great many of tho$e Defects which
proceed from the Air, by curing the Earth of
exhaling noxious Vapours. In order to $hew
how this may be done, it is not nece$$ary that
I $hould here $pend Time in debating whether
it is by means of the Power of the Sun, or by
$ome natural inward Heat, that the Earth emits
tho$e two Vapours, of which one mounting up
into the Air is conden$ed by the Cold, into
Rain and Snow; and the other, which is a dry
Vapour, is $uppo$ed to be the Cau$e of Winds:
It is enough that we are a$$ured, that both the$e
ari$e out of the Earth; and as we find that
tho$e Steams which proceed from the Bodies
of Animals, partake of the Nature of the Bodies
from which they ari$e, pe$tiferous from pe$ti-
lentious Bodies, and $weet from whole$ome and
cleanly ones, and that $ometimes where the
Sweat or Vapour is not bad in it$elf, it is ren-
dered offen$ive by the Na$tine$s of the Gar-
ment through which it pa$$es; $o it is with the
Earth: For when the Ground is neither well
covered with Water, nor perfectly dry, but lies
like a Mar$h or Bog, it mu$t for $everal Rea-
$ons emit noxious and unwhole$ome Vapours.
Thus we find, that where the Sea is deep, the
Water is cold, and warm where it is $hallow;
the Rea$on of which, we are told, is becau$e
the Rays of the Sun cannot $trike to the Bot-
tom of a deep Water: As if you plunge a red-
hot Iron into Oil, if the Oil be but a $mall
Quantity, it will rai$e a $trong thick Smoke,
but if there is Oil enough to cover it quite over,
it will pre$ently quench the Iron, and make
no Smoke at all. But to proceed briefly with
the Subject which we have begun to take
in Hand. <I>Servius</I> tells us, that a Mar$h near
a certain Town being almo$t dried up, and a
Plague $ucceeding, the Inhabitants went for
Coun$el to <I>Apollo,</I> who commanded them to
dry it up entirely. Near <I>Tempe,</I> there was a
large $tanding Lake, which <I>Hercules</I> made dry
Ground, by cutting a Trench to let out the
Water, and he is $aid to have burnt the Ser-
pent <I>Hydra</I> in a Place from whence frequent
Eruptions of Water u$ed to ravage the neigh-
bouring City; by which means the $uperfluous
Moi$ture being con$umed, and the Soil render-
ed firm and dry, tho$e over-abounding Chan-
nels of Water were entirely $topt. In ancient
Times the <I>Nile</I> having once $welled higher
than u$ual, when the Waters went off, be$ides
the Mud, they left a great Number of different
Animals, which as the Ground became dry,
rotted and infected the Air with a dreadful
Plague. <I>Strabo</I> $ays, that the City <I>Mazaca,</I>
near the Hill <I>Arg&aelig;us,</I> abounds in good Wa-
ter; but if in Summer it has not a Way made
for it to run off, it renders the Air unwhole-
$ome and infectious. Moreover, towards the
northern Parts of <I>Africa,</I> and al$o in <I>&AElig;thiopia,</I>
it never Rains; $o that the Lakes are often
dried up, and left like Bogs of Mud, abounding
with infinite Numbers of Animals that breed
by Corruption, and particularly with great
Swarms of Locu$ts. Again$t the$e Inconveni-
encies, both the Remedies u$ed by <I>Hercules</I> are
very proper, namely, cutting a Trench that the
Water may not $tagnate and make a Bog, and
then laying the Ground open to the Sun,
which I take to be the Fire u$ed by <I>Hercules</I>
for burning the <I>Hydra.</I> It may al$o be of Ser-
vice to fill up the Place with Stones, Earth or
Sand: And in what Manner you may fill up a
$tanding Water with River-$and, we $hall $hew
in the proper Place. <I>Strabo</I> $ays, that in his
Time the Country about the City of <I>Ravenna,</I>
being continually overflowed by the Sea, u$ed
to be incommoded with noi$ome Vapours,
which yet did not make the Air unwhole$ome,
and it $eems $trange how this $hould happen,
<foot>unle$s</foot>
<p n=>212</p>
unle$s it be as it is at <I>Venice,</I> that the Lakes
being kept in con$tant Agitation by the Winds
and Tides, never $ub$ide, and $o cannot cor-
rupt. The Country of <I>Alexandria</I> is $aid to
have been much of the $ame Nature; but the
con$tant overflowing of the <I>Nile</I> in Summer,
cured it of that Defect. Thus we are in-
$tructed by Nature what is proper to be done,
and that where the Ground is mar$hy, we
ought either to dry it up entirely, or el$e to
bring a con$tant Supply of running Water into
it, either from $ome Stream or River, or from
the Sea; or la$tly, to dig it $o deep as to come
to $ome living Spring. Of which we $hall $ay
no more in this Place.</P>
<head>CHAP. II.</head>
<head><I>That Water is the mo$t nece$$ary Thing of all, and of its various Sorts.</I></head>
<P>We are now to take care that nothing
be wanting, which may be nece$$ary
for our U$e. What Things are nece$$ary I
$hall not wa$te much Time in recounting, be-
cau$e they are manife$t, as Food, Raiment,
Shelter, and, above all Things, Water. <I>Thales</I>
the <I>Mile$ian</I> affirmed, that Water was the fir$t
Principle of all Things, and even of Commu-
nities among Men. <I>Ari$tobulus</I> $ays, that he
$aw above a thou$and Towns left quite de$art,
becau$e the River <I>Indus</I> had turned his Cour$e
another Way. I own it to be my Opinion,
that Water is to Animals the Source of natural
Heat and the Nouri$her of Life; not to men-
tion its Con$equence to Plants, and to every
Thing el$e which is intended for the U$e of
Mankind; to all which I imagine it to be $o
ab$olutely nece$$ary, that, without Water, no-
thing which grows or is nouri$hed in the Earth
would be capable even of exi$ting. In the
Country, along the River <I>Euphrates,</I> the People
do not $uffer their Cattle to feed as long as
they would, for fear of their growing too fat
in Pa$tures too luxurious, occa$ioned, as is $up-
po$ed, by the Exuberance of Moi$ture: And
$ome believe, that $uch huge Bodies as Whales
are produced in the Sea, becau$e of the great
Abundance of Nouri$hment which is afforded
by Water. <I>Xenophon</I> tells us, that the Kings
of <I>Sparta</I> were allowed, by way of Dignity,
to have a Lake of Water before the Doors of
their Hou$es. Water is u$ed by us in the Ce-
remonies of our Nuptials, Sacrifices, and almo$t
all other $acred Rites, according to the Prac-
tice of our Fore-fathers; all which $hews what
a high E$teem ancient Times had of Water.
But indeed who can deny the great U$e and
Service which it is of to Mankind, in$omuch
that it is always thought to be deficient, where
there is not a very large Abundance of it for all
Manner of Occa$ions. With this great Ne-
ce$$ary therefore, we $hall here begin, $ince,
according to the old Saying, we want it whe-
ther $ick or well. The <I>Me$$aget&oelig;,</I> a Nation
of <I>Scythia,</I> made their Country abound in Wa-
ter by opening the River <I>Aragus</I> in $everal
Places. The <I>Tygris</I> and <I>Euphrates</I> were brought
by Labour to <I>Babylon,</I> which was built origi-
nally in a dry Place. Queen <I>Semiramis</I> cut a
Pa$$age through a high Hill for the Space of
five-and-twenty Furlongs to make Way for a
Canal, fifteen Foot broad, by which $he brought
Water to the City of <I>Ecbatana.</I> An <I>Arabian</I>
King brought Water from the <I>Chorus,</I> a River
of <I>Arabia,</I> into that droughty De$art where he
waited for <I>Camby$es,</I> in an Aqueduct made of
the Hides of Bulls, if we may believe every
thing that we read in <I>Herodotus.</I> In the Coun-
try of the <I>Samians,</I> among other $urprizing
Works, the mo$t extraordinary of all was a
Trench $eventy Furlongs in Length, made
through a Mountain which was an hundred
and fifty Paces high. <I>Megareus</I>'s Conduct was
al$o mightily admired, which brought the
Water of a Spring to the City in a Frame
twenty Foot high. But in my Judgment the
ancient City of <I>Rome</I> far excelled all the Cities
in the World in the Grandeur and Contrivance
of her Aqueducts, and the great Plenty of
Water conveyed in them. But you are not
every where $ure to find Springs or Rivers from
whence Water can be brought. <I>Alexander,</I>
to $upply his Fleet with Water, dug a Number
of Wells along the Sea Shore of <I>Per$ia. Ap-
pian</I> tells us, that <I>Hannibal,</I> when he was clo$e
pre$$ed by <I>Scipio,</I> near the Town of <I>Cilla,</I> not
being able to find Water in the Field where he
was encamped, provided for the Nece$$ities of
his Troops by digging Wells. Be$ides, it is
not all Waters which you find, that are good
and proper for the U$e of Men; for be$ides
that, $ome are hot, $ome cold, $ome $weet,
<foot>$ome</foot>
<p n=>213</p>
$ome $harp, $ome bitter, $ome perfectly clear,
others muddy, vi$cous, oily, tinctured with
Pitch, or of a petri$ying Quality; $ome run-
ning partly clear, and partly foul, and $ome-
times in the $ame Place part $weet, and part
$alt or bitter: There are al$o $everal other Par-
ticulars, well worth Note, which make Wa-
ters very different from one another, as well in
Nature as in Effect, and of no $mall Con$e-
quence to the Pre$ervation or Prejudice of the
Health. And here let us be allowed ju$t to
mention $ome miraculous Properties of Water,
by Way of Amu$ement. The River <I>Ar$ione</I>
in <I>Armenia,</I> rots the Cloaths which are wa$h-
ed in it. The Water of <I>Diana</I>'s Fountain,
near <I>Camerinum,</I> will mix with nothing Male.
At <I>Debri,</I> a Town of the <I>Garamanthes,</I> is a
Spring which is cold in the Day, and warm in
the Night. The <I>Helbe$us,</I> a River in the Coun-
try of the <I>Sege$tani</I> in <I>Sicily,</I> in the Middle of
its Cour$e grows of a $udden hot. There is a
$acred Well in <I>Epirus,</I> which extingui$hes any
Thing which is put into it burning, and lights
that which is extingui$hed. In <I>Eleu$ina</I> near
<I>Athens,</I> is a Spring which leaps and rejoices at
the Sound of a Flute. Foreign Animals that
drink at the River <I>Indus,</I> change their Colour:
And upon the Shore of the <I>Red Sea</I> there is a
Spring, at which if Sheep drink, their Wool
pre$ently turns Black. At <I>Laodicea</I> in <I>A$ia,</I>
there are Springs, near which all the fourfoot-
ed Animals that are conceived are of a yellow
Hue. In the Country of <I>Gadara,</I> is a Water,
of which if the Cattle drink, they lo$e their
Hair and Nails. Near the <I>Hyrcanian</I> Sea, is a
Lake, wherein all that bathe grow $cabby, and
can be cured with nothing but Oil. At <I>Su$a,</I>
is a Water which makes the Teeth fall out of
the Head. Near the Lake <I>Zelonium,</I> is a Spring
which makes Women barren, and another
which makes them fruitful. In the I$land of
<I>Chies,</I> there is one which makes tho$e that
drink of it fooli$h: And in $ome other Place,
which I do not now recollect, is one which
not only upon drinking, but upon the bare
Ta$ting makes the Per$on die laughing, and
there is another wherein only Batheing is im-
mediate Death. And near <I>Nonacris</I> in <I>Arca-
dia,</I> is a Water perfectly clear to the View, but
of $o poi$onous a Quality, that it cannot be
contained in any Metal what$oever. On the
contrary, there are others which are admirable
for re$toring the Health, $uch as the Waters of
<I>Pozzuolo, Siena, Volterra, Bologna,</I> and many
others of great Fame all over <I>Italy.</I> But it is
yet more extraordinary which we are told of
a Water in <I>Cor$ica,</I> namely, that it will recon-
$olidate broken Bones, and prevent the Effect
of the mo$t dangerous Poi$ons. In other Places
there are Waters which mend the Wit and even
in$pire Divination. In <I>Cor$ica,</I> al$o there is
another Spring very good for the Eyes, which
if a Thief dares to deny a Theft with an Oath,
and to wa$h his Eyes with its Water, imme-
diately makes him blind. Of the$e we have
$aid enough. La$tly, in $ome Places no Wa-
ter at all is to be found, neither good nor bad.
To remedy this, it was the Cu$tom all over the
Country of <I>Apulia</I> to receive and pre$erve the
Rain-water in Ci$terns.</P>
<head>CHAP. III.</head>
<head><I>Four Things to be con$idered with Relation to Water; al$o whence it is engender-
ed or ari$es, and its Cour$e.</I></head>
<P>There are four Things therefore which
are to our Purpo$e with Relation to
Water; namely, the finding, the conveying,
the chu$ing, and the pre$erving. Of the$e we
are to treat: But we may fir$t premi$e $ome
few Things concerning the Nature of Water in
general. I am of Opinion that Water cannot
be contained in any Thing but a Ve$$el, and
therefore I agree with tho$e, who upon that
Account, affirm the Sea it$elf to be nothing
but a Ve$$el of va$t Capacity, and Rivers to be
great oblong Ve$$els too. But there is this
Difference between the Waters of the Sea and
tho$e of Rivers, that the$e latter have a Cur-
rent and Motion by their own Nature, whereas
the former would ea$ily $ub$ide and be at Re$t,
if they were not put in Agitation by the Force of
the Winds. I $hall not here di$cu$s tho$e philo-
$ophical Que$tions, whether all Waters make
their Way to the Sea, as to a Place of Re$t, and
whether the regular Flux and Reflux of the
Ocean be owing to the Impul$e of the Moon:
Tho$e Points not being to our Purpo$e: but
we mu$t not omit to take Notice of what we
<foot>Iii $ee</foot>
<p n=>214</p>
$ee with our Eyes, that Water naturally tends
downwards; that it cannot $uffer the Air to
be any where beneath it; that it hates all Mix-
ture with any Body that is either lighter or
heavier than it$elf; that it loves to fill up every
Concavity into which it runs; that the more
you endeavour to force it, the more ob$tinate-
ly it $trives again$t you, nor is ever $atisfied till
it obtains the Re$t which it de$ires, and that
when it is got to its Place of Repo$e, it is con-
tented only with it$elf, and de$pi$es all other
Mixtures; la$tly, that its Surface is always an
exact Level. There is another Enquiry relat-
ing to Water, which I remember to have read
in <I>Plutarch;</I> namely, whether upon digging a
Hole in the Earth, the Water $prings up like
Blood out of a Wound; or whether it di$tills
out like Milk engendering by Degrees in the
Brea$t of a Nur$e. Some are of Opinion, that
perpetual Springs do not run from any full
Ve$$el from whence they have their $upply,
but that in the Places from whence they flow,
the Water is continually engendering of Air,
and not of all Sorts of Air, but only of $uch as
is mo$t apt to be formed into Vapour, and that
the Earth, and e$pecially the Hills, are like
Spunges, full of Pores, through which the Air
is $ucked in and conden$ed and $o turned into
Water by the Cold: For Proof of which they
alledge, that the greate$t Rivers $pring from
the greate$t Hills. Others do not agree with
this Opinion, ob$erving that $everal Rivers, and
particularly the <I>Pyramus,</I> one of no $mall Note,
being navigable, does not take its Ri$e from
any Hill, but from the Middle of a Plain. For
this Rea$on, he who $uppo$es that the Ground
imbibes the Moi$ture of the Rain, which by
its Weight and Subtilty penetrates through the
Veins and $o di$tills into the Cavities of the
Earth, may perhaps be not much mi$taken in
his Conjecture: For we may ob$erve, that tho$e
Countries which have lea$t Rain, have the
greate$t Scarcity of Springs. <I>Libya</I> is $aid to
have been $o called <I>qua$i Lipygia,</I> as wanting
Rain, by which means it is $cantily $upplied
with Water. And, indeed, who can deny,
that where it Rains much, there is the greate$t
Plenty of it? It is al$o to our pre$ent Purpo$e
to ob$erve, that a Man who digs a Well never
meets with Water, till he has $unk it to the
Level of the next River. At <I>Vol$conio,</I> a Town
$tanding upon a Hill in <I>Tu$cany,</I> they dug a
Well no le$s then two hundred and twenty
Foot deep before they came to any Vein of
Water, not meeting with any till they came
to the Level of the Springs which ri$e from the
Side of the Hill; and you will generally find
the $ame Ob$ervation hold good of all Wells
dug upon Hills. We find by Experiment that
a Spunge will grow wet by the Humidity of
the Air, upon which I have made a Pair of
Scales to determine the Heavine$s or Dryne$s
of the Air and Winds. I cannot indeed deny
that the Moi$ture of the nocturnal Air is at-
tracted from the Superficies of the Earth, and
$o con$equently may return again into its Pores,
and be ea$ily converted once more into Hu-
mour; but I cannot pretend to determine any
thing certain with Relation to this Que$tion,
finding $o much Variety among Authors upon
the Subject, and $o many different Con$iderati-
ons offering them$elves to the Mind when we
think upon it. Thus it is certain that in many
Places, either by $ome Earthquake, or even
from no apparent Cau$e, Springs have bur$t out
of a $udden, and continued a great While, and
again, that others have failed in different Sea-
$ons, $ome growing dry in Summer, others in
Winter, and that tho$e which have dried up
have afterwards again afforded great Plenty of
Water: Nay, and that Springs of fre$h Wa-
ter not only ari$e from the Earth, but have
been found even in the Middle of the Sea; and
it has been affirmed, that Water al$o i$$ues from
the Plants them$elves. In one of tho$e I$lands
which are called Fortunate, we are told there
grows a Sort of Cane as high as a Tree, $ome
black, $ome white; from the black comes a
bitter Juice, and from the white di$tills a fine
clear Water, very beautiful to the Eye and good
to drink. <I>Strabo,</I> a very grave Author, $ays
that in the Mountains of <I>Armenia,</I> they find a
Sort of Worms bred in the Snow, which are
full of a Water excellent to drink. At <I>Fiezole</I>
and <I>Urbino,</I> though both Towns $tanding up-
on Hills, there is Plenty of Water to be had
for the lea$t digging, which is becau$e tho$e
Hills are formed of a $tony Soil mixed with a
Chalk. We are told further, that there are
certain Clods of Earth which within their
Coats contain a Quantity of the fine$t Water.
Amid$t all this wonderful Variety, the Know-
ledge of the Nature of Springs cannot be other-
wi$e than extremely difficult and ob$cure.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>215</p>
<head>CHAP. IV.</head>
<head><I>By what Marks to find any hidden Water.</I></head>
<P>Let us now return to our Subject. Hid-
den Waters are to be found out by cer-
tain Marks. The$e Marks are the Form and
Face of the Spot of Ground, and the Nature
of the Soil where you are to $earch for the
Water, and $ome other Methods di$covered by
the Indu$try and Diligence of Men. Accord-
ing to the ordinary Cour$e of Nature, a Place
which is $unk down into a Hollow, or into a
Sort of concave Pit, $eems to be a Kind of Ve$-
$el ready prepared for the retaining of Water.
In tho$e Places where the Sun has much Pow-
er, all Humidity is $o much dried up by the
Force of his Rays, that few or no Veins of
Water are to be found; or if any are di$co-
vered in a very open Place, they are heavy,
thick and bracki$h. On the north Side of
Hills, and where-ever there is a very thick
Shade, you may very $oon meet with Water.
Hills who$e Tops are u$ed to be long covered
with Snow, afford great Plenty of Springs. I
have ob$erved, that Hills which have a flat
Meadow at the Top, never want Water; and
you will find almo$t all Rivers have their Ri$e
from $ome $uch Place. I have al$o ob$erved,
that their Springs $eldom flow from any other
Spot of Ground, but where the Soil beneath or
about them is $ound and firm, with either an
even Slope over them, or $oft loo$e Earth: So
that if you con$ider the Matter, you will be of
Opinion with me, that the Water which has
been gathered there, runs out as from the Side
of a broken Ba$on. Hence it happens that the
clo$e$t Soil has the lea$t Water, and what there
is, lies very near the Surface: But the loo$e$t
Earth has the mo$t Humidity; but then the
Water generally lies pretty deep. <I>Pliny</I> writes,
that in $ome Places, upon cutting down the
Woods, Springs bur$t out: And <I>Tacitus</I> $ays,
that when <I>Mo$es</I> journeyed through the De-
$art, and his Followers were fainting with
Thir$t, he di$covered Springs of Water, only
by taking Notice where there were fre$h Spots
of Gra$s. <I>&AElig;milius,</I> when his Army $uffered a
Dearth of Water near Mount <I>Olympus,</I> found
out a Supply by the fre$h Verdure of the
Woods. Some Soldiers who were in que$t of
Water were directed to $ome little Veins by a
young Girl in the <I>Via Collatina,</I> where, upon
digging they found a very plentiful Spring, over
which they built a little Chapel, and in it left
the Memory of the Accident de$cribed in Paint-
ing. If the Earth ea$ily gives Way to the
Tread, or cleaves to the Foot, it $hews that
there is Water under it. One of the mo$t cer-
tain Marks of concealed Water, is the Growth
and Flouri$hing of tho$e Plants which love
Water, or are u$ed to be produced by it, $uch
as Willows, Ru$hes, Withes, Ivy, or any others
which without Plenty of Moi$ture could never
have attained the Perfection in which we find
them. <I>Columella</I> tells us, that the Ground
which produces Vines very thick of Leaves,
and e$pecially that which bears Dwar$-elder,
Trefoil and wild Plumbs is a good Soil, and
does not want Veins of $weet Water. More-
over great Quantities of Frogs, Earth-worms,
with Gnats and other $mall Flies $warming
together in the Air, are Tokens of Water con-
cealed beneath. The Methods for finding
Water invented by the Diligence of Men are
as follows: The curious Searchers into Nature
have ob$erved, that the Earth, and e$pecially
the Hills, con$i$t of different Coats or Layers,
$ome clo$er, $ome loo$er, and others thinner;
and they have found, that the Hills were com-
po$ed of the$e Coates placed one above the
other, in $uch a Manner that towards the Sur-
face or out$ide the$e Layers or Coats, and their
$everal Junctures lie level from the Right to
Left: But on the In$ide, towards the Center
of the Hill the Layers incline downwards in an
oblique Line, with all their upper Superficies
inclining equally, but then the $ame Line does
not continue on, quite to the Center of the
Hill, for, $uppo$e at the Di$tance of every
hundred Foot the Line is broken off by a Kind
of tran$ver$e Step, which makes a Di$continu-
ance in the Layer; and $o with the$e Breaks
and Slopes the Coats run from each Side to the
Center of the Hill. From an Ob$ervation of
the$e Particulars, Men of acute Under$tanding
$oon perceived that the Waters were either en-
gendered, or rather that the Rains gathered
between the$e Strata, and in the Junctures of
the $everal Coats, by which means the Middle
of the Hill mu$t needs have Water in it.
Hence they concluded that in order to come at
<foot>that</foot>
<p n=>216</p>
that conccaled Water, they mu$t pierce into
the Body of the Hill, and e$pecially in one of
tho$e Parts where the Lines or Junctures of the
$everal Strata met together, which was likely
to be the mo$t proper Place for what they
wanted, becau$e the Mu$eles of the Hill meet-
ing together mu$t in all Probability form a na-
tural Re$ervoir. Be$ides the $everal Coats
them$elves $eemed to be of different Natures,
$ome likely to imbibe, others to retain the Wa-
ter. Thus the reddi$h Stone is hardly ever
without Water; but then it is apt to deceive
you, for it often runs out through the Veins
with which that Stone abounds. The moi$t and
living Flint which lies about the Roots of the
Hill, broken and very $harp, $oon affords Wa-
ter. The light Soil too gives you an ea$y Op-
portunity of finding Plenty of Water; but then
it is of a bad Savour. But the Male-$and and
the hard Grit are $ure to afford the be$t of
Water, and with the lea$t Danger of being ex-
hau$ted. It is quite the contrary with Chalk,
which being too clo$e, yields no Water; but
it is very good for retaining that which di$tills
into it. In common Sand we find but very
$mall Veins, and tho$e foul, and apt to have a
Sediment. From white Clay we have but
$mall Veins, but tho$e $weeter than any other.
The $oft Stone yields a very cold Water; the
black Earth a very clear one. In Gravel, if it
is loo$e, we cannot dig with any very great
Hope; but if it grows clo$er as we come deeper,
there is no Danger of finding Water, and when
found, in either of them, there is no doubt of
its being well ta$ted. It is al$o certain, that by
the Help of Art there is no great Difficulty in
finding out the Spot under which the Vein lies:
<marg>*</marg>
And the Method by which we are taught to
do it, is as follows. In the Morning extremely
early, when the Air is perfectly clear and $erene,
lay your$elf flat with your Chin re$ting upon
the Ground: Then take a careful Survey of
the Country all round you, and where-ever
you $ee a Vapour ri$ing out of the Earth, and
curling up into the Air like a Man's Breath in
a clear Fro$t, there you may be pretty certain
of finding Water. But in order to be $till
more $ure of it, dig a Pit four Cubits deep and
as many broad, and in this Pit, about the Time
of Sun-$et, put either an carthen Pot ju$t fre$h
taken out of the Furnace, or a $mall Quantity
of unwa$hed Wool, or an earthen Pot unbak-
ed, or a bra$s Pot with the Mouth downwards
and rubbed over with Oil; then make up the
Mouth of the Pit with Boards and cover it
with Earth: If next Morning the baked Pot
be much heavier than it was over Night; if
the Wool be moi$tened; if the unbaked Pot be
wet; if the bra$s Pot have Drops hanging up-
on it, and if a Lamp left in the $ame Pit have
not con$umed much Oil, or if upon making a
Fire in it, the Earth emits a good deal of
Smoke, you may be very $ure that there are
Veins of Water concealed. In what Sea$on it
is be$t to make the$e Trials has not been $o
clearly declared; but in $ome Writers I find
the following Ob$ervations. In the Dog-days,
not only the Earth, but al$o the Bodies of Ani-
mals are very full of Humidity: Whence it
happens, that in this Sea$on the Trees grow
very moi$t under the Bark with Exce$s of Hu-
mour; about this Time al$o Men are very $ub-
ject to Fluxes of the Belly, and through exce$-
$ive Humectation, fall into frequent Fevers;
and the Waters $pring out more abundantly at
this Time of the Year, than any other. <I>Theo-
phra$tus</I> thinks the Rea$on of this to be, that
about this Time we have generally $outherly
Winds, which in their Nature are moi$t and
cloudy. <I>Ari$totle</I> affirms, that in this Sea$on
the Ground is forced to emit Vapours by means
of the natural Fire which lies mixed in the
Bowels of the Earth. If this be true, tho$e
Times mu$t be be$t for the above-mentioned
Trials, when tho$e Fires are mo$t potent, or
lea$t oppre$$ed with Exuberance of Humour,
as al$o when the Earth is not too much burnt
up and too dry. The Sea$on therefore which
I would recommend for this Purpo$e, $hould
be the Spring in dry Places, and Autumn in
Places of more Shade. When your Hopes of
not being di$appointed are confirmed in the
Manner before $hewn, you may begin to dig.</P>
<head>CHAP. V.</head>
<head><I>Of the digging and walling of Walls and Conduits.</I></head>
<P>The Work of Digging is performed in
two Manners; for either we dig a Well
perpendicularly down, or we dig a Conduit
horizontally. The Workmen in digging are
$ometimes expo$ed to Danger, either from un-
whole$ome Vapours, or from the falling in of
<foot>the</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plate 65, facing.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 65. <I>(Page 216)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>217</p>
the Sides of the Pit. The Ancients u$ed to $end
their Slaves, upon their being convicted of $ome
Crime, to dig in their Mines, where the noi-
$ome Air $oon di$patched them. Again$t $uch
Vapours we are taught to $ecure our$elves, by
keeping the Air in continual Motion, and by
the Burning of Lamps, to the Intent, that if
the Vapour be very $ubtile, it may be con$u-
med by the Flame, or if it be more gro$s, the
Workmen may know when to get out of Harm's
Way, becau$e $uch a heavy Vapour will give
them Notice by extingui$hing the Light. But
if the$e Damps multiply upon you, and con-
tinue for any Time, we are advi$ed to dig Vents
on each Side, to give the Vapour a free Pa$$age
to exhau$t it$elf. To prevent the falling in
of the Sides, work your Well in the following
Manner. Upon the Level of the Ground where
you re$olve to make your Well, lay a circular
Cour$e of Work, either of Marble, or $ome
other $tout Material, of the Diameter which
you intend for the Breadth of your Well. This
will be the Ba$is or Foundation of your whole
Work. Upon this build the Sides of your Well
to the Height of three Cubits, and let it $tand
till it is thoroughly dry. When this is dry, go
to digging your Well, and remove the Earth
from the In$ide of it; by which means, as you
dig away the Earth, the Sides already rai$ed
will $ink by Degrees, and make their own Way
downwards; and thus adding to the Sides as
you go deeper, you may $ink your Work to
what Depth you plea$e. Some are for Build-
ing the Sides of the Well without Mortar, that
the Veins of Water may not be $topt from
getting through them. Others are for inclo-
$ing it with no le$s than three different Walls,
that the Water ri$ing all up from the Bottom,
may be the clearer. But the main Point is
the Nature of the Place where you dig;
for as the Earth con$i$ts of different Strata
placed one above the other, it $ometimes hap-
pens, that the Rain-water, $oaking thro' the up-
per $oft Coat, lodges in the fir$t hard Bed;
and this never being pure, is un$it for U$e:
At other Times, on the contrary, it happens,
that after you have actually found Water, up-
on digging deeper, it $lips away and is lo$t.
The Rea$on of this is, that you have dug thro'
the Bottom of the Ve$$el which contained it.
Upon this Account I very much approve of
tho$e who make their Well in the following
Manner. They encompa$s the Sides of the
Well, which is ready dug, with two Circles of
Wood or Plank, as if they were making a great
Tub, leaving the Space of about a Cubit be-
tween the two Circles. This Inter$pace be-
tween the Planks, they $ill up with coar$e
Gravel, or rather with broken Fragments of
Flint or Marble, $wimming in Mortar, and
then leave this Work to dry and harden for
$ix Months. This forms $o entire a Ve$$el,
that the Water can get in no other Way but
by bubbling up from the Bottom, by which
Means it mu$t be thoroughly purged and be
perfectly clear and light. If you are to make
an horizontal Conduit under Ground, let the
Diggers ob$erve the before-mentioned Precau-
tions again$t noxious Vapours; and in order
to keep the Ground from falling down upon
them, let them make u$e of Props, and after-
wards $upport it with a regular Arch. The Con-
duit $hould have frequent Vents, $ome perpendi-
cular, others oblique, not only for the exhaling
of unwhole$ome Vapours, but chiefly for the
more convenient bringing out the Earth as it
is dug, and any Ob$truction which may get in.
When we are digging for Water, if we do
not, the lower we go, meet with moi$ter
Clods of Earth, and if our Tools do not find
more and more ea$y Entrance, we $hall cer-
tainly be di$appointed of our Hopes of $inding
what we dig for.</P>
<head>CHAP. VI.</head>
<head><I>Of the U$es of Water; which is be$t and mo$t whole$ome; and the contrary.</I></head>
<P>When Water is found, it ought not
to be ra$hly applied to the U$es of
Men. But as the City requires a very great
Plenty of Water, not only for drinking, but
al$o for wa$hing, for $upplying the Gardens,
for Tanners, and Fullers; for the Drains, and
for extingui$hing $udden Fires: The be$t is to
be cho$en for drinking, and the others are to
be allotted to the other U$es, according as
they are found to be re$pectively proper for
them. <I>Theophra$tus</I> was of Opinion, that the
colder the Water, the more $erviceable to
Plants; and it is certain, that the foul and
muddy, e$pecially if it takes its Thickne$s
<foot>K k k from</foot>
<p n=>218</p>
from a fruitful Soil, enriches the Ground.
Hor$es do not love a very clear Water, but
grow fat with any that is mo$$y and warm.
The harde$t is be$t for Fullers. The Phy$icians
$ay, that the Nece$$ity of Water to the Health
and Life of Man is of two Sorts; one for
quenching the Thir$t, and the other, to $erve
as a Vehicle to carry the Nutriment extracted
from the Food into the Veins, that being there
purified and dige$ted it may $upply the Mem-
bers with their proper Juices. Thir$t they tell
us is an Appetite of Moi$ture, and chiefly of a
cold one; and therefore they think that cold
Water, e$pecially after Meals, fortifies the Sto-
mach of tho$e that are in good Health; but if
it be exce$$ively cold it will throw the mo$t ro-
bu$t into a Numbne$s, occa$ion Gripes in the
Bowels, $hake the Nerves, and by its Rawne$s
extingui$h the dige$tive Faculty of the Sto-
mach. The Water of the River <I>Oxus</I> being
always turbid, is very unwhole$ome to drink.
The Inhabitants of <I>Rome,</I> from the frequent
Changes of the Air, and the nocturnal Vapours
which ari$e from the River, as al$o from the
Winds which commonly blow in the After-
noon, are very $ubject to dangerous Fevers;
for the$e Winds generally blow very cold about
three o' Clock in Summer, at which Time
Mens Bodies are extreamly heated, and even
contract the very Veins. But in my Opinion
the$e Fevers, and indeed mo$t of the wor$t
Di$tempers there proceed, in a great Mea$ure,
from the Water of the <I>Tyber,</I> which is com-
monly drank when it is foul; to which Pur-
po$e it may not be ami$s to ob$erve, that the
ancient Phy$icians, for the Cure of the$e <I>Ro-
man</I> Fevers, order the U$e of the Juice of
Squills and of Inci$ives. But to return. We
are upon the Search of the be$t Water. <I>Cel$us</I>
the Phy$ician, $ays of Waters, that of all the
different Sorts the Rain-water is the lighte$t;
the $econd is that of the Spring; in the third
Place is the River-water; in the fourth, that
of a Well; in the fifth and la$t, that which
di$$olves from Snow or Ice. The Lake-water
is heavier than any of the$e, and that of a Mar$h
is the wor$t of all. The <I>Mazaca,</I> which $tands
under the Hill <I>Arg&aelig;us,</I> abounds with good
Water; but having no Way to run off in
Summer, it grows unwhole$ome and pe$tifer-
ous. The Definition which the be$t Philo$o-
phers give us of Water, is, that it is naturally
a Body $imple and unmixed, whereof Coldne$s
and Humidity are two Properties. We may
therefore conclude that to be the be$t, which
deviates the lea$t from its own Nature; be-
cau$e, if it be not perfectly pure, and entirely
free from Mixture, Ta$te, or Smell, it will cer-
tainly very much endanger the Health, by
loading the inward Pa$$ages of the Lungs,
choaking up the Veins, and clogging the Spirits,
the Mini$ters of Life, For this Rea$on we
are told that the Rain-water, as it con$i$ts of the
lighte$t Vapours, is the be$t of all, provided it
be not of $uch a Sort as ea$ily corrupts and $tinks,
which when it grows foul is very apt to harden
the Belly. Some believe that the Occa$ion of
this is, that it falls from Clouds formed of a
Mixture of too many different Vapours com-
pounded together, drawn, for In$tance, from
the Sea, which is the great Receptacle of all
the different Sorts of Springs; becau$e indeed
nothing can be more liable to Corruption, than
a confu$ed Medley of Things in their Nature
di$$imilar. Thus the Juice of different Sorts of
Grapes mixed together, will never keep.</P>
<P>IT was an ancient Law among the <I>Hebrews,</I>
that no Man $hould $ow any Seed but what was
pick'd and unmixed; it being their Notion,
that Nature totally abhorred a Medley of differ-
ent Particles. Tho$e who follow <I>Ari$totle,</I>
thinking that the Vapours which are extracted
from the Earth, when they are rai$ed up to the
cold Region of the Air, are by the Cold com-
pre$$ed into Clouds, and afterwards di$$olve in
Rain, are of quite a different Opinion. Thus
<I>Theophra$tus</I> $ays, that cultivated and Garden
Fruits fall more ca$ily into Di$tempers than
wild ones, which being of a tough Contexture
never tamed, more vigorou$ly re$i$t any Injury
from without; whereas the other being made
tender by Culture, have not the $ame hardy
Con$titution. The $ame he tells us will hold
good as to Waters, and the more tender we
make them (to u$e his own Words) the more
liable they will be to $uffer Alteration. For
this Rea$on $ome $ay, that Water which has been
boyled and $often'd by the Fire will $oone$t
grow cold, and $o be $oone$t made hot again.
Thus much of Rain-water. Next to this the
Spring-water is certainly the be$t. Tho$e who
prefer the River to the Spring, $ay, what el$e is
a River, but an Abundance and Concour$e of
many different Springs united together, and
maturated by the Sun, Winds and Motion? So
they tell us too, that a Well is nothing but a
Spring lying very deep: from whence they in-
fer, if we will allow the Rays of the Sun to be
of any Service to Water, that it is no hard mat-
ter to judge which of the$e Springs mu$t be the
<foot>mo$t</foot>
<p n=>219</p>
mo$t undige$ted: unle$s we will $uppo$e, that
there is a fiery Spirit in the Bowels of the earth,
by which $ubterrancous Waters are concocted.
<I>Ari$lotle</I> $ays that the Water in Wells grows
warm in the Summer in the Afternoon. Ac-
cordingly $ome will have it that Well-water
$eems cold in Summer, only by compari$on with
the hot Air which $urrounds us. Accordingly
we find, contrary to the old received Opinion,
that Water ju$t fre$h drawn, does not bedew
the Gla$s into which it is put, if the Gla$s be
perfectly clean and not grea$y. But as of the
fir$t Principles whereof all Things con$i$t, e$-
pecially according to the <I>Pythagorean</I> Notion,
there are two which may be called male, which
are Heat and Cold; and it being the Property
of Heat to penetrate, di$$olve, break, attract and
$uck up all Moi$ture, as it is that of Cold to
compre$s, contract, harden and con$olidate:
bo<*>h the$e have in a great Mea$ure the $ame
Effects, and particularly upon Water, provided
they are exce$$ive and of too long Continuance;
becau$e they both equally con$ume the more
$ubtile Parts, which occa$ions exactly the $ame
adu$t Dryne$s. Thus we $ay, that Plants are
burnt up, not only by extreme Heat but al$o by
extreme Cold; becau$e when the more tender
Parts of the Sub$tance of the Wood are con-
$umed and dried up either by Fro$t or Sun,
we $ee the Tree look ru$ty and chapt as by
Fire. From the $ame Cau$es Water grows
vi$cous by the Sun's Heat, and looks as if it
were full of A$hes in extreme Fro$t. But there
is another Difference even among Waters al-
lowed to be good; for particularly as to Rain-
water, it is of great Importance in what Sea-
$on of the Year, at what Time of the Day,
and in what Winds you collect it, as al$o in
what Place you pre$erve it, and what Time it
has been kept. The Rain which falls after
the Middle of Winter is thought to afford the
heavie$t Water; and that which is collected in
the Winter is $aid to be $weeter than that col-
lected in the Summer. The fir$t Rains after
the Dog-days are bitter and unwhole$ome, be-
ing corrupted with a Mixture of $ome of the
adu$t Particles of the Earth, and we are told
that the Earth it$elf has a bitter $avour at that
Time of the Year, from being burnt up by the
Heat of the Sun. Hence we are advi$ed, that
the Rain-water gathered from the Hou$e-top,
is better than that which is collected in the
Ground; and of that which is gathered from
the Hou$e-top, the mo$t whole$ome is $aid to
be that which is got after the Roof has been
well wa$hed by the fir$t Rain. The <I>African</I>
Phy$icians tell us, that the Rain which falls in
Summer, e$pecially when it thunders, is not
pure, and is unwhol$ome from its Saltne$s.
<I>Theophra$tus</I> thinks, that the Night Rains are
better than tho$e in the Day. Hence that
is accounted the mo$t whole$ome which falls
in a North Wind. <I>Columella</I> is of Opinion,
that Rain water would not be bad if it were
carried through carthen Pipes into covered
Ci$terns, becau$e it ca$ily corrupts when it
$tands uncovered to the Sun, and $oon $poils,
if it is kept in any Ve$$el made of Wood.
Springs al$o are very different from one ano-
ther. <I>Hippocrates</I> judged tho$e which ri$e
from the Roots of Hills to be the be$t. The
Opinion of the Ancients concerning Springs was
as follows. They thought the very be$t of all
were tho$e which lay either to the North, or
fronting the Sun-ri$e about the Equinox; and
the wor$t they $uppo$ed to be tho$e which lay
to the South. The next be$t they thought
were tho$e which fronted the Sun-ri$e in Win-
ter, nor did they di$approve of tho$e on the
We$t Side of the Hill, which generally is very
moi$t with a great Abundance of light Dew,
and con$equently mu$t afford a very $weet
Water, becau$e the Dew does not fall but in
quiet, clear Places, and where there is a tem-
perate Air. <I>Theophra$tus</I> thinks that Water
gets a Ta$te from the Earth, as in Fruits, Vines,
and other Trees, which all have a Savour of
the Earth from which they draw their Juices,
and from whatever happens to lie near their
Roots. The Ancients u$ed to $ay, that there
were as many different Sorts of Wines, as there
were of different Soils wherein the Vineyards
were planted. Thus <I>Pliny</I> tells us, that the
Wines of <I>Padua</I> ta$ted of the Willows to which
the Inhabitants of that Country u$ed to bind
their Vines. <I>Cato</I> teaches to medicate the Vines
with the Herb <I>Hellebore,</I> by laying Bundles of
it at the Roots, at the $ame Time that you
open them, in order to make them loo$en the
Belly without Danger. For the$e Rea$ons the
Ancients thought, that the Water which i$$ued
out of the living Rock, was better than that
which ro$e from the Ground. But the be$t of
all was thought to be that which di$tilled from
$uch an Earth, which being put into a Ba$on
with Water, and $tirr'd together with it, would
the $oone$t $ub$ide and leave the Water the
lea$t tainted either in Colour, Smell, or Ta$te.
For the $ame Rea$ons <I>Columella</I> was of Opinion,
that Water which ran down $tony Precipices
<foot>mu$t</foot>
<p n=>220</p>
mu$t be the be$t, being le$s likely to be $poil'd
by any foreign Mixture. But it is not every
Water which runs among Stones that is to be
approved of, becau$e if it runs in a deep Bed
under a dark Shade, it will be too crude; and
on the contrary, if its Channel be too open, I
$hould be inclined to $ub$eribe to <I>Ari$tole's</I>
Opinion, that the too great Heat of the Sun
con$uming the more $ubtle Parts, would make
it vi$cous. Authors prefer the <I>Nile</I> to all other
Rivers, becau$e it de$cends with a very exten-
$ive Cour$e; becau$e it cuts through the fine$t
Sorts of Soil which are not either infected with
Corruption by Damps, nor tainted with Con-
tagion by being burnt up; becau$e it flows
towards the North: And la$tly, becau$e its
Channel is always full and clear. And indeed
it cannot be denied, that Waters which have
the longe$t and the gentle$t Current, are the
lea$t crude, and are mo$t refined and purged
by their ea$y Motion, leaving all the Weight
of their Sediment behind them in their long
Cour$e. Moreover, all the Ancients agree in
this, that Waters not only receive a Tincture,
as we ob$erved before, from the Ground in
which they lie as in their Mother's Lap, but
al$o borrow $omewhat from the Soils thro'
which they flow, and from the Juices of the
different Plants which they wa$h; not merely
becau$e they lick tho$e Plants in their Cour$e,
but rather becau$e any pe$tiferous Plant will
taint them with the Mixture of the Steams of
the unwhol$ome Soil in which they grow. This
is the Rea$on that unwhol$ome Plants are $aid
to yield unwhole$ome Water. You $hall $ome-
times ob$erve the Rain it$elf to have an ill
Smell, and perhaps a bitter Ta$te. This we
are told proceeds from the Infection of the
Place from whence the Steam or Vapour fir$t
aro$e. Thus it is affirmed, that the Juices of
the Earth, when $ufficiently maturated and
concocted by Nature, produce every Thing
$weet, and on the contrary, when they are
crude and undige$ted, they make every Thing
bitter with which they mix. Tho$e Waters
which run towards the North may perhaps be
$uppo$ed to be the mo$t u$eful, becau$e they
are the colde$t, as flying from the Rays of the
Sun, and being rather vi$ited than $corched
by him; and tho$e which flow towards the
South the contrary, as throwing them$elves
into the very Mouth of the Flame. <I>Ari$totle</I>
taught, that the fiery Spirit which was mixed
up by Nature in all Bodies, was repelled by
the Coldne$s of the North Wind, and confined
within, from evaporating, and that this gave
the Water its due Concoction: And it is cer-
tain, that this Spirit is exhau$ted and di$$ipated
by the Heat of the Sun. <I>Servius,</I> upon the
Authority of experienced Per$ons, $ays, that
Wells and Springs which lie under a Roof, do
not emit any Vapour: That light $ubtle Breath
ri$ing from the Well, not being able to penetrate
or make its Way through the den$e and gro$s
Air which the Roof compre$$es together over it;
whereas, when it lies under the clear and open
Sky, it has free Play, and extends and purges
it$elf without Ob$truction: For which Rea$on,
Wells under the open Air are accounted more
whole$ome than tho$e under Cover. In other
re$pects, all the $ame Properties are to be wi$hed
for in a Well that are required in a Spring;
for both $eem to have a very near Relation to
each other, and hardly differ in any Thing but
in Point of Current; though you $hall very
frequently meet even with Wells which run
with a very large Vein of Water; and we are
told, that no Water can po$$ibly be perpetual
which is ab$olutely without Motion; and
Water without Motion, let it lie in what Soil
it will, cannot be whole$ome. If a great deal of
Water is continually and con$tantly drawn out
of a Well, that Well may be looked upon ra-
ther as a deep Spring; and on the other hand,
if a Spring does not run over its Sides, but
$tands quiet and $till, it may be accounted a
$hallow Well rather than a Spring. Some are
of Opinion, that no Water can be perpetual,
or of very long Duration, which does does not
move with the ri$ing and falling of the next
River of Torrent; and I believe the $ame.
The ancient Lawyers made this Di$tinction
between a Lake and a Mar$h, that the Lake
has a perpetual Water, whereas that of the
Mar$h is only temporary, and what it gathers
in the Winter. Lakes are of three Sorts. One,
if we may $o call it, $tationary, content with
its own Waters, always keeping within its Bed,
and never overflowing. The $econd, which is
as it were the Father of the River, di$charges its
Waters at $ome Pa$$age; and the la$t receives
$ome Stream from abroad, and $ends it out
again into $ome River. The fir$t partakes
$omewhat of the Nature of a Mar$h: the $econd
is a direct Spring: and the third, if I mi$take
not, is only a River $preading out into Breadth
in that particular Place. We need not there-
fore upon this Occa$ion repeat what we have
already $aid of the Spring and the River. We
may only add, that all Water that is covered
<foot>with</foot>
<p n=>221</p>
with a Shade, is colder and clearer, but more
undige$ted, than tho$e warmed by the Sun;
and, on the contrary, Waters too much heated
by the Sun, are bracki$h and vi$cous. The
being deep is of Service to either Sort, becau$e
it prevents the latter from being made too hot,
and the former from being too ea$ily affected
by Fro$t. La$tly it is thought that even the
Mar$h is not always to be de$pi$ed: becau$e
where-ever Eels are found, the Water is reckoned
to be not very bad. Of all Mar$h-water that
is accounted the very wor$t which breeds Hor$e-
leeches, which is $o ab$olutely without Moti-
on that it contracts a Scurf on the Top, which
has an offen$ive Smell, which is of a black or
livid Colour, which being put into a Ve$$el will
continue $oul a great while, which is heavy and
clammy with a mo$$y Slime, and which being
u$ed in wa$hing your Hands, they are a long
Time before they dry. But as a $hort Summary
of what has been $aid of Water, it $hould be ex-
tremely light, clear, thin and tran$parent, to
which mu$t be added tho$e Particulars which
we have $lightly touched in the fir$t Book.
La$tly it will be a $trong Confirmation to you
of the Goodne$s of your Water, if you find that
the Cattle which have wa$hed and drank in it
for $everal Months together, are in good Con-
dition and perfectly healthy; and you have a
$ure Way to judge whether they are $ound or
not by in$pecting their Livers; for what is
noxious injures with Time, and the Injury
which is late$t felt is of the wor$t Con$equence.</P>
<head>CHAP. VII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Method of conveying Water and accommodating it to the U$es of Men.</I></head>
<P>Having found Water and approved
it to be good, the next Work is to convey
it artfully and accommodate it properly to the
U$es of Men. There are two Ways of convey-
ing Water, either by a Trench or Canal, or by
Pipes or Conduits. In either of the$e Methods,
the Water will not move, unle$s the Place to
which you would convey it be lower than that
from which it is to be brought. But then there
is this Difference, that the Water which is brought
by a Canal mu$t de$cend all the Way with a
continued Slope, whereas that which is conveyed
in Pipes may a$cend in $ome Part of the Way.
Of the$e two Methods we are now to treat.
But fir$t we mu$t premi$e $ome Things for the
clearer Explication of our Subject. The
Searchers into Nature tell us, that the Earth is
Spherical, tho' in many Places it ri$es into
Hills, and in many others $inks into Seas: but
in $o va$t a Globe this Roughne$s is not per-
ceptible; as in an Egg, which tho' it is far
from being of a $mooth Superficies, yet its lit-
tle Inequalities bearing but an incon$iderable
Proportion to its whole Circumference, they
are $carce ob$erved. <I>Erato$thenes</I> tells us, that
the Compa$s of this great Globe is two hun-
dred and fifty two thou$and Furlongs, or about
thirty one thou$and five hundred Miles, and
that there is no Hill $o high or Water $o deep
as to be above fifteen thou$and Cubits perpen-
dicular; not even Mount <I>Cauca$us,</I> who$e Top
enjoys the Sun three Hours in the Night.
There is a prodigious high Mountain in <I>Ar-
cadia</I> called <I>Cyllene;</I> and yet tho$e who have
mea$ured its perpendicular, affirm, that it does
not exceed twenty Furlongs. Even the Sea it-
$elf is thought to be no more upon this Globe
of Earth, than the Summer's Dew is upon the
Body of an Apple. Some have wittily $aid,
that the Creator of the World made u$e of the
Concavity of the Sea as of a Seal with the Im-
pre$$ion whereof he $tampt the Hills. What
the Geometers teach us upon this Head is very
much to our pre$ent Purpo$e. They $ay, that
if a $traight Line touching the Globe of the
Earth at one End were to be drawn on exactly
horizontal a Mile in Length, the Space be-
tween the other End and the Surface of the
Globe would not be above ten Inches. For
this Rea$on Water will never move on in a
Canal, but $tand $till like a Lake, unle$s every
eight Furlongs the Trench has a Slope of one
whole Foot from the Place where the Water
was fir$t found and its Bed cut; which Place
the ancient Lawyers called Incile, from the In-
ci$ion which is made either in the Rock or
Bank for conveying the Water: But if in this
Space of eight Furlongs it had a Slope of more
than $ix Foot, it is $uppo$ed that the Rapidity
of its Current would make it inconvenient for
Boats. In order to find whether the Trench
which is to convey the Water be lower than
<foot>L 11 this</foot>
<p n=>222</p>
this Incile or Sluice or no, and what the Slope
is, certain Rules and In$truments have been
invented, which are of excellent U$e. Ignorant
Workmen try their Slope by laying a Ball in
the Trench, and if this Ball rowls forwards
they think the Slope is right for their Water.
The In$truments of dexterous Arti$ts are the
Square, Level, Plumb-line, and, in a Word, all
$uch as are terminated with a right Angle.
This Art is a little more ab$tru$e; but how-
ever I $hall open no more of it than is nece$-
<marg>*</marg>
$ary for the Purpo$e in Hand. The Practice
is performed by means of the Sight and of the
Object, which we $hall call the Points. If the
Place through which we are to convey our
Water be an even Plain, there are two Ways of
directing our Sight: For we mu$t $et up cer-
tain Marks or Objects, which we may place
either nearer or at a greater Di$tance from
each other. The nearer the Points of the Sight
and the Mark or Object are to each other, the
le$s the $traight Line of the Direction of the
Sight will depart from the Superficies of the
Globe; the further tho$e Points are from each
other, the lower the Superficies of the Globe
will fall from the Level of the Sight. In both
the$e you mu$t ob$erve to allow ten Inches
$lope for every Mile of Di$tance. But if you
have not a clear Plain, and $ome Hill interferes,
then again you have two Ways of Proceeding:
One by taking the Height from the Incile or
Sluice, on the one Side, and the Height of the
Slope from the Head on the other. The Head
I call that appointed Place to which you would
bring the Water, in order to let it run from
thence free, or to appropriate it to $ome particular
U$es. We find the$e Heights by taking different
Steps of Mea$urement. I call them Steps be-
cau$e they are like tho$e Steps by which we
a$cend to a Temple. One Line of the$e Steps
is the Ray of Sight which goes from the Be-
holder's Eye along the $ame Level with his Eye;
which is made by the Square, the Level and the
Plumb-line; and the other Line is that which
falls from the Beholder's Eye down to his Feet,
in a Perpendicular. By means of the$e Steps
you note how much one Line exceeds the
other, by ca$ting up the Amount of their Per-
pendiculars, and $o find which is the Highe$t,
that which ri$es from the Sluice to the Top of
the Eminence, or that which ri$es from the
Head. The other Method, is by drawing one
Line from the Sluice to the Top of the Hill
which interferes, and another Lime from thence
to the Head, and by computing the Proporti-
ons of their Angles, according to the Rules of
Geometry. But this Method is di$$icult in
Practice, and not extremely $ure, becau$e in a
large Di$tance the lea$t Error occa$ioned by
the Eye of the Mea$urer is of very great Con$e-
quence. But there are $ome Things which
$eem to bear $ome Relation to this Method, as
we $hall $hew by and by, which, if we have
occa$ion to cut a Pa$$age through a Hill to
bring Water to a Town, may be of great U$e
for obtaining the right Directions. The Prac-
tice is as follows: On the Summit of the Hill,
in a Place where you can have a View both of
the Sluice on one Side and of the Head on the
other, having laid the Ground exactly level, de-
$cribe a Circle ten Foot in Diameter. This
Circle we $hall call the Horizon. In the Cen-
ter of the Circle $tick up a Pike exactly per-
pendicular. Having made this Preparation, the
Arti$t goes round the Out$ide of the Circle, in
order to find in what Part of its Circumference
his Eye being directed to one of the Points of
the Water which is to be conveyed, touches
the lower Part of the Pike which $tands in the
Center. Having found out and marked this
exact Place in the Circumference of his Hori-
zon, he draws a Line for this Direction from
that Mark quite to the oppo$ite Side of his Cir-
cle. Thus this Line will be the Diameter of
that Circle, as it will pa$s through the Center,
and cut through both Sides of the Circumfe-
rence. If this Line, upon taking oppo$ite Views
leads the Eye on one Side directly to the
Sluice, and on the other directly to the Head
of our Water, it affords us a $traight Direction
for our Channel. But if the two Lines of Di-
rection do not happen to meet in this Manner,
and the Diameter which leads to the Sluice,
falls on one Part of the Circumference, and
that which leads to the Head, on another;
then from the mutual Inter$ection of the$e
Lines at the Pike in the Center of the Circle,
we $hall find the Difference between the two
Directions. I u$e the Help of $uch a Circle to
make Platforms and draw Maps of Towns and
Provinces, as al$o for the digging $ubterraneous
Conduits, and that with very good Effect. But
of that in another Place. Whatever Canal we
make, whether for bringing only a $maller
Quantity of Water for Drinking, or a larger
for Navigation, we may follow the Directions
which we have here taught. But the Prepa-
ration of our Canal mu$t not be the $ame for
a large Quantity of Water, as for a $mall. We
$hall fir$t go on with the Subject which we
<foot>have</foot>
<foot>* <I>See Plates 66 and 67, facing and following this page.</I></foot>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 66. <I>(Page 222)</I></cap>
<fig>
<pb>
<cap>PLATE 67. <I>(Page 222)</I></cap>
<fig>
<p n=>223</p>
have begun concerning Water only for Drink-
ing, and proceed afterwards to Canals for Na-
vigation. Canals are either worked up with
Ma$onry, or el$e are only Trenches dug. Tren-
ches are of two Sorts, cut either through an
open Country, or through the Bowels of a Hill,
which is called a Mine or $ubterraneous Con-
duit. In both the$e, when you meet with either
Stone, Chalk, or compact Earth that does not
imbibe the Water, you will have no Occa$ion
for Ma$onry; but where the Bottom or Sides of
the Canal are not $ound, then you mu$t fortify
them. If you are obliged to carry your Canal
through the Heart of a Hill, you mu$t ob$erve
the Rules above laid down. In $ubterraneous
Conduits, at the Di$tance of every hundred
Foot, you $hould open Ventiges like Wells for-
tified according as the Nature of the Earth
through which you dig requires. I have $een
$uch Ventiges in the Country of the <I>Mar$i</I> near
<I>Rome,</I> where the Water falls into the ancient
Lake <I>Fucinus</I> (now called the <I>Pie di Luco</I>)
built very finely with burnt Brick, and of an
incredible Depth. 'Till the four hundred and
forty-fir$t year after the building of the City,
there was no $uch thing as an Aqueduct built
at <I>Rome;</I> but afterwards tho$e Works were
brought to $uch a Pitch, that whole Rivers
were conveyed to it through the Air, and we
are told, that there were $o many of them, that
every $ingle Hou$e was abundantly $upplied
with Water. At fir$t they began with $ubter-
raneous Conduits; which indeed had a great
many Conveniencies. This hidden Work was
le$s $ubject to Injuries and being expo$ed neither
to the Severity of Fro$ts, nor to the $corching
Dog-day Sun brought the Water fre$her and
cooler, nor could ea$ily be de$troyed or turned
away by Enemies that might happen to make
Inroads into the Country. The$e Works were
afterwards brought to $uch a Magnificence,
that in order to have high Jets of Water in their
Gardens and in their Bathes, they built vault-
ed Aqueducts, in $ome Places above an hundred
and twenty Foot high, and carried on for above
three$core Miles together. From the$e too they
reaped Conveniencies. In $everal Places, and
particularly beyond the <I>Tyber,</I> the Water of
the$e Aqueducts $erved to grind their Corn,
and upon their being de$troyed by the Enemy,
they were forced to make Mills for that Pur-
po$e in Ships. To this add, that by means of
this Plenty of Water the City was kept cleaner
and the Air made fre$her and more whole$ome.
The Architects al$o added $ome ingenious In-
ventions to $hew the Hours of the Day to the
great Recreation of the Beholders, by the Con-
trivance of $ome little moving Statues of Bra$s,
placed in the Front of the Head of the Aque-
duct, which repre$ented the publick Games and
the Ceremony of the Triumph. At the $ame
Time, the Sound of mu$ical In$truments and
$weet Voices was heard, which were cau$ed by
the Motion of the Water. The$e Aqueducts
were covered in with an Arch of a good Thick-
ne$s, to prevent the Water from being heated
by the Sun; and this Vault was plai$tered on
the In$ide with $uch a Compo$ition as we have
formerly in this Book recommended for Floors,
to the Thickne$s of at lea$t $ix Inches. The
Parts of the ancient Aqueduct were the$e.
Joining to the Incile was the <I>Septum;</I> along
the Cour$e of the Conduit were the <I>Ca$tella;</I>
where any higher Ground interfered the <I>Specus</I>
was dug; la$tly, to the Head was annexed the
<I>Calix.</I> An ancient Lawyer gives us the fol-
lowing De$cription of the$e $everal Parts. An
Aqueduct is a Conduit for conveying Water to
a certain Place by means of a gentle Slope.
The <I>Septum</I> is a Flood-gate or Water-$top
made at the Sluice for letting the Water into
the Aqueduct. The <I>Ca$tella</I> are Water-hou$es
or Conduit-heads for the Reception of the
publick Water. The <I>Specus</I> is a Kind of Mill-
dam dug in the Earth. The <I>Calix</I> is the End
or Mouth of the Aqueduct, which di$charges
the Water. All the$e mu$t be made of very
$tout Work, the Bottom as $trong as po$$ible,
the Plai$tering tight and by no means $ubject
to crack. The Mouth of the Sluice mu$t be
$topt with a Flood-gate, with which you may
$hut out the Water when it happens to be tur-
bid, and by means whereof you may have an
Opportunity to mend any Part of the Aque-
duct which is decayed, without being prevent-
ed by the Water; and this Flood-gate mu$t
have a Grate of Bra$s to it, that Water may
flow into the Aqueduct clearer and more re-
fined, leaving behind it the Leaves, Boughs
and other Tra$h that fall into it. At every
hundred Cubits mu$t be either a Conduit-head,
or a Mill-dam twenty Foot broad, thirty long,
and fifteen deep below the Bottom of the Chan-
nel; and the$e are made to the Intent that
tho$e Waters which either fall into the Aque-
duct from the Earth, or are thrown into it too
violently, may have a Place to $ub$ide below
the other Stream, which by that means will
have room to flow on more refined and clear.
The Mouth of the Aqueduct for di$charging
<foot>the</foot>
<p n=>224</p>
the Water, mu$t vary according to the Quan-
tity of the Stream, and the Situation of the
Pipe by which it makes it di$charge. The
greater and more rapid the Stream is from
whence the Water is brought, the more direct
Way it is brought, and the more it has been
confined, the more the Mouth of the Conduit
mu$t be enlarged. If the di$charging Pipe be
placed direct to the Stream and Level, it will
maintain an equal Di$charge. It has been
found by Experience, that this Pipe is wa$ted
away by the continual Spray of the Water,
and that no Metals $tand it $o well as Gold.
Thus much of Conduits and Aqueducts. Wa-
ter may al$o be brought in leaden Pipes, or ra-
ther in earthen ones, becau$e the Phy$icians
tell us, that tho$e of Lead occa$ion an Exco-
riation of the Bowels, and $o too will Bra$s.</P>
<P>THE Learned tell us, that whatever we
either drink or eat, is be$t pre$erved in Ve$$els
of baked Earth, which the lea$t alters their
Ta$te; alledging that the Earth is the natural
Place of Repo$e, as well of Water as of every
Thing el$e which is produced by the Earth.
Wooden Pipes give Water in Time an ill Co-
lour, and an unplea$ant Ta$te. Whatever Ma-
terial they are made of, the Pipes ought to be
as $trong as po$$ible. Ve$$els of Bra$s are apt
to give the Epilep$y, Canker, and $o breed Di$-
orders in the Liver and Spleen. The Sides of
the Pipes mu$t be in Thickne$s at lea$t one
fourth Part of the Diameter of the Hollow,
and the Joints of the Bricks of which they are
made be morti$ed into one another, and ce-
mented with un$laked Lime mixed with
Oil; they $hould al$o be fortified all round
with $trong Brick Work, and $trengthened
a good Weight of Work over them, e$pecially
where you bring the Water about winding, or
where after a De$cent it is to ri$e upwards
again, or where the Pipe upon a $hort Turn
is $traitened and made narrower. For the
Weight and continual Pre$$ure of the Water,
with the Force and Impetuo$ity of its Cur-
rent, would ea$ily carry away or break the
Bricks. Experienced Workmen, in order to
guard again$t this Danger, and e$pecially about
the Windings, made u$e of a living Stone,
and particularly of the red Sort, bored through
for the Purpo$e. I have $een Pieces of Marble
above twelve Foot long bored through from
one End to the other with a Bore of four
Inches Diameter, which by plain Marks in the
Stone it$elf appeared to have been made
with an In$trument of Bra$s turned with a
Wheel and with Sand. In order to prevent
the Effects of this Impetuo$ity, you may
$lacken the Current of the Water, by making
it run winding, not indeed with a $harp Elbow,
but with an ea$y Sweep, turning $ometimes to
the Right, $ometimes to the Left, $ometimes
ri$ing, $ometimes de$cending with a frequent
Variety. To this you may add $omewhat in
the Nature of a Conduit-head or Mill-dam, in
order for the Water to purify there, and al$o if
any Defect $hould happen, that you may the
more ea$ily come to $ee how and where it
mu$t be repaired. But the$e Heads $hould not
be placed in the Bottom of the Sweep of a
Valley, nor where the Water is forced upwards,
but where it keeps on its Cour$e more equally
and gently. If you are obliged to carry your
Conduit-pipes through a Lake or Mar$h, you
may do it with a very $mall Expence, in the
following Manner. Provide $ome good Tim-
bers of Scarlet Oak, and in them Lengthways
cut a Gutter in Breadth and Depth in Propor-
tion to your Pipes, which you mu$t lay into
this Gutter well cemented with Mortar, and
bound down with good Cramps of Bra$s. Then
having laid the$e Timbers upon a Float acro$s
the Lake, $a$ten the Ends of them together as
follows. You mu$t have Pipes of Lead of the
$ame Diameter as tho$e upon your Timbers,
and of $uch a Length as to allow for bend-
ing as much as may be nece$$ary. The$e
leaden Pipes, you mu$t in$ert into your earthen
ones, and cement their Joints with Lime
$lacked with Oil, and fortified with Plates of
Bra$s. Thus join the Ends of the Timber to-
gether, as they hang over your Float, till you
bring them from one Shore quite to the other,
and their Heads re$t upon the dry Ground on
each Side. Then withdraw your Float, and
having $ecured the whole Work with good
Ropes, where the Lake is deepe$t, let it go
down by little and little to the Bottom, as
equally as po$$ible, all the re$t $inking by pro-
per Degrees along with it, by which Means
the leaden Pipe will bend according to the
Occa$ion, and the whole will place it$elf con-
veniently at the Bottom of the Lake. When
the Conduit is prepared in this Manner with
the fir$t Water which you $end into it throw
in $ome A$hes, that if any of the Joints $hould
happen not to be perfectly clo$e, they may $top
them up, and help to cement them. You
$hould al$o let in the Water by gentle Degrees,
le$t ru$hing in too precipitately, it $hould
$truggle with the Wind which is in the Pipe.
<foot>It</foot>
<p n=>225</p>
It is incredible the Violence and Impetuo$ity
of Nature when the Wind in $uch a Pipe is re-
$trained and compre$$ed too clo$e. I have read
in the Works of the Phy$icians, that the Bone of
a Man's Leg has been broken by the $udden
Irruption of a Vapour $o confined. The Ar-
ti$ts in Hydraulics can force Water to leap up
out of a Ve$$el, by confining a Quantity of Air
between two Waters.</P>
<head>CHAP. VIII.</head>
<head><I>Of Ci$terns, their U$es and Conveniencies.</I></head>
<P>I now come to $peak of Ci$terns. A Ci$tern
is a large Ve$$el for holding Water, not
unlike the Water-hou$e or Conduit-head. Its
Bottom and Sides therefore mu$t be perfectly
$trong and well compacted. There are two
Sorts, one for containing Water for Drinking,
and the other for pre$erving it for other U$es,
as particularly again$t $udden Fires. The fir$t
we $hall call a Drinking-ci$tern, the other a
Re$ervoir. The Drinking-ci$tern out to pre-
$erve its Water in the greate$t Purity; becau$e
when it is impure it is the Cau$e of a great many
Inconveniencies. In both we are to take care
that the Water is properly admitted, pre$erved
and di$pen$ed. Water is brought into the Ci$-
tern by Pipes from the River or Spring, and
$ometimes Rain-water from the Hou$e-top or
from the Ground. I was extremely plea$ed
with the Invention of an Architect, who in a
large bare Rock on the Summit of a Hill cut
a round Ba$on ten Foot deep, which received
all the Rain-water which ran into it from that
naked Rock. Then in the Plain under the
Hill he erected a Water-hou$e, open on every
Side, and built of Brick and Mortar, thirty
Foot high, forty long and forty broad. Into
this Water-hou$e he brought the Rain-water
from the upper Re$ervoir by a $ubterraneous
Conduit of brick Pipe; that Re$ervoir lying
much higher than the Top of the Water-hou$e.
If you $trew the Bottom of your Ci$tern with
good round Pebbles, or large Gravel from the
River very well wa$hed, or rather fill it with it
to a certain Height, $uppo$e of three Foot, it
will make your Water clear, cool and pure;
and the Higher you make this Strewing, your
Water will be the more limpid. The Water
$ometimes runs out at the Joints and Cracks
of the Ci$tern if it is ill made; and $ometimes
the Water is $poiled by Filth. And indeed it
is no ea$y Matter to keep Water impri$oned,
unle$s the Re$ervoir be $trongly built, and even
of good $quare Stone. It is al$o particularly
nece$$ary, that the Work $hould be perfectly
dry before you let the Water into it, which
pre$$ing hard upon it with its Weight, and
Sweating through it by means of its Humidi-
ty, if it can but make a $mall Crack, will be
continually working its Way till it has opened
it$elf a large Pa$$age. The Ancients guarded
again$t this Inconvenience, and e$pecially in
the Corners of their Re$ervoirs, by $everal Coats
of $trong Plai$tering, and $ometimes by Incru$-
tations of Marbles. But nothing better pre-
vents this oozing out of the Water, than Chalk
clo$e rammed in between the Wall of the Ci$-
tern and the Side of the Trench in which it is
made. We order the Chalk which we u$e for
this Purpo$e to be thoroughly dried and beat
into Powder. Some think, that if you fill a
Gla$s Ve$$el with Salt, and $top it up clo$e
with a Plai$ter of Mortar tempered with Oil,
that no Water may get in, and then hang it
down in the Middle of the Ci$tern, it will pre-
vent the Water from corrupting, let it be kept
ever $o long. Some add Quick-$ilver to the
Compo$ition. Others $ay, that if you take a
new earthen Ve$$el full of $harp Vinegar, $topt
up as above, and $et it in the Water, it will en-
tirely clear it from all Slime. They tell us too,
that either a Ciftern or a Well are purified by
putting $ome $mall Fi$h into them, thinking
that the Fi$h feed upon the Slime of the Wa-
ter and of the Earth. We are told of an old
Saying of <I>Epigenes,</I> that Water which has been
once corrupted, will in Time recover and pu-
rify it$elf, and after that never $poil any more.
Water which is beginning to corrupt, if it is
$tirred about, and poured often out of one Ve$-
$el into another, will lo$e its ill Smell, which
will al$o hold good of Wine and Oil that is
mothery. <I>Jo$ephus</I> relates, that when <I>Mo$es</I>
came to a dry Place, where there was only one
Spring of Water, and that foul and bitter, he
commanded the Soldiers to draw it; and upon
their beating and $tirring it about heartily, it
became drinkable. It is certain that Water
may be purified by boiling and $training; and
<foot>M m m we</foot>
<p n=>226</p>
we are told that Water which is nitrous and
bitter, by throwing Barley-flower into it may
be $o $weetened, as to be fit to drink in two
Hours Time. But in order to refine the Wa-
ter of your Drinking-ci$terns more effectually,
make a little Well clo$e to your Ci$tern enclo$-
ed with its own proper Wall, and its Bottom a
$mall matter lower than the Bottom of the Ci$-
tern. This Well on the Side next the Ci$tern
mu$t have $ome $mall Openings filled up either
with Spunge or with Pumice-$tone, that the
Water which gets out of the Ci$tern into the
Well may be thoroughly $trained and leave all
its coar$e Mixture behind it. In the Territory
of <I>Tarragona</I> in <I>Spain,</I> is found a white Pu-
mice-$tone very full of $mall Pores, through
which Water is pre$ently $trained to the great-
e$t Clearne$s. It will al$o come out extreme-
ly limpid if you fill up the Aperture, through
which the Water mu$t pa$s, with a Pot bored
full of Holes on every Side, and filled with
River-$and, in order for the Water to make its
Way through this fine Strainer. At <I>Bologna,</I>
they have a $oft $andy Stone of a yellow Colour,
through which the Water di$tills Drop by
Drop till it is wonderfully refined. Some
make Bread of Sea-water; than which nothing
can be more unwhole$ome. But yet tho$e
Strainers which we have mentioned are $o ef-
fectual that they will make even Sea-water
whole$ome and $weet. <I>Solinus</I> $ays, that if
Sea-water is pa$$ed through a white Clay it
will become $weet; and we find by Experience
that when it has been often $trained through
a fine Sand, it lo$es its Saltne$s. If you $ink
an earthen Pot clo$e $topped, into the Sea, it
will be filled with fre$h Water. Nor is it fo-
reign to our Purpo$e what we are told, that
when the Water of the <I>Nile</I> is taken up into
any Ve$$el proves foul, if you rub the Ve$$el
ju$t about the Edge of the Water with an Al-
mond, it will pre$ently make it clear. When
your Conduit Pipes begin to be $topt with
Slime or Dirt, take a Gall-nut, or a Ball made
of the Bark of Cork, tied to a long thin Pack-
thread. When the Current of the Water has
carried this Ball to the other End of the Pipe,
tie to the Pack-thread another $tronger Cord
with a Wi$p of Broom fa$tened to it, which
being drawn backwards and forwards in the
Pipe, will clear away the Dirt that $topt it up.</P>
<head>CHAP. IX.</head>
<head><I>Of planting a Vineyard in a Meadow, or a Wood in a Mar$h; and how we
may amend a Region which is mole$ted with too much Water.</I></head>
<P>I now proceed to other Conveniencies. We
ob$erved that Food and Rayment was to
provided for the Inhabitants. With the$e we
are to be $upplied by Agriculture, an Art
which it is not our Bu$ine$s to treat of here.
Yet there are $ome Ca$es wherein the Archi-
tect may be of Service to the Husbandman:
As particularly when a Piece of Ground being
either too dry or too wet, is not in a good
Condition for Tillage. A Vineyard may be
planted in a moi$t Meadow in the following
Manner: Dig Trenches running from Ea$t to
We$t in $traight Lines, at equal Di$tances from
each other, and as deep as may be, each nine
Foot broad and fifteen Foot di$tant from one
another, and throw up the Earth which you
dig out of the Trenches on the Intervals be-
tween them, in $uch a Manner, that the Slope
may lie open to the Mid-day Sun: and the$e lit-
tle artificial Hills will be very proper for Vines
and very fruitful. On the contrary, upon a dry
Hill you may make a Meadow by the following
Method: Dig a long $quare Trench in the
upper Part of the Hill, with its Sides all equally
high and exactly level. Into this Trench bring
Water from the next Springs above it, which
running over on the lower Side will equally and
continually water the Ground beneath. In the
Country of <I>Verona,</I> a Soil full of round Stones,
very naked and barren, the Inhabitants in $ome
Places, by continual watering it, have rai$ed
very fine Gra$s and $o turned it into a beautiful
Meadow. If you de$ire to have a Wood grow
in a Mar$h, turn up the Ground with the
Plough, and entirely grub up all Brambles,
and then $ow it with Acorns about the Time
of Sun-ri$e. This Plantation will grow up in-
to a thick Wood, and the Trees will draw to
them$elves mo$t of the $uperfluous Moi$ture:
And the $preading of the Roots together with
the falling of the Leaves and Sprigs, will rai$e
the Ground higher. Afterwards if you bring
<foot>down</foot>
<p n=>227</p>
down $ome Land-flood upon it, which may
$ub$ide there, it will make a Cru$t over the
whole. But of this in another Place. If the
Region is $ubject to Inundations, as <I>Lombardy</I>
along the Banks of the <I>Po; Venice,</I> and $ome
other Place; in that Ca$e, $everal Particulars
are to be con$idered: For the Water is trouble-
$ome either from its over-abundance, or from
its Motion, or from both the$e. Upon the$e
we $hall make $ome brief Ob$ervations. The
Emperor <I>Claudius</I> bored through a Hill near
the Lake <I>Fucinus,</I> and $o carried away the $u-
perfluous Water into the River; and perhaps it
was for the $ame Rea$on, that <I>M. Curius</I> open-
ed a Way for the Lake <I>Velinus</I> to di$charge it-
$elf into the Sea. Thus we $ee the Lake <I>Ne-
moren$is,</I> carried into the Lake <I>Laurentina</I>
through a Hill bored on purpo$e; to which
we owe tho$e plea$ant Gardens and that fruit-
ful Grove which lie below the Former of tho$e
Lakes.</P>
<P><I>C&aelig;$ar</I> had Thoughts of cutting a Number
of Trenches near <I>Herda</I> in <I>Spain,</I> in order to
di$charge $ome Part of the Water of the River
<I>Sicoris.</I> The <I>Erymanthus,</I> a River of <I>Arcadia,</I>
very full of Windings, is almo$t exhau$ted by
the Inhabitants in watering their Lands, by
which means his Remains fall into the Sea with-
out $o much as pre$erving his Name. <I>Cyrus</I>
cut the <I>Ganges</I> into a va$t Number of Canals,
<I>Eutropius</I> $ays, no le$s than four hundred and
$ixty, by which he $o $unk that River, that it
might ea$ily be forded, and $ometimes even dri-
$hod. Near the Tomb of King <I>Halyattes,</I> in
the Country of the <I>Sardes,</I> built chiefly by the
female Slaves, is the Lake <I>Coloe,</I> dug by Art
on purpo$e to receive Inundations. <I>Myris</I> dug
a Lake in <I>Me$opotamia</I> above the City, three
hundred and forty Furlongs in Circumference,
and three$core Cubits deep, to receive the <I>Nile</I>
whenever it ro$e higher than u$ual. Be$ides
the $trong Banks made for keeping in the <I>Eu-
phrates,</I> that it might not overflow and wa$h
away the Hou$es, $ome Lakes were al$o dug,
together with $ome va$t hollow Caves, that the
$tanding Water in tho$e might receive and
break the Fury of Inundations. Thus much
may $uffice of Waters which are apt to over-
flow, or to do Mi$chief by the Impetuo$ity of
their Motion. If any thing is wanting to this
Head, we $hall in$ert it immediately, when we
come to $peak of Rivers and the Sea.</P>
<head>CHAP. X.</head>
<head><I>Of Roads; of Pa$$ages by Water, and of artificial Banks to Rivers.</I></head>
<P>The next Bu$ine$s is to get as conveni-
ently as is po$$ible from abroad, tho$e
Nece$$aries which we cannot be $upplied with
at home. To this Purpo$e are Roads and
Highways, which are to be made $uch, that
whatever is wanting may be ea$ily brought, in
its proper Sea$on. There are two Sorts of
Highways, one by Land, the other by Water,
as we hinted in the formar Part of this Work.
Care is to be taken that the Highway by Land
is not too deep, nor too much broke by Car-
riages; and be$ides tho$e Cau$eways which we
have $poken of formerly, we $hould be $ure to
let them be open to a good deal of Sun and to
a free Air, and that they be not covered with
too much Shade. In our Days, near the Wood
by <I>Ravenna,</I> the Road which u$ed to be very
bad, has been made extremely convenient by
cutting down the Trees, and admitting the
Sun to it. We may generally ob$erve little
Puddles under Trees which $tand by the Side
of the Road, occa$ioned by the Tread of Cat-
tle, and the Shade preventing the Ground
from drying $o fa$t as it otherwi$e would do,
$o that the Rain always $ettles and lies there.
Highways (if we may $o call them) by Water
are of two Sorts: One which may be corrected
and forced; as Rivers or Canals; the other
which cannot; as the Sea. We may venture
to $ay, that there happen the $ame Faults in a
River as we find in a $maller Ve$$el for con-
taining Water; that is, that perhaps either the
Sides, or the Bottom are defective or not $ound
and convenient. For as a large Quantity of
Water is nece$$ary for the carrying of Ships, if
it is not contained in $tout Banks, it may break
its Way through them and drown all the Coun-
try, and $o even $poil the Highways on Shore.
If the Bottom be very $teep, how can we ima-
gine that a Ship can make its Way up again$t
the Rapidity of the Stream? and if it ri$es in-
to Shelves, it will $poil the Navigation. Upon
bringing the famous Obelisk from <I>&AElig;gypt</I> to
<I>Rome,</I> it was found that the <I>Tyber</I> was a more
convenient River for Navigation than the <I>Nile.</I>
The latter indeed was much broader, but the
<foot>former</foot>
<p n=>228</p>
former was of a more convenient Depth: For
it is not $o much a great Plenty as a good Depth
of Water that is nece$$ary for Navigation.
Though a hand$ome Breadth is very conveni-
ent too, becau$e by that means the Streams
comes $lower again$t the Banks. A River
that has not a $ound Bottom, will $carce
have $trong Banks; and $carce any Bottom
can be called $ound, which has not $uch a
Strength as we have formerly required in the
Foundations of Buildings, namely, to be $o $olid
as in a Manner to defy even Tools of Iron.
Thus the Bottom will be uncertain if the Banks
are chalky, or if the River runs along a flat
Plain, or if the Soil is covered with loo$e round
Stones. When the Banks of a River are un-
firm, its Channel will be $topt up with Shelves,
Ruins, broken Trunks of Trees, and $oft
Stones. The weake$t Sides of all, and the mo$t
variable, are tho$e thrown up by $ome $udden
Inundation. From this Weakne$s of the Sides
follows what is $aid of the <I>Meander</I> and the
<I>Euphrates,</I> the former of which we are told,
u$ed ea$ily to cut through his $oft Banks and
be daily running into new Windings, and the
<I>Euphrates</I> on the other Hand was continually
$topping up the Canals, through which he was
conveyed, with the Ruins of his Shore. The$e
Defects in the natural Banks the Ancients u$ed
to remedy with artificial ones; the Rules for
which are much the $ame with tho$e for
other Kinds of Structures; for we are to con-
$ider well with what Lines we erect it, and with
what Kind of Work. If the artificial Bank is
built in a parallel Line with the Current of the
River, the Force of the Stream will never bear
again$t it: But if it is built $o as to $tand
again$t the Current, if it is not very $trong it
will be overthrown by it; or if it be too low
the Water will overflow it. If $uch a Bank be
not overthrown, it will be continually growing
higher and higher at the Bottom, becau$e there
every Thing which the Stream brings along
with it will $top, till at la$t having made a Hill
again$t it which it can remove no further, it
will be apt to turn its Cour$e another Way. If
the Force of the Water throws down the Bank,
then it will have tho$e Effects natural to it,
which we ob$erved before, by filling all the
Hollows, driving out the Air, and $weeping
away every Thing that it meets in its Pa$$age:
But $till leaving behind it by Degrees as it
$lackens the Violence of its own Cour$e, $uch
heavy Things as are not ea$ily carried far.
Thus in the Mouth of the Breach which the
River makes in its Banks, the Inundation will
leave a Shelf of coar$e Sand of a con$iderable
Height; but as it goes further it will only co-
ver the Ground with a $mall Slime. If the
River does not immediately break down its
Bank, but only overflows the Top of it,
the Violence with which it falls upon the
Ground on the other Side of it will wa$h away
the Earth, till by Degrees it undermines and
brings down the whole Bank it$elf. If the Cur-
rent neither is parallel with the Bank, nor $ets
again$t it directly, but only $trikes it oblique-
ly, it will bear no le$s, in Proportion to the
Angle of its Obliquity, again$t the Sides to
which it is thrown off, than again$t that which
it meets with fir$t. And indeed this Flexion
will give it $omewhat of the Nature of a Bank
that fronts the Current directly; $o that it will
be liable to the very $ame Injuries as the latter.
Thus the Bank will be wa$hed away $o much
the $ooner, as the Eddies of the Water will be
more vehement and furious, foaming, and in a
Manner boiling with Violence: For the$e
Whirls and Eddies in a River $eem to have
$omewhat of the Nature and Force of a Screw,
which no Strength or Solidity can long re$i$t.
We may ob$erve as well under Stone Bridges,
how deep the Channel is dug by the Fall of the
Water; as in tho$e Part of the River where after
having been $ome Time confined within nar-
rower Banks, it finds a broader Channel to ex-
tend it$elf in, with what Fury it breaks out,
rowling into Variety of Eddies, and tearing
away every Thing that it meets with, either
from the Banks or from the Bottom. I dare
venture to affirm, that <I>Hadrian</I>'s Bridge at
<I>Rome,</I> is one of the $toute$t Pieces of Work
that perhaps ever was performed; and yet the
Fury of the Water has $o decay'd it, that I
dread its De$truction: For the Land-floods
every Year load its Piers with Boughs and
Trunks of Trees which they bring down
along with them, and in a great Mea$ure $top
up the Arches. This makes the Water ri$e $till
higher, and then it falls down percipitately in-
to wild Eddies, which undermine the Back of
the Piers and endanger the whole Structure.
Thus much of the Banks: Let us now $ay
$omething of the Bottom of the River. <I>He-
rodotus</I> relates, that <I>Nitocris,</I> King of the <I>A$$y-
rians,</I> $lackened the Cour$e of the River <I>Eu-
phrates</I> near <I>Me$opotamia,</I> which before was
too impetuous, by making its Channel wind
about more than it u$ed to do. It is al$o rea-
$onable to $uppo$e that the Water which has
<foot>the</foot>
<p n=>229</p>
the $lowe$t Current will be the mo$t la$ting:
Which may be $omewhat illu$trated by the
Compari$on of a Man that de$cends from a
$teep Hill, and who comes down not direct
and as fa$t as he can, but fetching different
Compa$$es about the Sides, $ometimes to the
right Hand, and $ometimes to the Left. The
Rapidity of the Stream proceeds from the Steep-
ne$s of the Channel. A Current either too
$wift or too $low, is inconvenient. The for-
mer demoli$hes the Banks; the latter produ-
ces Weeds, and is ea$ily frozen. Making the
River narrower may perhaps force the Water
to ri$e higher, and another Way to make it
deeper is digging the Channel, lower. Deep-
ening the Channel, removing Impediments,
and clearing the River are all done by the
$ame Methods and for the $ame Purpo$es,
whereof we $hall $peak pre$ently: But deepen-
ing the Bottom of a River will be in vain, un-
le$s we go on to do it quite away to the Sea,
in order to give the Stream its due Slope all
the Way.</P>
<head>CHAP. XI.</head>
<head><I>Of Canals; how they are to be kept well $upplied with Water, and the U$es
of them not ob$tructed.</I></head>
<P>We now proceed to $peak of Canals.
What we are to provide for in the$e,
is that they be well $upplied with Water, and
that the U$es for which they are intended be
not ob$tructed. There are two Ways of prevent-
ing their failing. The fir$t is to have a large
Quantity of Water con$tantly running into them
from $ome other Stream; the $econd is to con-
trive that they keep what does come into them
as long as can be. The Water is to be brought
into Canals in the manner above $et down: and
our Diligence mu$t prevent their U$es from be-
ing ob$tructed, by often cleaning them, and
removing whatever Incumbrances may be
brought into them. A Canal is $aid to be a
$leeping River; and it $hould therefore have
all the $ame Properties which a River has, and
e$pecially its Bottom and Sides $hould be per-
fectly $ound, that the Water may neither be
$ucked up, nor run out at any Cracks. It
$hould be more deep than broad, as well for the
better carrying off all Sorts of Ve$$els, as that it
may be le$s exhau$ted by the Sun and breed the
fewer Weeds. A great many Canals were cut
from the <I>Euphrates</I> to the <I>Tygris,</I> becau$e the
Channel of the former lay higher than that of
the Latter. <I>Lombardy</I> lying between the <I>Po</I>
and the <I>Adige,</I> is every where navigable by
Canals; an Advantage which it gains by ly-
ing all upon a Flat. <I>Diodorus</I> tells us, that
when <I>Ptolomey</I> went out of the Mouth of the
<I>Nile,</I> he opened a Canal on Purpo$e, and had
it $topp'd up as $oon as he was got through it.
The Remedies for the $everal Faults of either
Canals or Rivers are confining, clearing and
$topping them. Rivers are confined by arti-
ficial Banks. The Line of $uch Banks $hould
not re$train the River at once, but by degrees,
by means of an ea$y Slope. When you would
$et it at Liberty again from a narrow Channel
into a wider Breadth, you mu$t ob$erve the
$ame Method, not let it out at once, but gently,
le$t upon too $udden an Enlargment it does
Mi$chief by Eddies and Whirlpools. The River
<I>Melas</I> u$ed of old to run into the <I>Euphrates;</I>
but King <I>Artanatrix,</I> perhaps out of a De$ire
to make his Name famous, $topp'd it up and
over$lowed the Country all round: but $oon
afterwards the Waters return'd with $uch Ed-
dies and $o much Fury that they tore up all
that re$i$ted them, wa$hed away a great many
E$tates, and laid Wa$te a great Part of <I>Phrygia</I>
and <I>Galatia.</I> The <I>Roman Senate</I> fined the
King for this audacious Attempt, in thirty Ta-
lents. Nor is it foreign to our Purpo$e ju$t to
mention what we read of <I>Iphicrates</I> the <I>A-
thenian,</I> that when he was be$ieging <I>Stymphalus</I>
in <I>Arcadia</I> he attempted with a va$t Quantity
of Spunge to $top up the River <I>Era$inus</I> which
enters into the Hill and ri$es up again in the
Country of <I>Arges;</I> but by the Admonition of
<I>Jupiter</I> he laid a$ide the De$ign. I advi$e
therefore, that your artificial Bank be made as
$trong as po$$ible. This Strength mu$t be
owing to the Solidity of your Materials, your
Method of putting them together, and the
Breadth of the whole Work. Where it is ne-
ce$$ary that the Water $hould run over this
Bank, do not let the Out$ide of it be a Per-
pendicular, but fall in an ea$y Slope, that the
Water may run down it ea$ily and not form
any Eddies. If in its Fall it begins to dig up
<foot>Nnn the</foot>
<p n=>230</p>
the Bank, fill up the Holes immediately, not
with trifling Materials, but with large, $olid,
$quare Stone. It may al$o be of Service to
lay Bundles of Bru$hwood underneath the Fall
of the Water, to break its Force before it
comes to the Bottom. We $ee that the <I>Tyber</I> at
<I>Rome</I> is for the mo$t Part confined with $olid
Ma$onry. <I>Semiramis,</I> not contented with a
$trong Bank of Brick, covered it with a Coat
of Plai$ter made of Bitumen, no le$s than four
Cubits in Thickne$s, with Walls for many Fur-
longs together equally high with tho$e of the
City. But the$e are Royal Works. For us,
we may be contented with a Bank of Earth,
like that of <I>Nitocris</I> in <I>A$$yria,</I> which was of
Mud, or like tho$e Banks in <I>France</I> which con-
fine $ome very great Rivers, in $uch a Manner
that they $eem to hang in the Air, the Water
in $ome Places being above the Level of the
Tops of the Cottages: and we may be $atisfied
if we can have our Bridges of Stone. Some
commend the Gra$s Turfs cut out of a Meadow
for making up of Banks: and I think they
will do very well, becau$e the interweaving of
their Roots will fortify the Work, provided
they be rammed very clo$e together: for the
whole Bank, and e$pecially that Part of it
which is wa$hed by the Water, ought to be
$o $olid as not to be penetrated or di$united.
Some interlace Rods of Ozier in the Bank;
and this makes a very firm Bank, but then it
will la$t but for a Time, for as $uch Rods ea$ily
rot, little Rills of Water will penetrate into the
Places of the Twigs which are decayed, and
working their Way onwards, will be apt to
enlarge their Pa$$age till the whole River may
break through in great Streams. There will
not indeed be $o much Danger of this if we
take the Oziers when they are green. Others
plant Willows, Elder, Poplars and $uch other
Trees as love the Water along the Shores in
clo$e Rows. This has $ome Advantages; but
then it is attended with the $ame Inconveni-
ence which we ju$t now mentioned; for when
the Roots decay, the Water will work its Way
into their Cavities. Others (which I am very
well plea$ed with) plant the Shore with all
Manner of Shrubs that flouri$h in the Water,
and $trike out more Root than Branches, $uch
as Lavender, Bulru$h, Reeds, and e$pecially
Withes; the la$t of which pu$hes out a great
deal of Root, and pierces down into the Earth
with very long Fibres, which are continually
making new Shoots, while at the $ame Time
its Head is but $mall, is very pliant, and does
not re$i$t the Stream; and which adds to the
Advantage, this Plant, out of its particular Love
to Water, advances on continually even into
the Current. But where the Bank runs on
parallel with the $trong Current of the River,
the Shore ought to be entirely naked and clear,
that nothing may di$turb or enrage the Stream,
but that it may run on peaceably. Where the
Bank winding about $tands again$t the Set of
the Current, that it may make the $touter Re-
$i$tance, let it be fortified with good Plank.
But if the whole Force of the River is to be
with$tood and oppo$ed; then, in the Summer,
when the Water is lowe$t, and the Shore is
left dry, make Hurdles bound about $trong
Stakes of a good Length, and fa$tened to them
very tight with $tout Braces; lay the$e Hur-
dles with the Heads of the Stakes again$t the
Current of the Stream, and drive Piles through
them, by Holes made in them before-hand for
that Purpo$e, as deep as the Nature of the Bot-
tom will permit. When this is knit together,
join other Beams to them cro$$ways, and fill up
this Frame with large Stones cemented toge-
ther with Mortar; or where the Expence of
Mortar cannot be afforded, you may knit them
together by throwing Bavins of Juniper in a-
mong$t them. This great Weight will pre-
vent the Water from $tirring the Frame; and
if any Eddies $hould get within it, they will
do rather Good than Harm, for by endeavour-
ing to work downwards they will make the
whole Weight of Stone $ink $till lower, and
$o $trengthen the Foundation $till more. But
if the River always keeps at $uch a Height,
that there is no Opportunity to make $uch a
Frame, then we mu$t make u$e of tho$e Me-
thods which we formerly taught for erecting
the Piers of a Bridge.</P>
<head>CHAP. XII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Sea Wall; of $trengthening the Port; and of Locks for confining the
Water of a River.</I></head>
<P>The Sea-$hore al$o is to be fortified with
artificial Banks, but not in the $ame
Manner as the River, who$e Streams does Mif-
chief in a different Manner from the Waves of
the Sea. We are told, that the Sea in its own
Nature is quiet and peaceable, but it is agi-
<foot>tated</foot>
<p n=>231</p>
tated and drove about by the Winds, which
pu$h on the Waves in great Rows to the Shore,
where if they meet with Oppo$ition, e$pecially
from any hard rugged Body they beat again$t
them with their whole Strength, and being
da$hed back again they break, and falling from
on high with continual Repetition dig up and
demoli$h whatever re$i$ts their Fury. A full
Proof of this is the great Depth of Water
which we con$tantly find under high Rocks
by the Sea-$ide. But when the Shore runs off
with an ea$y De$cent, the raging Sea not find-
ing any Thing to exert its Force again$t, grows
quiet, and falls back le$s furious upon it$elf;
and if it has brought any Sand along with it,
leaves it there; by which Means we $ee $uch
Shores growing higher and higher into the Sea
every Day. But when the Sea meets with a
Promontory, and afterwards with a Bay, the
Current runs impetuou$ly along the Shore, and
turns back again upon it$elf; which is the Rea-
$on that in $uch Places we frequently meet with
deep Channels cut under the Shore. Others
maintain, that the Sea hath a Breath and Re$-
piration of its own, and pretend to ob$erve,
that no Man ever dies naturally but when the
Tide is going off, whence they would infer, that
our Life has $ome Connection and Relation
with the Motion and Life of the Sea: but this
is not worth Dwelling upon. It is certain, that
the Tides ri$e and fall variou$ly in different
Places. The <I>Negropont</I> has no le$s than $ix
Tides every Day. At <I>Con$tantinople</I> it has no
other Change but by flowing into the <I>Pontus.</I>
In the <I>Propontis</I> the Sea naturally throws upon
the Shore every Thing that is brought down
into it by the Rivers: becau$e every Thing
which is put into an unnatural Agitation re$ts
of Cour$e where-ever it finds a Place which is
not di$turbed. But as upon almo$t all Shores
we $ee Heaps of Sand or Stones thrown up, it
may not be a mi$s ju$t to mention the Conjec-
tures of the Philo$ophers upon this Occa$ion.
I have $aid el$ewhere, that Sand is form'd of
Mud dried by the Sun, and $eparated by the
Heat into very minute Particles. Stones are
$uppo$ed to be engendered by the Sea-water;
$or they tell us, that by Means of the Sun's
Heat and of Motion, the Water grows warm,
dries, and its lighter Parts evaporating hardens
into a Con$i$tence, which grows to have $o
much Solidity, that if the Sea is but a little
while at re$t, it by degrees contracts a $limy
Cru$t, of a bituminous Nature; this Cru$t in
Time is afterwards broken, and by new Motion
and Colli$ion the new-made Sub$tance becomes
globular, and grows $omewhat like a Spunge:
The$e globular Spunges are carried to the Shore,
where by their Slimine$s they lick up the
Sand which is put into Agitation, which again
is dried and concocted by the Heat of the
Sun, and by the Salts, till by Length of Time
it hardens into Stone. This is the Conjecture
of the Philo$ophers. We frequently $ee the
Shore grow higher and higher towards the
Mouth of Rivers, e$pecially if they flow through
loo$e Grounds, and are much $ubject to Land-
floods; for $uch Rivers throw up va$t Quan-
tities of Sand and Stones before their Mouths
into the Sea, and $o lengthen out the Shore.
This manife$tly appears from the <I>Danube,</I> the
<I>Pha$is</I> in <I>Colchis,</I> and others, and e$pecially in
the <I>Nile.</I> The Ancients called <I>&AElig;gypt</I> the
<I>Nile</I>'s Hou$e, and tell us, that it was formerly
covered by the Sea quite as far as the <I>Pelu$ian</I>
Mar$hes. So it is related, that a great Part of
<I>Cilicia</I> was added to it by the River. <I>Ari$totle</I>
$ays, that all Things are in perpetual Motion,
and that in length of Time the Sea and the
Hills will change Places with one another.
Hence the Saying of the Poet:</P>
<P><I>All that the Earth in her dark Womb conceals,
Time $hall dig up and drag to open Light.</I></P>
<P>BUT to return. The Waves have this par-
ticular Property, that when they meet with any
Bank which re$i$ts them, they da$h again$t it
with the more Fury; and being beaten back,
according to the Height they fall from, the
more Sand they root up. This appears from
the great Depth of the Sea under the Rocks, a-
gain$t which they beat with much more Vio-
lence, than they fall upon a $oft and $loping
Sand. This being the Ca$e, it requires great
Diligence and the mo$t careful Contrivance to
re$train the Rage and Strength of the Sea,
which will many Times defeat all our Art and
Ability, and is not ea$ily $ubdued by the Pow-
er of Man. However, the Sort of Work which
we formerly recommended for the Foundati-
ons of a Bridge may be of $ome Service in this
Ca$e. But if it is nece$$ary for us to carry
out a Pier into the Sea in order to fortify a
Port, we mu$t begin our Work upon the dry
Ground, and $o by Additions work it forwards
into the Sea. Our fir$t and greate$t Care mu$t
be to chu$e a firm Soil for this Structure; and
where-ever you rai$e it, rai$e it up with a
Slope of the lighte$t Stones that can be got, in
<foot>order</foot>
<p n=>232</p>
order to break the Fury of the Waves, that
not finding any Thing to beat again$t
with their whole Strength, they may fall back
gently and not with too violent a Precipitation.
Thus the Wave which is upon Return will
meet that which is coming on, and deaden its
Force. The Mouths of Rivers $eem to be of
the $ame Nature with the Port, as they afford
Shelter to Ve$$els again$t Storms. They ought
therefore to be fortified and made narrower to
exclude the Fury of the Sea. <I>Propertius</I> $ays,</P>
<P><I>Re$olve to conquer or be o'ercome,
This is the Wheel of Love</I> &mdash;</P>
<P>IT is the $ame in this Ca$e; for the Mouths
of Rivers by the ince$$ant Attacks of the Sea
are either overcome and filled up with Sand;
or el$e by a con$tant and ob$tinate Re$i$tance,
they conquer and keep their Pa$$ages clear.
For this Rea$on it is an admirable Method to
open the River a double Di$charge into the
Sea by two different Branches, if you have but
Water enough to $upply them; not only that
Ships may be able to get in at one of them,
though the Wind be contrary for the other;
but al$o that if one of them be $topt up, either
by $ome Storm at Sea, or by $ome $trong
Wind blowing into it, in $uch a Manner that
the Land-floods would be driven back again
into the Country, they may have another Pa$$-
age open to di$charge them$elves into the Sea.
But of this enough. The next Point is how
to clean a River. <I>C&aelig;$ar</I> took a great deal of
Care about cleaning the <I>Tyber,</I> which was $topt
up with Rubbi$h, and there are va$t Heaps of
the Stuff that was taken out $till to be $een not
far from the River, as well within the City as
without. By what Methods he got $o much
Rubbi$h out of $o $wift a River, I do not re-
member to have read: But I $uppo$e he made
u$e of Frames to $hut out the River and then
emptying the Water out of them, he might
ea$ily take out the Rubbi$h. The$e Frames
are made in the following Manner: Prepare
$ome $trong Timbers cut $quare, with Grooves
cut in the Sides of them from Top to Bottom
four Inches deep, and in Breadth equal to the
Thickne$s of the Planks which you intend to
u$e in this Work; and prepare your Planks al-
$o of equal Length and Thickne$s with one
another. Having got the$e Things ready,
drive down your Timbers $o as they may $tand
perpendicular, at Di$tances from each other
equal to the Length of your Planks. When
your Timbers are well fixed, let your Planks
into the Grooves and drive them down to the
Bottom. Our Workmen call the$e Frames
Cataracts. Go on in the $ame Manner to fill
up the Spaces between the Timbers with Planks
and drive them as clo$e together as po$$ible.
Then go to work immediately with your
Pumps, Syphons, Buckets and all your other
Implements for emptying out the Water, put-
ting on as many Hands as you can, and labour-
ing without Intermi$$ion till you have thrown
out all the Water within your Inclo$ure. If it
leaks in any Part, $top up the Crack with any
old Rags: And thus the Bu$ine$s may be done.
Between this Frame and that which we men-
tioned as nece$$ary in the Building of Bridges,
there is this Difference; that the latter mu$t be
$table and la$ting, being to $tand not only till
the Piers are built, but even till the Super-
$tructure is $ettled; whereas this is only tem-
porary, and as $oon as the Dirt is got out to be
pre$ently removed to another Place. But I
advi$e you, whether you clean your River by
the Help of this Frame, or by turning the
Cour$e of the Water, that you do not pretend
to $trive again$t the whole Force of the Stream
at a Time in any one Place, but go on Step by
Step and by Degrees. All Works rai$ed again$t
the Violence of Waters, if they are made in
the Form of Arches, with their Backs turned
again$t the Weight of the Water, they will be
able to make the $touter Re$i$tance. You may
level a Torrent or Water-fall by laying a Bar-
rier acro$s the Stream in $uch a Manner that the
Water is obliged to ri$e a good deal higher
than u$ual: For the Water running over from
the Top of this Barrier, will dig up the Ridge
in the Channel by its fall; and then even the
Channel above the Torrent, quite to the Spring
will be levelled in Proportion to the lower
Part of the Channel; for the Water in its De-
$cent will be continually moving and carrying
away the Earth. You may clean your Chan-
nel by turning Oxen into it in the following
Manner: Stop it up that the Water may $well;
then drive your Cattle about in it $o that they
may di$turb all the Mud, and then opening the
Stream that the Water may pour in rapidly, it
will wa$h and carry away all the Dirt. If any
thing lies buried and fixed in the Stream $o as
to $poil the Navigation, be$ides the common
Machines u$ed by Workmen for removing $uch
Ob$tructions, it is a very good Method to load
a Barge deep, and to it fa$ten with Ropes the
Impediment which you would pull up: Then
<foot>unload</foot>
<p n=>233</p>
unload the Barge, which by that Means ri$ing
higher in the Water, will pull up what is tyed
to it. It will be a Help to the Operation, if
you keep the Ve$$el $tirring about by moving
the Rudder backwards and forwards while you
are unloading it; to $hew the U$e of which,
I $hall ju$t mention, that in the Country of
<I>Pr&aelig;ne$te</I> I have $een a moi$t Sort of Clay into
which if you run a Stick or a Sword but the
Depth of a $ingle Cubit, it was not by the
Force of a Man's Arm to be got out again by
pulling; but if as you pulled you wriggled
your Arm backwards and forwards as Men do
that are turning a Skrew, it would ea$ily come
forth. At <I>Genoa</I> there was a Rock lying un-
der the Surface of the Water $o as to $top up
the Entrance into the Port. A Man was found
in our Age, endued with $urprizing Qualifica-
tions both of Art and Nature, who broke it
away, and laid the Pa$$age very wide. It is
$aid, that this Man u$ed to $tay under Water
many Hours together, without ever coming
up to take Breath. You may take up the Mud
from the Bottom by means of an Oy$ter-net
covered with Tarpawlins; for as you draw it
along it will fill it$elf. You may al$o fetch it
up from the Bottom, where the Sea is $hallow,
with the following Contrivance. You mu$t
have two Smacks, like tho$e of Fi$hermen; in
the Stern of one of the$e you mu$t have an
Axis upon which a very long Pole mu$t $wing
like the Beam of a Balance; to that End of
the Pole which lies out from the Stern mu$t
be fa$ten'd a Shovel three Foot broad and $ix
long. By lowering down this Shovel to the
Bottom you $coop up the Mud, and $o throw
it into the other Smack which lies by for that
Purpo$e. From the$e Principles many other
Engines yet more u$eful may be contrived;
but to $peak of them here would be too tedi-
ous. And thus much may $uffice for cleaning
any Channel. The Locks in a River are made
either by Sluices or Flood-gates. For either of
the$e the Sides mu$t be made full as $trong as
the Piers of a Bridge. We may draw up the
heavie$t Sluice without Danger to our Men, by
applying to the Spindle or Windle$s which is
to draw up the Sluice Wheels notch'd with
Teeth like the Wheels in a Clock, which mu$t
take hold of the Teeth of the other Spindle
which is to be put in Motion by them. But
the mo$t convenient of all is the Flood-gate,
which in the Middle has a Spindle that turns
upon a perpendicular Axis; to this Spindle is
fa$tened a broad $quare Valve, like the $quare
Sail of a Barge which may be ea$ily turned
about to which Side of the Ve$$el the Ma$ter
plea$es; but the two Sides of this Valve $hall
not be exactly equal to one another in Breadth,
but let one be above three Inches narrower
than the other; by which means it may be
opened by a Child, and will $hut again of
it$elf; becau$e the Weight of the broader Side
will exceed that of the Narrower. To
each Lock you ought to make two Stops,
cutting the River in two Places, and leaving
a Space between them equal to the Length of
a Ve$$el, to the Intent, that if the Ve$$el is to
a$cend, when it comes to the Stop the lower
Sluice may be $hut the upper one opened; or
if it be to de$cend, the upper one may be $hut
and the lower opened; for by this means the
Ve$$el will run down with the lower Part of
the Stream, while the re$t of the Water is
$topp'd by the upper Sluice. There is one
Thing which I mu$t not omit concerning
publick Ways, that I may have no Occa$ion
for Repetition; namely, that the Streets of a
Town ought never to be heaped up with any
Sort of Rubbi$h, as it is grown a bad Cu$tom
to do under the Notion of mending them,
which $hould rather be done by removing and
carrying away all the Superfluities; le$t the
Hou$es come in Time to be buried, and the
Level of the Town to be $unk under Rub-
bi$h.</P>
<head>CHAP. XIII.</head>
<head><I>Of the Remedies for $ome other Inconveniencies.</I></head>
<P>I shall now proceed to the Remedies for $ome
other Inconveniencies of $maller Moment;
in which I $hall be as brief as po$$ible. In
$ome Places, upon bringing Water to them,
the Country has been made warmer; in others,
colder. Near <I>Lari$$a</I> in <I>The$$aly</I> there was a
Field covered with a $tanding Water, which
made the Air heavy and hot. Upon carrying
off this Water, and laying the Field dry, the
Country became cooler. The contrary hap-
<foot>O o o pened</foot>
<p n=>234</p>
pened at <I>Philippi,</I> where, as we are informed
by <I>Theophra$tus,</I> upon drawing off the Water
and drying up a Lake, the Country was made
warmer. The Cau$e of the$e Alterations is
$uppo$ed to have lain in the Purity or Gro$$-
ne$s of the Air; for a thick Air is more dif-
ficultly moved, and longer retains either the
Heat or the Cold than a thin one, which is
$oon apt to be frozen with Cold, or on a Change
of Weather, to be warmed again with the Sun's
Heat. A Country which lies uncultivated and
neglected is $aid to afford a thick and unhealthy
Air; and in Places $o much covered with
Wood, that neither Sun nor Wind can ea$ily
get through, the Air is generally crude. The
Caves about the Lake <I>Avernus</I> were $o $ur-
rounded with thick Woods that the Sulphur
which exhaled from them u$ed to kill the Birds
which flew over them: But <I>C&aelig;$ar,</I> by cutting
down tho$e Woods, made that pe$tilential Spot
of Ground very healthy. At <I>Leghorn</I> a Sea-port
Town in <I>Tu$cany,</I> the Inhabitants u$ed always
to be afflicted with $evere Fevers in the Dog-
days: By banking off the Sea with a
good Wall, the Town was freed from tho$e
Di$tempers; but afterwards, when they let the
Water again into their Ditches, for the better
Fortification of the Place, their Fevers return'd.
<I>Varro</I> writes, that when his Camp lay in the
I$land of <I>Coroyra</I> (now <I>Corfu</I>) and his Soldiers
died apace of Pe$tilence; by keeping all the
Windows towards the South clo$e $hut, he
pre$erved his Army. At <I>Murano,</I> a famous
Town belonging to the <I>Venetians,</I> they are
very $eldom touched with the Plague, though,
their neighbouring Metropolis, <I>Venice,</I> is $re-
quently and $everely afflicted with it. The
Rea$on of this is $uppo$ed to be the great
Number of Gla$s-hou$es there; for it is very
certain that the Air is wonderfully purged by
Fire. And for a Proof that all Manner of
Poi$ons hate the Fire, it is ob$erved, that the
dead Bodies of poi$onous Animals do not breed
Worms, like others; becau$e it is the Nature
of Poi$on to de$troy and totally to extingui$h
the Principles of Life: But if $uch Bodies are
touched by Lightening they will engender
Worms, becau$e then their Poi$on is de$troyed
by Fire; for Worms are bred in the dead Bo-
dies of Animals from no other Cau$e than a
certain fiery Power in Nature working upon a
Humidity which is apt to be put in Motion by
a Heat which it is the Property of Poi$on to
extingui$h, where it prevails, as it is it$elf ex-
tingui$hed by it, where that Heat is the mo$t
powerful. If you root out poi$onous Herbs,
and e$pecially Squills, the good Plants will
draw to them$elves the bad Nouri$hment which
they u$ed to imbibe from the Earth, by which
means our Food will be corrupted. It may be
of Service to $helter your Hou$e from unwhole-
$ome Winds by a Grove and e$pecially of Ap-
ple-trees; for it is of a good deal of Con$e-
quence out of the Shade of what Leaves you
receive you Air. Pitch-trees are faid to be
very good for Phthy$ical Folks, or for tho$e
who are recovering their Health $lowly after
long Sickne$s. It is contrary with Trees which
have a bitter Leaf, for they yield an unwhole-
$ome Air. Thus where-ever the Country is
low, clo$e and ma$hy, it will be of Service to
lay it quite open to the Sun and Air; becau$e
the Damps and noxious Animals which ari$e
from $uch Places will be pre$ently de$troyed
by Dryne$s and Winds. At <I>Alexandria</I> is a
publick Place to which the Filth and Rubbi$h
of the Town is carried, and it is now grown
up to $uch a Hill, that it $erves as a Land-mark
to Mariners to find their Way into the Port.
How much more convenient would it not be
to fill up low hollow Places with $uch Stuff?
Thus at <I>Venice,</I> (for which I highly applaud
them) they have in my Time filled up $everal
of their Mar$hes with the Rubbi$h of the Town.
<I>Herodotus</I> tells us, that the People who live a-
mong the Mar$hes in <I>&AElig;gypt,</I> in order to avoid
the Gnats, lie a Nights in very high Towers.
At <I>Ferrara</I> by the <I>Po</I> few or no Gnats appear
within the City; but out of Town, to tho$e
who are not u$ed to them, they are execrable.
It is $uppo$ed that they are driven from the
Town by the great Quantity of Smoke and
Fire. Flies do not haunt Places which are
cold or expo$ed to much Wind, and e$pecial-
ly where the Windows are very high. Some
$ay that Flies will not enter where the Tail of
a Wolf is buried, and that a Squill hung up
will al$o drive away venomous Animals. The
Ancients made u$e of a great many Defences
again$t the violent Heats; among which I am
very well plea$ed with their Crypts or $ubter-
raneous Porticoes, Vaults, which received Light
no where but from the Top. They were al$o
fond of Halls with large Windows turned away
from the South, open to a cool Air, and $had-
ed by $ome neighbouring Edifice. <I>Metellus,</I>
the Son of <I>Octavia, Augu$tus</I>'s Si$ter, made an
Awning over the Forum with Sails, that
the People might follow their Cau$es without
prejudicing their Healths. But Air is more
<foot>effectual</foot>
<p n=>235</p>
effectual to cooling any Place than Shade, as you
may find by hanging a Sail upright before that
Place to keep out the Air. <I>Pliny</I> tells us, that they
u$ed to make Places in their Hou$es on pur-
po$e for Shade; but in what Manner they
were contrived he does not de$cribe. What-
ever they were, Nature mu$t be the be$t Pat-
tern to imitate. We find, that when we gape
with our Mouths wide open, our Breath i$$ues
out warm; but when we blow with our Lips
pretty clo$e together, the Air comes out cool.
Thus in an Edifice, when the Air comes
through a very wide Aperture, e$pecially if the
Sun lies upon that Aperture, it is warm; but
if it pa$$es through a $traiter and more $hady
Pa$$age, it comes quicker and cooler. If warm
Water be carryed in a Tube through cold Water,
it will be refrigerated. The $ame will hold
good of Air. It is a Que$tion what is the
Rea$on that tho$e that walk in the Sun do not
tan $o $oon as tho$e that $it in it; but the
An$wer is ea$y: For by our Motion the Air
too is moved, whereby the Sun's Rays are
thrown a$ide. Moreover, in order to make
the Shade the Cooler, we may add Roof to
Roof, and Wall to Wall, and the greater Space
that is left between the$e, the Cooler, will be
our Shade and the more impenetrable to the
Heat; for this Interval between has almo$t the
$ame Effect for this Purpo$e as a Wall of the
$ame Thickne$s would have; and in one Re-
$pect it is better, becau$e a Wall would retain
either the Heat of the Sun or the Cold that had
once penetrated it much longer; whereas
the$e double Walls will pre$erve an equal Tem-
perature of the Air. In Places where the Sun
is exce$$ively $corching, a Wall built of Pumice
Stone will admit the lea$t Heat and retain it
the lea$t Time. If the Doors to the private
Apartments are double, that is to $ay, if there
be two Doors, one opening inwards and the
other outwards, with a Space of about two Foot
between them, what is $aid within cannot be
over-heard by tho$e who are without.</P>
<head>CHAP. XIV.</head>
<head><I>Some more minute Particulars relating to the U$e of Fire.</I></head>
<P>If we build in a very cold Place, we $hall
be obliged to make u$e of Fire, which is
done $everal Ways, but the mo$t convenient of
all is to have it in an open Place, where we can
$ee it $hine while we feel its Warmth; for
when it is enclo$ed, as in Stoves, the Smoke is
apt to affect the Eyes and injure the Sight.
To this add, that the very Sight of the Flame
and Light of a Brick Fire, is a chearful Com-
panion to the old Men that are chatting to-
gether in the Chimney Corner. But then up
towards the Middle of the Funnel of the
Chimney there ought to be a tran$ver$e Iron
Door, which you may $hut when all the Smoke
is exhau$ted, and the Fire burns perfectly
bright, and $o $top up the Tunnel, in order to
prevent any Wind from getting down that
Way into the Room. Walls built of Flint or
Marble are both cold and damp; for by their
Chilne$s they compre$s the Air into Moi$ture.
Soft Stone and Brick are more convenient, when
they are thoroughly dried. Tho$e who venture
to $leep between Walls that are new and wet,
e$pecially if the Cieling be arched, are $ure to
catch $ome very dangerous Illne$s, Pains,
Fevers, or Rheums. Some by that Folly have
lo$t their Eye-$ight, others the U$e of their
Limbs, $ome their Sen$es. In order that they
may dry the $ooner, the Windows and Doors
$hould be left open to give the Winds a
thorough Pa$$age. The be$t Walls for the
Health of the Inhabitants are tho$e built of
Brick not burnt but dried in the Sun two Years
before. Incru$tations of Stuc thicken the Air
and make it unwhol$ome and prejudicial to
the Lungs and Brain. If you wain$cot your
Walls with Fir or even Poplar, it will make the
Hou$e the whol$omer, warmer in Winter, and
not very hot in Summer; but then you will
be troubled with Mice and Bugs. This you
may prevent by $tuffing the Inter$pace with
Reeds, or $topping up all the Holes and Re-
treats of tho$e Vermin with Chalk and Hair
tempered together with Lees of Oil: for all
Sorts of Oil are mortal Enemies to tho$e
Vermin which breed of Corruption.</P>
<foot>CHAP.</foot>
<p n=>236</p>
<head>CHAP. XV.</head>
<head><I>By what Methods to de$troy or drive away Serpents, Gnats, Bugs, Flies, Mice,
Fleas, Moths, and the like trouble$ome Vermin.</I></head>
<P>Since we are fallen upon this Subject, I
$hall venture to $et down $ome Things
which we find in very grave Authors. It
were certainly to be wi$hed, that a Building
could be free from all Manner of Inconvenien-
cies. The Inhabitants of Mount <I>&AElig;tna</I> in$ti-
tuted a Sacrifice to <I>Hercules,</I> becau$e he de-
livered them from the Gnats; as did al$o the
<I>Mile$ians</I> for clearing their Vineyards from the
Caterpillars. The <I>&AElig;olians</I> $acrificed to <I>Apollo</I>
for de$troying their Swarms of Mice. The$e
were doubtle$s great Benefits; but by what
Means they were done, has not been recorded.
However, in $ome Authors I find what follows:
The <I>A$$yrians</I> by means of a burnt Liver, to-
gether with an Onion and a Squill hanging
over the Tran$om of the Door, drove away all
poi$onous Animals. <I>Ari$totle</I> $ays, that Ser-
pents may be driven from a Hou$e by the
Smell of Rue, and that by laying $ome Fle$h
in a Pot you will draw great Numbers of
Wa$ps into it, where you may $hut them in,
and that by laying Sulphur and Ba$tard-mar-
joram upon the Holes of Ants-ne$ts, you may
exterminate the Ants, <I>Sabinus Tyro</I> wrote to
<I>M&aelig;cenas,</I> that if their Holes were $topt up
with Sea-mud, or A$hes, it would de$troy
them. <I>Pliny</I> $ays, that the Herb Wart-wort
will effectually do it. Others think that pour-
ing in Water where unbaked Brick has been
$teept, is a great Enemy to them. The Anci-
ents affirm, that Nature has made mortal En-
mities between certain Animals and certain
Things, in$omuch, that the one is $ure De-
$truction to the other. Hence the Wea$el flies
from the Smell of a roa$ted Cat, and Serpents
from that of a Leopard. Thus they tell us,
that when a Leech $ticks the mo$t ob$tinately
to a Man's Fle$h, if you apply a Bug to its
Head, it will immediately quit its Hold, and
fall off languid; as, on the other hand, the
Smoke of a burning Leech will drive the Bug
out of his mo$t private lurking Places. <I>Solinus</I>
$ays, that $trewing a Place with $ome of the
Du$t of the I$le of <I>Thanet,</I> in <I>Britain,</I> will
pre$ently drive away Serpents: And Hi$torians
relate, that the $ame may be done by the
Earth of $everal other Places, and particularly
of the I$land <I>Ebu$us.</I> The Earth of the I$land
<I>Galeon</I> belonging to the <I>Garamanthes</I> kills
both Serpents and Scorpions. <I>Strabo</I> $ays, that
the <I>Africans,</I> when they went to re$t, u$ed to
rub the Feet of their Beds with Garlick, to
keep off the Scorpions. <I>Sa$ernas</I> tells us how
to kill Bugs, in the following Words. Boil a
wild Cucumber in Water; then pour it where-
ever you think fit; they will never come near
the Place; or el$e rub your Bed$tead with an
Ox's Gall mixed with Vinegar. Others direct
us to fill up all the Cracks with Lees of Wine.
The Root of the Holm-oak, $ays <I>Pliny,</I> is an
Enemy to Scorpions, and the A$h too is excel-
lent again$t $uch noxious Animals and e$pecially
Serpents; which al$o will never retire under
Fern. Serpents are likewi$e driven away by
the Burning of a Woman's Hair or of a Goat's
Horn, or of that of a Stag, or of the Sawdu$t of
Cedar, or of $ome Drops of <I>Galbanum,</I> or of
O$ier, green Ivy or Juniper; and tho$e who
are rubbed with Juniper-$eed are perfectly $e-
cure from Hurt by Serpents. The Smell of
the Herb <I>Haxus</I> inebriates A$pics, and lays
them $o fa$t a$leep that they are quite be-
numbed. Again$t Canker-worms we are di-
rected only to $tick the Skeleton of a Mare's
Head upon a Po$t in the Garden. The Palm-
tree is an Enemy to Bats. Where-ever you
$prinkle Water wherein Elder-flowers have been
boiled, you will kill all the Flies; but this is
$ooner done with Hellebore, e$pecially with
the black Sort. Burying a Dog's Tooth, to-
gether with his Tail and Feet in the Hill, will
they $ay rid you of Flies. The <I>Tarantula</I>
cannot endure the Smell of Saffron. The
Smoke of burning Hops will kill the Gnats.
Mice are killed by the Smell of Wolf-bane,
though it be at a Di$tance. So both Mice
and Bugs are de$troyed by the Smoke of
Vitriol. Fleas, if you $prinkle the Place with
a Decoction of Coloquintida or of the Caltrop-
thi$tle, will all vani$h. If you $prinkle a Place
with Goat's-blood, they will march to it in
whole Swarms; but they are driven away by
the Smell of Colewort, and yet more effectu-
<foot>ally</foot>
<p n=>237</p>
ally by that of Oleander. Broad flat Ve$$els
full of Water $et about the Floor are dangerous
Traps for Fleas that take their Leaps too da-
ringly. Moths are driven away by Worm-
wood, Ani$e-$eed, or the Smell of the Herb
Savin: Nay we are told, that Cloaths are $afe
from them $o long as they hang upon Ropes. But
upon this Subject we have dwelt long enough,
and perhaps longer than a very grave Reader
may like; but he will pardon it, if he con-
$iders, that what we have $aid may be of $ome
Service for ridding a Situation of Inconvenien-
cies, and that all is little enough again$t the
ince$$ant Plague of the$e intolerable Vermin.</P>
<head>CHAP. XVI.</head>
<head><I>Of making a Room either warmer or cooler, as al$o of amending Defects in
the Walls.</I></head>
<P>I now return to my Subject. It is a
wonderful Thing, that if you cover a Wall
with Hangings woven of Wool it will make
the Room warmer, and if they are of Flax,
colder. If the Platform be damp, dig Pits
and Drains under it, and fill them up either
with Pumice-$tone or Gravel, to prevent the
Water from rotting in them. Then $trew
the Ground with Coal to the Height of one
Foot, and cover that with Sand or rather
with Tiles, and over all this lay your Floor.
It will be all to no Purpo$e if there is Room
for the Air to pa$s under the fir$t Pavement
or Floor. But again$t the Heat of the Sun in
Summer, and the Severity of the Cold in Win-
ter, it will be of very great Service, if the Soil
thereabouts in general is not damp but dry.
Under the Area of your Parlour dig away the
Earth to the Depth of twelve Foot, and then
floor it with nothing but naked Boards; the
Space beneath which is floored only with Plai-
$ter will make the Air in your Parlour much
cooler than you would imagine, in$omuch that
you $hall find it make your Feet cold even
when your Shoes are on, nothing being over
the $ubterraneous Pavement but plain Boards.
The Ceiling of this Parlour $hould be arched;
and then you will be $urprized how warm it
will be in Winter and how cold in Summer.
If you are troubled with the Inconvenience
which the Satyri$t complains of the Noi$e of
Carriages pa$$ing through a narrow Street, to-
gether with that of the rough Language of
their bruiti$h Drivers, $o dreadful to the poor
Man in his $ick Bed; <I>Pliny</I> the younger tells
us, in one of his Epi$tles, how to prevent this
Di$turbance, in the following Words. Next
to this Room lies the Chamber of Night and
of Repo$e, in which was never heard the Voice
of Servants, nor the hollow Murmur of the Sea,
nor the Crack of Tempe$t, nor can you here
perceive the Gleam of Lightening, nor even
the Light of the Sun, unle$s you open the
Windows, $o retired is the Place. The Rea$on
is, that there is a Lobby between this Cham-
ber and the Garden, in which intermediate
Space all the Sounds are lo$t, let us now come
to the Walls. The Defects in the$e are as fol-
lows; either they $cale off, or they crack, or
the Ribs give Way, or they lean from their
Perpendicular. The Cau$es of the$e Defects
are various, and $o are their Remedies. Some
of the Cau$es indeed are manife$t, others more
concealed, $o that often we know not what
Remedies to apply, till we have $everely felt
the Mi$chief. Others are not in the lea$t ob-
$cure; but then perhaps the Negligence of
Men makes them inclined to hope that they
may not do $o much Hurt as they certainly
will do. The manife$t Cau$es of Defects in
the Wall are, when it is too thin, when it is
not well knit together, when it is full of im-
proper dangerous Apertures, or la$tly, when it
is not $ufficiently $trengthened with Ribs
again$t the Violence of Storms. Tho$e Cau$es
which happen unexpected or unfore$een, are
Earthquakes, Lightening, the Incon$tancy of
the Foundation, and indeed of Nature it$elf.
But in $hort, the greate$t Injury to all Parts
of a Building is the Negligence and Heedle$$-
ne$s of Men. A certain Author $ays, that a
Weed is a $ecret Battering-ram again$t a Wall;
nor is it to be believed what va$t Stones I have
my$elf $een removed and pu$hed out of their
Places by the Force, or indeed by the Wedge
of a little Root that grew between the Joints;
which if you had only pulled out while it was
young, the Work would have been pre$erved
from that Injury. I greatly commend the
Ancients, who kept a Number of People in
<foot>P p p Pay,</foot>
<p n=>238</p>
Pay, only to pre$erve and look after the pub-
lick Buildings. <I>Agrippa</I> left Pay for two hun-
dred and fifty for this Purpo$e, and <I>C&aelig;$ar</I> for
no le$s than four hundred and $ixty; and they
dedicated the next fifteen Feet to the Structure
to lie quite clear by their Aqueducts, that their
Sides or Arches might not breed any Weeds
to demoli$h them. The $ame $eems to have
been done even by private Per$ons, with re-
lation to tho$e Edifices which they were de-
$irous to have eternal; for we find, that the
In$cription upon their Sepulchres generally
mentioned how many Foot of Ground was
con$ecrated to Religion in that Structure;
$ometimes it was fifteen, $ometimes twenty.
But not to fall into a Repetition of the$e Things,
the Ancients thought, that you might entirely
de$troy a Tree even after it was pretty well
grown, if in $ome Part of the Dog-days you
cut it down to the Height of one Foot, and
boring a Hole through the Heart, pour into it
Oil of Vitriol mixed with Powder of Brim$tone,
or el$e $prinkling it plentifully with a Decoc-
tion of burnt Bean-$hells. <I>Columella</I> $ays, that
you may de$troy a Wood with the Flower of
Hops $teept one Day in Juice of Hemlock,
$trewed about the Roots. <I>Solinus</I> $ays, that a
Tree touched with the Men$trua will lo$e its
Leaves, and $ome affirm, that it will even kill
the Tree. <I>Pliny</I> $ays, that a Tree may be
killed by touching the Root with a wild Car-
rot. But to return to the Defects of a Wall.
If a Wall be thinner than it ought to be, we
m<*>$t either apply a new Wall to the old one,
in $uch a Manner that they may make but
one; or, to avoid the Expence of this, we
may only $trengthen it with Ribs, that is to
$ay, with Pila$ters or Columns. A new Wall
may be $uperinduced to an old one, as follows.
In $everal Parts of the old Wall fix $trong
Catches made of the $ounde$t Stone, $ticking
out in $uch a Manner as to enter into the Wall
which you are going to join to the other, and
to be in the Nature of Bands between the two
Walls; and your Wall in this Ca$e $hould al-
ways be built of $quare Stone. You may for-
tify an old Wall with a new Pila$ter, in the
following Manner. Fir$t mark out its future
Breadth upon the Wall with red Oker. Then
open a Break in the Bottom of the Wall quite
down below the Foundation, in Breadth $ome
$mall Matter more than your Pila$ter, but not
very high. Then immediately fill up this Break
with $quare Stone worked together $trong and
even. By this Means that Part of the Wall
which is between the red Marks will be $hored
up by the Thickne$s of the Pila$ter, and $o the
whole will be made $tronger. Then in the
$ame Manner that you have laid the Bottom of
this Pila$ter you mu$t go on to work up the
Body of it quite to the Top. Thus much of
a Wall that is too thin. Where the Wall has
not made good Bond, we mu$t u$e Cramps or
Spars of Iron, or rather of Bra$s; but you
mu$t take great Care that you do not weaken
the Ribs by boring the Holes from them. If
the Weight of any crumbling Earth pu$hes
again$t $ome Part of the Wall, and threatens
Injury to it by its Humidity, dig a Trench
along the Wall as broad as you find it nece$-
$ary, and in this Trench build $ome Arches to
$upport the Weight of the Earth which is
falling in, with a Current or Drain through
the$e Arches for the Humidity to purge off
by; ot el$e lay $ome Girders along the Ground
with the Heads $etting again$t the Wall which
is $hoved out by the Weight of the Earth, and
let the Heads of the$e Girders into Summers,
which you may cover over with new Earth.
This will $trengthen the Foundation, becau$e
this new Earth will con$olidate, and grow
compact, before the Strength of the Girders
will give Way.</P>
<head>CHAP. XVII.</head>
<head><I>Of $ome Defects which cannot be provided again$t, but which may be repaired
after they have happened.</I></head>
<P>I now proceed to tho$e Defects which can-
not be fore$een, but which when they have
happened may be repaired. Cracks in the
Wall and Inclination from the Perpendicular,
are $ometimes occa$ioned by the Arches over it,
which pu$h out the Wall, or becau$e it is not
$ufficiently $trong to bear the Weight which is
laid upon it. But the greate$t Defects of this
Sort almo$t con$tantly proceed from $ome Faults
in the Foundation; however we may ea$ily
<foot>di$cover</foot>
<p n=>239</p>
di$cover whether they are from thence, or from
$ome other Cau$e by certain Symptoms. Thus
to begin with Cracks in the Wall; to which $o-
ever Side the Crack runs in its A$cent, on that
Side you may be $ure the Cau$e of the Defect
lies $omewhere in the Foundation. If it does
not verge to either Side, but runs up in a direct
Line, and grows wider at the Top, then let us
take a careful View of the Cour$es of Stone-
work on each Side; for on which ever Side
they $ink from their Level, on that Side we
may be $ure the Foundation has failed. But
if the upper Part of the Wall is entire, and
there are Cracks in $everal Places towards the
Bottom, which in their A$cent run together
clo$e at Top; then we may be $atisfied that
the Corners of the Building $tand firm, and
that the Defect is $omewhere about the Mid-
dle in the Foundation. If there is but one
Crack of this Sort, the higher up it goes, the
the more it $hews the Corners to have given
Way. In order to $trengthen the Foundations
in any of the$e Ca$es, according to the Magni-
tude of the Structure and the Solidity of the
Ground, dig a narrow Pit near the Wall, but
$o deep as to come to a firm Soil, and there
breaking through the Bottom of the Wall,
immediately work up to it with $quare Stone,
and then leave it to $ettle. When that is $et-
tled, dig another Pit in another Part, and un-
derprop it in the $ame Manner, and in the $ame
Manner give it Time to $ettle. By this Means
you will make a Kind of new Foundation to
the whole Wall. But if even by digging you
cannot come at any firm Ground, then make
Holes in certain Places not too near the Cor-
ners, but pretty clo$e to the Foundation of the
Wall, on both Sides, that is to $ay, as well un-
der the Roof as under the open Air, and into
tho$e Holes drive Piles as clo$e as they will $tick,
and over them lay the $toute$t Summers you
can get lengthways, with the Sides of the Wall.
Then acro$s the$e Summers lay the $tronge$t
Girders running under the Bottom of the
Foundation, which mu$t re$t with their whole
Weight upon the$e Girders, as it were upon a
Bridge. In all the$e Reparations great Care
mu$t be taken that no Part of the new Work
be too weak to $upport the Weight which is to
bear upon it, and that for ever $o long
Time: becau$e the whole Pile bearing towards
that weaker Part, would immediately fall to
Ruins. But where the Foundation has given
Way $omewhere about the Middle of the Wall,
and the upper Part does not appear to be af-
fected by the Crack, then upon the Face of
the Wall mark out with your Oker an Arch
as large as the Ca$e requires, or, in other Words,
$o big as to take in all that Part of the Wall
which is $unk. Then beginning at one End
of this Arch, break into the Wall with an
Opening not bigger than one Stone of your in-
tended Arch will fill up; which Stones in an
Arch we formerly called Wedges, and im-
mediately in$ert one of the$e Wedges in $uch a
Manner that its Lines may exactly an$wer to
the Center to which you have de$cribed your
Arch. Then make another Break clo$e above
it, and fill it up with another $uch Wedge;
and $o continuing the Work $ucce$$ively,
compleat your whole Arch: and thus you
may fortify you Wall without Danger. If a
Column or any other of the Ribs of the Building
is weakened, you may re$tore it in the following
Manner. Underprop the Architrave with a
$trong Arch of Tile and Plai$ter beat together,
as al$o with Piers of Plai$ter rais'd for this
Purpo$e, in $uch a Manner that this new Arch
may quite fill up the old Intercolumnation, or
Aperture between the Ribs: and let this un-
derproping be run up as fa$t as po$$ible, and
without the lea$t Intermi$$ion. It is the Nature
of Plai$ter to $well as it dries: $o that this new
Work, though quite fre$h, will be able to take
upon it$elf and $u$tain the Weight of the old
Wall Vault. Then, having before got ready
all your Materials, take out the defective
Column, and $upply its Place with a $ound
one. If you chu$e rather to re$t the old Wall
upon Timbers, then under$hore it with Levers
made of $trong Beams, and load the longer
Ends of tho$e Levers with Baskets filled with
Sand, which will rai$e up the Weight by de-
grees equally and without any Shocks. If the
Wall is $werved from its Perpendicular, fix
Planks or Timbers upright again$t it, and
again$t each of the$e $et a $trong Timber by
Way of Shore, with its Foot $tretching at $ome
Di$tance from the Wall. Then either with
Levers or with Wedges, drive forwards the Feet
of the Shores by degrees, $o as they may pre$s
again$t the Wall, and $o by di$tributing this
Force equally in all Parts, you will rai$e the
Wall again to its perpendicular. If this
cannot be done, prop it up with Shores of
Timber fixed well in the Ground, with their
Ends well daubed over with Pitch and Oil to
prevent their being corroded by the Touch of
Mortar; then erect Buttre$$es of $quare Stone,
built $o as to enclo$e tho$e Shores of Timber.
<foot>Perhaps</foot>
<p n=>240</p>
Perhaps a Colo$$us or $ome $mall Church is
$unk to one Side in its whole Foundation. In
this Ca$e, you mu$t either rai$e that Part which
is $unk, or take away that Part which is too
high; both very bold Attempts. The fir$t
Thing you are to do, is to bind and fa$ten to-
gether, as $trongly as po$$ible, the Foundation
and tho$e Parts which will be in Danger of
being $eparated by Motion, with good Timbers
and the $tronge$t Braces. There are no bet-
ter Sort of Braces than $trong Hoops of Iron
with Wedges drove in between them to keep
them tight. Then we rai$e up the Side of the
Wall which is $unk with $trong Timbers put
under it a$ter the Manner of Levers, as above.
If you would rather rectify the Fault by taking
away from the Side which is too high, you
may do it in the following Manner: Dig away
the Ground about the Middle of that Side
quite below the Foundation, in the Bottom of
which you mu$t there open a Break, not very
wide, but high enough for you to make it good
with $trong $quare Stone. In making good
this Break you mu$t not work it up quite to
the re$t of the Building, but leave $ome Inches
$pace between the new Work and the Old;
and this Space you mu$t fill up with Wedges
of the toughe$t Oak drove in at very $mall Di$-
tances from each other. In this Manner you
mu$t go on to $hore up all that Side which you
want to let down lower. When the whole
Weight is thus $upported, knock out the
Wedges by degrees, as gently and cautiou$ly as
po$$ible, till the Wall is $unk to its ju$t Perpen-
dicular. Then fill up the Spaces between the
Wedges which are left, with other Wedges of
the $tronge$t Stone that can be got. In the
great Ba$ilique of St. <I>Peter</I> at <I>Rome,</I> $ome Parts
of the Wall which were over the Columns
being $werved from their Uprights, $o as to
threaten even the Fall of the whole Roof; I
contrived how the Defect might be remedied
as follows. Every one of tho$e Parts of the
Wall which had given Way, let it re$t upon
what Column it would, I determined $hould
be taken clear out, and made good again with
$quare Stone which $hould be worked true to
its Perpendicular, only leaving in the old Wall
$trong Catches of Stone to unite the additional
Work to the former. La$tly, I would have
$upported the Beam under which tho$e uneven
Parts of the Wall were to be taken out, by
means of Engines, called <I>Capra</I>'s, erected
upon the Roof, $etting the Feet of tho$e En-
gines upon the $tronge$t Parts of the Roof and
of the Wall. This I would have done at dif-
ferent Times over the $everal Columns where
the$e Defects appear. The <I>Capra</I> is a naval
Engine con$i$ting of three Timbers, the Heads
of which meet and are $trongly braced or
bound together, and the Feet $tretch out to a
Triangle. This Engine, with the Addition of
Pullies and a Cap$tern is very u$eful for rai$ing
great Weights. If you are to lay a new Coat
over an old Wall or an old plai$tered Floor, firft
wa$h it well with clean Water, and then with
a Bru$h whiten it over with Whiting di$$olved
and mixed with marble Du$t; and this will
prepare it for holding the new Coat of Plai$ter
or Stuc. If a Pavement which is expo$ed to
the open Air has any Cracks in it, you may
$top them up with A$hes $ifted fine, and tem-
pered Oil, e$pecially of Lin$eed. But the be$t
Material for this Sort of Reparation is Chalk
mixed with quick Lime well beat together and
thoroughly burnt in the Kiln, and then $laked
immediately with Oil; taking Care before you
fill up the Cracks with it to clean them from
all manner of Du$t, which you may do with
Feathers, or by blowing it out with Bellows.
Nor let us under this Article of Amendments,
quite forget all Ornament. If any Wall looks
unhand$ome from being too high, embelli$h it
either by fa$tening on a Cornice of Stuc-work,
or by Painting it like Pannels, in order to divide
its Height into more decent Proportions. If
a Wall be too long, adorn it with Columns
reaching from the Top to the Bottom, not $et
too clo$e to each other, which will be a kind of
Re$ting-places to the Eye, and make the ex-
ce$$ive Length appear le$s offen$ive. There is
another Thing not foreign to our pre$ent Pur-
po$e. Many Parts of a Building, from being
either placed too low or encompa$$ed with
Walls not high enough, $eem le$s, and more
contracted than they really are; whereas when
they are either rai$ed upon a higher Platfom,
or have $ome Addition made to the Height of
their Walls, they $eem at a Di$tance much
larger than they did before. It is al$o certain,
that a hand$ome Di$po$ition of the Apertures,
and placing the Door and Windows gracefully,
gives all the Aparments a greater Share both
of Dignity and Elegance than is to be imagined.</P>
<head><I>The End of Book X.</I></head>
<foot>THE</foot>
author	Klaus Thoden <kthoden@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de>
date	Thu, 02 May 2013 11:14:40 +0200
parents	22d6a63640c6
children